Pang 2016
Pang 2016
Pang 2016
com
Keywords: Linear low-density polyethylene; Polyvinyl alcohol; Kenaf composites; Silane methacrylate
Contact information: a: School of Materials and Mineral Resources Engineering and b: Cluster for
Polymer Composites (CPC), Science and Engineering Research Centre (SERC), Universiti Sains Malaysia
(USM), Engineering Campus, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia;
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
INTRODUCTION
The introduction of various types of natural fibers into polymer matrices has been
widely explored over the last few decades (Malkapuram et al. 2009). Increasing interest in
the use of natural fibers comes from their relatively low cost, biodegradability, and
availability (Akil et al. 2011; Pua et al. 2013), resulting in products that are cost-effective
and environmentally friendly. Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) fiber is frequently used in
polymer composites (Ismail et al. 2010; Rohani et al. 2010; Pang and Ismail 2014; Saba et
al. 2015). Kenaf absorbs nitrogen and phosphorus in soil, and it absorbs carbon dioxide at
a high rate (Akil et al. 2011; Nurfatimah et al. 2014). In addition, kenaf is known for its
good mechanical properties and fatigue and corrosion resistance (Maizatul et al. 2013). In
Malaysia, kenaf plantations produce large quantities of biomass because of its wide usage
in various applications, such as food packaging, furniture, sports and leisure, and
automotive components (Meon et al. 2012).
The incorporation of kenaf fiber in polymer composites provides several
advantages; however, a major drawback is the potential incompatibility between the kenaf
and the polymer. Generally, polymers are hydrophobic and incompatible with hydrophilic
natural fibers. The poor compatibility between kenaf fibers and polymer systems may yield
composites with poor properties. In addition, the highly hydrophilic nature of natural fibers
often causes high moisture absorption in the polymer composites (Ismail et al. 2010;
EXPERIMENTAL
Materials
Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) was supplied by the PT Lotte Chemical
Titan Nusantara, Indonesia, with a melt flow rate of 1 g/10 min at 190 °C and a density of
0.92 g/cm3. Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) (> 99% hydrolyzed) was supplied by Sigma-
Aldrich Sdn. Bhd., Malaysia, with a molecular weight of 89,000 to 98,000 g/mol and a
density of 1.269 g/cm3. Three-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate (TMS) was supplied
by Sigma-Aldrich Sdn. Bhd., Malaysia, with a molecular weight of 248.35 g/mol. Kenaf
(KNF) was obtained from the National Kenaf and Tobacco Board (LKTN), Kelantan,
Malaysia. Before treatment, the KNF was processed in a mini grinder from the Rong Tsong
Precision Technology Co., Taiwan (Product Id: RT-34), to yield KNF powder with an
average particle size of 75 µm.
Composite preparation
The KNF was dried in a vacuum oven at 80 °C for 24 h before preparation of the
composite. The weight ratio of LLDPE/PVA was maintained at 60:40 (wt.%), as this ratio
gives the best overall blend properties (Ismail et al. 2009). The melt compounding of
LLDPE/PVA/KNF composites with TMS was done in an internal mixer (Model R600/610,
Thermo Haake Polydrive, Germany) at a temperature of 150 °C and a rotor speed of 50
rpm. The LLDPE was loaded into the mixing chamber and allowed to melt for 2 min,
followed by the addition of PVA and TMS-treated KNF after 2 and 6 min, respectively.
The processing torque was recorded for each sample. The compounded samples were then
compression-moulded at 150 °C into 1-mm thick sheets using an electrically-heated
hydraulic press (Model KT-7014 A, GoTech Testing Machine, Taiwan).
Methods
Measurement of tensile properties
The tensile testing was done in accordance with the ASTM D638-10 (2010)
standard using an Instron 3366 Universal Testing Machine (Norwood, MA, USA). The
crosshead speed was set at 5 mm/min, with a constant gauge length of 50 mm. The tests
were performed at 25 ± 3 °C on the 1-mm thick, dumbbell-shaped specimens, and an
average of five readings of tensile strength, tensile modulus, and elongation at break were
recorded.
