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Andrew Peterson
Garth Stahl
Hannah Soong
Editors
The Palgrave
Handbook of
Citizenship
and Education
The Palgrave Handbook of Citizenship and
Education
Andrew Peterson • Garth Stahl •
Hannah Soong
Editors
The Palgrave Handbook of

Citizenship and Education
With 27 Figures and 14 Tables

Editors
Andrew Peterson Garth Stahl
Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues University of Queensland
University of Birmingham Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
Birmingham, UK
Hannah Soong
University of South Australia
Mawson Lakes, SA, Australia
ISBN 978-3-319-67827-6 ISBN 978-3-319-67828-3 (eBook)

ISBN 978-3-319-67829-0 (print and electronic bundle)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67828-3
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
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The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
The terms “citizenship” and “citizenship education” remain quintessential contested

concepts. While the scope of “citizenship” and of what the “citizen” comprises scope
rightly been widened from limited status-based notions, critical questions remain
about whether and how the concept of the citizen is understood, constructed, and
practiced within and across contexts. Central to such critical questions is whether the
concept of “the citizen” is of any positive value at all, fundamentally compromised
as it may be by colonizing and subjugating historical and contemporary practices.
Given the contestation and debate, there are new serious questions for citizenship –
and by extension citizenship education – being raised by the intersections between
localities and various forms of globalization, cosmopolitanism, and
transnationalism.
This major reference work – The Palgrave Handbook of Citizenship and Educa-
tion – brings together a large number of chapters of tertiary literature (i.e., literature
directed towards compilations or digests of available primary and secondary
sources) to examine and explain how various theorizations of citizenship, civic
identity, and participatory democracy are, and could be, operationalized within
educational theories, educational debates, educational curricular, and pedagogic
practices. Readers should note that the Handbook is a living handbook. First, there
are no hard limits on the focus and number of chapters to be included. Below, we
separate the chapters into five parts, but these parts are best understood as broad
umbrellas rather than neat categories. In addition, all of the chapters were published
online first as and when they were written, meaning that this collection has grown
over the last several years. Second, as editors we intend to commission and publish
many more chapters in the coming years to expand the scope of those available
online and, if we reach that point, to publish a second hard copy of these further
chapters. In addition, we will ask authors of the chapters contained in this book if
they wish to revisit their chapters, updating and refreshing them at appropriate
periods.
In working with authors, we have consciously allowed for and encouraged wide
defintions of the concepts of “citizenship” and “education”. For this reason, the
chapters include critique and advocate for a multitude of ways in which citizenship is
constituted in within various contexts. Furthermore, the attention of the chapters
v
vi Preface
flow across a range of educational settings, structures, and processes as relevant and
as appropriate to the age of the “learners” under consideration.
Truly international and diverse in its scope – though not universal (see below) –
this Handbook is structured around five parts. Part One – Foundational Thinkers
on, and Theories of, Citizenship and Education – includes 12 chapters which
explore the ideas of key historic and contemporary thinkers on, and theories of,
citizenship and education. Part Two – Citizenship and Education in National and
Localized Contexts – comprises 20 chapters that each explore the operation of
citizenship and education within particular contexts. In these chapters the various
authors explore the particular nuances of scholarly ideas associated with citizenship
and democracy in educational settings within national and sub-national localities/
communities that impact on and shape the implementation of citizenship and
education. Part Three – Citizenship and Education in Transnational Contexts –
contains 13 chapters that explore the operation of citizenship and education as
shaped by transnational factors, including migration, cosmopolitanism, neoliberal-
ism, global technologies, and global identities. The 12 chapters in Part Four – Youth
Advocacy, Citizenship and Education – focus on (changing) constructions of
youth and youth identity, and the ways that these interconnect (converge and/or
disrupt) notions of citizenship/citizenship education. Part Five – New Directions in
Citizenship and Education – includes 9 chapters in which the authors survey
existing literature to develop particularly novel insights on citizenship and
education.
One final note for this introduction. In any edited collection, even one as large as
this, there will be notable gaps in content and coverage. We are conscious of these
gaps and we hope to fill them in the next wave of chapters.
Birmingham, UK Andrew Peterson

Queensland, Australia Garth Stahl
Adelaide, Australia Hannah Soong
August 2020
Acknowledgments
We have two groups of people to thank for making this Handbook possible. First, we
would like to thank all of the colleagues who have contributed chapters. Each of the
authors has been a pleasure to work with, and all have accepted our thoughts and
feedback with good grace. In turn, we have learned a great deal from the insights and
arguments each of the authors have offered.
Second, we owe a debt of gratitude to our colleagues at Palgrave. We thank
Eleanor Christie (now at Open University Press) for bringing the possibility of a
handbook on citizenship and education to our attention. Eleanor Gaffney and Ruth
Lefevre have given the project a steady hand, guiding us where needed and helping
ourselves and the authors to navigate the online system. Eleanor and Ruth have
always been on hand to answer our questions and requests, and have done so with
patience and kindness – we are very grateful to them both.
vii
Contents
Part I Foundational Thinkers on, and Theories of, Citizenship and

Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1 A Confucian Conception of Citizenship Education ............ 3

Charlene Tan
2 Aristotle on Citizenship and Civic Education: The Central

Role of Political Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Benjamin Miller
3 Political Liberalism, Autonomy, and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Blain Neufeld
4 Civic Republicanism, Citizenship and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Geoffrey Hinchliffe
5 Arendt, Citizenship, and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Ramona Mihăilă and George Lăzăroiu
6 Rousseau on Citizenship and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Bjorn Gomes
7 Paulo Freire: Citizenship and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Kevin Kester and Hogai Aryoubi
8 Dewey and Citizenship Education: Schooling as Democratic

Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Piet A. van der Ploeg
9 Cosmopolitanism, Citizenship, and Education Through the

Lens of John Dewey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Jason Beech
10 Neoliberalism, Citizenship, and Education: A Policy Discourse

Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Andrew Wilkins
ix
x Contents
11 Peace Education and Citizenship Education: Shared Critiques . . . 155

Terence Bevington, Nomisha Kurian, and Hilary Cremin
12 Citizenship (and) Inequality: Ethnographic Research on
Education and the Making and Remaking of Class Power and
Privilege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Dennis Beach
Part II Citizenship and Education in National and Localized

Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
13 Curriculum Policy and Practice of Civic Education in Zambia:

A Reflective Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Gistered Muleya
14 The Language of Citizenship: Indigenous Perspectives of
Nationhood in Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Frank Deer and Jessica Trickey
15 The Making of Neoliberal Citizenship in the United States:
Inculcation, Responsibilization, and Personhood in a
“No-Excuses” Charter School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Garth Stahl
16 Citizenship, Education, and Political Crisis in Spain and
Catalonia: Limits and Possibilities for the Exercise of Critical
Citizenship at School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Jordi Feu-Gelis, Xavier Casademont-Falguera, and
Òscar Prieto-Flores
17 Citizenship and Citizenship Education in Zimbabwe:
A Theoretical and Historical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Aaron T. Sigauke
18 Religious Citizenship in Schools in England and Wales:
Responses to Growing Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Peter J. Hemming and Elena Hailwood
19 Filipino Teachers’ Identity: Framed by Community
Engagements, Challenges for Citizenship Education . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Stephen Redillas
20 The Role of the State and State Orthodoxy in Citizenship and
Education in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Wing-Wah Law
21 Citizenship Education in the Republic of Ireland: Plus ça
Change? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Audrey Bryan
Contents xi
22 Moments of Possibility in Politics, Policy, and Practice in

New Zealand Citizenship Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Andrea Milligan, Carol Mutch, and Bronwyn E. Wood
23 The Politics of Citizenship Education in Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

Rodrigo Mardones
24 Global Citizenship Education in South Korea: The Roles of

NGOs in Cultivating Global Citizens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Jae-Eun Noh
25 Citizenship Education in England: Policy and Curriculum . . . . . . 375

Liz Moorse
26 Justice-Oriented, “Thick” Approaches to Civics and

Citizenship Education in Australia: Examples of Practice . . . . . . . 403
Keith Heggart and Rick Flowers
27 “Fundamental British Values”: The Teaching of Nation,

Identity, and Belonging in the United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Sadia Habib
28 Civics and Citizenship Education in Australia: The Importance

of a Social Justice Agenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Babak Dadvand
29 Citizenship Education in the Conflict-Affected Societies of

Northern Ireland and Syria: Learning Lessons from the Past to
Inform the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Faith Gordon and Adnan Mouhiddin
30 Digital Citizenship and Education in Turkey: Experiences, the

Present and the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Zafer İbrahimoğlu
31 The Dilemmas of Americanism: Civic Education in the

United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Campbell F. Scribner
32 Towards an Education for Active Citizenship in Singapore . . . . . . 497

Siva Gopal Thaiyalan
Part III Citizenship and Education in Transnational Contexts . . . . 521
33 Discourses of Global Citizenship Education: The Influence of

the Global Middle Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Miri Yemini and Claire Maxwell
xii Contents
34 Contested Citizenship Education in Settler Colonies on First

Nations Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Sophie Rudolph and Melitta Hogarth
35 “Being Rooted, Living Global”: Citizenship and Education in the

Singapore City-State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Charleen Chiong and Saravanan Gopinathan
36 Constructions of “Youth” and “Activism” in Lebanon ......... 567

Dina Kiwan
37 Inequality, Civic Education and Intended Future Civic

Engagement: An Examination of Research in
Western Democracies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Dimokritos Kavadias, Echeverria Vicente Nohemi Jocabeth, and
Kenneth Hemmerechts
38 International Students: (Non)citizenship, Rights, Discrimination,

and Belonging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Ly Thi Tran and Trang Hoang
39 Socialist Citizenship in the Post-socialist Era Across Time and

Space: A Closer Look at Cuba and Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Hang B. Duong and Le-Ha Phan
40 Educational Mobility and Citizenship: Chinese “Foreign Talent”

Students in Singapore and Indian Medical Students in China . . . . 633
Peidong Yang, Mark Baildon, and Jasmine B.-Y. Sim
41 Bringing the Citizen Back In: A Sociopolitical Approach to

Global Citizenship Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
Quentin Maire
42 Global Citizenship Education Between Qualification, Socialization,

and Subjectification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
Sara Franch
43 Existing Research on Italian Migrants in the USA and Australia:

A Critical Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
Simone Marino
44 Advancing Diversity Through Global Citizenship Education

and Interfaith Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
Mehmet Aslan and Mark Van Ommen
45 Civic Theory and Educative Processes in Informal Spaces:

A Case Study in Three Italian Realities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
Mauro Giardiello
Contents xiii
Part IV Youth Advocacy, Citizenship, and Education . . . . . . . . . . . 721
46 Undocumented Students and Youth Advocacy in the USA ...... 723

Ana K. Soltero López and R. Joseph Rodríguez
47 Informal Educational Infrastructure: Citizenship Formation,

Informal Education, and Youth Work Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
Ben Arnold Lohmeyer
48 The Development of Civic Participation Among Youth in

Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
Jasmine B.-Y. Sim and Lee-Tat Chow
49 Rural Youth, Education, and Citizenship in Sweden: Politics

of Recognition and Redistribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779
Susanna Areschoug and Lucas Gottzén
50 Youth Civic Engagement and Formal Education in Canada:

Shifting Expressions, Associated Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
Mark Evans, Rosemary Evans, and Angela Vemic
51 Supporting Active Citizenship Among Young People at Risk of

Social Exclusion: The Role of Adult Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813
Nathalie Huegler
52 Youth Citizenship in Sierra Leone: Everyday Practice and

Hope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829
Alice Chadwick
53 Youth Engagement and Citizenship in England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845

Ian Davies
54 “You’ve Got the Skin”: Entrepreneurial Universities, Study

Abroad, and the Construction of Global Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . 863
Sam Schulz
55 Youth Participation, Movement Politics, and Skills: A Study of

Youth Activism in Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877
Ilaria Pitti
56 Online Citizenship Learning of Chinese Young People ......... 891

Jun Fu
57 Education for Youth Civic and Political Action in Australia . . . . . 905

Andrew Peterson, Rosalyn Black, and Lucas Walsh
xiv Contents
Part V New Directions in Citizenship and Education . . . . . . . . . . . 921
58 Affective Citizenship and Education in Multicultural Societies:

