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Chapter – 2

Literature Review

2.1. Description of Gearbox

When it comes to gearing components, things can get confusing quickly.

There are many terms that gear manufacturers as well as engineers and designers use
to talk about what sometimes is essentially the same thing. The term “gearbox” is one
of those terms, often times used interchangeably with gearhead or gear reducer even
though they sometimes refer to slightly different physical arrangements of gears.

The most basic definition of a gearbox is that it is a contained gear train, or

a mechanical unit or component consisting of a series of integrated gears within a
housing. In fact, the name itself defines what it is a box containing gears. In the most
basic sense, a gearbox functions like any system of gears, it alters torque and speed
between a driving device like a motor and a load.

The gears inside of a gearbox can be any one of a number of types from
bevel gears and spiral bevel gears to worm gears and others such as planetary gears.
The gears are mounted on shafts, which are supported by and rotate via rolling
element bearings. The gearbox is a mechanical method of transferring energy from
one device to another and is used to increase torque while reducing speed.

Gearboxes are used in many applications including machine tools,

industrial equipment, conveyors, and really any rotary motion power transmission
application that requires changes to torque and speed requirements.

So a gearbox is always a fully integrated mechanical component

consisting of a series of mating gears contained in a housing with shafts and bearings
(to support and resolve loads) and in many cases a flange for motor mounting. Most
of the motion industry makes no differentiation between the terms gearhead and
gearbox. But the term gearbox specifically refers to housed gearing while the more
general term gearhead refers to assemblies otherwise open gearing that installs within
some existing machine frame. The latter are targeted to compact or battery-powered
mobile designs necessitating especially tight integration and omission of extra
subcomponents.
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Gearboxes or also commonly called gear reducers or enclosed speed

reducers are used on many electromechanical drive systems. Gearboxes are
essentially multiple open gear sets contained in a housing. The housing supports
bearings and shafts, holds in lubricants, and protects the components from
surrounding conditions. Gearboxes are available in a wide range of load capacities
and speed ratios. The purpose of a gearbox is to increase or reduce speed. As a result,
torque output will be the inverse of the speed function. If the enclosed drive is a speed
reducer (speed output is less than speed input), the torque output will increase, if the
drive increases speed, the torque output will decrease. For the vast majority of gate
drives, the speed is being reduced and hence the torque is increased. Thus, gearboxes
are commonly called gear reducers in gate drive applications. Gear drive selection
factors include shaft orientation, speed ratio, design type, nature of load, gear rating,
environment, mounting position, operating temperature range, and lubrication. Helical
gearboxes and worm gearboxes are among the more common types for
electromechanical drives.

The basic function of the gearbox in automobile act as a speed and

torque changing device. It regulate speed and torque power coming from the engine
and transmit to the driving wheels. Torque is not directly transferred and it can be
done in the form of power using suitable device. It is done between engine of the
automobile and driving wheels. During process, the gear ratio varies between engine
and rear wheels.

More power is required to keep an automobile in motion when

compared to power required for keeping it rolling after starting. It means the
automobile requires more power at the starting while the engine may be developing
less power. A transmission system does to turn the engine crankshaft to four, eight or
twelve time approximately for each wheel revolution. A reverse gear is also set for
backing the car.

2.2. Basic fundamental of Gear Trains

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A gear is a toothed wheel that engages another toothed mechanism to

change speed or the direction of transmitted motion. Gears are generally used for one
of four different reasons

1. To increase or decrease the speed of rotation.

2. To change the amount of force or torque.

3. To move rotational motion to a different axis (i.e. parallel, right angles, rotating,
linear etc.)

4. To reverse the direction of rotation.

Gears are compact, positive-engagement, power transmission elements

capable of changing the amount of force or torque. Sports cars go fast (have speed)
but cannot pull any weight. Big trucks can pull heavy loads (have power) but cannot
go fast. Gears cause this. Gears are generally selected and manufactured using
standards established by American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA) and
American National Standards Institute (ANSI).

2.2.1. The gears can be classified according to

1. The position of shaft axes

2. The peripheral velocity

3. The type of gears

4. The teeth position

(1) According to the position of shaft axes

Gears may be classified according to the relative position of the axes of

revolution. The axes may be:

1. Parallel shafts where the angle between driving and driven shaft is 0 degree.
Examples include spur gears, single and double helical gears.

