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 Linux
Installation, Configuration and
Command Line Basics
Nathan Clark
© Copyright 2018 Nathan Clark. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying,
recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the
prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief
quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other
noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law.
Every effort has been made to ensure that the content provided
herein is accurate and helpful for our readers at publishing time.
However, this is not an exhaustive treatment of the subjects. No
liability is assumed for losses or damages due to the information
provided.
Any trademarks which are used are done so without consent and
any use of the same does not imply consent or permission was
gained from the owner. Any trademarks or brands found within are
purely used for clarification purposes and no owners are in anyway
affiliated with this work.
Books in this Series
Table of Contents
About This Book
1. What is Linux?
1.1 From UNIX to Linux
1.2 A Brief History of Linux
1.3 Linux Range of Use
1.4 Linux Certifications
2. Software Licenses
3. Linux in Day-to-Day Life
3.1 What is a Linux Distribution?
3.2 Which Linux Distributions Exist?
4. Setting up a Linux System
4.1 Types of Installations
4.2 Installing Linux Step-by-Step
4.3 Adding a Graphical User Interface
4.4 Adding Additional Software
4.5 Exiting Linux
5. Navigating Linux
5.1 The Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS)
5.2 Commands for Directories
5.3 Terminal-based File Managers
5.4 Graphical File Managers
6. Introduction to Linux Terminals
6.1 What is a Terminal?
6.2 What is a Shell?
6.3 Available Shells
7. Essential Linux Commands
7.1 Files and Directories
 7.2 Output and Text Processing
7.3 Users and Groups
7.4 Process Management
7.5 Network and System Information
8. Getting Help
8.1 Man Pages
8.2 Info Pages
8.3 Integrated Help
8.4 External Help
Further Reading
About the Author
About This Book
This book has been created to guide you through your very first
steps in the Linux environment. If you are a complete novice, or
need a refresher in Linux, you’ve chosen the right book.
In the upcoming chapters we will cover the Linux diversity and
history and then continue on with setting up a Linux system from
scratch for the end user. Here we will guide you through the setup
and configuration process step by step.
We will take a detailed look at the infamous command line by
covering numerous essential terminal commands. We will also
address specific topics such as choosing a distribution, adding a
graphical user interface, package management, navigating the
filesystem and directories, partitioning, software selection, and using
the help system.
By the end of this book you will have set up and configured Linux
from start to finish, and be able to use Linux at a proficient level.
1. What is Linux?
Linux is the name for the kernel of an operating system that is
based on the UNIX principles. The name is derived from the first
name of its Finnish inventor, Linus Torvalds, and follows the
methodology used by other UNIX-based systems (the last letter is an
x). Today, Linux is developed and maintained by thousands of people
around the world.
The kernel of an operating system is its heart. It is required for
communication between the hardware of your computer and you,
the user. An operating system is a collection of different software
components: a kernel, various tools and the accompanying libraries.
It is a software that extends the basic operating system of your
computer, known as the BIOS.

1.1 From UNIX to Linux

The history of Linux can be traced back to the 1990s. In order to
understand the story behind Linux, we also have to look back briefly
at the early days of computing after the 2nd World War.
At that time computing machines filled entire buildings and the
transformation from mechanical to electronic components, like
microprocessors and the usage of multi-layer circuits, was underway.
Moreover, in the 1960s and 1970 s hardware and software
components were quite expensive and not standardized. Various
vendor-specific platforms existed and each of them had their own
interface, protocols to transfer and exchange data, as well as
operating system. The communication between these single
computing devices required specific knowledge and the
understanding of its protocols. The development of UNIX was an aim
to circumvent these obstacles and to simplify the usage of
computing devices on a larger scale.

UNIX
At the beginning of 1965 the development of the Multiplexed
Information and Computing Service (Multics) started. Multics was
the result of a collaboration between the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT), General Electric (GE) and Bell Labs/AT&T. Led by
the developers Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie, the main product
they developed was Unics. Later on it was renamed to UNIX. The
UNIX operating system was mainly in use at the University of
California in Berkeley.

UNIX Variants
The concept of UNIX became licensed to several companies that
developed and maintained their own variant of UNIX. This included
Solaris/SUN OS (SUN Microsystems, nowadays owned by Oracle),
AIX (IBM), Scenix (Siemens), SCO UNIX, Xenix (Microsoft), as well
as HP-UX (Hewlett-Packard), NeXTSTEP, Mac OS (Apple) and
Android (Google).
Open-source implementations comprised of the Berkeley System
Distribution (BSD) with its variants: NetBSD, OpenBSD, and
FreeBSD. Today, Linux is the most popular free software among
open source developers. There is also a strong commercial support
for the systems mentioned above .

The UNIX Philosophy

UNIX is designed with a number of strict principles in mind. These
principles cover portability, multi-tasking and multi-user orientation
in combination with a time-sharing approach. Furthermore, it is
based on network connectivity following the TCP/IP scheme.
The original development was done in the C programming language
that resulted in independence from a hardware platform. Delivered
with a selection of development tools and libraries, it allows you to
easily extend it to your specific needs. It is simple, but has a
powerful ability to automate tasks that supports complex but
maintainable scripts.
Similar to a toolbox, UNIX consists of a variety of tools. Each of
them having a specific purpose and being designed exactly for that
task. The idea is to use one tool per task. In order to achieve more
complex goals, you would combine several tools into a chain. The
following example combines the two commands ‘ls’ and ‘wc’ by
means of a pipe to be able to count the number of Python files in
the current directory.
$ ls *.py | wc -l
6
$

We will explain these commands and their usage in more detail later
on in the guide.

1.2 A Brief History of Linux

Similar to UNIX, the Linux operating system has different roots and
is based on the work of quite a few masterminds. Among others,
this includes Richard M. Stallman, Andrew S. Tanenbaum and Linus
Torvalds .
Richard M. Stallman, a hacker and developer at MIT, is the first
president of the Free Software Foundation (FSF), and the father of
the GNU project. GNU abbreviates the slogan GNU is Not UNIX. The
goal of the project was to develop a free UNIX operating system.
Until the beginning of the 1990s a collection of tools were available,
but the kernel was still missing. The entire software was published
under the GNU Public License (GPL) around 1983.
The next step for Linux came from Andrew S. Tanenbaum. At that
time he was a professor at the University of Amsterdam. For his
students he developed Minix, an operating system for educational
purposes to demonstrate and understand the UNIX principles. As he
pointed out, Minix was not intended to be used in practice.
Linus Torvalds, a Finish student at the University of Helsinki, was a
user of Minix and quite unhappy with its boundaries. In 1990 he
began to develop a new operating system based on the ideas of
Minix, the UNIX principles, and the POSIX standard. His motivation
was to have his own system that was understandable, and
maximized to the boundaries of the hardware. He also wanted to
have fun, and had no commercial intent in mind. The entire story
behind Linux is described in his autobiographical book titled Just for
Fun. Today, Linus Torvalds oversees the development of the Linux
kernel.
To make Linux attractive to the outside world it needed a nice logo.
Based on a competition for mascots, a large number of proposals
were handed in. Larry Ewing sent in his idea for a penguin as seen
on the cover of this book, and his proposal won. Designed with a
cheeky smile and a well-fed body this penguin, named Tux,
represents the image of a happy and satisfied user .