Tensions, Ambivalences, and Possibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923
Michalinos Zembylas
59 Hypercitizenship in the Age of Globalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937
Sara Petroccia and Andrea Pitasi
60 World-Seeing and World-Making: The Role of Aesthetic
Education in Cultivating Citizens of the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 951
Suzanne S. Choo
61 Lessons from Dystopia: The Security of Nations and the
Securitized Citizen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965
Liam Francis Gearon
62 Citizenship and Education in an Age of Extremisms . . . . . . . . . . . 983
Reza Gholami
63 Teaching Migration as Citizenship-Building in the United States
and Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
Adam Strom, Veronica Boix-Mansilla, Carolyn Sattin-Bajaj, and
Carola Suárez-Orozco
64 Revisiting a Spiritual Democracy: In Search of Whitman’s
Democratic Vistas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
Gabriel P. Swarts
65 Typologies of Citizenship and Civic Education: From Ideal
Types to a Reflective Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029
Aviv Cohen
66 Citizenship, Disability Discrimination, and the Invisible
Learner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
Fiona Hallett
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
About the Editors
Andrew Peterson is Professor of Character and Citi-

zenship Education at the Jubilee Centre for Character
and Virtues, University of Birmingham. His research
focuses, broadly, on civic virtues and education. His
recent books include Civility and Democratic Education
and Compassion and Education: Cultivating Compas-
sionate Children, Schools and Communities. He is
Assistant Editor of the British Journal of Educational
Studies, is Associate Editor of the Asia Pacific Journal
of Education, and is Deputy Editor of Citizenship Teach-
ing and Learning.
Garth Stahl, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor in the

School of Education at the University of Queensland.
His research interests lie on the nexus of neoliberalism
and socio-cultural studies of education, identity, equity/
inequality, and social change. Currently, his research
projects and publications encompass theoretical and
empirical studies of learner identities, gender and
youth, sociology of schooling in a neoliberal age, gen-
dered subjectivities, equity and difference, and educa-
tional reform. Of particular interest is the exploration of
counternarratives to neoliberalism around “value” and
“respectability” for working-class youth.
ORCID Profile: orcid.org/0000-0002-1800-8495
xv
xvi About the Editors
Hannah Soong Ph.D., is a Senior Lecturer and a

Socio-cultural Researcher in the School of Education
at the University of South Australia. Hannah’s research
interests lie in the empirical studies and theorization of
transnational mobility of families, international stu-
dents, and migrant teachers, sociology of Asia’s literacy,
and teacher identity work in an “East-meets-West” cur-
riculum. Currently, she is exploring the transnational
aspirations of middle-class and refugee-background par-
ents on their children’s education and well-being in Asia
and Australia. One key area is the investigation around
developing ethical engagement with global shifts and
relations in education.
ORCID Profile: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1798-
4881
Contributors
Susanna Areschoug Department of Child and Youth Studies, Stockholm Univer-

sity, Stockholm, Sweden
Hogai Aryoubi Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Mehmet Aslan School of Humanities and Social Inquiry, University of Wollon-
gong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
Mark Baildon National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore, Singapore
Dennis Beach University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
University of Borås, Borås, Sweden
Jason Beech Escuela de Educación, Universidad de San Andrés – CONICET,
Victoria, Argentina
Terence Bevington University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Rosalyn Black Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia
Veronica Boix-Mansilla Re-imagining Migration and Project Zero, Cambridge,
MA, USA
Audrey Bryan School of Human Development, Dublin City University, Dublin,
Ireland
Xavier Casademont-Falguera University of Girona, Girona, Spain
Alice Chadwick University of Bath, Bath, UK
Charleen Chiong Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Suzanne S. Choo National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological Univer-
sity, Singapore, Singapore
Lee-Tat Chow National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University,
xvii
xviii Contributors
Aviv Cohen The Seymour Fox School of Education, The Hebrew University of
Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
Hilary Cremin University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Babak Dadvand Melbourne Graduate School of Education, The University of
Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Ian Davies The University of York, York, UK
Frank Deer University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
Hang B. Duong College of Education, University of Lehigh, Bethlehem, PA, USA
Mark Evans Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning, Ontario Institute
for Studies in Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
Rosemary Evans University of Toronto Schools, Toronto, ON, Canada
Jordi Feu-Gelis University of Girona, Girona, Spain
Rick Flowers University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Sara Franch Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Bolzano, Italy
Jun Fu Youth Research Centre, Melbourne Graduate School of Education, Uni-
versity of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Liam Francis Gearon University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Reza Gholami Department of Education and Social Justice, School of Education,
University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, UK
Mauro Giardiello University of Roma Tre, Rome, Italy
Bjorn Gomes Yale-NUS College, Singapore, Singapore
Saravanan Gopinathan Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National Univer-
sity of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
Faith Gordon School of Social Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne,
Australia
Lucas Gottzén Department of Child and Youth Studies, Stockholm University,
Stockholm, Sweden
Sadia Habib Manchester, UK
Elena Hailwood School of Social Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
Fiona Hallett Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, UK
Keith Heggart University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Kenneth Hemmerechts Political Science Department, Free University of Brussels
(VUB), Brussels, Belgium
Contributors xix
Peter J. Hemming School of Social Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK

Geoffrey Hinchliffe School of Education, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
Trang Hoang School of Education, Deakin University, Burwood, Australia
Melitta Hogarth The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Nathalie Huegler UCL Institute of Education, London, UK
School of Education and Social Work, University of Sussex, Falmer, UK
Zafer İbrahimoğlu Marmara University Ataturk Faculty of Education, Istanbul,
Turkey
R. Joseph Rodríguez Department of Literacy, Early, Bilingual, and Special Edu-
cation (LEBSE), California State University, Fresno, Fresno, CA, USA
Dimokritos Kavadias Political Science Department, Free University of Brussels
(VUB), Brussels, Belgium
Kevin Kester Department of Education, Keimyung University, Daegu, South
Korea
Dina Kiwan University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
Nomisha Kurian University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Wing-Wah Law Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong,
China
George Lăzăroiu The Cognitive Labor Institute, New York City, NY, USA
Spiru Haret University, Bucharest, Romania
Ben Arnold Lohmeyer Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia
Tabor, College of Higher Education, Adelaide, SA, Australia
Quentin Maire Centre for International Research on Education Systems, Victoria
University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Rodrigo Mardones Instituto de Ciencia Política, Pontificia Universidad Católica
de Chile, Santiago, Chile
Simone Marino School of Creative Industries, University of South Australia,
Adelaide, SA, Australia
Claire Maxwell UCL, Institute of Education, London, UK
Ramona Mihăilă Dimitrie Cantemir Christian University, Bucharest, Romania
Benjamin Miller Department of Political Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
Andrea Milligan Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
xx Contributors
Liz Moorse Association for Citizenship Teaching, London, UK

Adnan Mouhiddin University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
Gistered Muleya Department of Language and Social Sciences Education, The
University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
Carol Mutch Faculty of Education and Social Work, The University of Auckland,
Auckland, New Zealand
Blain Neufeld Department of Philosophy, University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee,
Milwaukee, WI, USA
Jae-Eun Noh Learning Sciences Institute Australia, Australian Catholic Univer-
sity, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Echeverria Vicente Nohemi Jocabeth Political Science Department, Free Univer-
sity of Brussels (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
Andrew Peterson Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues, University of Birming-
ham, Birmingham, UK
Sara Petroccia Gabriele d’Annunzio University, Chieti-Pescara, Italy
Le-Ha Phan Department of Educational Foundations, College of Education,
Universiti Brunei Darussalam (Brunei) and University of Hawaii at Manoa (USA),
Honolulu, HI, USA
Andrea Pitasi Gabriele d’Annunzio University, Chieti-Pescara, Italy
Ilaria Pitti Department of Social, Political and Cognitive Sciences, University of
Siena, Siena, Italy
Òscar Prieto-Flores University of Girona, Girona, Spain
Stephen Redillas University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines
Sophie Rudolph Melbourne Graduate School of Education, The University of
Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Carolyn Sattin-Bajaj University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA,
USA
Sam Schulz College of Education, Psychology and Social Work, Flinders Univer-
sity of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia
Campbell F. Scribner University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
Aaron T. Sigauke School of Education, University of New England, Armidale,
NSW, Australia
Jasmine B.-Y. Sim National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological Uni-
versity, Singapore, Singapore
Contributors xxi
Ana K. Soltero López Department of Literacy, Early, Bilingual, and Special

Education (LEBSE), California State University, Fresno, CA, USA
Garth Stahl University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
Adam Strom Re-imagining Migration, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Carola Suárez-Orozco Re-imagining Migration and UCLA, Los Angeles, CA,
USA
Gabriel P. Swarts University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA
Charlene Tan Policy and Leadership Studies, National Institute of Education,
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
Siva Gopal Thaiyalan Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New
Zealand
Ly Thi Tran School of Education, Deakin University, Burwood, Australia
Jessica Trickey University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
Piet A. van der Ploeg University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
Mark Van Ommen School of Education, University of Queensland, Brisbane,
QLD, Australia
Angela Vemic Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto,
Toronto, ON, Canada
Lucas Walsh Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
Andrew Wilkins University of East London, London, UK
Bronwyn E. Wood Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
Peidong Yang National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University,
Miri Yemini Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
Michalinos Zembylas Program of Educational Studies, Open University of
Cyprus, Latsia, Cyprus
Part I
Foundational Thinkers on, and Theories of,
Citizenship and Education
A Confucian Conception of Citizenship
Education 1
Charlene Tan
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
A Confucian Conception of Citizenship Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Junzi (Exemplary Persons) and Zhengming (Rectification of Names) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
A “Thick” Conception of Human Good Through Dao (Way) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
The Utilization of Dialogue to Foster Reflective Citizens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Abstract
This chapter examines a Confucian conception of citizenship education by
focusing on Confucius’ teachings and actions as recorded in the Analects
(Lunyu). Confucius’ belief in the historicity and potential of human beings
motivates him to emphasize the inheritance, acquisition, critical reflection, and
appropriation of traditional knowledge for citizenship education. He balances
teacher directiveness and student autonomy by foregrounding human beings as
both recipients and creators of their own culture. Three main characteristics of a
Confucian worldview of citizenship education are highlighted in this chapter:
first, that the goal of citizenship education is to nurture junzi (exemplary persons)
who perform their social roles and participate actively in their communities in
accordance with zhengming (rectification of names); second, that a Confucian
citizenship education curriculum reflects a “thick” conception of human good
through a substantive framework of beliefs and values that centers on dao (way);
and, third, that a recommended pedagogical approach, as demonstrated by
C. Tan (*)
Policy and Leadership Studies, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University,
e-mail: [email protected]
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 3

A. Peterson et al. (eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Citizenship and Education,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67828-3_17
4 C. Tan
Confucius, is dialogue to foster reflective citizens. A Confucian conception of

citizenship education as outlined in this chapter debunks the perception that
Confucius and Confucianism necessarily promote authoritarian leadership,
unquestioning obedience to authority, passive citizenship, and political
indoctrination.
Keywords
Citizenship education · Confucius · Dao (way) · Dialogue · Junzi (exemplary
person) · Zhengming (rectification of names)
Introduction
A core identity in our modern world is that of citizenship. Broadly speaking,

citizenship in a democracy comprises the following: “(a) gives membership status
to individuals within a political unit; (b) confers an identity on individuals;
(c) constitutes a set of values, usually interpreted as a commitment to the common
good of a particular political unit; (d) involves practicing a degree of participation in
the process of political life; and (e) implies gaining and using knowledge and
understanding of laws, documents, structures, and processes of governance”
(Abowitz and Harnish 2006, 653).
Education of/through/for citizenship has become a primary concern in many
countries in their endeavors to nurture citizens who possess the capacity to address
local and global issues rationally (Gilbert 1996; Crick 1998; Criddle et al. 2004;
Noddings 2013). A survey of the developments in citizenship education for the past
few decades reveals a shift from state formation and patriotic education to wider
conceptions such as supranational, multicultural, critical, and cyber citizenship (Kerr
1999; Johnson and Morris 2010). Citizenship education is a general, contested, and
evolving term that encompasses, inter alia, civics, democratic education, national
education, and political education (Carr 1995; McLaughlin 1992; Amadeo et al.
1999; Kerr 1999). The specific definitions of and pedagogical approaches to citi-
zenship education depend on a host of contextual factors such as historical tradition,
geographical position, sociopolitical structure, economic system, and global trends
(Kerr 1999). Different writers have devised various concepts, models, frameworks,
and analytical tools to explain citizenship education (e.g., Galston 1989; Carr 1995;
McLaughlin 1992; Cogan and Derricott 1998; Kerr 1999; Westheimer and Kahne
2004; Johnson and Morris 2010). In their literature review, Abowitz and Harnish
(2006) identify seven distinct but overlapping frameworks, with the “civic republi-
can” and “liberal” frameworks being the two most influential in shaping current
citizenship education.
Citizenship education may be predicated upon a “thin” or “thick” conception of
human good or perfection (McLaughlin 1992). These two conceptions reflect the
extent to which a citizenship education approach stipulates specific substantial
frameworks of belief and value for citizens. Citizenship education that adheres to a
1 A Confucian Conception of Citizenship Education 5
“thick” conception of human good provides a comprehensive account of human life

