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POLICE
TECHNOLOGY
21ST-CENTURY CRIME-FIGHTING TOOLS
Published in 2017 by Britannica Educational Publishing (a trademark of
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.) in association with The Rosen Publishing Group,
Inc.
29 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010
Rosen Publishing materials copyright © 2017 The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. All
rights reserved.
First Edition
Rosen Publishing
Kathy Kuhtz Campbell: Senior Editor
Nelson Sá: Art Director
Brian Garvey: Designer
Cindy Reiman: Photography Manager
Bruce Donnola: Photo Researcher
Introduction and conclusion by Daniel E. Harmon
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1:
POLICE TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
MOBILITY
COMMUNICATION
FIRSTNET
COMPUTERIZATION
COMPSTAT
CHAPTER 2:
EQUIPMENT AND TACTICS
PERSONAL EQUIPMENT
BULLETPROOF VEST
ARREST-AND-CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES AND
TECHNIQUES
NONLETHAL TACTICS AND INSTRUMENTS
TEAR GAS
POLICE DOGS
FIREARMS AND EXPLOSIVES
HANDGUNS, SHOTGUNS, AND RIFLES
EXPLOSIVES
SURVEILLANCE SYSTEMS
LIE DETECTORS
CHAPTER 3:
CRIMINAL IDENTIFICATION
PHOTOGRAPHY
ANTHROPOMETRY
FINGERPRINTING
DNA FINGERPRINTING
GETTING A DNA FINGERPRINT
BIOMETRICS
CHAPTER 4:
CRIME-SCENE INVESTIGATION AND FORENSIC
SCIENCES
EVIDENCE COLLECTION
FORENSIC ANALYSIS
HAIRS AND FIBERS
CRIME LABORATORY
TOXICOLOGY
SEROLOGY
EXAMINING DOCUMENTS
FIREARMS AND TOOL MARKS
ORGANIC AND INORGANIC ANALYSIS
SUPPLEMENTAL FORENSIC SCIENCES
FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGISTS AND
FORENSIC INVESTIGATION
CONCLUSION
TIMELINE
GLOSSARY
FOR MORE INFORMATION
FOR FURTHER READING
INDEX
INTRODUCTION
P
olice technology encompasses the wide range of scientific
and technological methods, techniques, and equipment used
in policing. As science has advanced, so too have the
technologies that police rely on to prevent crime and
apprehend criminals. Police technology was recognized as a distinct
academic and scientific discipline in the 1960s, and since then a
growing body of professional literature, educational programs,
workshops, and international conferences has been devoted to the
technological aspects of police work.
Many examples of an incipient police technology date from
ancient and medieval times. For example, the ancient Egyptians
used detailed word descriptions of individuals, a concept known in
modern times as portrait parlé (French: “spoken portrait”), and the
Babylonians pressed fingerprints into clay to identify the author of
cuneiform writings and to protect against forgery. Nevertheless,
early technology was quite crude, such as the medieval methods of
trial by ordeal and trial by combat, in which the innocence of
suspects was established by their survival. A more humane medieval
method, and a step toward modern concepts, was compurgation, in
which the friends and families of a disputant took oaths not on the
facts but on the disputant’s character. Formalized police departments
were established in the late seventeenth century in continental
Europe, and since that time technologies have developed rapidly—
transforming police work into a more scientific endeavor.
A Scarborough, Maine, police officer views an image from a thermal imaging
camera after making a traffic stop. Officers need to stay informed about
technological developments to enhance their law-enforcement work.
MOBILITY
To be effective, police forces must be in close proximity to the
citizens they serve. The first and most basic means of maintaining
that close contact was the foot patrol. Officers were deployed by
time of day (watches) and area (beats). Beats were kept
geographically small to allow officers to respond to incidents in a
timely manner. In larger rural jurisdictions, officers were deployed on
horseback. Both foot and mounted patrols continue to be used
throughout the world. Foot patrol is used in congested urban areas,
in high-density housing complexes, and at special events; mounted
patrol is also used for special events and for crowd control.
Officers of the New York Police Department have various means of
transportation for patrolling the city.
The New York Police Department has an aviation division that includes
helicopters for assisting in personnel transport, firefighting, port security, and
rescue operations, among other tasks.