1.3 Linux Range of Use

Originally designed for Intel-based systems, Linux runs on a variety
of platforms today. Among others this includes the ARM
architectures (named arm and arm64), Motorola/Freescale’s 68k
architecture (m68k), Intel x86 (i386 and amd64), IBM s390 (s390),
PowerPC (powerpc) and SPARC (sparc).
Right from the beginning Linux focused on server systems. It is in
constant use as a web server, file server, mail and news server,
internet gateway, wireless router and firewall. Used as a computing
unit, it helped to render video sequences and entire films such as
Titanic, Shrek and Toy Story. Furthermore, Linux is in use in
automotive products, astronautics, military, logistics and the
engineering environment. Since 2006, Linux servers run all the
world’s stock exchanges. It also runs almost all internet search
engines.
Over the last decade Linux also conquered the desktop. Due to its
high flexibility and stability, it works as a reliable setup for text
processing, graphic design, desktop publishing, calculations in
spreadsheets, communication (email, chat, audio, and video) as well
as user interfaces for your phone and television.

1.4 Linux Certifications

The widespread use of Linux has increased the demand for
engineers and users who know exactly what they are doing. At this
point a certification for Linux becomes advantageous. These
certifications can be divided into programs that are general (not
specific to a distribution) and focused (specific to a Linux
distribution). The lists below give an overview of the primary
certifications that currently exist .

Non-specific Certifications

Linux Essentials
LPIC-1: Linux Server Professional Certification
LPIC-2: Linux Engineer
Linux Foundation Certified System Administrator (LFCS)
Linux Foundation Certified Engineer (LFCE)
CompTIA A+
CompTIA Network+
Distribution-specific Certifications

RedHat Certified Engineer (RHCE)

RedHat Certified System Architect (RHCSA)
RedHat Certified Architect (RCA)
SUSE Certified Administrator (SCA)
SUSE Certified Engineer (SCE)
SUSE Enterprise Architect (SEA)
2. Software Licenses
As with most products available on the market, software is also
packaged with an according license. A software license describes the
usage of the software and allows or limits its usage. For commercial
software, changes and copies are allowed within rather strict
boundaries only. As an example, the license restricts you to use it for
5 users in parallel, and requires you to obtain another license block
to add a 6th or 7th user. Common licenses are Shared Source from
Microsoft and the Apple License.
For open source software, licenses are much less restrictive.
Changes and copies are explicitly allowed, and are even desired in
some cases to make improvements for every user and purpose. The
goal is to keep the software available for everyone from now and
into the future. This so-called Copyleft principle ensures that
everyone has access to do adaptations if needed, and the
restrictions on the use and redistribution of covered software are as
minimal as possible. Common licenses that are in use for the single
Linux components and its tools are the GNU Public License (GPL),
BSD Licenses and the Apache License .
The licenses for open source software follow a number of freedom
rules as follows:

To use the program for every purpose (right of unlimited

use - freedom 0)
To understand how the program works and how to change
it according to your needs (right to read the source code
of the program - freedom 1)
To make copies of the software to help your neighbor
(right of redistribution - freedom 2)
To improve the software and to publish your changes so
that all other users can also benefit from your
improvements (freedom 3)
This ensures that the quality of available software constantly
improves and everyone has access to these improvements. Using the
GPL, the changes have to be published using the same license.
Other open source licenses like BSD do not have this strong
requirement.
3. Linux in Day-to-Day Life
There are a few terms that may confuse Linux beginners. The first
thing is its name, Linux vs GNU/Linux. As described earlier in
Chapter 1, the term Linux refers to the Linux kernel only. In reality
many users refer to Linux as the operating system as a whole, the
kernel plus libraries and tools. Also the term Linux is used to include
all the programs that run on Linux, or that are available for this
great operating system.
Furthermore, the description GNU/Linux needs understanding. Linux
distributions with this name prefix are fleshed out with GNU
implementations of the system tools and programs. One such
example is Debian GNU/Linux. As already pointed out in Chapter 1,
the GNU project goes back to the initiative of Richard M. Stallman
and his dream to develop a free UNIX system. Based on his
experiences at MIT and the collaboration with other colleagues he
choose to use free software that was already available to rewrite the
tools he needed. This included the TeX typesetting system as well as
X11 window system. He published the rewritten tools under the GPL
license whenever possible to make his work available freely to
everyone who was interested in it.
Next we will have a closer look at the different Linux distributions .

3.1 What is a Linux Distribution?

A Linux distribution is a collection of software packages that fit
together. A distribution is maintained by a team of software
developers. Each member of the team focuses on a different
package of the distribution. Together as a team they ensure that the
single software packages are up-to-date and do not conflict with the
other packages of the same release of the distribution.
As of 2018 for Debian GNU/Linux 9, the official repositories contain
more than 51,000 different packages. A repository is a directory of
packages with a certain purpose. Debian GNU/Linux sorts its
packages according to the development state. The official repository
is named stable and reflects the current release of stable packages.
The other repositories are named testing and unstable, and work in
the same way but do not count as official packages.
Typically a Linux distribution comprises of packages for a Linux
kernel, a boot loader, GNU tools and libraries, a graphical desktop
environment with a windows environment, as well as additional
software like a web browser, an email client, databases and
documentation. The software is provided in two ways; as the source
code and as the compiled binary packages. This allows you to
understand how the software is designed, to study it and to adjust it
according to your personal needs. This step is described as freedom
1 on the list shown in Chapter 2.
Depending on the focus of the Linux distribution, it also contains
packages for a specific purpose like network or forensic tools,
scientific software for educational purposes, and multimedia
applications. More details are given below .

3.2 Which Linux Distributions Exist?

According to Distrowatch, more than 600 different Linux distributions
exist. Major distributions are Debian GNU/Linux, Ubuntu, Linux Mint,
Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL), Fedora, CentOS, openSUSE Linux,
Arch Linux, Gentoo and Slackware. One of the major questions is:
which Linux distribution to use? Based on our experience these are
the recommendations:

For beginners: Ubuntu, Xubuntu, openSUSE, Linux Mint

For advanced users with experience: Debian GNU/Linux,
Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL), Fedora, CentOS
For developers: Arch Linux, Gentoo, Slackware
For the examples in this book we use Debian GNU/Linux. Even
though this distribution is recommended for advanced users it is still
very beginner friendly, which we will show later in the guide. But the
most important reason for this selection is its stability and the trust
in this Linux distribution that was built up during the last 20 years of
permanent use as a server and desktop system. Other Linux
distributions fluctuate too much for comfort.
You are more than welcome to choose a different Linux distribution.
The majority of this book applies to most distributions. But if you are
a complete novice, we highly recommend sticking to Debian
GNU/Linux at least for the duration of this guide, as we will go step
by step through its setup and configuration .
In general, choosing a Linux distribution can depend on several
criteria as stated below:

