Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S.

Mining Industry

3
Potash,
Soda Ash,
and Borates

Potash, soda ash and borates are industrial minerals. They are used primary as feedstock
for other industries. They are used to make fertilizers, glass, chemicals and other
materials used throughout manufacturing industries. For example, the agricultural
industry relies heavily on potash and borates as fertilizers. It is the dependence of these
manufacturing industries that make industrial minerals so important.

Forms of Potash

Potash is used primarily as an agricultural fertilizer because it is a source for soluble

potassium. Potash denotes a variety of mined and manufactured salts, all containing the
element potassium in water-soluble form. Potash can be potassium chloride [KCL, or
muriate of potash (MOP)], potassium sulfate [K2SO4, or sulfate of potash (SOP), a
manufactured product], potassium/magnesium sulfate [K2SO4.MgSO4, or sulfate of
potash magnesia (SOPM)], potassium nitrate (KNO3 or saltpeter, a manufactured
product), or mixed sodium/potassium nitrate (NaNO3+KNO3, or Chilean saltpeter). The
term potash was originally applied to potassium carbonate/potassium hydroxide crystals
that were recovered in iron “pots” from leaching wood “ashes” with water.1

Forms of Soda Ash

Soda ash is the trade name for sodium carbonate (NA2CO3), a chemical refined from the
mineral trona or from sodium carbonate-bearing brines (both referred to as natural soda
ash) and manufactured from one of several chemical processes (referred to as synthetic
soda ash). It is an essential raw material in glass, chemicals, detergents, and other
important industrial products.2

1
Department of Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Industry Survey, Potash, p.1, 1997
2
Department of Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Industry Survey, Soda Ash, p.1, 1997

Potash, Soda Ash, and Borates 3-1

Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Mining Industry

Forms of Borates

Borates are defined by industry as compounds that contain or supply boric oxide
[B(OH)3]. A large number of materials contain boric oxide, but the three most common
borate-containing minerals are tincal, ulexite, and colemanite. Kernite is the metamorphic
phase of borax and is an important borax mineral.3 The major products of borates include
fiberglass insulation, textile or continuous-filament glass fibers, glass detergents and
bleaches, enamels and frits, fertilizers, and fire retardants.

3.1 Process Overview

3.1.1 Mining Methods

Potash Mining

Conventional, solution, and cut-and-fill stope mining are methods used in extracting ore
for potash.

Conventional Mining - Conventional mining includes a number of steps. First,

the miners travel to the extraction site. They are lowered into the ground and,
then, transported to the mining face. They, then, undercut, drill, charge, and blast
the ore. A continuous mining machine mines the mine seam. These machines can
mine up to 882 tonnes per hour, making paths of up to 7.9 meters wide and 2.4
meter high. These machines also have the potential to be automated. Conveyor
belts, next, carry the ore to underground bins where it is stored until it is hoisted
up by skips at speeds of 550-1,100 meters per minute.4

Solution Mining - When conventional underground mines become flooded and

unworkable, potash can be extracted using solution mining. Water is injected as a
brine or salt and water solution. It is then circulated throughout the mine workings
to dissolve potash and salt from the original pillars and walls. The brine is
pumped to an evaporation pond. Submersible pumps are used, each pumping
about 9,000 liters per minute.5 As the liquid cools, the potash and salt crystals
settle to the bottom of the pond. The cool brine is then heated and reinjected into
the mine to start dissolving potash again. The remaining potash in the ponds is
removed with floating dredges and pumped to the mill.

Cut-and-Fill Stope Mining - Cut-and-fill stope mining is an underground

process that uses continuous mining machines to excavate the ore in a step-like
manor. It uses the fresh tailings to create a new floor for further mining. This
method involves transporting personnel and ore the same way as conventional
mining.

3
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Identification and Description of Mineral Processing Sectors and
Waste Streams, p. 153-163, April 1998
4
Potash Corporation of Saskatchewan, Inc. www.porashcop.com
5
Ibid.

Potash, Soda Ash, and Borates 3-2

Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Mining Industry

Soda Ash Mining

A variety of mining methods are used in soda mining. They are:

Room-and-pillar Mining - The room-and-pillar system involves extracting the

ore by carving a series of rooms 20- to 30-feet wide while leaving pillars of ore
20- to 90- feet wide and as high as the ore bed to support the mine roof. When
mining reaches the end of a section of ore, called a panel, the direction of mining
is generally reversed (called the “retreat”) in an attempt to recover as much of the
ore from the pillars as possible. Pillars are mined until the roof caves; that section
of the mine is then abandoned. Generally, 50 to 60 percent of the minable ore is
recovered using this system, although higher amounts are possible.