2. Intersecting shafts where there is some angle between driving and driven shaft.
Examples include bevel and miter gear.
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3. Non-intersecting and non-parallel shafts where the shafts are not coplanar.
Examples include the hypoid and worm gear.

(2) According to the peripheral velocity

Gears can be classified as:

1. Low velocity type, if their peripheral velocity lies in the range of 1 to 3 m/sec.

2. Medium velocity type, if their peripheral velocity lies in the range of 3 to 15 m/sec.

3. High velocity type, if their peripheral velocity exceeds 15 m/sec.

(3) According to the type of gears

Gears can be classified as external gears, internal gears, and rack and
pinion. 1. External gears mesh externally - the bigger one is called gear and the
smaller one is called pinion.

2. Internal gears mesh internally - the larger one is called annular gear and the smaller
one is called pinion.

3. Rack and pinion type – converts rotary to linear motion or vice versa. There is a
straight line gear called rack on which a small rotary gear called pinion moves.

(4) According to the teeth position

Gears are classified as straight, inclined and curved.

1. Straight gear teeth are those where the teeth axis is parallel to the shaft axis.

2. Inclined gear teeth are those where the teeth axis is at some angle.

3. Curve gear teeth are curved on the rim’s surface.

2.3. Operation of Gearbox

Most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the
speed of a prime mover output shaft (e.g. a motor crankshaft). This means that the
output shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft, and this
reduction in speed produces a mechanical advantage, increasing torque. A gearbox
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can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in shaft speed with a
reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the physical
rotational direction of power transmission.

The gearbox is designed specifically for front wheel drive cars with all
shafts, gearwheels, differential and inner universal joints forming an integral unit. All
forward gears are synchromesh, whereas reverse is engaged by means of a sliding
gear. The shafts are joined in the gear-case in ball bearings and taper roller bearings.
The output shaft gearwheels are connected in bushes (the rear end of the lay-shaft is
mounted on a needle bearing, whereas the input gearwheel runs on loose rollers). All
gearwheels expect reverse are permanently in mesh and have helical teeth.

The front part of the transmission assembly consists of a primary drive,

driven by the engine through the clutch and transmitting the engine output to the
gearbox itself. The gearbox is located underneath the engine, and part of the gear-case
serves as the engine oil sump.

The operation of the transmission system means that engine power is

transmitted through the clutch and primary chain drive to the gearbox to the gear-
wheel for first gear which is joined on the output shaft by a sliding sleeve. In the
second, third, and fourth gears being locked to the output shaft by corresponding
sleeve. In top gear, the input shaft is locked to the output shaft by means of a sleeve,
and power is thus not transmitted through lay-shaft.

Reverse gear consists of a shaft and a gear joined on it and in constant

mesh with first pinion on the lay-shaft. The reverse gear can be engaged into mesh
with a gearwheel on the output-shaft. This gearwheel is located behind first gear on
the output shaft. When reverse gear is engaged, power is thus transmitted from the
lay-shaft pinion to the reverse gear and them to the gearwheel on the output shaft.
This arrangement reverses the direction of rotation of the output shaft.
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2.3.1. Neutral Gear

All the gears except those needed for reverse are constantly in mesh. The
gears on the output shaft revolve freely around it, while those on the lay-shaft are
fixed. No drive is being transmitted.

2.3.2. First Gear

In first gear, the smallest gear on the lay-shaft (with the fewest teeth) is
locked to it, passing drive through the largest gear on the main-shaft, giving high

torque and low speed for a standing start.

2.3.3. Second Gear

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In second gear, the difference in diameter of the gears on the two shafts is
reduced, resulting in increased road speed and lower torque increase. The ratio is ideal

for climbing very steep hills.

2.3.4. Fourth Gear

In fourth gear, the input shaft and main-shaft are locked together,
providing 'direct drive': one revolution of the propeller-shaft for each revolution of the
crankshaft. There is no increase in torque.

2.3.5. Reverse Gear

For reversing, an idler gear is interposed between gears on the two shafts,
causing the main-shaft to reverse direction. Reverse gear is usually not synchronized.