By its availability: free or commercial use

By its purpose: desktop, server, Wi-Fi router/network
appliance
By the intended audience: end user, network engineer,
system administrator, developer
By the package format: .deb, .rpm, .tar.gz
By the time updates are available: every Linux distribution
follows its own update cycle
By the support that is provided: support can be free
(community-based) or with costs (based on a support
contract)
When selecting a distribution, we recommend one that is stable, that
is updated regularly and fits into the purpose you need the computer
for. Below you will find a short description for each of the Linux
distributions mentioned above.
Debian GNU/Linux
Established in 1993, Debian GNU/Linux (Debian for short) is an
entirely free and community-based operating system that follows the
GNU principles. More than 1,000 developers continuously work on it
based on their own free will. Behind Debian is no company and there
are no business interests involved .
One design goal is to have a stable and reliable operating system for
computers that are actively delivering services. It is targeted to
users who know what they want and have experience. The Debian
developers maintain and use their own software. The packages are
made available in .deb format, and are divided into categories
according to the following licenses:

Main: free software

Contrib: free software that depends on non-free software
Non-free: packages that have a non-free license
Debian works excellent on both servers and desktop systems. A
range of architectures are supported like ARM EABI (arm), IA-64
(Itanium), mips, MIPSel, powerpc, s390 (32 and 64 bit), as well as
sparc, i386 (32 bit) and amd64 (64 bit). The code name of each
release is based on the name of a character from the film Toy Story,
such as Stretch for Debian GNU/Linux 9.

Ubuntu
Ubuntu is a free Linux distribution that is financed by the company
Canonical Ltd. It is based on Debian but focuses on beginners
instead. That’s why it contains just one tool per task. Also, the
Ubuntu team tries to incorporate brand new elements that lack
stability. The packages are made available in .deb format, and are
divided into categories according to their support from Canonical:

Main: free software, supported by Canonical

Restricted: non-free software, supported by Canonical
Universe: free software, unsupported
Multiverse: non-free software, unsupported
Ubuntu is available in three official editions: Ubuntu Desktop,
Ubuntu Server, and Ubuntu Core (for the Internet of Things).
Supported are a range of architectures like i386, IA-32, amd64,
ARMhf (ARMv7 VFPv3-D16), ARM64, powerpc (64 bit) and s390x.
Initially published in 2004, there are two releases per year: one in
April and another in October. The release is reflected by the version
number: 18.04 refers to the April release of the year 2018. The code
name of a release is based on an adjective and an animal, such as
Utopic Unicorn for Ubuntu 14.10.

Linux Mint
Linux Mint is a non-commercial distribution that is based on Ubuntu
and follows its release scheme. The initial publication dates back to
the year 2006. As of 2014 there have been two releases per year
following the release from Ubuntu by one month. The code name for
the release is a female name that ends with an a , such as Felicia for
version 6. Linux Mint supports the two architectures IA-32 and
amd64. The target of the distribution is desktop users that can use it
easily.
Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL)
RHEL is a commercial Linux distribution. It is based on the
combination of Red Hat Linux (available between 1995 and 2004)
plus Fedora 19 and 20. Its original release dates back to the year
2000. Its focus on business customers includes long-term support,
training, and a certification program (see Chapter 1). Red Hat’s
community project is called Fedora (see below).
The packages are made available in .rpm format (Red Hat Package
Manager). RHEL supports the architectures arm (64 bit), i386,
amd64, powerpc, as well as s390 and zSeries. The distribution
targets both servers and desktops. The code name for the release
looks rather random, as it does not follow a similar scheme as used
for Debian or Ubuntu.

Fedora
Fedora is a community Linux distribution, aimed mainly at desktop
usage. It is based on Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) and
sponsored by Red Hat. It was launched in 2003 at the time the
support for Red Hat Linux ended. As of 2018 it is available in the
following versions:

Workstation: for pc
Server: for servers
Atomic: for cloud computing
Fedora supports the architectures amd64, ArmHF, powerpc, mips,
s390 and RISC-V. The distribution has a rather short lifecycle where
a new release follows roughly every 6 months. The code name for a
release does not follow a fixed naming scheme but mostly consists
of city names.

CentOS
CentOS abbreviates from the name Community Enterprise Operating
System. As with Fedora it is based on Red Hat Enterprise Linux, and
compatible in terms of the binary packages. This allows the use of
software on CentOS that is initially offered and developed with RHEL
in mind. In contrast to Fedora it focuses on enterprise use for both
desktop and server, with long-term support. The initial release of
CentOS goes back to May 2004. The software packages come from
three different repositories:

Base: regular, stable packages

Updates: security, bug fix or enhancement updates
Addons: packages required for building the larger
packages that make up the main CentOS distribution, but
are not provided upstream
CentOS is available for the architectures i386 and amd64. Other
architectures are not supported.

openSUSE
The Linux distribution openSUSE has its roots in the distributions
SUSE Linux and the commercial SUSE Linux Professional that saw its
first release in 1994. The name SUSE is an abbreviation for the
original German owner named Gesellschaft für Software- und
Systementwicklung GmbH .
OpenSUSE is based on the structures of Red Hat Linux and
Slackware, and uses .rpm as a software archive format. It is
available for the architectures i586, x86-64 and ARM. The openSUSE
project aims to release a new version every eight months. As with
Fedora, the code name for a release does not follow a fixed naming
scheme.

Arch Linux
Arch Linux is a free Linux distribution that saw its first release in
2002. It follows the principle of a rolling release, which results in
monthly releases of the distribution. Currently the core team consists
of about 25 developers and is supported by a number of other
developers, called trusted users. Arch Linux uses Pacman as a
package management system. The single packages are held in four
software repositories:

Core: packages for the basic system

Extra: additional packages like desktop environments and
databases
Community: packages that are maintained by trusted
users
Multilib: packages that can be used on several
architectures
Arch Linux supports the architecture amd64. The early releases until
2007 had code names that do not follow a specific scheme.
Gentoo
As with Arch Linux, Gentoo follows the principle of a rolling release.
New installation images are available weekly, with the first release
available in 2002. Gentoo is special due to being a source code
based distribution. Before installing the software, it has to be
compiled first. Supported architectures are alpha, amd64, arm,
hppa, IA-64, m68k, mips, powerpc, s390, sh and sparc.

Slackware
Slackware is the oldest active Linux distribution. The first release
dates back to 1992. Regular releases are available without a fixed
interval. It targets the professional user, and gives him/her as much
freedom as possible. Slackware uses compressed tar.gz archives as a
package format, and supports the four architectures i486, alpha,
sparc and arm. The distribution was also ported to architecture s390.
4. Setting up a Linux System
As mentioned in the previous chapter, we will be using Debian for
our demonstrations. To recap, Debian is a distribution that provides
great stability and scales up exceptionally well once your skills and
knowledge progress past the beginner stages. In this chapter we will
install and configure Debian, showing you every single step along
the way.