Conventional Mining - Conventional mining is a method of breaking down and

removing ore in a room-and-pillar system. Conventional mining involves
undercutting, drilling, shooting or blasting and loading. Undercutting is
accomplished by huge chain saws protruding from the bottom of self-propelled
vehicles. These saws cut a slot or kerf about 6 inches high and 10 feet deep, into
the ore and 20 feet across the face. These machines move to the next face while
the drilling machine takes its place. The ore drill is a self-propelled vehicle with a
long auger attached to a movable boom. It drills holes above and as deep as the
cut. One hole is required for a face area 3- to 4-feet high and 4- to 5-feet wide.
The presence of rock in the ore may mandate more holes. Blasting is done with
chemical explosives or compressed gas. A machine slides the ore onto a conveyor
belt and dumps it into a shuttle car. The shuttle cars take the ore either to a change
point, where it is transferred to a conveyor belt, mine car or directly out of the
mine. Roof bolting is also an important part of the operation, as it helps maintain
the structural integrity of the roof. A bolting machine drills holes in the roof and
inserts anchor bolts, which firmly attach the roof to stronger overlying layers of
rock through expansion shells or resin. Bolts are generally required on a 4-by-4-
foot array. All these operations produce a large amount of dust. Exposed areas are
rock dusted to prevent ore dust explosions. This method of mining has all but
vanished, although the method is still used in certain situations where geology is
favorable.

Continuous Mining - Continuous mining is also a basic variation on the room-

and-pillar system. The “continuous miner” is a machine used to break down and
remove ore in a room-and-pillar system. This machine combines cutting, drilling,
and loading ore into one operation and requires no blasting. A large steel drum
equipped with tungsten carbide steel “teeth” tears the ore from a deposit. The
continuous miner also has moving arms that load ore onto a short conveyor,
which leads to a nearby shuttle car. A miner drives the shuttle car to a longer
conveyor, which carries the ore to the surface. Every few minutes the continuous
miner is moved to a new area and miners using a roof-bolting machine secure the
roof.

Potash, Soda Ash, and Borates 3-3

Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Mining Industry

Solution Mining - When conventional underground mines become flooded and

unworkable, soda ash can be extracted using solution mining. Water is injected as
a brine or salt and water solution. It is then circulated throughout the mine
workings to dissolve soda ash and salt from the original pillars and walls. The
brine is pumped to an evaporation pond. Submersible pumps are used, each
pumping about 9,000 liters per minute.6 As the liquid cools, the soda ash and salt
crystals settle to the bottom of the pond. The cool brine is then heated and
reinjected into the mine to start dissolving soda ash again. The remaining soda ash
in the ponds is removed with floating dredges and pumped to the mill.

Borate Mineral Mining

Borates come from several types of mines. Open pit, brine, and various in-situ mining
techniques all contribute to borate production.

Surface Mining - Surface mining requires extensive blasting, as well as rock,

soil, and vegetation removal, to reach load deposits. Benches are cut into the walls
of the mine to provide access to progressively deeper ore, as upper-level ore is
depleted. Ore is removed from the mine and transported to milling and
beneficiating plants for concentrating the ore, smelting, and/or refining.

When the ore lies close to the surface, it often can be uncovered by stripping away
a layer of dirt, sometimes only a few feet thick. The ore is mined from large open
pits by progressive extraction along steps or benches. The benches provide access
to progressively deeper ore, as upper-level ore is depleted. After the soil and
overlying rock are cleared, the ore is drilled and blasted. The portion of the ore
body to be removed is first drilled in a specific pattern, and the holes loaded with
explosive mixtures and fragmented. Following blasting, the fractured ore is
loaded by huge mechanical shovels, hydraulic excavators, or front-end loaders
onto large dump trucks or railroad hopper cars. The wide holes in the ground
made by the power shovels are referred to as “open pits.”