2.4 Synchronization processes theory

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Synchronization processes are used in order to get a smooth gear shift and
a good shift feel, by reducing the time of synchronization inside the gearbox and the
load required at the driver’s hand. They prevent transmission gears from shocking,
reduce noise and gear wearing and make the driver feel comfortable inside the cabin.
The objective of the synchronization is to reduce to zero the angular speed difference
between the rotating shaft and the gear wheel. The principle used is generating a
friction torque with a friction contact between conical surfaces before the gear is
engaged through a positive locking for torque transmission

2.4.1 Synchromesh Gearbox

Synchronized manual transmissions are widely used globally in both

commercial vehicles and passenger cars, although they are less common in North
America. These transmissions contain a complex array of components and materials
that deliver longer service and better performance when the correct, dedicated
lubricant is used.

Manual transmissions come in two main types: synchronized and

unsynchronized. Unsynchronized transmissions require manual synchronizing, which
depends on the skill of the driver at each shift event to synchronize gear speeds,
particularly on the downshift. Unsynchronized transmissions are usually only found in
motorsport applications or heavy-duty commercial vehicles. North American heavy
trucks are typically equipped with unsynchronized manual transmissions, whereas
European truck manufacturers tend to favor synchronized manual transmissions.

A synchronizer equalizes its speed with that of the next gear to be

engaged, allowing a smooth, crunch-free selection. Modern synchronized manual
transmissions are of the constant mesh variety. This means that idling (free spinning)
gears on a main shaft are in constant mesh with a corresponding set of gears,
machined as one single component and forming a second lay shaft.

The most common synchronizer design is the cone clutch or blocker ring
type. Typically, gears are arranged on the main shaft in pairs. For example, first and
second gears are adjacent as third and fourth. In between each pair is a synchronizer
unit fixed to the shaft. The two key components in the synchronizer unit are the sleeve
and the blocker or synchronizer ring. Gears are selected by the sleeve, which can be
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moved in either direction by the gearshift mechanism. When the driver selects first
gear, the sleeve will move to the first gear and lock onto its gear engagement teeth
(also known as dogs). The gear is then effectively locked to the main shaft and drive
is taken up. When the driver de-clutches and selects second gear, the sleeve moves the
other way, de-selecting first gear and selecting second in the same way.

Before the sleeve can lock on to each gear. However, the speed of both
sleeve and gear must be synchronized. This is accomplished by a blocker
(synchronizer) ring, one of which sits between the synchronizer and each gear. The
inner face of the ring is conical and this locates over a cone on the face of the
hardened steel gear with a gripping action, as the shift event is taking place. As the
surfaces of this cone clutch grip, the rotational speed of the gear becomes
synchronized with that of the synchronizer sleeve and gear selection can be
completed.

These blocker rings were traditionally made of brass; the internal conical
surface was faced with fine grooves in order to provide better grip on the surface of
the gear cone. In an older transmission, synchronization begins to fail (leading to
crunching gears) when the internal surface of these blocker rings becomes
significantly worn and their ability to grip the gear is reduced.

The purpose of the operations of changing gears without the occurrence of

clashes and their consequent damage, a synchromesh gearbox is used in different
types of motor vehicles. The synchronizer helps to synchronize the speeds of two
gears to be engaged without the necessity of faster running gear to slow down.

Now a days, both helical gears and synchromesh units are used in car
gearboxes. It is used for easy and noiseless gear changing operation. It has
synchromesh unit instead of dog clutches. Synchromesh device first engages two
gears into fractional contact. Once their speed attains equal or synchronized, they are
engaged smoothly.

Generally, synchromesh units are connected with top two gears only. The
reverse and first gears are not connected with synchromesh units. They are engaged
when the vehicle is stationary.

The main features of this type of gearboxes are as follow.

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1. The main shaft or output gears are freely rotated on bushes of the output shaft.
They are internally placed by splined thrust washers. Generally, single or
double helical gears are used in constant mesh with the long shaft gears.
2. When their speed is synchronized by their cones, the output gears will be
locked to their shaft by the dog clutch.