4.1 Types of Installations

Debian offers a variety of methods for a proper setup. This includes
a graphical and a text-based installation; we will use the former. For
installation media the Debian developers offer three variants:

A CD or DVD for 32 bit and 64 bit

A network image for 32 bit and 64 bit (a so-called Netinst-
ISO)
A tiny CD for 32 bit or 64 bit
We also have test media available. These include live images for 32
bit and 64 bit, and allow you to try Debian before installing it on
your computer. During the time of writing this document, version 9.5
is the current stable release of Debian. The setup described here is
based on this release and the amd64 architecture.
After downloading the network image from www.debian.org/distrib
no further static images are required to be referenced in the system.
Instead, it depends on the internet connection to retrieve the
packages to be installed and keep your operating system up-to-date.
The entire process will take you about an hour and it allows you to
have a lean software selection according to your specific needs.
Software packages that you do not use will not be available on your
system. They can be added whenever you feel the need for them.
The target system of our installation is an XFCE-based desktop
system for a single user with a web browser and a music player. For
the web browser we use Mozilla Firefox and for the music player,
VLC. Both programs are a permanent component of the Linux
distribution. The environment we use for demonstration purposes is
a virtual machine based on VirtualBox with 4 GB of RAM and 15 GB
of disc space.

4.2 Installing Linux Step-by-Step

Boot Menu
In order to begin with the installation of Debian, first boot the
computer (in our case the VirtualBox image) from the ISO image you
have downloaded. If you are also using a virtual machine, see your
virtual machine vendor website for help on how to enable the ISO
image. Next, wait for the boot menu to appear on the screen. The
image below shows you the different options that are offered. Using
the cursor keys you can navigate the boot menu, and the Enter key
selects an entry.
The different options are:

Graphical install: start the installation process using a

graphical installer
Install: starting the installation process using a text-based
installer
Advanced options: select further options like Expert mode,
Automated install or Rescue mode (see image below for
more details)
Help: get further help
Install with speech synthesis: starting the installation
process with speech support
From the main boot menu choose the entry Graphical install , and
press the Enter key to proceed.

Language Selection
Next, choose the language you prefer to be used during the entire
installation process. The dialogs and messages are translated
accordingly. This selection does not determine irrevocably the
language your Linux system will have, you can always choose a
different language later.
The image below shows the dialog box. English is already pre-
selected, and so you just have to click the Continue button on the
lower-right corner of the dialog box to proceed.
Location Selection
Third, make a selection regarding your location (see image below).
Based on your language setting made before, the countries are
listed in which the chosen language is mainly spoken. This also
influences the locale settings like the time zone your computer is in.
In order to have a different setting choose the entry titled other
from the end of the list and go on from there. When you are done,
click the Continue button to proceed with step four.
Keyboard Selection
Fourth, choose your keyboard layout from the list (see image
below). For the United States the pre-selection is American English.
If you use a different keyboard layout select the right one from the
list. If done click the Continue button to proceed with step five.
Network Setup
Step five includes loading the installer components from the ISO
image, and the detection of the network hardware in order to load
the correct network driver. Then, the installer tries to connect to the
internet to retrieve an IP address via DHCP from your local network
server.
When done, you can set up the hostname of your computer (see
image below). Choose a unique name for your machine that consists
of a single name and does not exist yet in your local network
segment. It is common to use names of fruits, places, musical
instruments, composers and characters from movies. In this case we
choose the name debian95 that simply represents the Linux
distribution and its version number.
When you are done, click the Continue button to proceed with step
six to add a domain name like yourcompany.com (see image below).
In this case it is not needed. That’s why we leave the entry field
empty. Click the Continue button on the lower-right corner to
proceed with the installation.
Users and Roles
Our Linux system needs at least two users in order to be operated
properly. One is an administrative user that has a fixed name root
and the other is a regular user that we just give the name of User in
this case.
In the next two steps you set the password for the user root (see
image below) and both the full name and account name for the
regular user. For simplicity we use Debian User as the full name and
User as the account name. For both users, choose a password that
is dissimilar and that you can remember. You will need these
passwords later in order to log onto your computer.
Time Zone
Setting the correct time zone is of significant importance for
communication with other services, especially in a network. Choose
the value from the list as seen in the image below. The entries in the
list are based on the location you have selected before. When done,
click the Continue button to define the storage media and the
accompanying partitions.
Storage Media and Partitioning
A Linux system can be distributed across a number of different
storage media like hard disks and flash drives. Over and above, a
storage media can be separated into multiple disk partitions. In
order to do so, the setup program of Debian has the following
methods available (see image below):

Guided - use entire disk: follow the steps as provided and

use the entire disk space for the Linux installation. This
creates partitions with fixed sizes.
Guided - use entire disk and set up LVM: follow the steps
as provided and use the entire disk space for the Linux
installation. This option makes use of Logical Volume
 Management (LVM) in order to create partitions with sizes
that can be changed later on.
Guided - use entire disk and set up encrypted LVM: follow
the steps as provided and use the entire disk space for the
Linux installation. This option makes use of Logical Volume
Management (LVM) in order to create encrypted partitions
with sizes that can be changed later on.
Manual: create partitions individually. This is the expert
mode and requires deeper knowledge about partitions and
file system parameters.

From the list choose the entry Guided - use entire disk . The values
for partition sizes are chosen according to experience, implemented
as an algorithm. A manual calculation is not required. Click the
Continue button on the lower-right corner to proceed with the
installation .
Next, select the disk to partition. In our case we have only one disk
available (see image below). Later on in this guide the disk will be
referred to as /dev/sda for the 1st SCSI disk.

A disk partition refers to a piece of the storage media that is

organized separately and is intended to contain a branch of the
Linux file system tree. There is no universal way to do this
separation correctly. This guide shows a simple but safe solution that
works for a basic system. The menu in the dialog box offers the
following options:

All files in one partition: use just a single partition to keep

programs and user data
Separate /home partition: store programs and user data in
separate partitions
 Separate /home, /var, and /tmp partitions: keep user data,
variable data and temporary data in separate partitions
As shown in the image below, choose the third entry Separate
/home, /var, and /tmp partitions . Click the Continue button on the
lower-right corner to proceed with the installation.