Solution Mining - Borate minerals can also be extracted using solution mining.
Water is injected as a brine or salt and water solution. It is then circulated
throughout the mine workings to dissolve borate and salt from the original pillars
and walls. The brine is pumped to an evaporation pond. Submersible pumps are
used, each pumping about 9,000 liters per minute. As the liquid cools, the borate
and salt crystals settle to the bottom of the pond. The cool brine is then heated and
reinjected into the mine to start dissolving potash again. The remaining borate in
the ponds is removed with floating dredges and pumped to the mill.

6
Potash Corporation of Saskatchewan, Inc. www.porashcop.com

Potash, Soda Ash, and Borates 3-4

Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Mining Industry

3.1.2 Beneficiation Methods

Potash (rock)

The ore is dry-crushed by rod and ball mills to free the KCL (potassium chloride, or
potash) and put into a brine similar to salt water. It is then ground into distinct particles of
potash and salt, pumped into tanks, and agitated to wash the clay off the ore. After
conditioning with reagents to separate the particles, it enters the flotation process in
which the KCL is floated off the top of the cells. The salts then sink to the bottom and are
drawn off. Potash particles are dried in natural gas fired kilns, then classified according to
size by passing the particles through a screen with a specific mesh size. Fine particles of
potash are compacted to a larger size for blending with other fertilizer materials. Potash
dust is dissolved, pumped into a cystallizer and cooled. The potash crystals grow and
separate out. Some are redissolved and recrystallized to produce a refined product with
very few impurities.

Soda Ash

The monohydrate method is the primary process used to make soda ash. In the
monohydrate process, trona is crushed and calcined in rotary gas-fired calciners operating
at 150-300°C. Calcining removes water and carbon dioxide from the ore, leaving an
impure product containing 85 percent soda ash and 15 percent insolubles. The calcinate is
dissolved with hot water and sent to evaporative, multiple-effective crystallizers or
mechanical vapor recompression crystallizers where sodium carbonate monohydrate
crystals precipitate at 40-100° C. This is below the transition temperature of monohydrate
to anhydrous soda ash. The insoluble portion of the ore containing the shale and shortite
are collected by clarifiers, filtered, and washed to recover any additional alkali before
they are piped as a slurry to a tailing pond or injected underground. Some companies pass
the liquor through activated carbon beds prior to crystallization to remove trace organics
solubilized from the oil shale so organics do not interfere with the crystal growth rate.
The crystals are sent from the crystallizers to hydroclones and dewatering in centrifuges.
The centrifuge cake is conveyed to steam tube dryers where the crystals are dehydrated
into anhydrous soda ash at 150°C, screened, and sent to storage or shipment. The final
product made by the monohydrate process is dense soda ash.7

Borates

Sodium borate production comes from the principle ore tincal, which is soluble in water.
The ore is crushed and the tincal is dissolved in water. The resulting insolubles are then
separated from the solution and the clarified liquor is fed to the crystallizers. Next, the
crystals of sodium borate are separated from the weak solution, which then can be
recycled back to the dissolution step. The crystals are dried and can either be sold as
borax or treated further to produce other borates. One of the products prepared when the
crystals are cooled is sodium borate decahydrate. If sodium borate pentahydrate is the

7
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Identification and Description of Mineral Processing Sectors and
Waste Streams, p. 599-609. April 1998

Potash, Soda Ash, and Borates 3-5

Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Mining Industry

desired product, the sodium borate decahydrate can be sent to further recrystallize.
Anhydrous sodium borate can be produced by thermally dehydrating either the sodium
borate decahydrate or sodium borate pentahydrate.8

Boric acid is produced from ore that is dissolved with sulfuric acid and used as feed in
the production of boric acid. Clays, sands, and other impurities are also present in the ore.
After the ore is crushed and ground, it is dissolved into an aqueous stream. Since kernite,
the primary borate mineral present, is not soluble in water, sufficient sulfuric acid must
be added to the dissolving unit. Next, the clay and other insolubles must be removed from
the aqueous stream. Rake classifiers separate out the larger material, while settling tanks
and thickeners are used to remove the finer materials. The stream is then filtered further
to remove any remaining insoluble materials. After filtration, the solution is pumped to
crystallizers. In the crystallizers, the solution is cooled, forming a slurry containing solid
boric acid crystals and a boric acid solution. Further filtration and centrifugation separate
the solid boric acid, which can be dried and packaged for sale.