COMMUNICATION
The vehicles discussed here would be nothing more than efficient
conveyances if police officers were unable to communicate instantly
with each other and the public. In the earliest police forces,
communication was accomplished through oral or written orders in
an administrative chain of command. As society progressed, the
military was used less for domestic peacekeeping. Depending on
whether a country evolved toward more or less centralization,
systems of national or local control were established. In England, the
watch-and-ward system evolved to provide citizens with protection
from crime. During times of duress, the men on watch would raise
the hue and cry to summon assistance from the citizens of the
community or, in the case of a larger community, from others
already on watch. The watch standers were equipped with various
signaling devices, including bells and rattles.
With the passage of the Metropolitan Police Act in 1829, the
police in England were formalized into a full-time paid service, as
they had been in France, Austria, and Prussia. The system was
directed by a central command through face-to-face contact
between supervisors and subordinates. As urban areas expanded
and the police were deployed to more beats over larger geographic
areas, this system of human communication became increasingly
inefficient. Face-to-face contact gave way to the use of telegraphs in
the mid-nineteenth century, and in the late 1870s, police
departments began installing telephone systems. In urban
jurisdictions, call boxes, or street telephones, were placed on beats
to enable patrol officers and citizens to alert the central command of
disturbances. In 1937, the first emergency telephone system was
established in London, where callers could dial 999 to speak to an
operator.
Early systems of police dispatch involved a single operator who
took calls from the public and dispatched officers via radio. In 1917,
the police department of New York City began equipping patrol
vehicles with a one-way radio receiver that enabled the central
command to send emergency messages to officers. However, that
and other early radio-communications systems were fraught with
technical problems. In 1928, following several years of
experimentation, the police department of Detroit, Michigan,
improved the technology to allow regular contact between
headquarters and patrol units; the system developed in Detroit was
subsequently the basis of police communications systems used
throughout the United States. Two-way radio receivers were first
deployed in 1933 in Bayonne, New Jersey, and their use proliferated
in the 1940s. Radios in patrol cars were eventually supplemented by
portable radio transceivers carried by individual officers to allow
uninterrupted radio contact between officers and the dispatch center.
Dispatch was improved in the United States in the late 1960s with
the establishment of the 911 emergency telephone system. Similar
systems have since been adopted in other countries throughout the
world.
An illustration depicts a Chicago police officer using a police telephone box in
1886. These call boxes enabled officers on patrol to contact command centers
immediately when assistance was needed.
FIRSTNET
Police already use body and dashboard cameras to record
visual evidence during pursuits, investigations, and arrests. But
law enforcers and other first responders—firefighters and
emergency medical professionals—believe they could work
more effectively if they were able to share live images and
video, combined with voice communications, while situations
are developing. Data could be streamed to and from command
centers and responders on the scene and en route.
A government initiative that might make that possible is
FirstNet, the First Responder Network Authority. A
congressional act authorized the creation of FirstNet in 2012. It
is an independent authority within the National
Telecommunications and Information Administration, which is
part of the US Department of Commerce. Implementation of
FirstNet will be some years in the future; as of 2016, the
network is still in the planning stage.
FirstNet will be an LTE (long-term evolution) network. LTE
is a fairly recent type of wireless communications network. It
can transmit large volumes of data over great distances at high
speed.
On the FirstNet website (http://www.firstnet.gov), FirstNet
administrators point out, “Situational awareness during an
incident will help protect people, property and first responders.
When public safety personnel have a common picture of an
incident that’s unfolding, they are far better equipped to
respond.”
FirstNet will stream real-time photos and video of
emergency scenes. It will also report the locations of
responders at the site and in the area. Eventually, developers
hope to incorporate even more advanced technologies, such as
an audio function that can pinpoint sources of gunfire.
FirstNet officials explain that the system will give local
command centers greater ability to manage emergency
situations. At the same time, it will integrate with regional and
national operations centers as needed. In short, FirstNet is
foreseen as “a single platform for public safety
communications.”