and how it should be lived; such a conception is invoked to constitute, support, and
justify the notion of the public good (McLaughlin 1992). A “thin” conception of
human good or perfection, on the other hand, requires the state to be neutral on
matters of private good. As explained by McLaughlin (1992):
What is needed for this purpose is a ‘thin’ conception of the good, free of significantly
controversial assumptions and judgments, which maximize the freedom of citizens to pursue
their diverse private conceptions of the good within a framework of justice. An example of
an aspect of a ‘thin’ conception of the good is a commitment to the requirements of basic
social morality. The label ‘thin’ here refers not to the insignificance of such values, but to
their independence from substantial, particular, frameworks of belief and value. (240)
It should be clarified that these two interpretations are not the only two
approaches to citizenship education, nor are they mutually exclusive. Instead, a
plurality of interpretations exists along the spectrum with overlaps among them.
Besides understanding citizenship education in terms of its relationship with
human good or perfection, it is also important to identify the ideological and cultural
underpinnings of citizenship education. A review of literature published in English
shows that the existing citizenship education frameworks are largely premised on
Western/Enlightenment histories, traditions, developments, and presuppositions.
The term “citizenship” is a Western concept that originates from Athenian democ-
racy (Carr 1995). Abowitz and Harnish (2006) point out that the dominant citizen-
ship discourses of civic republicanism and liberalism are both “Enlightenment-
inspired” (654). The “Western imagination” – the Enlightenment settlement, its
values, practices, and institutions – has been exported to the rest of the world as
objective and universal worldviews (Kennedy 2004). Relatively little attention has
been paid to non-Western conceptions of citizenship and citizenship education,
especially East Asian viewpoints. Although there is a growing body of literature
on Confucian perspectives of citizenship and citizenship education, these works are
primarily concerned with aspects of citizenship such as democracy, liberalism,
human rights, civil society, equality, and individuality (e.g., Shils 1996; Nuyen
2001, 2002; O’Dwyer 2003; Ackerly 2005; Kim 2010; Yung 2010; Spina et al.
2011; Shih 2014; Wang 2016; Zhai 2017). There is, to date, no systematic presen-
tation of a Confucian conception of citizenship education based on the teachings and
actions of Confucius himself.
This chapter introduces a Confucian conception of citizenship education through
a textual analysis of the Analects (Lunyu). A Confucian canon, the Analects,
compiles the sayings and conduct of Confucius and his disciples. The concept of
citizenship is defined broadly in this chapter to refer to a practice through which
humans actively participate in their communities, negotiating their range of identities
as they do so (Peterson and Brock 2017). The methodology of this chapter, it should
be added at the outset, is theoretical rather than empirical, with a focus on the
philosophical basis for citizenship education as advocated by Confucius. The next
section elucidates the key features of a Confucian conception of citizenship educa-
tion based on relevant passages from the Analects.
6 C. Tan
A Confucian Conception of Citizenship Education
There is no historical record of Confucius (551–479 B.C.E.) discussing the mem-

bership status and political identity of citizens or the legislation, systems, and
processes in a nation-state. Such an omission is not surprising since these concepts
and practices did not exist during his time. But we should not thereby conclude that
citizenship education and issues related to citizenship are of no significance to
Confucius. On the contrary, Confucius has much to say about citizenship education
in terms of an individual’s commitment to the common good and active participation
in one’s community (Abowitz and Harnish 2006; Peterson and Brock 2017). Con-
fucius states that a person takes part in government simply by being a good son and
brother (Analects 2.21). Clarifying Confucius’ position, Shils (1996) writes, “Con-
fucius means that maintaining the family is a contribution to maintaining public
order or social harmony and hence is a contribution to the work of the government”
(49). We could identify three main characteristics of a Confucian conception of
citizenship education from the philosophy and conduct of Confucius, and these will
now be considered.
Junzi (Exemplary Persons) and Zhengming (Rectification of Names)
First, the goal of citizenship education is to nurture junzi (noble or exemplary

persons) who perform their social roles and participate actively in their communities
in accordance with zhengming (rectification of names). The term “junzi,” literally
“son of a lord,” was already in circulation during Confucius’ time and denoted
members of the aristocratic society. Confucius borrowed this term by extending it to
all human beings: anyone can and should be a junzi by becoming a morally noble
person. A junzi is exemplary as such a person is distinguished by humanity or
benevolence (ren): Confucius observes that a junzi “does not leave ren even for
the space of one meal” (Analects 4.5; all citations are taken from this text and
translated to English by the author, unless otherwise stated). Ren encompasses all
virtues such as reverence, sincerity, empathy, tolerance, trustworthiness, diligence,
and generosity (see Analects 12.1, 17.6) (Tan 2017). While all human beings are
encouraged to become junzi (although not everyone will eventually succeed in doing
so), a person who aspires for political office and leadership must be a junzi.
Confucius identifies five virtues of a junzi-ruler: “The junzi is generous without
being wasteful, works the people hard without their complaining, has desires without
being covetous, is at ease without being arrogant, and is awe-inspiring without being
fierce” (20.2). As a ren (humane) leader, a junzi follows the footsteps of sage-kings
such as Yao and Sun “to cultivate oneself in order to bring peace to the multitude”
(14.42). Rather than imposing authoritarian rule, an office bearer is a junzi who is
sensitive to the needs of the common people (1.5, 12.20, 20.2). An example is
Zichan who is a minister praised by Confucius for being a junzi in performing his
duties: “He had the way of the junzi in four respects: he was reverential in the way he
conducted himself, respectful in serving his superiors, generous in caring for the
common people, and appropriate in employing the services of the common people”
(5.16). Calling for active citizenship, Confucius envisions himself and his disciples
assuming political leadership so that they could eliminate the oppressive regime and
enact humane policies for the common good.
How then should one perform one’s social roles – whether as a ruler or the ruled –
and contribute to the larger good? The answer, according to Confucius, is to conduct
oneself according to zhengming (rectification of names). The Analects records an
episode where Duke Jing of Qi asks Confucius about governance (12.11). Confucius
replies, “Let the lord be a true lord, the ministers true ministers, the fathers true
fathers, and the sons true sons” (translation by Slingerland 2003). Upon hearing
Confucius’ response, the Duke says, “Indeed! If the ruler be not a ruler, the subject
not a subject, the father not a father, the son not a son, then even if there were grain,
would I get to eat it?” Another passage in the Analects illuminates the principle of
zhengming:
When names are not correct, what is said will not be used effectively; when what is said is not
used effectively, matters will not be accomplished; when matters are not accomplished, ritual
propriety and music will not flourish; when ritual propriety and music do not flourish,
punishments will miss the mark; when punishments miss the mark, the people will not
know what to do with themselves. (13.3, italics added)
The expression “names are not correct” refers to not living up to the expectations
that are associated with one’s name or social role, be it as a ruler, subject, father, or
son (Tan 2013a). Confucius’ point is that one’s name conveys not just descriptive
content but also normative force. As Lai (1995) elaborates, “individuals have to live
appropriately according to the titles and names, indicating their ranks and statuses
within relationships, by which they are referred to” because these terms “prescribe
how values upholding the various roles are to be realized within the fundamental
reality of the lived human world” (252). A ruler has a “correct name” when such a
person fulfills one’s calling as a true ruler, i.e., becoming a junzi-ruler who is marked
by ren. The words of such a ruler will then “be used effectively,” i.e., his or her
policies will accomplish their goals. To put it another way, the ruler excels in
demonstrating and upholding wisdom, benevolence, and ritual propriety (15.33),
promoting virtuous officials and keeping immoral persons at bay (12.22), and
winning the hearts of the multitude by modeling qualities of reverence, tolerance,
trustworthiness, diligence, and generosity (17.6). By the same argument, a subject is
a junzi who lives up to one’s name by being loyal to one’s ruler and performing one’s
multiple roles in society, whether as a mother, sister, colleague, friend, and neighbor.
It should be added that the subject’s loyalty to the ruler is not unconditional as
Confucius discourages unquestioning obedience to authority. Confucius himself
critiques the officeholders during his time as “petty bureaucrats” (13.20) and
announces his vexation with political rulers for their immoral and oppressive
behavior (3.26, 3.1, 3.2). Rather than a blind allegiance to those in power, Confucius
advises those serving one’s lord to be honest and speak up for what is right at an
opportune time (14.22). In his exchange with Duke Ding on what causes a state to
perish, Confucius observes:
8 C. Tan
If what the ruler says is good, and no one opposes him, is this not good? On the other hand, if
what he says is not good, and no one opposes him, does this not come close to being a single
saying, that can cause a state to perish? (13.15, translation by Slingerland 2003)
With reference to 13.15, the standard for determining what is good or otherwise is
not the prevailing norm espoused by the ruler or the masses. Instead, it is dao (way),
which brings us to the next characteristic of a Confucian conception of citizenship
education.
A “Thick” Conception of Human Good Through Dao (Way)
The second feature of a Confucian framework of citizenship education is the

centrality of dao (way) that comprises a substantive framework of beliefs and values.
Such a framework reflects a “thick” conception of human good or perfection. Recall
that a “thick” conception of human good provides a comprehensive and normative
account of human life that constitutes, fortifies, and substantiates the notion of the
public good (McLaughlin 1992). A “thin” conception of human good, in contrast, is
devoid of ostensibly controversial assumptions and judgments; this conception
maximizes the freedom of citizens to pursue their diverse private conceptions of
the good within a framework of justice (McLaughlin 1992). Dao (way) refers to the
way of sage-kings such as Yao, Shun, and Yu in ancient China. Confucius teaches
that “it is human beings who are able to broaden dao, not dao that broadens human
beings” (15.29). To broaden dao is to “make and remake appropriate ways of living”
through the conscious efforts of human beings (Kim 2004, 123). A junzi is “anxious
about dao” (15.32) and “learns in order to reach that dao” (19.7). So important is dao
for a junzi that he or she is prepared to take up an official position on the condition
that doing so advances dao. The Analects records Confucius praising Qu Bo-yu who
is “prepared to hold an office only when dao prevailed in a state” (15.7). Confucius
hopes to nurture a community of junzi who broaden dao by transforming society’s
political structure from rule by law and punishment, to rule by virtue.
It is important to locate Confucius’ perspective on citizenship education within
his worldview of the historicity and potential of human beings. Such a belief
motivates him to give weight to the inheritance, acquisition, critical reflection, and
appropriation of traditional knowledge. On the one hand, Confucius’ cognizance of
the condition of human beings as historical beings leads him to respect the inheri-
tance and acquisition of cultural knowledge as part of citizenship education. Con-
fucius’ assertion that he “transmits but does not make; trusts in and loves antiquity”
(7.1) reveals his wish to transmit the dao of the sage-kings as epitomized in the Zhou
culture. He advises his own son to learn the poems from the Book of Songs (16.13)
and teaches his students the ancient “arts” (7.6) that comprise ritual propriety, music,
archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and mathematics. What qualifies as “good” and
“right,” for Confucius, emanates from and is continuously shaped by Chinese
history, cultural tradition, and epistemology. Hall and Ames (1987) shed light on
the cultural embeddedness of knowledge for Confucius:
For Confucius, knowledge is grounded in the language, customs, and institutions that
comprise culture. Culture is the given world. Thinking is cultural articulation that renders
this givenness effective. There is no knowledge to be gained of a reality which precedes that
of culture or transcends its determinations. The ‘world’ is always a human world. (67)
A Confucian citizenship education curriculum, therefore, should not be primarily

derived from and organized by the students’ own views of the world. Instead, it
should include the history, norms, and cultural practices of one’s tradition (Tan
2017). This means, for example, introducing the music of the Zhou dynasty to
students for them to appreciate the Confucian ideal of harmony, rather than letting
students choose or compose their own music in whichever way they like.
Confucius’ attention to cultural inheritance does not imply that he endorses a
wholesale transmission of traditional knowledge. Instead, he supports a selective
adoption of the normative tradition that showcases the ability of human beings to
change the world of history. Although human beings are entrusted with the mission
to extend dao, dao is by no means fossilized and unchanging. Instead, dao “consists
of the process of generating an actual order in the world rather than an already fixed
order” and “human beings have to set boundaries for themselves and for other things
as they move forward in the world” (Li 2006, 594). A content mastery of cultural
knowledge does not mean that human beings are predetermined and mere objects.
On the contrary, Confucius’ conviction that human beings are subjects in the
historical process prompts him to propagate a critical reflection and appropriation
of received knowledge. Confucius cautions against accepting conventional wisdom
and social norms unconditionally, since the wisdom and norms are situated in their
own historicity. Confucius himself does not subscribe to any preconceived ideas of
what is permissive or not (18.8). Instead, he arrives at his own conclusions through a
critical awareness of the object of the knowledge.
Confucius’ disregard of popular opinion is evident in his decision to give his
daughter in marriage to Gongye Chang, who is a convicted criminal. At first glance,
this decision is puzzling since most fathers would object to their daughters marrying
someone who has transgressed the law. But Analects 5.1 informs us that Confucius
has prior knowledge that Gongye Chang is “not guilty of any crime.” By assessing
Gongye Chang’s character, Confucius concludes that he “will be a suitable choice
for a husband” (5.1). Confucius’ judgment therefore goes against conventions and is
based on facts and a person’s moral attributes. In another episode, when asked what
he thinks of a person who is liked by all the villagers, other than praising such a
person, Confucius asserts that it is better “for the good villagers to like that person
and those who are not good to hate that person” (13.24). Confucius’ point is that we
should strive to be moral persons who make good judgments that would attract like-
minded people to us, rather than seeking to please everyone. The implication is that
the learning of one’s normative tradition in citizenship education does not entail that
the tradition should be accepted unconditionally or that such learning should take
place uncritically. On the contrary, as I have argued elsewhere, learners within a
Confucian framework are encouraged to critique the cultural traditions and knowl-
edge they have received:
10 C. Tan
As part of the reservoir of information, tools, and resources for praxis, at least one normative
tradition from within the learners’ culture should be introduced to the learners. The objective
is two-fold: to provide the learners, especially children, with the cultural coherence and an
initial framework for them to acquire a substantive set of practices, beliefs, and values; and to
prepare the learners to subsequently critique the normative tradition itself and develop their
own views. (Tan 2017, 10)
In short, citizenship education from a Confucian viewpoint is enacted through