The next step is to confirm the partition scheme. This is calculated

automatically based on experience and contains these partitions:

sda1: the first partition of the first SCSI disk is a primary

partition with a size of 3 GB, formatted with the ext4 file
system, and referred to as the root part of the file system
tree (indicated with /)
sda5: the fifth partition of the first SCSI disk is a logical
partition with a size of 1.3 GB, formatted with the ext4 file
 system, and reserved to store variable data of the file
system tree (indicated with /var)
sda6: the sixth partition of the first SCSI disk is a logical
partition with a size of 3.3 GB, formatted as a swap file
system
sda7: the seventh partition of the first SCSI disk is a
logical partition with a size of 311 MB, formatted with the
ext4 file system, and reserved to store temporary data of
the file system tree (indicated with /tmp)
sda8: the eighth partition of the first SCSI disk is a logical
partition with a size of 8.8 GB, formatted with the ext4 file
system, and reserved to store the user data of the file
system tree aka home directories (indicated with /home)
Due to historical reasons a hard disk can contain four primary
partitions only. The fourth one is called an Extended Partition if
divided into so-called logical partitions or logical drives. In our case
the logical partitions /dev/sda5, /dev/sda6, /dev/sda7 and /dev/sda8
are stored on the primary partition /dev/sda4. The partitions
/dev/sda2 and /dev/sda3 are not in use.
From the above list, choose the entry Finish partitioning and write
changes to disk . Click the Continue button on the lower-right corner
to proceed and to confirm the partition scheme (see below image).
Choose yes from the list and click the Continue button to partition
the disk. Note that all the data on the selected storage device will be
lost and the disk will be empty.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 SOPHIE
Prunus munsoniana
 1. U. S. D. A. Rpt. 263, Pl. VI. 1892. 2. Kerr Cat. 1894. 3. Waugh Plum
Cult. 189. 1901.

Sophie is fast being lost sight of among the multitudes of native

plums recently introduced. Without any very distinct merits it yet
stands high among plums of its kind. The variety is a seedling of
Wild Goose at first supposed by the originator, J. W. Kerr,[223] of
Denton, Maryland, to have been pollinated by a German Prune
which stood near. This is hardly the case, however, as no trace of
Domestica blood can be detected in the variety. It is mentioned by
the American Pomological Society in its catalog for 1899.

Tree large, very vigorous, spreading, open-topped, productive; branches

thorny, shaggy, with long and unbranched limbs; branchlets willowy,
slender; leaves folded upward, oval, one and three-quarters inches wide,
three and one-quarter inches long, thin; margin shallowly crenate, with
small, dark glands; petiole slender, pubescent, with from one to three
small glands; blooming season late, long; flowers appearing after the
leaves, nearly three-quarters inch across, white, pinkish as they open, with
a disagreeable odor; borne in twos or threes; anthers yellow with an
orange-red tinge.
Fruit maturing later than Wild Goose; large, one and three-eighths
inches by one and one-eighth inches in size, obovate, slightly necked,
pear-shaped, bright red, covered with thin bloom; dots conspicuous; stem
slender, long; flesh deep yellow, juicy, coarse and fibrous, subacid, flat; of
fair quality; stone clinging, three-quarters inch by three-eighths inch in
size, somewhat angular, irregular-obovate, with a peculiar elongated,
flattened, oblique base; apex abruptly acute; surfaces rough.

SPAULDING
 SPAULDING

Prunus domestica

1. Lovett Cat. 41, Col. Pl. 1888. 2. Cornell Sta. Bul. 131:192. 1897. 3.
Mich. Sta. Bul. 169:243, 248. 1899. 4. Am. Pom. Soc. Cat. 39. 1899. 5.
 Kan. Sta. Bul. 101:121, 122, Pl. V. 1901. 6. Waugh Plum Cult. 122. 1901.
7. Ohio Sta. Bul. 162:239. 1905.

Among the plums of comparatively recent introduction Spaulding

holds a conspicuous place. It is particularly highly spoken of for its
good quality and while not recommended for commercial orchards is
often mentioned as very desirable for home use. As Spaulding grows
at this Station, it does not sustain the reputation it has elsewhere. It
is of the Reine Claude group of plums and while of high quality is not
as good a dessert plum as several other similar sorts. Moreover, the
fruits are small and too light in color to be especially attractive in
appearance. The plums, too, are quite susceptible to brown-rot. The
tree-characters of this variety are in the main very good but not at all
out of the ordinary. It is very doubtful whether this sort can compete
for any purpose with such similar plums as Hand, Jefferson,
Washington, Bavay, Reine Claude, McLaughlin and Imperial Gage. It
may be worthy a trial elsewhere in New York with the hope that it will
more nearly approach the reputation that it has in other states than it
does at Geneva—at best it cannot be more than a home variety.
Spaulding was brought to the notice of fruit-growers by J. T.
Lovett, Little Silver, New Jersey, who introduced the variety in 1888.
The plum came to Mr. Lovett from Francis Garriel with the statement
that it originated as a seedling in the yard of Mr. Garriel’s father in
the Bowery, New York City. From the resemblance of Spaulding to
the Imperial Gage it is probable that they are closely related. In 1899
the variety was placed on the fruit catalog list of the American
Pomological Society as a successful variety in the north-eastern part
of the United States and the neighboring parts of Canada.

Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, dense-topped, hardy,

productive; branches ash-gray, smooth except for the raised lenticels of
various sizes; branchlets of medium thickness and length, with long
internodes, greenish-red changing to brownish-red, dull, lightly pubescent
throughout the season, with obscure, small lenticels; leaf-buds of medium
size and length, conical, appressed; leaf-scars prominent.
Leaves folded upward, nearly two inches wide, three and one-quarter
inches long, thick; upper surface dark green, rugose, glabrous, with a
shallow groove on the midrib; lower surface silvery-green, pubescent;
 apex abruptly pointed or acute, base acute, margin serrate or crenate,
with small, dark glands; petiole nearly five-eighths inch long, thick,
pubescent, tinged red, with from one to four small, globose, greenish
glands usually on the stalk.
Blooming season intermediate in time and length, one inch or more
across, white with a yellowish tinge at the apex of the petals in the newly
opened flowers; borne on lateral spurs, singly or in pairs; pedicels three-
eighths inch long, thick, pubescent, greenish; calyx-tube green,
campanulate, lightly pubescent; calyx-lobes obtuse, pubescent on both
surfaces, glandular-serrate, reflexed; petals oblong, crenate, not clawed;
anthers yellow; filaments one-quarter inch long; pistil glabrous or
occasionally with a few hairs near the base, longer than the stamens;
stigma large.
Fruit mid-season, ripening period long; one and five-eighths inches by
one and three-eighths inches in size, oblong-oval or ovate, compressed,
halves equal; cavity small, shallow, abrupt; suture shallow, often a line;
apex roundish; color dull greenish-yellow, with stripes and splashes of light
green, overspread with thick bloom; dots numerous, small, whitish,
inconspicuous; stem three-quarters inch long, lightly pubescent, adhering
well to the fruit; skin thin, tender, separating readily; flesh greenish-yellow,
juicy, fibrous, tender, sweet, mild, pleasant; very good; stone semi-free or
free, seven-eighths inch by five-eighths inch in size, ovate, turgid, slightly
pitted, blunt at the base, nearly acute at the apex; ventral suture rather
broad, slightly furrowed, with a distinct but short wing; dorsal suture widely
and deeply grooved.

STANTON
Prunus domestica

1. Gard. Mon. 29:116. 1887. 2. Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 288. 1889. 3.
Cornell Sta. Bul. 131:192. 1897.
Stanton’s Seedling 2.

This plum appears to be a very good late variety in several

respects; it is a long-keeping fruit, is of very good quality for dessert
and is a fine plum for canning and preserving. Its faults are that it is
tardy in coming into bearing and the fruits drop badly from the trees
as they begin to ripen; in localities where these faults are marked the
variety is worthless. Stanton originated as a chance seedling in
Albany County, New York, from whence it was sent to Hammond and
Willard of Geneva, New York, who introduced it about 1885.