COMPUTERIZATION
The police were early adopters of computer database technology. In
the United States, the National Crime Information Center (NCIC) was
established in 1967; police records were subsequently computerized
and made available to police agencies throughout the country. The
NCIC’s database enables local police departments to apprehend
offenders who might otherwise evade capture. The database
contains fingerprints, a registry of sexual offenders, and mug shots,
and it can be queried for detailed information on stolen vehicles and
warrants for firearms violations; it can even search for phonetically
similar names. Similar databases maintained by US states provide
police with access to misdemeanor warrants, driver-citation records,
and vehicle-ownership information.
The European Union (EU) established a computerized information
system—the Schengen Information System (SIS)—which allows the
authorities of certain member states, plus some other European
countries, to send or receive data about criminals, missing persons,
stolen property, and other matters of interest to law enforcement
officers. Each member of the EU, however, must devise its own
computerized system to connect to the SIS. The European Police
Office (Europol) also maintains a computerized database. In
addition, Interpol manages databases of fingerprints, DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) profiles, and information on stolen property
and other matters, which member countries can retrieve through a
global police- communications system known as I-24/7.
While stopped in his patrol car, a Texas police officer speaks on his phone and
types information into his mobile digital terminal (MDT). The MDT enables
quick retrieval of vehicle records, arrest warrants, and other computerized
information.
COMPSTAT
In the late twentieth century, police agencies and departments
throughout the United States and in some areas of Britain
began adopting computerized systems, known as CompStat
(computerized statistics), that could be used to plot specific
incidents of crime by time, day, and location. By revealing
previously unnoticed patterns in criminal activity, CompStat
enabled police departments to allocate their resources more
effectively, and it was credited with significant decreases in
crime rates in several of the cities in which it was used.
CompStat became so widely used (in the United States) that
many police administrators began to regard it as the basis of a
new model of policing for the twenty-first century.
Mayor Bill de Blasio of New York City watches a display of the CompStat system
in the Joint Operations Center, a high-tech crime-fighting center. In 2016, New
York unveiled a new version of CompStat that enabled the police department to
share crime information with the public.
CHAPTER TWO
PERSONAL EQUIPMENT
Police officers, whether plain-clothed or uniformed, carry a variety of
equipment with them on service calls. Police in uniform carry much
more equipment than those in plain clothes, and members of special
operations teams, such as SWAT and crowd-control units, carry even
more, sometimes including full body armor complete with helmet,
leg pads, and shield.
The amount of equipment carried by uniformed officers has
grown considerably since the 1950s, when it basically consisted of a
handgun in a holster, handcuffs, and a nightstick. The holster was
attached to a Sam Browne belt—a wide belt, usually made of leather,
supported by a strap extending diagonally over the right shoulder.
The belt was ill-adapted to changes in other police equipment,
however, and its use declined in the late twentieth century. Today,
the belts worn by uniformed police officers in urban North America
typically have a number of holsters or cases for carrying an
automatic pistol, spare clips of ammunition, metal and plastic
handcuffs, a portable radio, pepper spray, a collapsible baton, and a
video microphone transmitter (if the officer’s car contains a camera).
A clipboard with spare report forms is also standard equipment. In
addition, many police officers carry first-aid kits and other medical
equipment, such as a defibrillator, in their patrol cars; they also may
carry a portable breath analyzer (also called a Breathalyzer) for
testing drivers who may be intoxicated. To this basic equipment
many police officers add cell phones or pagers, flashlights,
binoculars, tape recorders, portable scanners, plastic gloves, and
extra weapons (for example, a spare gun, a confiscated knife, a
blackjack, or brass knuckles). The practice of bearing extra weapons,
being of questionable legality, is mostly done secretly, making it
difficult to assess how extensive it is. However, it has been
acknowledged by most police researchers. Finally, an essential piece
of equipment is the bulletproof vest, which covers the torso of the
officer and is worn either over or under the uniform shirt. Many such
vests are made with the fiber Kevlar, which is capable of stopping
most handgun projectiles and many types of knives. More robust
vests, made of ceramic and fiber combinations that can withstand
rifle fire, are used in bomb-disposal operations.
Police in riot gear protect a street in Montreal, Canada. Officers assigned to riot
control typically wear helmets and full body armor.
BULLETPROOF VEST
A bulletproof vest is a protective covering worn to protect the
torso against bullets.