2.4.1. The process of synchronization

The process of synchronization might seem simple. In engineering terms it

is defined by nine different stages. These are:

1. Disengagement
2.Neutral
3.Neutraldetente
4.Pre-synchronization
5.Synchronizing
6.Synchronization
7.Blocking release
8.Engagementtooth contact
9. Full engagement

2.4.2. Synchronizer types and components

There are different types of synchronizers designed for gears in parallel shafts; the
most common are listed here:

(1) Pin-type

It is also known as Clark type.

(2) Baulkring-type

This typically used in manual transmissions are either of the strut or the strut
less types

(3) Lever-type

The lever is provided in the inner circumference of the sleeve and arranged
between the hub and the synchronizing ring. As the sleeve is sliding towards the
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engaging position the lever presses the synchronizer ring towards the gear by the
principle of leverage.

Besides, there are other devices adapted to planetary gears for the
supplementary gearbox used to double the number of possible gear ratio.

It is known that shift effort increases with vehicle size and weight and that
this force may be reduced by the use of synchronizers of the self-energizing type.
Therefore, the self-energizing types are especially important for trucks, particularly
for heavy duty trucks. Self-energizing means a synchronizer mechanism which
includes ramps or boost surfaces in order to increase the engaging force of the friction
surfaces by providing an additive axial force proportional to the force applied by the
driver to the sleeve.

(4) Synchronizer hub

It is rigidly connected by a spline to the rotating shaft (input or output

shaft).

(5)Sliding sleeve (Gear shift sleeve / Synchronizer sleeve / Coupling sleeve)

It has a groove on the outer periphery for the gear shift fork. Includes
internal splines that are in constant mesh with the synchro hub external splines, so it is
only axially movable from a neutral position to an engaged position. Both parts and
the main shaft work as a single unit hence they move at the same angular speed.

(6) Synchronizer ring (Blocking ring / Balk ring / Friction ring)

External teeth interlock with the internal teeth of the sliding sleeve. It has a
conical surface that is fitted with the conical surface of the clutch body ring. Its
purpose is to produce the friction torque needed to synchronize the input and output
shafts. The cone surfaces are provided with thread or groove patterns and axial
grooves in order to either prevent or break the hydrodynamic oil film and minimize
force increase.

(7) Clutch gear with cone

This function is matches the speed of the gear with the speed of the
synchro hub. It is either press fitted or laser welded with the gear wheel. The external
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teeth with chamfer on both sides of the teeth interlock with the chamfer on the
internal teeth of shift sleeve.

(8) Gear wheel

The gear wheel is normally connected to the main shaft by a needle bearing
for relative rotation between both components and secured against axial movement
relative to the shaft. It can also be mounted on the shaft with a very smooth surface
and proper lubrication (hydrodynamic bearing).

(8) Strut detent (Centering mechanism / Strut key)

The spring loaded ball or roller fixed in a cage. It is arranged on the

circumference of the synchronizer body, positioned between the groove in synchro
hub and the inner groove in shift sleeve. Therefore can integrally rotate with the
synchro hub and is axially movable with the shift sleeve. This component is used for
pre-synchronization. It means that generates the load on synchro ring to perform the
synchronization process. In addition, maintains the sliding sleeve in a central position
on the hub between both gear wheels and below a limit axial force. Often, the
synchronizers are composed by three of these elements arranged at 120°. In the case
of large synchronizers, there are four elements arranged at 90°.

In heavy vehicle gearboxes there is often a need to increase the

synchronizing torque for a given shift effort or even in order to reduce it, especially
when downshifting into low gears due to the larger gear reduction ratio. 7 Therefore,
other existing alternatives are available by increasing the number of friction rings or
cone surfaces. The choice is a matter of wear and efficiency. But also cost and design:
the use of a multi-cone solution implies higher manufacturing costs and additional
components increase the complexity of the mechanism and design. In order to
increase the transmitted power of the synchronizer more friction surfaces could be
used. However, these additional components increase the cost of the device. Another
method is to increase the diameter or distance from the axial center-line where the
frictional force is applied. Unfortunately, increasing the distance also increase the size
and weight of the synchronizer.

Furthermore, the synchronizer system employed in transmission systems

can also be subjected to other types of modifications: asymmetric teeth, different
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location of blocker and engagement teeth, double-indexing in single-cone

synchronizers, increasing the stroke length of the shift lever or using a pneumatic or
hydraulic servo unit.