Tree very large and vigorous, round-topped, variable in productiveness;

branches slender, marked by transverse cracks in the bark; leaf-scars
enlarged; leaves folded upward, oval or obovate, one and one-half inches
wide, three inches long; margin finely and doubly crenate, with few, dark
glands; petiole short, glandless or with from one to three small glands
usually on the stalk; blooming season intermediate in time and length;
flowers appearing after the leaves, one and one-eighth inches across,
borne in scattering clusters on lateral buds and spurs, singly or in pairs.
Fruit late, season long; about one and one-quarter inches in diameter,
roundish-oblate, truncate, purplish-black, overspread with very heavy
bloom; flesh bright golden-yellow, fibrous, very sweet, rather high-flavored;
good to very good; stone semi-free, three-quarters inch by five-eighths
inch in size, irregular roundish-oval, turgid, with a blunt and oblique base,
the surfaces nearly smooth; ventral suture enlarged, often with a short,
distinct wing; dorsal suture shallow.

STODDARD
Prunus americana

1. Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 78. 1892. 2. Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt. 88. 1895. 3. Am.
Pom. Soc. Cat. 38. 1899. 4. Ia. Sta. Bul. 46:289. 1900. 5. U. S. D. A. Rpt.
478, Pl. LXII. 1902.
Baker 2. Stoddart 1, 2.

Stoddard is usually rated as one of the best of the Americana

plums and its behavior on the grounds of this Station sustains its
reputation. The firmness of the fruit makes it a good shipping plum of
its kind and season. This variety was discovered by B. F. Stoddard of
Jesup, Buchanan County, Iowa, about 1875, growing in a garden
owned by Mrs. Caroline Baker who stated that her husband secured
the trees from the woods, presumably along the Maquoketa River.
The variety was subsequently introduced by J. Wragg and Sons of
Waukee, Iowa, at dates variously reported from 1890 to 1895.
 Tree large, vigorous, spreading, open-topped, productive; trunk shaggy;
branches slender, thorny; branchlets slender, with conspicuous, large,
raised lenticels; leaves falling early, flattened, oval or obovate, two and
one-quarter inches wide, four inches long; margin coarsely serrate,
eglandular; petiole tinged red, glandless or with from one to three glands
usually on the stalk; blooming season late; flowers appearing with the
leaves, one inch across, white.
Fruit intermediate in time and length of ripening season; about one and
three-eighths inches in diameter, roundish-oblate; suture a distinct red
line; color light to dark red over a yellow ground, mottled, covered with
thick bloom; skin astringent; flesh dark golden-yellow, very juicy, tender
and melting, rather sweet next the skin but tart near the center, with a
characteristic flavor; good; stone clinging, seven-eighths inch by five-
eighths inch in size, roundish to broad-oval, strongly flattened, with
smooth surfaces; ventral suture narrow, winged.

STONELESS
Prunus insititia

1. Duhamel Trait. Arb. Fr. 2:110, Pl. 20 fig. 14. 1768. 2. Kraft Pom. Aust.
2:42, Tab. 194 fig. 2. 1796. 3. Mag. Hort. 9:165. 1843. 4. Poiteau Pom.
Franc. 1. 1846. 5. Mas Pom. Gen. 2:121, fig. 61. 1873. 6. Hogg Fruit Man.
726. 1884. 7. Mathieu Nom. Pom. 450. 1889.
Die Pflaume ohne Stein 2. Jean Morceau 3. Kirke’s Stoneless 6, 7.
Pflaume Ohne Steine 5. Pitless 5, 7. Prune Sans-Noyau 4. Sans-Noyau 1,
5. Sans Noyau 3, 6, 7. Steinlose Zwetsche 7. Stoneless 5, 7.

This curious plum is attracting attention because of the publicity

given it by Burbank in his breeding work. The variety is at least three
hundred years old. It was known to Merlet, writing in the
Seventeenth Century, and has been mentioned in plum literature
many times since. The plum is remarkable because of the entire
absence of a stone, the kernel lying naked in a cavity much larger
than itself. The variety is worthless but presents opportunities for
breeding purposes that should not be overlooked. Judging from the
fruit-characters as given below it belongs to Prunus insititia. The
Stoneless is supposed to have been introduced into England from
the Royal Gardens at Versailles by George London. It was long sold
as Kirke’s Stoneless, having been much advertised by Kirke, a
nurseryman at Brompton, England. It is described as follows:

Fruit small, oval, dark purple, with thick bloom; flesh greenish-yellow,
harsh and strongly acid at first but assuming a more pleasant flavor as it
shrivels upon the tree.

SUGAR
 SUGAR

Prunus domestica

1. Cal. State Bd. Hort. 47. 1897-98. 2. Burbank Cat. 5 fig. 1899. 3.
Waugh Plum Cult. 124. 1901. 4. U. S. D. A. Rpt. 275, Pl. XXXVI fig. 2.
1903.
 Sugar Prune 1, 4.

The introduction of Sugar to the Atlantic States was preceded by

very flattering accounts of it from the originator, Mr. Burbank, and
from Pacific Coast plum-growers. Possibly our expectations were too
high; for we have been greatly disappointed in this plum as
compared with its parent, Agen, as the two varieties grow at Geneva
—it should be said at once that neither grows nearly as well in New
York as in California. The fruits of Sugar on the Station grounds are
not larger than those of the Agen, while in California it is said to be
twice or three times as large; the flavor is not as pleasant and the
flesh is fibrous in the offspring and not so in the parent at Geneva,
though in California the Sugar is said to be of better quality than the
Agen. As the two grow here, Sugar is rather more attractive in
appearance and ripens earlier, the latter character a distinct
advantage since Agen is very late in New York. The trees of the two
plums are much alike though those of Agen are larger and more
productive than those of Sugar as grown in New York. There are,
however, but two trees of the latter variety on the Station grounds
and these are young, set in 1899, so that too much importance must
not be attached to the comparison of the trees. Sugar is worth further
trial in New York under other conditions of soil and climate but it is
extremely doubtful whether it will surpass the Agen in this State.
This plum, a seedling of the well-known Agen, was introduced by
its originator, Burbank, in 1899. The California Experiment Station in
analyzing this plum found it to be richer in sugar than the Agen and
states that it is larger and more easily dried. Sugar has become of
great commercial importance in the California prune districts and has
been top-grafted on other plums and even on almonds to the extent
of hundreds of acres in that State and in Oregon. As yet it is only
under trial in New York.