comprehending and realizing the reading of the text (normative tradition of the way
and passed down through classic texts) and reading of the context (the prevailing
social and political oppression in China).
The Utilization of Dialogue to Foster Reflective Citizens
The third characteristic of a Confucian conception of citizenship education is the

recommended pedagogical approach of dialogue to foster reflective citizens. Con-
fucius eschews indoctrination by stating that a person who can recite 300 poems but
is unable to perform an official duty and exercise one’s initiative when sent abroad
has wasted one’s effort in memorizing the poems (13.5). He also cautions against
merely repeating what one has heard without verifying the truth for oneself (17.14),
stressing instead the primacy of fostering reflective thinking. Reflection is premised
on the love of learning (1.14, 17.8) and the harmonization of learning and reflection
(2.15). Underlining active learning, Confucius avers, “I do not know what to do with
a person who does not say, ‘What should I do? What should I do?’” (15.16) He also
highlights the need to ask questions (19.6) and inquire into a matter deeply. As he
puts it, “When the multitude hates a person, you must examine the matter yourself;
when the multitude love a person, you must examine the matter yourself” (15.28).
Confucius also supports flexibility and openness by replacing dogmatism with
contextual understanding (4.15) and discretion (9.30). Underscoring the importance
of adjusting one’s responses in accordance with the other person’s readiness to listen,
he teaches: “If someone is open to what you have to say, but you do not speak to
them, this is letting the person go to waste; if, however, someone is not open to what
you have to say, but you speak to them anyway, this is letting your words go to
waste” (15.8, translated by Slingerland 2003). Reflective thinking equips individuals
to abide by zhengming as the former guides a person to self-examine one’s role
performance as follows: “Have I done my best in my undertakings on behalf of
others? Have I been trustworthy in my interactions with friends? Have I failed to put
into practice what was passed to me?” (1.4). Through reflective thinking, Confucius
aims to nurture citizens who exercise their agency by participating purposefully and
ethically for the public good.
A defining teaching approach propagated and modeled by Confucius is dialogue.
The Analects is essentially a compilation of “ordered sayings” of Confucius that can
be traced to his discourses with people around him (Slingerland 2003). The conver-
sations provide a platform for Confucius to instruct his disciples by engaging them
in real-life personal, social, and political issues. Yang and Yang (2016) assert that
“there was no separation between classroom and society, Confucius’s classroom was
the entire world ‘under the sky or heaven,’ and the process of his teaching was life
itself” (110). An interactive form of teaching encourages his disciples to critically
reflect and discuss the political and social state of affairs against the standard of dao
and the practical steps they could take to redress the prevailing unrest. Using the
analogy of a square with four corners, Confucius sees the teacher as providing only
the basic content (“one corner”), and the students are expected to make their own
inferences (“the other three corners”) (7.8). In the process, mutual teaching and
learning take place, where the teacher is both an instructor for and fellow-learner
with the student.
Two passages in the Analects shed further light on Confucius’s employment of
dialogue to foster an environment where the teacher and students teach and learn
from each other. The first passage is taken from 3.8:
Zixia asked, “‘Her entrancing smile with dimples, Her beautiful eyes so clear, Unadorned
upon which to paint’. What does this mean?”
The Master replied, “The plain base comes first, then the colors are applied.”
Zixia said, “Just like ritual propriety that come after?”
The Master replied, “Zixia, you have stimulated my thoughts. It is only with someone
like you that one can discuss the Songs.”
In the above exchange, Confucius and Zixia are discussing a line from the Book
of Songs. After Confucius replies to Zixia’s first question, the latter responds with a
second question. This time, Zixia ingeniously relates the meaning of the poem to an
ethical question on the relationship between the concepts of ritual propriety (colors)
and rightness (plain canvas). Such an inference between two topics is not planned
nor expected by Confucius, prompting him to remark that Zixia’s comment has
stimulated or awakened his understanding of the topic. The above dialogue is an
instance where the student arrives at his own conclusion while the teacher gains new
insights from his student.
The second passage is taken from 17.4 where Confucius, through a dialogue with
another disciple, is corrected of his own mistake (translation by Slingerland 2003):
When the Master went to Wucheng, he heard the sound of stringed instruments and song.
Smiling gently, he remarked, “Why use an ox-cleaver to kill a chicken?”
Ziyou replied, “In the past, Master, I have heard you say, ‘If the gentleman learns dao he
will be able to care for others, and if the commoners learn the Way they will be easy to
manage.”
[Addressing the disciples who had accompanied him to Wucheng,] the Master said,
“Take note, my disciples! What Ziyou says is true. My earlier comment was meant only as a
joke.”
In the above passage, Confucius appears to despise Ziyou’s effort to educate the
masses in Wucheng by teaching them the music of the sage-kings. Confucius holds
that it is not fitting and a waste of time for Ziyou to promote fine music and songs to
the uneducated commoners. But Ziyou replies by reminding Confucius of the latter’s
exhortation for everyone, including the commoners, to learn the dao of the sage-
12 C. Tan
kings. This prompts an apology from Confucius who clarifies that his comment is
only a joke and that what Ziyou is doing is correct. We see here how the teacher, in
this case, Confucius, is not one who always knows all and the student is not one who
knows nothing. Instead, the teacher is able to learn from the student in an open and
mutually beneficial relationship. Making the same argument, Elstein (2009) asserts
that Confucius is not presented in the Analects as infallible or authoritarian; neither
are his students portrayed as completely submissive and accepting of Confucius’
opinions all the time.
A challenge for democratic societies in furthering citizenship education is how to
produce loyal, responsible, and united citizens without indoctrinating them or
handicapping the development of their rational autonomy (Callan 1991; Tyack and
Cuban 1995). It is pertinent that research shows that citizenship education in
Confucian heritage cultures tends to encourage and perpetuate passive, responsible,
rule-following behavior rather than one’s rights, entitlements, and status (e.g., see
Hill and Lian 1995; Cummings 2001; Thomas 2002; Lee 2004a, b; Roh 2004; Sim
and Print 2005; Tan 2007, 2008). Kennedy (2004), for example, maintains that “the
emphasis for citizens is not so much the rights they enjoy but the responsibilities they
have towards family and the community” (15). Researchers have also noted the
prevalence of teacher authority, a hierarchical relationship between the teacher and
students, didactic teaching, and passive learning in countries such as China, South
Korea, and Japan (e.g., Kim 2009; Han and Scull 2010; Tan 2013b; Guo and Guo
2015; Chou and Spangler 2016; Dawson 2010). The nature of citizenship education
programs in Confucian heritage cultures has given rise to a perception that Confu-
cian approaches to citizenship education necessarily promote unquestioning obedi-
ence to authority and suppress rational autonomy of citizens.
Here it is important to distinguish the conception of citizenship education as
advocated by Confucius and the formulation of citizenship education as practiced in
Confucian heritage cultures. As expounded in the foregoing, Confucius’ belief in the
historicity and potential of human beings motivates him to put an emphasis on the
inheritance and acquisition of cultural traditions and the critical reflection and
appropriation of traditional knowledge. Confucius would understandably repudiate
any citizenship education program that is targeted at stifling the independent think-
ing and agency of the learners. That said, Confucius also foregrounds human beings
as recipients of their own culture, situated within and dependent on particular social
and political formations in ancient China. Therefore, a balance is sought in a
Confucian conception of citizenship education between cultural transmission and
the development of rational autonomy – a task that poses a considerable challenge
for policymakers and educators.
Conclusion
This chapter has outlined a Confucian conception of citizenship as advanced by

Confucius – one that synthesizes the goal of producing committed citizens and
developing their critical faculties. An accent on cultural transmission and role
performance does not mean that critical reflection and civil engagement are neces-
sarily imperiled in citizenship education. The condition of humans as historical
beings explains Confucius’ preference for “traditional innovation” where his novel
teachings are circumscribed by prevailing sociocultural realities. At the same time,
he fosters learner freedom by encouraging his students, as subjects and makers of
history, to reflect and transform society, thereby broadening dao. Confucius sub-
scribes to a “thick” conception of human good in the form of dao (way) that provides
a substantive and normative framework of human life and the public good
(McLaughlin 1992). A citizenship education program, from a Confucian standpoint,
should be one that develops a generation of junzi who perform their varied social
roles and participate actively in their community. Guided by zhengming (rectification
of names), all members of the society are inspired and equipped to broaden dao as a
public good. Overall, a Confucian citizenship education debunks the perception that
Confucius and Confucianism definitely support authoritarian leadership, unques-
tioning obedience to authority, didactic teaching, and mechanical learning.
Cross-References
▶ Aristotle on Citizenship and Civic Education: The Central Role of Political

Participation
▶ Dewey and Citizenship Education: Schooling as Democratic Practice
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Aristotle on Citizenship and Civic
Education: The Central Role of Political 2
Participation
Benjamin Miller
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Life and Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Major Texts and the Link Between Ethics and Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Essential Concepts for Understanding Aristotle on Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
The Characteristics of Aristotle’s Good Citizen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Aristotle’s General Definition of Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Different Political Regimes, Different Types of Citizens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Puzzles About Citizenship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
How to Become a Good Citizen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Virtue Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
The Specifics of Civic Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
The Contemporary Uses of Aristotle on Citizenship and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Citizenship Education as Virtue Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Aristotle as a Social Democrat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Abstract
This chapter examines and summarizes Aristotle’s views about citizenship and
education. Aristotle defines citizenship functionally, rather than by birth or status,
and he understood participation and political authority to be essential to citizen-
ship. Aristotle’s definition of citizenship is tied tightly to his theory of the good
human life and to his ethics of virtue. A good citizen in the ideal state is identical
to the fully ethically virtuous person. For Aristotle, the virtues of living a good
human life are the same as those needed to rule and be ruled in turn. Because of
the link between ethics and politics of the person, Aristotle’s (admittedly
B. Miller (*)
Department of Political Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 17