Morphological study
A Carl Zeiss Supra-35VP field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM;
Carl Zeiss Microscopy GmbH, Jena, Germany) was used to observe the tensile-fractured
surfaces of the specimens. The fractured surfaces of the specimens were sputter-coated
with a thin layer of gold to avoid electrostatic charging and poor resolution. The specimens
were then mounted onto aluminum stubs for examination.
Water absorption
The water uptake test was carried out in accordance with the ASTM D570-098
testing standard (2010). The specimens were first dried in an oven for 24 h at 50 °C until a
constant weight was obtained. The weight difference after immersion was recorded by
weighing them periodically on a Sartorius balance (BS224S, Gottingen, Germany), with a
precision of 1 mg. The excess water on the specimen surfaces was removed with tissue
paper before weighing. The water uptake test was performed for 30 days, and the
percentage of water uptake was calculated using Eq. 1,
𝑊2 −𝑊1
𝑊t (%) = x 100 (1)
𝑊1
where Wt is the total water uptake by the specimen, and W1 and W2 are the weights of the
specimen before and after immersion in distilled water, respectively.
Processing Torque
Processing torque-time curves can be used to evaluate the melt processing
characteristics of composites (Sarifuddin et al. 2013). Figure 1 illustrates the processing
torque of the LLDPE/PVA/KNF composites with TMS at different KNF loadings. The
torque value increased drastically at each time period when LLDPE, PVA, and TMS-
treated KNF were incorporated into the mixing chamber. This behavior was a consequence
of the resistance of each material to flow in the mixing chamber. The torque lessened and
stabilized at the end of mixing (10 min), indicating that LLDPE and PVA were completely
melted. However, composites with higher TMS-treated KNF loadings, i.e., 40 phr, yielded
higher processing torque values at the end of mixing. This can be ascribed to an enhanced
interfacial adhesion between KNF and LLDPE/PVA in the presence of TMS.
Fig. 2. Effect of TMS on the stabilization torque of LLDPE/PVA/KNF composites at different KNF
loadings
Tensile Properties
Figure 3 shows the tensile strength of control and TMS-treated LLDPE/KNF/PVA
composites at different KNF loadings. The addition of KNF reduced the tensile strength of
both composites. This observation suggests an incompatibility between the hydrophilic
KNF and the hydrophobic LLDPE, in addition to the hydrophobic LLDPE and hydrophilic
PVA matrix itself. As a result, a weak interfacial adhesion formed between the KNF and
LLDPE/PVA, as well as the LLDPE and PVA. Therefore, when stress was applied during
tensile testing, the poor stress transfer between the fiber-matrix resulted in poor tensile
properties. When the fiber content was increased, the area of weak interfacial also increased
(Chun et al. 2013). Therefore, as the KNF loading increased, the tensile strength decreased
for both composites. A previous study by Pang and Ismail (2013) found a similar trend in
the tensile strength of kenaf-filled polypropylene/waste pulverized tire composites.
However, at similar KNF loadings, the composites with TMS exhibited higher tensile
strengths than composites without TMS. This effect was attributed to the coupling effect
of TMS, which enhanced interfacial interactions between KNF and the LLDPE/PVA
matrix. TMS promoted better interfacial adhesion between KNF and LLDPE/PVA matrix,
which was also seen in FESEM micrographs (Fig. 9b and 10b).
Fig. 3. Effect of TMS on the tensile strength of LLDPE/PVA/KNF composites at different KNF
loadings
Fig. 4. Hydrolysis of TMS (Re-drawn from Nordin et al. 2012; Eng et al. 2014)
Fig. 5. Proposed interaction between the TMS coupling agent and KNF
The TMS-treated KNF (intermediate 1) then will react with the PVA and forming
another intermediate 2 (Fig. 6). The hydroxyl group of PVA may react with the silanol
group in intermediate 1, forming a Si-O-C bonding as shown in Fig. 6. Next, a reaction
occurs between the hydrophobic portion of intermediate 2 and the LLDPE, as shown in
Fig. 7.