2.5. Lubricating process

The gearbox components are lubricated by the oil in the gear-case sump.
Holes is partition walls ensure that the oil level will be the same in the primary chain-
case, main gear-case and final drive gear-case. A ball valve fitted in the primary
chain-case prevents changes in the oil and thus ensures lubrication of the final drive.

The crown wheel and lay-shaft pinions are partially submerged in oil.
When the car is underway, oil is delivered by an oil catcher to the primary drive
chain-case. The oil collected in the sump of the primary chain-case lubricates the
chains, sprockets and input shaft bearing. Excess oil is returned to the primary chain-
case and main gear-case by two oil catchers which lubricates the output shaft
gearwheels. The oil flows through a connecting pipe to four lubrication points on the
output shaft for lubricating the gearwheel bearings.

Lubricating synchronizers is a complex proposition. Clearly, there is a

need to prevent wear, but the synchronizer blocker rings still need to generate
sufficient friction to perform the synchronization. That same lubricant also has to
protect bearings and seals and resist degradation in the face of increasingly extended
drain periods. It must also survive higher temperatures caused by reduced airflow due
to improved vehicle aerodynamics and the increased energy density typical of
modern, high performance powertrains.

Considering the long and hard life of synchronizers and their mechanical
complexity, it becomes easier to understand the importance of using the correct fluid.
Maintenance mistakes that shorten the life of a manual transmission include filling
with engine oil or even automatic transmission fluid (ATF).
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Dedicated manual transmission fluids (MTF) offer far better protection

against wear and pitting. They combine high temperature resistance with high levels
of gear and bearing protection, and they are individually designed to adapt to the
behaviors of various synchronizer materials. Additive and viscosity modifier
technology can be tailored during the design process to meet individual OEM
specifications, so as to provide a fluid that functions as an integral component of the
transmission.

The trend is toward lower viscosity MTFs that reduce churning losses and
improve fuel efficiency, without compromising protection. This is achieved through
the use of robust additive and sophisticated viscosity modifier technologies. In North
America, the trend is toward SAE 75W-80 and 75W-90 viscosity grades. In emerging
markets like China and India, the trend favors SAE 80W-90.

Using dedicated fluids has a major impact on the cost of equipment

ownership, reducing service costs and fuel consumption, and delivering improved
reliability. There’s also an environmental benefit, thanks to extended drain intervals.
And, from the drivability point of view, shift quality is also improved. Using a
dedicated MTF to protect manual transmissions does not represent a significant
additional cost compared to using an inappropriate fluid, but it does have major
benefits for both owners and drivers.

2.5.1. Engine Oil

Engine oil is used for lubricating the transmission system. The oil should
be changed during the 2000 km service, and then only after repair or reconnecting of
the gearbox. Use the oil recommended in the specification for topping up. Use the
dipstick on the right-hand side of the gearbox for checking the oil level.

2.6. Gear shifting mechanism

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A gear-shift mechanism includes a lateral casing mounted on a

transmission housing, a first lateral shaft rotate ably mounted within the casing and
being operatively connected to a manual shift lever to be rotated in shifting operation
of the shift lever, and a second lateral shaft (12) in the form of a hollow shaft rotate
ably and axially slide ably mounted on the first lateral shaft and being operatively
connected to the manual shift lever to be axially moved in selecting operation of the
shift lever, the second lateral shaft being integrally provided with a shift-and-select
lever which extends into an interior of the transmission housing to be selectively
engaged with a plurality of shift heads in axial movement of the second lateral shaft.
The gear-shift mechanism is associated with a hydraulic power cylinder assembly
which is integrally connected to one end of the lateral casing to provide a hydraulic
power assist in accordance with operation torque applied to the first lateral shaft in
shifting operation of the manual shift lever.

Vehicle transmissions require devices to match the ratio, and thus the
power available, to the prevailing driving conditions. “Power matching” is one of the
four main functions of a vehicle transmission. In manual gearboxes, changing gear is
controlled and carried out by the driver. Depending on the amount of automation, in
all other gearboxes electronics and actuator systems take over this function partially
or completely. Certain transmission functions, such as Neutral, Reverse, and Park are
however still controlled by the driver using a shifting device.
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