A. Peterson et al. (eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Citizenship and Education,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67828-3_34
18 B. Miller
incomplete) program for civic education is connected to his program for ethical
training. This makes the civic educational process intensive and somewhat
foreign to modern conceptions of civic preparation. Despite this somewhat
foreign idea of education, a number of influential thinkers today have drawn on
Aristotelian ideas of citizenship to develop their own theories of governance for
modern states today. Social democrats, communitarians, and others looking to
revive the link between civic education and participatory communities have all
looked explicitly (and sometimes implicitly) to Aristotle for guidance.
Keywords
Aristotle · Virtue · Human nature · Citizenship · Participation · Education
Introduction
Even the most sterilized discussion of Aristotle will undoubtedly be controversial to

interested scholars. After upwards of 2000 years of a rich and detailed commentary
tradition beginning with the generation directly after Aristotle himself, any and every
choice made about philosophical interpretation (including which works to cite) will
be open to some measure of reasonable criticism. Given the extent to which
Aristotle’s writings and thought have drawn different interpretations, readers of
this chapter are encouraged to consider additional bibliographical and literature
review sources to gain a deeper understanding of the complexity of Aristotle’s
works as well as of subsequent interpretations. (The most comprehensive for
Aristotle’s ethical and political works are by Oxford Bibliographies (Lockwood
2013a, b). Excellent starting points for the more casual reader are the Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy articles on Aristotle (Shields 2016; Miller 2017;
Kraut 2018). For a good introductory overview of the historical context in which
Aristotle was living and writing, see Cartledge (2000). For a longer and more
comprehensive read, see Hansen (1991). Good and brief introductions to Aristotle’s
political philosophy can be found in various political companion collections (Taylor
1995; Schofield 2000). Especially excellent overviews of Aristotle’s Politics are by
Reeve and Lord in their respective introductions to each of their translations of the
text (Reeve 1998; Lord 2013).) Unfortunately for those seeking to understand his
position on citizenship and education, Aristotle himself spends no time (in his
surviving works) attempting to give a separate and comprehensive treatment of
these topics. To make matters more difficult, what he does say is not, as one might
expect given its focus on political constitutions, confined solely to his Politics.
Instead, to understand Aristotle’s views on citizenship and education, it is necessary
to draw on discussions sprinkled throughout his works, including Nicomachean
Ethics, the neglected Eudemian Ethics, Rhetoric, and Politics. As a result, this
chapter will be organized thematically rather than textually and will have four
main sections: (1) background (2) what a good citizen is like, (3) how to become a
good citizen, and (4) contemporary uses of Aristotle on citizenship and education.
2 Aristotle on Citizenship and Civic Education: The Central Role of. . . 19
Before getting to the main discussion of Aristotle’s views on citizenship and

education, it is worth sketching in brief some useful background on Aristotle, his
philosophical method, and the interlocking concepts that are central to his ethical
works and so are essential for understanding his views on education and citizenship.
Background
Life and Method
Aristotle lived most of his life in Athens, but he was born in Stagira and was
Macedonian rather than Athenian. When it comes to facts about his life most
relevant to citizenship and education, the most interesting was his residency status.
Despite being one of the earliest sources to discuss the definition of citizenship, and
to organize his theory of governance around the concept, Aristotle himself never
really lived the life of a participating citizen. This was true in both the official role
and duties of citizens in Athens at the time (he was not allowed to participate in
assembly, hold offices, etc.) and with respect to his own philosophical definition of
(good) citizenship. Aristotle’s own nonparticipation as a citizen is particularly
fascinating given his seeming commitment to the idea that participation in politics
is a necessary part of the good human life.
The other important thing to note about Aristotle’s life was his education. At the
age of 17 or 18, Aristotle came to Athens and immediately took up in Plato’s school,
the Academy. He remained under Plato’s tutelage for the next 20 years, until Plato’s
death in 347 BCE. Acknowledging Aristotle’s time spent under Plato’s wing is
crucial for understanding Aristotle’s philosophy. In many ways it is clear that his
own thought is a direct (and often critical) response to Plato’s thought, as is certainly
the case for Aristotle’s Politics and Ethics, which frequently make reference to
positions Plato held.
Aristotle is one of the more difficult historical philosophers to read and under-
stand, mainly because he has a precise philosophical method, writes in a clipped
style, and rarely explains himself in great detail. For this reason, even a more cursory
investigation of Aristotle’s philosophical thought such as this chapter requires
something to be said about Aristotle’s preferred method of investigation. In the
first place, and in direct contrast to Plato, Aristotle’s ethical and political thinking
(as well as much of his other philosophy) is guided by an ironclad commitment to
integrating pure theorizing with vigorous empirical study of the world. One of the
major and striking contrasts between descriptions of Plato’s and Aristotle’s ideal
states is Aristotle’s insistence on building physical and spacial constraints into his
ideal. Even more influential for nearly all future political theorizing up to the present
day, Aristotle is strongly committed to the thought that politics is informed, guided,
and constrained by human nature. Although many later philosophers have disagreed
with him about the precise conception of human nature, few have challenged the
more general view that political philosophy is dependent on particular views about
human beings. Today, this might feel like a trivial point, but it is worth remembering
20 B. Miller
that it was Aristotle who was one of the first to frame thinking about politics in
this way.
Delving a bit deeper into Aristotle’s philosophical method, especially with regard
to his ethical and political works, it is important to understand that Aristotle usually
begins each new topic and subtopic by outlining the views of others, both philoso-
phers and nonphilosophers alike. Without an understanding of Aristotle’s method,
this procedure can be a bit disorienting and distracting. The main thing to note here is
that Aristotle believes that philosophy makes progress by gathering together the
reputable beliefs that have already been expressed on a topic. The idea is then to aim
for a philosophical position that can stay true to the core components shared by these
reputable beliefs. If no reasonable philosophical theory can meet this standard, then
the aim is to choose the theory that does the best job accommodating as many of the
core components as possible (see NE 1145b2-7 and Topics 100b21-23, 104a10-11,
104b31-36; see Reeve 1998, pp. xviii–xxv for a good politically oriented discussion
of Aristotle’s method).
Recognizing Aristotle’s method makes it easier to read through the text of both
the Ethics and Politics. Politics especially often encourages confusion as Aristotle
usually introduces a topic by describing the many different positions other thinkers
hold on a subject without offering a clear statement that these positions are not his
own. Noticing that Aristotle’s method recommends consideration of these theories as
part of the process of coming to his own position helps to cut through some of this
confusion. Understanding that Aristotle’s philosophical method involves examining
a range of possible views on the matter at hand also explains why Aristotle often
ends up adopting a position that falls somewhere in between the positions of his
predecessors on a given topic. In the history of philosophy, this fact has often led
thinkers to deride Aristotle as a philosopher of common sense, but this derision is
based on a serious misunderstanding of what Aristotle considers good philosophical
truth-finding to involve (for more on Aristotle’s philosophical method and dialectic
in the secondary literature, see the good overview in Bostock 2000).
Major Texts and the Link Between Ethics and Politics
As mentioned above, understanding Aristotle on citizenship and education requires

noting that Aristotle gives us no definitive textual treatment of either topic. Instead,
his discussion of these topics is scattered throughout his ethical and political works.
For this reason, it is unreasonable to view Aristotle’s views on citizenship and
education as existing separately from his ethical position. In other words, to under-
stand Aristotle’s response to the questions “what is a citizen?” and “what makes a
good citizen?” we must first know something about his response to the question
“what is an ethical life?” The two most studied of Aristotle’s texts are his
Nicomachean Ethics and Politics. Of these, Nicomachean Ethics is by far and
away the more well-traveled by scholars. This focus on Nicomachean Ethics is no
doubt because Politics feels like a more incomplete text, and there are a number of
ongoing disputes about whether the text we have was meant to be a complete whole
2 Aristotle on Citizenship and Civic Education: The Central Role of. . . 21
at all or whether it is actually a composite of separate texts. There is also much