Metal body armor fell into disuse in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, partly because armor that was effective
against bullets was too heavy to be practical. Modern body
armor reappeared on a small scale in World War I as a means
of protecting the torso from shell fragments, but the armor, as
designed, was too heavy to justify the protection that it
afforded. World War II stimulated the development of lighter
body armor that consisted of overlapping plates of steel,
aluminum, or bonded fiberglass attached within a nylon
garment that covered both the front and the back of the
wearer. These “flak jackets” were flexible enough to permit
relatively free movement by the wearer while affording him
adequate protection against shell fragments. They could not
stop an armor-piercing bullet, however.
In the 1960s, new types of vests were developed whose
plates were made of composite layers of steel or a very hard
ceramic, boron carbide. However, the discovery that numerous
layers of nylon fabric could dissipate the energy of a bullet
revolutionized the use of modern body armor.
The function of steel or hard plastic armor is to be
impervious to a bullet. By contrast, the textile vest deforms the
bullet and then dissipates its energy, entangling it in the vest’s
many layers. A textile bulletproof vest is fashioned of sixteen to
twenty-four layers of nylon cloth of a heavy weave, the layers
stitched together like a quilt. Any ordinary pistol or
submachine-gun bullet striking such a garment is immediately
flattened as it hits the outermost layers, and the now
mushroom-shaped slug dissipates its energy as it presses
against the remaining thicknesses of the vest, unable to
penetrate its overlapping layers of coarse mesh. The wearer of
such a vest is usually bruised by the impact of a bullet, but
without serious consequence. Vests of sixteen layers will stop
regular handgun and submachine-gun bullets; those of twenty-
four layers will stop the more powerful magnum bullets from
the same weapons.
Apart from the obvious military applications of the fabric
bulletproof vest, the rise of terrorism in the second half of the
twentieth century led to the increased use of body armor by
police and antiterrorist troops.
ARREST-AND-CONTROL
TECHNOLOGIES AND TECHNIQUES
Firearms and clubs are only part of the equipment used in law
enforcement today. Numerous other tools and methods enable
officers to resolve incidents safely and effectively, usually without
resorting to armed force.
TEAR GAS
Tear gas is a substance that irritates the mucous membranes
of the eyes, causing a stinging sensation and tears. Tear gas
may also irritate the upper respiratory tract, causing coughing
and choking. It was first used in World War I in chemical
warfare, but since its effects are short-lasting and rarely
disabling, it came into use by law-enforcement agencies as a
means of dispersing mobs, disabling rioters, and flushing out
armed suspects without the use of deadly force.
The substances most often used as tear gases are synthetic
organic halogen compounds. They are not true gases under
ordinary conditions but are liquids or solids that can be finely
dispersed in the air through the use of sprays, fog generators,
or grenades and shells. The two most commonly used tear
gases are 1-chloroacetophenone, or CN, and 2-
chlorobenzylidene malononitrile, or CS. CN is the principal
component of the aerosol agent Mace and is widely used in riot
control. It affects chiefly the eyes. CS is a stronger irritant that
causes burning sensations in the respiratory tract and
involuntary closing of the eyes, but its effects wear off more
quickly, after only five to ten minutes of breathing fresh air.
Other compounds used or suggested as tear gases include
bromoacetone, benzyl bromide, ethyl bromoacetate, xylyl
bromide, and bromobenzyl cyanide. The effects of tear gases
are temporary and reversible in most cases. Gas masks with
activated charcoal filters afford good protection against them.
POLICE DOGS
Dogs were first trained for police work at the turn of the twentieth
century in Ghent, Belgium, and the practice was soon adopted
elsewhere. Although certain breeds with especially keen senses have
been used for special purposes—such as detecting caches of illegal
drugs and explosives and tracking fugitives and missing persons—
the most widely trained dog for regular patrol work is the German
shepherd or Alsatian. Other breeds that are sometimes used include
boxers, Doberman pinschers, Airedale terriers, Rottweilers,
schnauzers, and bloodhounds. For detection tasks, the size of the
animal is less important than its sense of smell. Selected animals
must meet specific criteria regarding physical characteristics and
temperament, and their training is comprehensive and rigorous.