Because of their similar hydrophobicity, the hydrophobic group (R = C6H8O2~) in
intermediates 2 is attracted to the hydrophobic LLDPE. The interface between the KNF
and the LLDPE/PVA was likely enhanced by the presence of TMS. Therefore, TMS is
found to be effective as a coupling agent for this LLDPE/PVA/KNF composite.
Fig. 6. Proposed interaction between the TMS-treated KNF (Intermediate 1) and PVA
Fig. 8. Effect of TMS on the tensile modulus of LLDPE/PVA/KNF composites at different KNF
loadings
Fig. 9. Effect of TMS on the elongation at break of LLDPE/PVA/KNF composites at different KNF
loadings
Morphological Study
The morphology of the tensile fractured surfaces of control and TMS-treated
LLDPE/PVA/KNF composites at 10 phr and 40 phr KNF loadings are shown in Figs. 10
Fig. 10. Scanning electron micrographs of the tensile-fractured surfaces of the (a) control and (b)
TMS-treated LLDPE/PVA/10KNF composites at a magnification of 200X
Fig. 11. Scanning electron micrographs of the tensile-fractured surfaces of the (a) control and (b)
TMS-treated LLDPE/PVA/40KNF composites at a magnification of 200X
Fig. 12. Fourier transform infrared spectra of the control and TMS-treated LLDPE/PVA/10-KNF
composites
Water Retention
Figure 13 shows the water absorption of control and TMS-treated
LLDPE/KNF/PVA composites at different KNF loadings after approximately 35 days. The
water absorption increased with increasing KNF loading for both composites. The water
absorption of cellulose fiber composites resulted from the formation of hydrogen bonds
between hydroxyl groups of cellulose and water molecules (Demir et al. 2006). Majid et
al. (2010) found that the water absorption of LDPE/TPSS-kenaf fiber composites was a
consequence of the hydrophilic nature of both kenaf fiber and starch. In the present study,
water absorption by the composites was attributed to both KNF and PVA. According to
Tan et al. (2014), the water absorption ability of kenaf-polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH)
composites comes from both kenaf and PVOH.
Figure 14 shows that the water absorption percentage at the equilibrium stage of
the composites with TMS was lower than the control composites. The lower equilibrium
water absorption of TMS-treated composites was a result of hydrogen bonding between
TMS and the hydroxyl groups of KNF. Therefore, the water absorption by the TMS-treated
composites was restricted. Osman et al. (2012) reported a similar finding on the water
absorption of silane and maleic anhydride-grafted polypropylene (MAPP)-treated recycled
newspaper-filled polypropylene/natural rubber composites. Another reason for the lower
water absorption was the improved fiber-matrix interfacial adhesion after the TMS
treatment. However, an increase in the equilibrium water absorption with KNF loading was
expected for both composites. This is because of the increase in the volume of the
interfacial region, resulting in greater penetration of water molecules into the composites
(Osman et al. 2012).
Fig. 14. Effect of TMS on the equilibrium water absorption of LLDPE/PVA/KNF composites
Fig. 15. TGA curves of control and TMS-treated LLDPE/PVA/KNF composites at different KNF
loadings
Fig. 16. DTG curves of control and TMS-treated LLDPE/PVA/KNF composites at different KNF
loadings
CONCLUSIONS
The authors express their appreciation to the National Kenaf and Tobacco Board
(LKTN), Kelantan, Malaysia, for supplying the KNF fiber, the RUC research grant
(1001/PKT/8640014) from the Universiti Sains Malaysia, and MyBrain15 for their
sponsorship.
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Article submitted: January 22, 2016; Peer review completed: April 9, 2016; Revisions
accepted: May 8, 2016; Published: May 16, 2016.
DOI: 10.15376/biores.11.3.5889-5904