debate about which order the books (sections) of Politics should go in (for a good
survey of these textual issues, see Lord 1981).
For the purposes of thinking about citizenship and education, it is worth
keeping in mind that much of what Aristotle says about education is to be found
in Nicomachean Ethics, despite there being a brief, but sustained discussion at
the end of Politics. Citizenship as a concept is in the reverse situation. The bulk
of Aristotle’s discussion appears in Politics book 3.1-5, while Nicomachean
Ethics holds a few, scattered important nuggets about his views on citizenship.
That citizenship and education are distributed among both the ethical and
political elements of his works is due to Aristotle’s conception of ethics and
politics as fundamentally connected subjects. Unlike many modern-day thinkers
(and laypersons), Aristotle (and the Ancient Greeks generally) did not see the
two as distinct from one another. For Aristotle, ethics is the study of how human
beings should live, and understood this way, it is not hard to see why he would
therefore think that organizing government and the social order would be part
and parcel of a complete picture of the good human life. See, for discussion,
Adkins (1991).
Essential Concepts for Understanding Aristotle on Citizenship
To flesh out the connection Aristotle sees between ethics and politics a bit more, it is
necessary to consider three core concepts in Aristotle’s philosophy: Virtue, The
Good Life, and Human Nature.
The virtues, for Aristotle, are the central mode by which human beings are
conceived of and assessed ethically. In simple terms, the virtues are those states of
character that human beings develop and then use to act and live their lives well. For
Aristotle, there are a number of distinct virtues, each including its own unique
constellation of emotions, kinds of thinking, domains of application, and nuances
of behavior (e.g., courage and generosity). To be a good person, in Aristotle’s view,
one must develop the virtues to the proper extent avoiding an excess or deficiency of
the given virtue (his doctrine of the mean). Acting in accordance with the virtues,
according to Aristotle, requires extensive training, some of which is controlled by
the individual. To be a good person, in Aristotle’s view, one must develop and enact
the virtues to the right extent (i.e., the mean between excess and deficiency), which
will require extensive training, some of which is controlled by the individual and
some of which must be initiated at an early age by society and the individual’s
parents.
More generally, the virtues are those character traits that make a human being an
excellent instance of its kind. In this more general sense, we might speak of the
distinct virtues of a knife, a car, a hippopotamus, or a person. According to
Aristotle’s function argument, which appears at the beginning the ethical works
(Nicomachean Ethics 1.7), the characteristic activity of human beings, and what sets
them apart from other creatures, is the ability to use reason.
22 B. Miller
The completed story is more complex than this, of course, and this becomes
clearer when the concept of the good life is examined, including how the good life
and virtues are related. For Aristotle, the virtues are not just the generic pieces that
make a thing a good example of its kind. After all, we can ask: “a good example of its
kind relative to what purpose?” For Aristotle, the virtues are the distinctly human
answer to the non-relative purposive question: “What is a good human life?”
(Answer: a virtuous life).
On this more specific understanding of the virtues (see Curzer 2012), the virtues
are those character traits that uniquely identify human beings as distinct from other
types of creatures (the ability to reason) while at the same time serving as the keys
which enable a human being to live a good life as a human being. In this way,
Aristotle’s understanding of a good human life is fundamentally ethical. Unlike
many modern thinkers, Aristotle would resist the thought that we can carve out a
clear distinction between what is good for a person (well-being) and what one should
do ethically speaking (morality or ethics). Aristotle does not connect well-being and
ethics merely as a motivational connection but as a metaphysical one tied to human
nature. The connection is not meant to be an answer to the amoralist’s question:
“Why be moral?” Instead, the connection between well-being and ethics is a deeper
truth about the nature of human beings. For Aristotle then, ethics is inseparable from
questions about living a good life.
In much the same way, Aristotle viewed ethics as linked inexorably to politics.
For Aristotle, the first thing to think about when we do political philosophy is to
think about the purpose of the state. In his view, the aim of the state is to make sure
that the people living within it have lives that are good. Aristotle’s focus here on the
formative role of the state is one of the places where he reacts directly and critically
to Plato’s view of the state. For Plato, the best government does not aim to make
every individual within it happy. Aristotle, by contrast, believes that the entire
purpose of having a government is to facilitate the good life for individuals.
Aristotle expresses this view in a couple of key statements: “Every city-state
exists by nature” (Politics 1.2 1252b29-30), “anyone who is without a city-state, not
by luck but by nature, is either a poor specimen or superhuman” (1.2 1253a4-5), and
“a human being is by nature a political animal” (1.2 1253a3-4). There is quite a lot of
debate about what these statements mean precisely, but for the purposes of this
chapter, the main thing to note is that Aristotle draws a tight link between human
nature and the existence of the state. (For further discussion of these three claims
linking nature, the city-state, and human aims, see the canonical Keyt (1991). It is
worth considering dissenting views such as Chan (1992) and Kraut (2007).) In his
view, living in a community of this form is part of the definition of the human
species. Human beings as groups and individuals could not reliably satisfy their
natural goals without creating the state as part of this process. In other words,
Aristotle views the state as a necessary component of a complete (good) human
life. (For elaboration on this view, see Cooper (2010). For a more conflict-oriented,
and less communal, interpretation of human nature in Aristotle, see Yack (1993)).
In short, Aristotle’s vision of ethics and politics is that both are fundamental parts
of human life. This intimate connection between ethics and politics sits in fairly stark
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which was worm-eaten in the step; and the Etoile shortened hers,
the head of it being sprung. We likewise took in, from on board the
store-ship, the flour and biscuit which still belonged to us, in
proportion to our number. There were fewer pulse than we at first
thought, and I was obliged to cut off above a third part of the
allowance of the (gourganes) pease or caravanses for our soup: I
say ours, for every thing was equally distributed. The officers and the
sailors had the same nourishment; our situation, like death, rendered
all ranks of men equal. We likewise profited of the fair weather, to
make good observations.
Observation of On the 11th, in the morning, M. Verron brought his
longitude. quadrant and pendulum on shore, and employed
them the same day, to take the sun’s altitude at noon. The motion of
the pendulum was exactly determined by several corresponding
altitudes, taken for two days consecutively. On the 13th, there was
an eclipse of the sun visible to us, and we got every thing in
readiness to observe it, if the weather permitted. It was very fair; and
we saw both the moment of immersion, and that of emersion. M.
Verron observed with a telescope of nine feet; the chevalier du
Bouchage with one of Dollond’s acromatic telescopes, four feet long;
my place was at the pendulum. The beginning of the eclipse was to
us, on the 13th, at 10h. 5′ 45″ in the morning, the end at 00 h. 28′ 16″
true time, and its magnitude 3′ 22″. We have buried an inscription
under the very spot where the pendulum had been; and we called
this harbour Port Praslin.
This observation is so much the more important, as it was now
possible, by its means, and by the astronomical observations, made
upon the coast of Peru, to determine, in a certain fixed manner, the
extent of longitude of the vast Pacific Ocean, which, till now, had
been so uncertain. Our good fortune, in having fair weather at the
time of the eclipse, was so much the greater, as from that day to our
departure there was not a single day but what was dreadful. The
continued rains, together with the suffocating heat, rendered our stay
here very pernicious to us. On the 16th, the frigate had completed
her works, and we employed all our boats to finish those of the
Etoile. This store-ship was quite light, and as there were no stones
proper for ballast, we were obliged to make use of wood for that
purpose; this was a long troublesome labour, which in these forests,
where an eternal humidity prevails, is likewise unwholesome.
Description of Here we daily killed snakes, scorpions, and great
two insects. numbers of insects, of a singular sort. They are
three or four inches long, and covered over with a kind of armour;
they have six legs, projecting points on the sides, and a very long
tail. Our people likewise brought me another creature, which
appeared extraordinary to us all. It is an insect about three inches
long, and belongs to the Mantis genus. Almost every part of its body
is of such a texture, as one would take for a leaf, even when one
looks closely at it. Each of its wings is one half of a leaf, which is
entire when the two wings are closed together; the under side of its
body resembles a leaf, of a more dead colour than the upper one.
The creature has two antennæ and six legs, of which the upper joints
are likewise similar to parts of leaves. M. de Commerçon has
described this singular insect; and I placed it in the king’s cabinet,
preserved in spirits.
Here we found abundance of shells, many of them very fine. The
shoals offered treasures for the study of Conchology. We met with
ten hammer-oysters in one place, and they are said to be a scarce
species[120]. The curiosity of some of our people was accordingly
raised to a great pitch; but an accident happening to one of our
sailors abated their zeal. He was bit in the water by Sailor bit by a
a kind of snake as he was hauling the seine. The water-snake.
poisonous effects of the bite appeared in half an hour’s time. The
sailor felt an excessive pain all over his body. The spot where he had
been bit, which was on the left side, became livid, and swelled
visibly. Four or five scarifications extracted a quantity of blood, which
was already dissolved. Our people were obliged to lead the patient
walking, to prevent his getting convulsions. He suffered greatly for
five or six hours together. At last the treacle (theriaque) and flower
de luce water which had been given him, brought on an abundant
perspiration, and cured him.
This accident made every one more circumspect and careful in
going into the water. Our Taiti-man curiously observed the patient
during the whole course of his sickness. He let us know that in his
country were snakes along the sea-shore, which bit the people in the
sea, and that every one who was thus bit died of the wound. They
have a kind of medicinal knowledge, but I do not believe it is
extensive at all. The Taiti-man was surprised to see the sailor return
to his work, four or five days after the accident had happened to him.
When he examined the productions of our arts, and the various
means by which they augment our faculties, and multiply our forces,
this islander would often fall into an extatic fit, and blush for his own
country, saying with grief, aouaou Taiti, fy upon Taiti. However, he
did not like to express that he felt our superiority over his nation. It is
incredible how far his haughtiness went. We have observed that he
was as supple as he was proud; and this character at once shews
that he lives in a country where there is an inequality of ranks, and
points out what rank he holds there.
Bad weather On the 19th in the evening we were ready to sail,
which but it seemed the weather always grew worse and
persecutes us. worse. There was a high south wind, a deluge of
rain, with thunder and tempestuous squalls, a great sea in the offing,
and all the fishing birds retired into the bay. On the Earthquake.
22d in the morning, towards half an hour past ten o’clock, we
sustained several shocks of an earthquake. They were very sensibly
felt on board our ships, and lasted about two minutes. During this
time the sea rose and fell several times consecutively, which greatly
terrified those who were fishing on the rocks, and made them retreat
to the boats. It seems upon the whole, that during this season the
rains are uninterrupted here. One tempest comes on before the
other is gone off, it thunders continually, and the nights are fit to
convey an idea of chaotic darkness. Notwithstanding this, we daily
went into the woods in search of thatch palms and cabbage trees,
and endeavouring to kill some turtle doves. We Unsuccessful
divided into several bodies, and the ordinary result endeavours to
of these fatiguing caravans, was, that we returned find provisions.
wet to the skin, and with empty hands. However, in these last days,
we found some mangle-apples, and a kind of fruit called Prunes de
Monbin[121]. These would have been of some service to us, had we
discovered them sooner. We likewise found a species of aromatic
ivy, in which our surgeons believed they had discovered an
antiscorbutic quality; at least, the patients who used an infusion of it,
and washed with it, found themselves better.
Description of a We all went to see a prodigious cascade, which
fine cascade. furnished the Etoile’s brook with water. In vain would
art endeavour to produce in the palaces of kings, what nature has
here lavished upon an uninhabited spot. We admired the
assemblage of rocks, of which the almost regular gradations
precipitate and diversify the fall of the waters; with admiration we
viewed all these masses, of various figures, forming an hundred
different basons, which contain the limpid sheets of water, coloured
and shaded by trees of immense height, some of which have their
roots in the very reservoirs themselves. Let it suffice that some men
exist, whose bold pencil can trace the image of these inimitable
beauties: this cascade deserves to be drawn by the greatest painter.
Our situation Mean while our situation grew worse every
grows worse moment of our stay here, and during all the time
every day. which we spent without advancing homeward. The
number of those who were ill of the scurvy, and their complaints
encreased. The crew of the Etoile was in a still worse condition than
ours. Every day I sent boats out to sea, in order to know what kind of
weather there was. The wind was constantly at south, blowing
almost a storm with a dreadful sea. Under these circumstances it
was impossible to get under sail, especially as this could not be done
without getting a spring upon an anchor that was to be slipped all at
once; and in that case it would have been impossible in the offing to
hoist in the boats that must have remained to weigh the anchor,
which we could not afford to leave behind us. These obstacles
determined me to go on the 23d to view a passage between
Hammer island and the main land. I found one, through which we
could go out with a south wind, hoisting in our boats in the channel.
This passage had indeed great inconveniences, and happily we
were not obliged to make use of it. It rained without We leave
intermission all the night between the 23d and 24th. Port Praslin.
At day-break the weather became fair and calm. We immediately
weighed our small bower, fastened a warp to some trees, bent a
hawser to a stream-anchor, and hove a-peek on the off-anchor.
During the whole day we waited for the moment of setting sail; we
already despaired of it, and the approach of night would have
obliged us to moor again, when at half past five o’clock a breeze
sprung up from the bottom of the harbour. We immediately slipt our
shore-fast, veered out the hawser of the stream-anchor, from which
the Etoile was to set sail after us, and in half an hour’s time we were
got under sail. The boats towed us into the middle of the passage,
where there was wind enough to enable us to proceed without their
assistance. We immediately sent them to the Etoile to bring her out.
Being got two leagues out to sea, we lay-to in order to wait for her,
holding in our long-boat and small boats. At eight o’clock we began
to see the Etoile which was come out of port; but the calm did not
permit her to join us till two hours after midnight. Our barge returned
at the same time, and we hoisted her in.
During night we had squalls and rain. The fair weather returned at
day break. The wind was at S. W. and we steered from E. by S. to N.
N. E. turning to northward with the land. It would not have been
prudent to endeavour to pass to windward of it: we suspected that
this land was New Britain, and all the appearances confirmed us in it.
Indeed the lands which we had discovered more to the westward
came very close to this, and in the midst of what one might have
taken for a passage, we saw separate hummocks, which doubtless
joined to the other lands, by means of some low grounds. Such is
the picture Dampier gives of the great bay, which he calls St.
George’s Bay, and we have been at anchor at the N. E. point of it, as
we verified on the first days after our leaving the port. Dampier was
more successful than we were. He took shelter near an inhabited
district, which procured him refreshments, and whereof the
productions gave him room to conceive great hopes concerning this
country; and we, who were as indigent as he was, fell in with a
desart, which, instead of supplying all our wants, has only afforded
us wood and water.
When I left Port Praslin, I corrected my longitude by that which we
obtained from the calculation of the solar eclipse, which we observed
there; my difference was about 3°, which I was to the eastward. The
thermometer during the stay which we made there, was constantly at
22° or 23°; but the heat was greater than it seemed to shew. I
attribute the cause of this to the want of air, which is common here;
this bason being closed in on all sides, and especially on the side of
the reigning winds.
CHAP. VI.
Run from Port Praslin to the Moluccas; stay at Boero.
We put to sea again after a stay of eight days, during which time, as
we have before observed, the weather had been constantly bad, and
the wind almost always southerly. The 25th it returned to S. E.
veering round to E. and we followed the direction of the coast at
about three leagues distance. It rounded insensibly, and we soon
discovered in the offing a succession of islands, one after the other.
We passed between them and the main, and I gave them the names
of the principal officers. We now no longer doubted that we were
coasting New Britain. This land is very high, and seemed to be
intersected with fine bays, in which we perceived fires, and other
marks of habitations.
Distribution of The third day after our departure I caused our
cloaths to the field-tents to be cut up, and distributed trowsers to
sailors. the two ships companies. We had already, on
several occasions, made the like distributions of cloathing of all
kinds. Without that, how would it have been possible that these poor
fellows should be clad during so long a voyage, on which they were
several times obliged to pass alternately from cold to hot, and to
endure frequent deluges of rain? I had, upon the Extreme want
whole, nothing more to give them, all was of victuals.
exhausted, and I was even forced to cut off another ounce of the
daily allowance of bread. Of the little provisions that remained, part
was spoiled, and in any other situation all our salt provisions would
have been thrown over-board; but we were under the necessity of
eating the bad as well as the good, for it was impossible to tell when
our situation would mend. Thus it was our case to suffer at once by
what was past, which had weakened us; by our present situation, of
which the melancholy circumstances were every instant repeated
before us; and lastly, by what was to come, the indeterminate
duration of which was the greatest of all our calamities. My personal
sufferings encreased by those of others. However, I must declare
that not one suffered himself to be dejected, and that our patience
under sufferings has been superior to the most critical situations.
The officers set the example, and the seamen never ceased dancing
in the evenings, as well in the time of scarcity, as in that of the
greatest plenty. Nor has it been necessary to double their pay[122].
Description of We had New Britain constantly in sight till the 3d
the inhabitants of August, during which time we had little wind,
of New Guinea. frequent rain, the currents against us, and the ships
went worse than ever. The coast trenched more and more to the
westward, and on the 29th in the morning, we found ourselves
nearer it than we had yet been: this approach procured us a visit
from some periaguas; two came within hail of the frigate, and five
others went to the Etoile. They carried each of them five or fix black
men, with frizled woolly hair, and some of them had powdered it
white. They had pretty long beards, and white ornaments round their
arms, in form of bracelets. Their nudities were but indifferently
covered with the leaves of trees. They are tall, and appeared active
and robust. They shewed us a kind of bread, and invited us by signs
to go ashore. We desired them to come on board; but our invitations,
and even the gift of some pieces of stuff which we threw over-board,
did not inspire them with confidence sufficient to make them venture
along-side. They took up what was thrown into the water, and by way
of thanks one of them with a sling flung a stone, which did not quite
reach on board; we would not return them evil for evil, so they
retired, striking all together on their canoes, and setting up loud
shouts. They without doubt carried their hostilities farther on board
the Etoile, for we saw our people fire several muskets, which put
them to flight. Their periaguas are long, narrow, and with out-riggers;
they all have their heads and sterns more or less ornamented with
sculptures, painted red, which does honour to their skill.
The next day there came a much greater number of them, who
made no difficulty of coming along-side the ship. One of their
conductors, who seemed to be the chief, carried a staff about two or
three feet long, painted red, with a knob at each end, which, in
approaching us, he raised with both hands over his head, and
continued some time in that attitude. All these negroes seemed to be
dressed out in their best, some had their woolly hair painted red,
others had plumes on their heads, certain seeds in their ears by way
of ear-rings, or large white round plates hanging to their necks; some
had rings passed through the cartilage of the nose; but an ornament
pretty common to them all was bracelets, made of the mouth of a
large shell, sawed asunder. We were desirous of forming an
intercourse, in order to engage them to bring us some refreshments,
but their treachery soon convinced us that we could not succeed in
that attempt. They strove to seize what was offered them, and would
give nothing in exchange. We could scarce get a few roots of yams
from them; therefore we left off giving them, and they retired. Two
canoes rowed towards the frigate at the beginning of night, but a
rocket being fired for some signal, they fled precipitately.
They attack the Upon the whole, it seemed that the visits they
Etoile. made us these two last days had been with no other
view than to reconnoitre us, and to concert a plan of attack; for the
31st, at day-break, we saw a swarm of periaguas coming off shore, a
part of them passed athwart us without stopping, and all directed
their course for the Etoile, which they had no doubt observed to be
the smallest vessel of the two, and to keep astern. The negroes
made their attacks with stones and arrows, but the action was short,
for one platoon disconcerted their scheme, many threw themselves
into the sea, and some periaguas were abandoned: from this time
we did not see any more of them.
Description of The coast of New Britain now ran W. by N. and W.
the northern and in this part it became considerably lower. It was
part of New no longer that high coast adorned with several rows
Britain.
of mountains; the northern point which we
discovered was very low land, and covered with trees from space to
space. The five first days of the month of August were rainy, the
weather thick and unsettled, and the wind squally. We discovered
the coast only by piecemeal, in the clear intervals, without being able
to distinguish the particulars of it: however, we saw enough of it to be
convinced that the tides continued to carry us a part of the moderate
run we made each day. I then steered N. W. and N. W. by W. to
avoid a cluster of islands that ly off the northern extremity of New
Britain. The 4th in the afternoon we discovered two 1768.
islands, which I take to be those that Dampier calls August.
Matthias Island and Stormy or Squally Island. Matthias Island is high
and mountainous, and extends to N. W. about eight or nine leagues.
The other is not above three or four leagues long, and between the