Tree of medium size, usually vigorous, spreading, dense-topped, hardy,

productive; branches ash-gray, tinged red, smooth except for the
numerous, small, raised lenticels; branchlets slender, with long internodes,
green changing to brownish-red, dull, sparingly pubescent throughout the
season, with numerous, inconspicuous, small lenticels; leaf-buds large,
long, somewhat pointed, strongly appressed.
Leaves folded backward, obovate or oval, two and one-half inches wide,
five inches long; upper surface dark green, rugose, covered with
numerous hairs, the midrib narrowly grooved; lower surface pale green,
overspread with thick pubescence; apex abruptly pointed or acute, base
acute, margin serrate, with small dark glands; petiole nearly one inch long,
covered with thick pubescence, lightly tinged with red, glandless or with
from one to three small, globose, greenish-yellow glands at the base of
the leaf.
Flowers large, intermediate in time of bloom; calyx-tube green; stamens
longer than the pistil.
Fruit intermediate in time and length of ripening season; small, ovate or
oval, halves equal; cavity shallow, narrow, abrupt; suture shallow, often a
line; apex roundish or pointed; color dark reddish-purple changing to
purplish-black, covered with thick bloom; dots numerous, small, light
russet, inconspicuous; stem slender, long, pubescent, adhering; skin thin,
tender, separating readily; flesh golden-yellow, juicy, coarse, fibrous,
tender, sweet, mild; good to very good; stone light colored, with a tinge of
red, thin, of medium size, ovate, flattened, with rough and pitted surfaces,
blunt at the base, acute at the apex; ventral suture rather narrow, distinctly
furrowed, slightly winged; dorsal suture with a wide, deep groove.

SURPRISE
 SURPRISE

Prunus hortulana mineri?

1. Wis. Sta. Bul. 63:61 fig. 30. 1897. 2. Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 112. 1899. 3.
Am. Pom. Soc. Cat. 38. 1899. 4. Wis. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 69. 1900. 5. Ia. Sta.
Bul. 46:289. 1900. 6. Wis. Sta. Bul. 87:18. 1901. 7. Waugh Plum Cult. 175.
 1901. 8. Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 228. 1904. 9. Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 426. 1905. 10.
S. Dak. Sta. Bul. 93:39. 1905.

Surprise is one of the best of the native plums in the Station

orchard. The fruits are very attractive in appearance and while not of
the rich flavor of the Domesticas they are yet of pleasant flavor with
an abundance of juice which together make this a most refreshing
fruit. The fruits keep well and would probably ship well. The color is a
peculiar red which serves to identify the variety; on the whole the
fruits resemble the Americanas while the trees are rather more of the
Miner type. The variety is productive in New York and is so spoken of
in Wisconsin by Goff,[224] but in Iowa it is said not to bear
abundantly. If a native plum is wanted in New York, this variety is
worthy a trial.
Surprise, according to the originator, Martin Penning of Sleepy
Eye, Brown County, Minnesota, is the best of a thousand or more
seedlings grown from pits of De Soto, Weaver and Miner sown in
1882. In 1889, Penning introduced this plum and ten years later it
was added to the fruit catalog list of the American Pomological
Society. The parentage of the variety is unknown but it has usually
been thought that the botanical characters indicate that it is a
seedling of Miner. As the tree grows here, (they came to the Station
from Mr. Penning,) it appears to be a hybrid of Prunus americana
and Prunus hortulana mineri, characters of both species being
evident.

Tree large, vigorous, upright, dense-topped, hardy, productive; trunk

roughish; branches smooth, zigzag, thorny, dark ash-gray, with numerous,
small lenticels; branchlets slender, medium to long, with long internodes,
green changing to dark chestnut-red, with brownish-gray scarf-skin,
glossy, glabrous, with numerous, conspicuous, small, raised lenticels; leaf-
buds small, short, obtuse, plump, appressed.
Leaves falling early, folded upward, oval or ovate, two inches wide, four
and one-half inches long, thin; upper surface light green, glabrous,
smooth, with a grooved midrib; lower surface pale green, lightly
pubescent; apex taper-pointed, base abrupt, margin often coarsely and
doubly serrate, with amber glands which are not persistent; petiole
thirteen-sixteenths inch long, slender, reddish, sparingly pubescent along
one side, glandless or with from one to five small, globose, yellowish-
brown glands usually on the stalk.
Blooming season intermediate in time and length; flowers appearing
with the leaves, three-quarters inch across, creamy-white, with a
disagreeable odor; borne in clusters from lateral buds, in threes or in
fours; pedicels three-eighths inch long, slender, glabrous, green; calyx-
tube greenish, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes narrow, acute,
pubescent on the inner surface, serrate and with reddish glands, erect;
petals roundish-ovate, entire, narrowly clawed; anthers yellowish;
filaments one-quarter inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to the stamens in
length.
Fruit mid-season, ripening period short; one and three-eighths inches by
one and one-eighth inches in size, halves equal; cavity shallow, flaring;
suture very shallow, distinct; apex roundish or depressed; color dark red,
covered with thin bloom; dots numerous, medium to large, russet,
conspicuous, clustered about the apex; stem one-half inch long, glabrous,
adhering to the fruit; skin thick, tough, clinging; flesh golden-yellow, juicy,
fibrous, somewhat tender, sweet, insipid; quality fair; stone clinging, one
inch by five-eighths inch in size, oval, flattened, pointed at the base and
apex, with smooth surfaces.

TENNANT
 TENNANT

Prunus domestica

1. Bailey Ann. Hort. 133. 1893. 2. Oregon Sta. Bul. 45:32. 1897. 3. Am.
Pom. Soc. Cat. 40. 1899. 4. Can. Exp. Farm Bul. 2nd Ser. 3:57. 1900. 5.
Waugh Plum Cult. 124. 1901. 6. Budd-Hansen Am. Hort. Man. 326. 1903.
 Tennant Prune 1. Tenant Prune 4.

It is surprising that a variety of so much merit, especially of so

great beauty, as Tennant, should not have been more widely tried in
New York. In the survey of plum culture in this State in the
preparation of the text for The Plums of New York, it could not be
learned that the Tennant had been tried in more than four or five
places. In size and beauty of form and coloring, all well shown in the
illustration, Tennant has few superiors in the collection of plums
growing at this Station. While it is not sufficiently high in quality to be
called a first-rate dessert fruit it is more palatable than most of the
purple plums. It ripens at a good time of the year, several days
before the Italian Prune, and should, from the nature of its skin and
the firmness of its flesh, both ship and keep well. A fault of the fruit
as it grows here, a fault not ascribed to it elsewhere, is that it shrivels
soon after ripening. Our trees are large, vigorous, healthy, hardy and
productive—almost ideal plum-trees. This variety should be very
generally tried in commercial plantations in New York and may well
be planted in home collections for a culinary fruit at least. On the
Pacific Coast it is cured for prunes, its meaty flesh fitting it very well
for this purpose.
This is another promising plum from the Pacific Northwest.
Tennant originated with Rev. John Tennant of Ferndale, Washington,
and was introduced in 1893 by McGill and McDonald, Salem,
Oregon. The variety is fairly well known in the region of its origin but
is practically unknown in New York. It was listed in the American
Pomological Society catalog in 1897 as successful in the Pacific
Northwest.