two lies a small isle. An island which we thought we perceived the
5th, at two o’clock in the morning, to the westward, caused us again
to stand to the northward. We were not mistaken; for at ten o’clock
the fog, which till then had been thick, being dissipated, we saw that
island, which is small and low, bearing S. E. by S. The tides then
ceased to set to the southward and eastward which seemed to arise
from our having got beyond the northern point of New Britain, which
the Dutch have called Cape Salomaswer. We were then in no more
than 00° 41′ south lat. We had sounded almost every day without
finding bottom.
Isle of We steered west till the 7th, with a pretty fresh
Anchorets. gale and fair weather, without seeing land. The 7th
in the evening, the sky being very hazy, and appearing at sun-set to
be a horizon of land from W. to W. S. W. I determined to steer S. W.
by S. for the night; at daylight we steered west again. In the morning
we saw a low land, about five or six leagues a-head of us. We
steered W. by S. and W. S. W. to pass to the southward of it, and we
ranged along it at about a league and a half distance. It was a flat
island, about three leagues long, covered with trees, and divided into
several parts, connected together by breakers and sand-banks.
There are upon this island a great quantity of cocoa-nut trees, and
the sea-shore is covered with a great number of habitations, from
which it may be supposed to be extremely populous. The huts were
high, almost square, and well covered. They seemed to us larger
and handsomer than the huts built with reeds generally are, and we
thought we again beheld the houses of Taiti. We discovered a great
number of periaguas employed in fishing all round the island; none
of them seemed to be disturbed at seeing us pass, from which we
judged that these people, who were not curious, were contented with
their fate. We called this island the Isle of Hermits, or Anchorets.
Three leagues to the westward of this, we saw another low island
from the mast-head.
Archipelago; by The night was very dark, and some fixed clouds to
us called the the southward made us suppose there was land;
Echiquier. and, in fact, at day-light we discovered two small
isles, bearing S. S. E. ¾ E. at eight or nine leagues distance. We
had not yet lost sight of them, at half past eight o’clock, when we
discovered another low island, bearing W. S. W. and a little after, an
infinite number of little islands extending to W. N. W. and S. W. of
this last, which might be about two leagues long; all the others,
properly speaking, are nothing but a chain of little flat isles, or keys,
covered with wood; which, indeed, was a very disagreeable
discovery to us. There was, however, an island separated from the
others, and more to the southward, which seemed to us more
considerable. We shaped our course between that and the
Archipelago of isles, which I called the Chess-board, (l’Echiquier)
and which I wanted to leave to the northward. We were not yet near
getting clear of it, This chain discovered, ever since the morning,
extended much farther to the south-westward, than we were at that
time able to determine.
Danger which We endeavoured, as I have observed before, to
we run there. double it to the southward; but in the beginning of
the night, we were still engaged with it, without knowing precisely
how far it extended. The weather being continually squally, had
never shewn us at once, all that we had to fear; to add to our
embarrassment, it became calm in the beginning of the night, and
the calm scarce ended at the return of day. We passed the night
under continual apprehensions of being cast ashore by the currents.
I ordered two anchors to be got clear, and the cables bitted with a
range along the deck, which was almost an unnecessary precaution;
for we sounded several times without finding bottom. This is one of
the greatest dangers of these coasts; for you have not the resource
of anchoring at twice the ship’s length from the ledges, by which they
are bounded. The weather fortunately continued without squalls; and
about midnight a gentle breeze sprung up from the northward, which
enabled us to get a little to the south-eastward. The wind freshened
in proportion as the sun ascended, and carried us from these low
islands; which, I believe, are uninhabited; at least, during the time we
were carried near enough to discern them, we distinguished neither
fires, nor huts, nor periaguas. The Etoile had been, during the night,
in still greater danger than us; for she was a very long time without
steerage-way, and the tide drew her insensibly towards the shore,
when the wind sprung up to her relief. At two o’clock, in the
afternoon, we doubled the westermost of the islands, and steered W.
S. W.
We get sight of The 11th, at noon, being in 2° 17′ south latitude,
New Guinea. we perceived, to the southward, a high coast, which
seemed to us to be that of New Guinea. Some hours after, we saw it
more distinctly. The land is high and mountainous, and in this part
extends to the W. N. W. The 12th, at noon, we were about ten
leagues from the nearest land; it was impossible to observe the
coast minutely at that distance there: it appeared to us only a large
bay, about 2° 25′ south latitude; in the bottom of which, the land was
so low, that we only saw it from the mast-head. We also judged from
the celerity with which we doubled the land, that the currents were
become favourable to us; but in order to determine with any
exactness, the difference they occasioned in our estimated run, it
would have been necessary to sail at a less distance from the coast.
We continued ranging along it, at ten or twelve leagues distance; its
direction was constantly W. N. W. and its height immense. We
remarked particularly two very high peaks, neighbours to each other,
which surpassed all the other mountains in height. We called them
the Two Cyclops. We had occasion to remark, that the tides set to
the N. W. The next day we actually found ourselves further off from
the coast of New Guinea; which here tended away west. The 14th, at
break of day, we discovered two islands and a little isle or key, which
seemed to be between them, but more to the southward. Their
corrected bearings are E. S. E. and W. N. W. They are at about two
leagues distance from each other, of a middling height, and not
above a league and a half in extent each.
Direction of the We advanced but little each day. Since our arrival
winds and on the coast of New Guinea, we had pretty regularly
currents. a light breeze from east to N. E. which began about
two or three o’clock in the afternoon, and lasted till about midnight;
this breeze was succeeded with a longer or shorter interval of calm,
which was followed by the land-breeze, varying from S. W. to S. S.
W. and that terminated also towards noon, in two or three hours
calm. The 15th, in the morning, we again saw the westmost of the
two islands we had seen the preceding evening. We discovered at
the same time other land, which seemed to us to be islands,
extending from S. E. to W. S. W. very low, over which, in a distant
point of view, we perceived the high mountains of the continent. The
highest, which we set at eight o’clock in the morning, bearing S. S.
E. by compass, detached from the others, we called the Giant of
Moulineau, and we gave the name of la Nymphe Alice to the
westmost of the low islands, to the N. W. of Moulineau. At ten in the
morning we fell into a race of a tide, where the current seemed to
carry us with violence to N. and N. N. E. It was so violent, that till
noon it prevented our steering; and as it carried us much into the
offing, it became impossible for us to fix a positive judgment of its
true direction. The water, in the first tide-line, was covered with the
trunks of drift trees, sundry fruits and rock-weeds; it was at the same
time so agitated, that we dreaded being on a bank; but sounding, we
had no bottom at 100 fathom. This race of a tide seems to indicate
either a great river in the continent, or a passage which would here
divide New Guinea; a passage whose entrance would be almost
north and south. According to two distances, between the sun and
moon, observed with an octant, by the chevalier du Bouchage and
M. Verron, our longitude, the 15th at noon, was 136° 16′ 30″ east of
Paris. My reckoning continued from the determined Observations
longitude of Port Praslin; differed from it 2° 47′. We compared with
observed the same day 1° 17′ south latitude. the reckoning.
The 16th and 17th it was almost calm; the little wind that did blow,
was variable. The 16th, we did not see the land till seven in the
morning; and then only from the mast-head, extremely high and
rugged. We lost all that day in waiting for the Etoile, who, overcome
by the current, could not keep her course; and the 17th, as she was
very far from us, I was obliged to bear down to join her; but this we
did not accomplish, till the approach of night, which proved very
stormy, with a deluge of rain and frightful thunder. The six following
days were all as unpropitious to us; we had rain and calms; and the
little wind that did blow was right a-head. It is impossible to form an
idea of this, without being in the situation we were then in. The 17th,
in the afternoon, we had seen from S. by W. ½ W. to S. W. ½ W. by
compass, at about sixteen leagues distance, a high coast, which we
did not lose sight of till night came on. The 18th, at nine in the
morning, we discovered a high island, bearing S. W. by W. distance
about twelve leagues: we saw it again the next day; and at noon it
bore from S. S. W. to S. W. at the distance of 15 or 20 leagues.
During these three last days, the currents gave us ten leagues
northing: we could not determine what they had helped us in
longitude.
We cross the The 20th we crossed the line, for the second time
Equator. the voyage. The currents continued to set us from
the land; and we saw nothing of it the 20th or 21st, although we had
kept on those tacks by which we approached it most. It became,
however, necessary to make the coast, and to range along it, near
enough, so as not to commit any dangerous error, which might make
us miss the passage into the Indian Sea, and carry us into one of the
gulphs of Gilolo. The 22d, at break of day, we had sight of a higher
coast than any part of New Guinea that we had yet seen. We
steered for it, and at noon we set it, when it bore from S. by E. ½ E.
to S. W. where it did not seem to terminate. We passed the line for
the third time. The land ran W. N. W. and we Cross the line
approached it, being determined not to quit it any again.
more till we arrived at its extremity, which geographers call Cape
Mabo. In the night we doubled a point, on the other side of which the
land, still very high, trenched away W. by S. and W. S. W. The 23d at
noon, we saw an extent of coast, of about twenty leagues; the
westmost part of which bore from us S. W. thirteen or fourteen
leagues. We were much nearer two low islands, covered with wood,
distant from each other about four leagues. We Unsuccessful
stood within about half a league; and whilst we attempt on
waited for the Etoile, who was a great distance from shore.
us, I sent the chevalier de Suzannet, with two of our boats armed, to
the northermost of the two islands. We thought we saw some
habitations there, and were in hopes of getting some refreshments.
A bank, which lies the length of the island, and extends even pretty
far to the eastward, obliged the boats to take a large circuit to double
it. The chevalier de Suzannet found neither dwellings, inhabitants,
nor refreshments. What had seemed to us at a distance to form a
village, was nothing but a heap of rocks, undermined and hollowed
into caverns by the sea. The trees that covered the island, bore no
fruits proper to be eaten by man. We buried an inscription here. The
boats did not return on board till ten o’clock at night, when the Etoile
had joined us. The constant sight of the land shewed us that the
currents set here to the N. W.
Continuation of After hoisting in our boats, we strove to keep the
New Guinea. shore on board, as well as the winds, which were
constantly at S. and S. S. W. would permit us. We were obliged to
make several boards, with an intent to pass to windward of a large
island, which we had seen at sun-set, bearing W. and W. by N. The
dawn of day surprised us, still to leeward of this island. Its eastern
side, which may be about five leagues long, runs nearly N. and S.
and off the south point lies a low island of small extent. Between it
and the coast of New Guinea, which runs here nearly S. W. by W.
there appeared a large passage, the entrance of which, of about
eight leagues, lay N. E. and S. W. The wind blew out of it, and the
tide set to the N. W. it was not possible to gain in turning to windward
against wind and sea; but I strove to do it till nine in the morning. I
saw with concern that it was fruitless, and resolved to bear away, in
order to range the northern side of the island, abandoning with regret
a passage, which I thought a fine one, to extricate me out of this
everlasting chain of islands.
Hidden danger. We had two successive alarms this morning. The
first time they called from aloft, that they saw a long range of
breakers a-head, and we immediately got the other tacks on board.
These breakers, at length, more attentively examined, turned out to
be the ripling of a violent tide, and we returned to our former course.
An hour after, several persons called from the forecastle, that they
saw the bottom under us; the affair was pressing; but the alarm was
fortunately as short as it had been sudden. We should even have
thought it false, if the Etoile, who was in our wake, had not perceived
the same shoal for near two minutes. It appeared to them a coral-
bank. Almost north and south of this bank, which may have still less
water in some places, there is a sandy creek, in which are built some
huts, surrounded with cocoa-trees. This mark may so much the
better serve for a direction, as hitherto we had not seen any traces of
habitations on this coast. At one o’clock in the afternoon, we doubled
the N. E. point of the great island; which from thence extended W.
and W. by S. near 20 leagues. We were obliged to hug our wind to
coast it; and it was not long ere we perceived other islands, bearing
W. and W. by N. We saw one at sun-set, which bore even N. E. by
N. to which there joined a ledge, which seemed to extend as far as
N. by W. thus were we once more hemmed in.
Loss of the This day we lost our first master, called Denys,
master of the who died of the scurvy. He was a native of St.
ship. Malo’s, and aged about fifty years; most of them
spent in the king’s service. The sentiments of honour, and extensive
knowledge, that distinguished him in his important charge, caused
him to be universally regretted among us. Forty-five other persons
were afflicted with the scurvy; lemonade and wine only suspended
its fatal progress.
Difficult course. We spent the night upon our tacks; and the 25th,
at day-light, found ourselves surrounded with land. Three passages
presented themselves to us; one opened to the S. W. the second to
W. S. W. and the third almost east and west. The wind was fair for
none but the east; and I did not approve of it, as I did not doubt that it
would carry us into the midst of the isles of Papua. It was necessary
to avoid falling any farther to the northward; for fear, as I have before
observed, we should be imbayed in one of the gulphs, on the east
side of Gilolo. The essential means for getting out of these critical
parts, was therefore to get into a southern latitude; for on the other
side of the S. W. passage we observed to the southward an open
sea, to the utmost extent of our view, therefore I resolved to ply to
windward, in order to gain that outlet. All these islands, which
inclosed us, are very steep, of a moderate height, and covered with
trees. We did not perceive the least appearance of their being
inhabited.
Fourth passage At eleven o’clock in the afternoon, we sounded 45
of the line. fathom, a sandy bottom; this was one resource. At
noon we observed in 00° 5′ N. latitude, having crossed the line a
fourth time. At six in the evening we were so far to windward, as to
be able to fetch the W. S. W. passage, having gained about three
leagues by working the whole day. The night was more favourable,
thanks to the moon-shine, which enabled us to turn to windward
between the rocks and islands. The current, which had been against
us whilst we were passing by the two first passages, likewise
became favourable for us as soon as we opened the S. W. passage.
Description of The channel through which we at last passed out
the channel this night, may be about three leagues broad. It is
through which bounded to the westward by a cluster of pretty high
we pass.
islands and keys. Its eastern side, which at first sight
we took for the westmost point of the great island, is also nothing but
a heap of small islands and rocks, which, at a distance, seemed to
form only one body; and the separations between these islands
shew at first the appearance of fine bays; this is what we discovered
in each tack, that we made towards that shore. It was not till half past
four o’clock in the morning, that we were able to double the
southmost of the little islands of the new passage, which we called
the French Passage. We deepened our water in the midst of this
Archipelago of Islands, in advancing to the southward. Our
soundings were from 55 to 75 and 80 fathom, grey sand, ooze, and
rotten shells. When we were entirely out of the channel, we sounded
and found no bottom. We then steered S. W.
Pass the line a The 26th, at break of day, we discovered an
fifth time. island, bearing S. S. W. and a little after another
bearing W. N. W. At noon we saw no more of the labyrinth of islands
we had left, and the meridian altitude gave us 00° 23′ south latitude.
This was the fifth time of our passing the line. We continued close on
a wind, with the larboard tacks on board, and in the afternoon we
had sight of a small island in the S. E. The next day, at sun-rise, we
saw it somewhat elevated, bearing N. E. about nine or ten leagues
distance, seeming to extend N. E. and S. W. about two leagues. A
large hummock, very steep, and of a remarkable height, which we
named Big Thomas, (Gros Thomas) shewed itself at ten in the
forenoon. At its southern point there is a small island, and there are
two at the northern one. The currents ceased setting us to the
northward; we had, on the contrary, a difference to the southward.
This circumstance, together with our observed latitude, which made
us to the southward of Cape Mabo, totally convinced me that we
were at length entered into the Archipelago of the Moluccas.
Discussion Let me now ask, which this Cape Mabo is, and
concerning where it is situated? Some make it the Cape, which,
Cape Mabo. to the northward, terminates the western part of
New Guinea. Dampier and Woods Rogers place it the former, in one
of the gulphs of Gilolo in 30′ S. lat. The second, eight leagues at
farthest from this great island. But all this part is an extensive
Archipelago of little isles; which, on account of their number, were
called the Thousand Isles, by admiral Roggewein, who passed
through them in 1722. Then in what manner does this Cape Mabo,
which is in the neighbourhood of Gilolo, belong to New Guinea?
Where shall we place it, if (as there is so much reason to believe) all
New Guinea itself is a heap of great islands? the various channels
between which are as yet unknown. It must certainly belong to the
westmost of these considerable isles.
Entrance into On the 27th, in the afternoon, we discovered five
the Archipelago or six islands, bearing from W. S. W. ½ W. to W. N.
of the W. by compass. During night we kept the S. S. E.
Moluccas.
tack; so that we did not see them again the 28th in
the morning. We then perceived five other little isles, which we stood
in for. At noon they bore from S. S. W. 1° W. to S. 10° W. at the
distance of two, three, four, and five leagues. We still saw Big
Thomas bearing N. E. by E. ½ E. about five leagues. We likewise got
sight of another island, bearing W. S. W. seven or eight leagues
distant. During the last twenty-four hours we felt several strong tides,
which seemed to set from the westward. However, the difference
between my reckoning, and the observation at noon, and at the
setting of the bearings, gave us ten or eleven miles to S. W. by S.
and S. S. W. At nine o’clock in the morning I ordered the Etoile to
mount her guns, and sent her cutter to the S. W. isles, in order to see
whether there was any anchorage, and whether these isles had any
interesting productions.
Meeting with a It was almost a calm in the afternoon, and the
negro. boat did not return before nine o’clock in the
evening. She had landed on two isles, where our people had found
no signs of habitation, or cultivation, and not even any kind of fruits.
They were going to return, when, to their great surprise, they saw a
negro, quite by himself, coming towards them in a periagua, with two
outriggers. In one ear he had a golden ring, and his arms were two
lances. He came up to our boat without shewing any marks of fear or
surprize. Our people asked him for something to eat and to drink,
and he offered them water, and a small quantity of a sort of flour,
which seemed to be his ordinary food. Our men gave him a
handkerchief, a looking-glass, and some other trifles of that sort. He
laughed when he received these presents, and did not admire them.
He seemed to know the Europeans, and we thought that he might
possibly be a run-away negro from one of the neighbouring islands
where the Dutch have settlements; or that he had perhaps been sent
out a-fishing. The Dutch call these islands the Five Isles, and send
some people to visit them from time to time. They told us that they
were formerly seven in number, but that two have been sunk by
earthquakes, which happen frequently in these parts. Between these
isles there is a prodigious current, without any anchorage. The trees
and plants are almost all the same here as upon New Britain. Our
people took a turtle here of about two hundred weight.
Sight of Ceram. From this time we continued to meet with violent
tides, which set to the southward, and we kept the course which
came nearest to their direction. We sounded several times without
finding bottom, and till the 30th in the afternoon, we got sight of no
other land than a single isle to the westward, ten or twelve leagues
from us; but then we saw a considerable land bearing south at a
great distance. The current, which was of more service to us than
the wind, brought us nearer to it during night, and on the 31st at day-
break we were about seven or eight leagues from it. This was the
Isle of Ceram. Its coast, which is partly woody and partly cleared,
runs nearly east and west, and we could not see it terminated. This
isle is very high; prodigious mountains rise on it from space to space,
and the numerous fires which we saw on all sides of it, indicate its
being very populous. We passed the day and the next night in
ranging the northern coast of this isle, making our tacks in order to
gain to the westward, and double its westermost point. The current
was favourable to us, but the wind was scant.
Observations I shall here take an opportunity from the contrary
on the winds we had now met with for a long time, to
monsoons in observe, that in the Moluccas, they call the westerly
these parts.
monsoon the northern one, and the easterly
monsoon the southern one; because, during the former, the winds
blow more generally from N. N. W. than from W. and during the
latter, they come most frequently from S. S. E. These winds likewise
prevail in the isles of Papua, and on the coasts of New Guinea; we
got this information by fatal experience, having employed thirty-six
days to make four hundred and fifty leagues in.
1768. The first of September, at the dawn of day, we
September. were at the entrance of a bay, in which we saw
several fires. Soon after we perceived two vessels under sail, built in
form of the Malay boats. We hoisted a Dutch ensign and pendent,
and fired a gun, by which I committed a fault without knowing it. We
have since learnt that the inhabitants of Ceram are at war with the
Dutch, and that they have expelled the latter from almost every part
of their isle. Therefore we made a board into the bay without
success, the boats retreated on shore, and we profited of the fresh
breeze to proceed on our course. The shore at the bottom of the bay
is low and level, surrounded by high mountains; and the bay itself
contains several islands. We were obliged to steer W. N. W. in order
to double a pretty large island, at the point of which you see a little
isle or key, and a sand bank, with some breakers which seem to
extend a league out to sea. This island is called Bonao; it is divided
into two by a very narrow channel. When we had doubled it, we
steered W. by S. till noon.
It blew very fresh from S. S. W. to S. S. E. and we plyed the
remainder of the day between Bonao, Kelang, and Manipa,
endeavouring to make way to the S. W. At ten o’clock in the evening
we discovered the lands of the isle of Boero, by means of the fires
which burnt on it; and as it was my intention to put in there, we
passed the night on our tacks, in order to keep within reach, and if
possible to the windward of it. I knew that the Dutch Project for our
had a weak factory on this isle, which was however safety.
abundant in refreshments. As we were perfectly ignorant of the
situation of affairs in Europe, it was not prudent to venture to learn

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With 27 Figures and 14 Tables

ISBN 978-3-319-67827-6 ISBN 978-3-319-67828-3 (eBook)

The terms “citizenship” and “citizenship education” remain quintessential contested

Birmingham, UK Andrew Peterson

Part I Foundational Thinkers on, and Theories of, Citizenship and

1 A Confucian Conception of Citizenship Education ............ 3

2 Aristotle on Citizenship and Civic Education: The Central

3 Political Liberalism, Autonomy, and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4 Civic Republicanism, Citizenship and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

5 Arendt, Citizenship, and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

6 Rousseau on Citizenship and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

7 Paulo Freire: Citizenship and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

8 Dewey and Citizenship Education: Schooling as Democratic

9 Cosmopolitanism, Citizenship, and Education Through the

10 Neoliberalism, Citizenship, and Education: A Policy Discourse

11 Peace Education and Citizenship Education: Shared Critiques . . . 155

Part II Citizenship and Education in National and Localized

13 Curriculum Policy and Practice of Civic Education in Zambia:

22 Moments of Possibility in Politics, Policy, and Practice in

23 The Politics of Citizenship Education in Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

24 Global Citizenship Education in South Korea: The Roles of

25 Citizenship Education in England: Policy and Curriculum . . . . . . 375

26 Justice-Oriented, “Thick” Approaches to Civics and

27 “Fundamental British Values”: The Teaching of Nation,

28 Civics and Citizenship Education in Australia: The Importance

29 Citizenship Education in the Conﬂict-Affected Societies of

30 Digital Citizenship and Education in Turkey: Experiences, the

31 The Dilemmas of Americanism: Civic Education in the

32 Towards an Education for Active Citizenship in Singapore . . . . . . 497

Part III Citizenship and Education in Transnational Contexts . . . . 521

33 Discourses of Global Citizenship Education: The Inﬂuence of

34 Contested Citizenship Education in Settler Colonies on First

35 “Being Rooted, Living Global”: Citizenship and Education in the

36 Constructions of “Youth” and “Activism” in Lebanon ......... 567

37 Inequality, Civic Education and Intended Future Civic

38 International Students: (Non)citizenship, Rights, Discrimination,

39 Socialist Citizenship in the Post-socialist Era Across Time and

40 Educational Mobility and Citizenship: Chinese “Foreign Talent”

41 Bringing the Citizen Back In: A Sociopolitical Approach to

42 Global Citizenship Education Between Qualiﬁcation, Socialization,

43 Existing Research on Italian Migrants in the USA and Australia:

44 Advancing Diversity Through Global Citizenship Education

45 Civic Theory and Educative Processes in Informal Spaces:

Part IV Youth Advocacy, Citizenship, and Education . . . . . . . . . . . 721

46 Undocumented Students and Youth Advocacy in the USA ...... 723

47 Informal Educational Infrastructure: Citizenship Formation,