Tree large, vigorous, round-topped, open, hardy, productive; trunk

slightly roughened; branches stocky, smooth, with lenticels of medium
number and size; branchlets thick, long, with long internodes, greenish-red
changing to brownish-drab, with green patches and considerable scarf-
skin, somewhat glossy, sparingly pubescent throughout the season, with
small lenticels; leaf-buds large, long, pointed, appressed; leaf-scars
prominent.
 Leaves folded backward, oval or obovate, one and three-quarters
inches wide, three and one-half inches long, thick, stiff; upper surface dark
green, rugose, sparingly hairy, with a grooved midrib; lower surface
silvery-green, with thick pubescence; apex abruptly pointed to acute, base
acute, margin crenate, eglandular or with small, brown glands; petiole five-
eighths inch long, thick, tinged red along one side, hairy, glandless or with
one or two rather large, globose, brownish glands variable in position.
Blooming season early to medium, short; flowers appearing after the
leaves, one inch or more across, white, the buds tinged yellow; borne on
lateral spurs; pedicels one-half inch long, thick, pubescent, greenish;
calyx-tube green, often with a swelling around the base, campanulate,
pubescent; calyx-lobes broad, obtuse, pubescent on both surfaces, with
thick, marginal hairs, erect; petals roundish-oval, entire, tapering to short,
broad claws; anthers large, yellow; filaments five-sixteenths inch long;
pistil pubescent at the base, equal to the stamens in length; stigma large.
Fruit intermediate in time and length of ripening season; one and three-
quarters inches by one and five-eighths inches in size, roundish-truncate
or roundish-oblong, with irregular surface which is somewhat ridged,
halves equal; cavity narrow, abrupt, slightly compressed; suture variable in
depth, distinct; apex deeply depressed; color dark reddish-purple,
overspread with thick bloom; dots numerous, variable in size, whitish,
conspicuous, clustered about the apex; stem thick, three-eighths inch
long, pubescent, adhering well to the fruit; skin tough, adhering slightly to
the pulp; flesh dark golden-yellow, somewhat dry, coarse, tough, firm,
sweet, mild but pleasant; of good quality; stone clinging, seven-eighths
inch by five-eighths inch in size, irregular-oval, flattened, obliquely necked,
blunt at the apex, with deeply pitted surfaces, roughish; ventral suture
prominent, heavily furrowed, not winged; dorsal suture usually with a
narrow, shallow groove.

TRAGEDY
 TRAGEDY

Prunus domestica

1. Cal. State Bd. Hort. 236, Pl. II fig. 5, 237. 1890. 2. Ibid. 109 fig. 8.
1891. 3. Wickson Cal. Fruits 358. 1891. 4. N. Mex. Sta. Bul. 27:125. 1898.
5. Am. Pom. Soc. Cat. 40. 1899. 6. Waugh Plum. Cult. 124. 1901.
 Tragedy Prune 1, 3, 4.

Tragedy is another western plum which, like the Tennant, has not
been well tested in the East. It is an older plum than the Tennant and
somewhat better known in New York but still the reports of it are not
sufficient in number or of great enough range to enable a fair opinion
to be given as to its merits. As the variety grows at Geneva the fruits
are very attractive in appearance—above medium size, a dark, rich
purple color, and having the full, rounded form much liked by
consumers in a dessert plum. The flesh is juicy, tender and sweet so
that the quality may be called good; possibly the flesh is a little too
soft for long shipping or long keeping as it grows here, though in one
of the California references it is spoken of as “valuable for eastern
shipment.” The trees are very satisfactory except that in New York
they are not quite as reliable in bearing as could be wished. A fault,
as the variety grows here and which may be local, is that a large
proportion of the pits are cracked and all are soft and granular. The
tree is reported by some as “scale proof” but unfortunately this
statement can neither be denied nor affirmed. A plum with the good
qualities possessed by Tragedy, should be better known in New
York.
The following history is contributed by Professor E. J. Wickson,
Berkeley, California. Tragedy originated as a chance seedling on the
farm of O. R. Runyon, near Courtland, Sacramento County,
California, probably in the late seventies. It was first offered to the
trade in dormant buds by W. R. Strong and Company of Sacramento
in 1887. Since the German Prune and Duane Purple grew on the
place of its origin and as it shows characters of both, it has been
noted as a probable cross of these varieties. The name Tragedy is
understood to have been given to the fruit by Mr. Runyon because
the plum was noted to be desirable on or about a day upon which a
certain event held to be tragical occurred in the neighborhood. In
1899, the American Pomological Society considered Tragedy worthy
a place in its list of fruits.

Tree large, vigorous, round-topped, hardy, variable in productiveness;

branches ash-gray, usually smooth, with raised lenticels of various sizes;
branchlets twiggy, thick, medium to short, with short internodes, greenish-
red changing to dark brownish-drab, covered with thick pubescence, with
obscure, small lenticels; leaf-buds intermediate in size and length, obtuse,
plump, appressed.
Leaves folded backward, oval or obovate, one and three-quarters
inches wide, three and three-quarters inches long; upper surface dark
green, glabrous except for the few hairs on the deeply and narrowly
grooved midrib; lower surface pubescent; apex acute or obtuse, base
acute; petiole five-eighths inch long, thick, pubescent, faintly tinged red,
glandless or with one or two small, globose, greenish-brown glands
usually at the base of the leaf.
Blooming season early, short; flowers appearing with the leaves, seven-
eighths inch across, white; borne on lateral buds, usually in pairs; pedicels
one-half inch long, thick, pubescent, greenish; calyx-tube green, with
roughened surface, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes acute, lightly
pubescent, serrate, with many glands and marginal hairs, reflexed; petals
broadly oval, crenate, short-clawed; anthers bright yellow; filaments nearly
five-sixteenths inch long; pistil pubescent at the base, much longer than
the stamens.
Fruit early, season short; one and five-eighths inches by one and three-
eighths inches in size, oval, swollen on the suture side, compressed,
halves unequal; cavity narrow, abrupt, regular; suture shallow, often an
indistinct line; apex roundish; color dark purplish-black, covered with thick
bloom; dots numerous, variable in size, russet, inconspicuous; stem five-
eighths inch long, pubescent, adhering well to the fruit; skin of medium
thickness and toughness, somewhat sour, separating readily; flesh
greenish-yellow, juicy, tender, sweet, mild; good; stone clinging, one inch
by five-eighths inch in size, irregular-oval, flattened, obliquely necked;
apex acute; surfaces pitted, roughish; ventral suture narrow, prominent,
not winged; dorsal suture narrowly and deeply grooved.

TRANSPARENT
Prunus domestica

1. Downing Fr. Trees Am. 395. 1857. 2. Flor. & Pom. 56, Col. Pl. fig.
1862. 3. Hogg Fruit Man. 383. 1866. 4. Downing Fr. Trees Am. 950. 1869.
5. Jour. Hort. N. S. 17:258. 1869. 6. Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt. 91. 1869. 7. Am.
Pom. Soc. Cat. 24. 1871. 8. Pom. France 7: No. 25. 1871. 9. Mas Pom.
Gen. 2:31, fig. 16. 1873. 10. Cat. Cong. Pom. France 365. 1887. 11.