Borate Brine Solution Mining

Carbonization is used to supersaturate the brine solution with sodium bicarbonate. The
carbonated liquor is used in combination with the brine solution. After the sodium
bicarbonate has precipitated out, the brine and carbonated liquor mixture is cooled to
crystallize sodium borate decahydrate. The crude sodium decahydrate is filtered from the
liquor, thus producing anhydrous sodium borate, which can either be packaged and sold,
sent to further beneficiation, or acid digested using sulfuric acid to produce boric acid.
The sodium borate decahydrated can be redissolved and hydrated and then cooled to form
either sodium borate decahydrated or sodium borate pentahydrate. If the anhydrous
sodium borate is reacted with sulfuric acid instead, the resulting product is boric acid.9

3.2 Summary of Inputs/Outputs

The following lists the inputs and outputs for potash, soda ash and borates mining and
beneficiation. Figures 3-1, 3-2, and 3-3 illustrate the potash, soda ash, and borate
processes with their major inputs and outputs.

8
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Identification and Description of Mineral Processing Sectors and
Waste Streams, p. 153-163, April 1998
9
Ibid.

Potash, Soda Ash, and Borates 3-6

Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Mining Industry

Inputs Outputs
Potash Potash
Electricity Potash
Diesel Fuel Waste Rock
Natural Gas
Soda Ash
Soda Ash Soda Ash
Electricity Off-gases
Diesel Fuel Insoluables
Carbon Spent Carbon
Make-up Water Salt Purge
Particulates
Borates Emissions
Electricity Filter Aid
Diesel Fuel Carbon Absorbents
Carbon Dioxide Tailings
Natural Gas
Sulfuric Acid Borates
Borates
Boric Acid (H2BO3)
Boric Acid (B2O3)
Sodium Borate Decahydrate
Sodium Borate Pentahydrate
Particulates
Gangue (clay)
Spent Brine

Potash, Soda Ash, and Borates 3-7

Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Mining Industry

Figure 3-1. Potash Beneficiation Flow Diagram

Underground Mining

Crushing and
Grinding

Scrubbing and
Desliming

Conditioning

Heavy Media
Flotation

Debrining

Drying

Secondary
Conversions

Screening

Potash

Potash, Soda Ash, and Borates 3-8

 Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Mining Industry

Figure 3-2. Soda Ash Monohydrate Process Flow Diagram

Mining Crushing Calcining

Particulates Particulates Tailings Offgases

Carbon

Liquid/Solid
Organic Removal Dissolution
Separation/Washing

Spent Carbon Insolubles to

disposal Make-up Water
to disposal

Evaporation/
Centrifical Separation
Crystallization

Salt Purge
to Disposal

Cooling Product Calcining

Offgases

Soda Ash

Potash, Soda Ash, and Borates 3-9

Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Mining Industry

Figure 3-3. Borate Production Flow Diagram

Mining

Brine
Co2 Carbonation

Sodium
Solid/Liquid Bicarbonate
Separation
H2SO4

Crystallization Cystallizer Borax Reaction

Sodium Sulfate Dehydration Particulates Boric Acid

Gangue
Redissolution and
Cystallizaion
Spent Sodium Sulfate

Sodium Borate Sodium Borate

Pentahydrate Decahydrate

Potash, Soda Ash, and Borates 3-10

Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Mining Industry

Figure 3-4. Boric Acid Production Flow Diagram

Mining

Crushing and Grinding

Acid
Digestion

Clarification

Solid Waste
(clay)

Filtration

Crystallization

Liquor Solids

Filtration
Evaporation Dry
and Centrifugation

Package
Package

Solid Boric Acid

Sodium Sulfate

Potash, Soda Ash, and Borates 3-11

Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Mining Industry

3.3 Energy Requirements

3.3.1 Materials Handled

Materials handled refer to the amount of ore and waste materials that must be handled in
mining. Figure 3-4 shows the amount of mined material in relation to the amount of
waste materials produced. The tonnage of materials that must be handled drives energy
consumption in mining operations. For example, in 2000 the amount of materials
produced was 15.3 million tons. With recovery ratios of potash at 21.5 percent and
borates at 50 percent, the amount of waste produced was 11.6 million tons. This gives a
total of 26.9 million tons of materials handled.

Figure 3-5. Materials Handled for Potash, Soda Ash, and

Borates

Waste
45% Production
55%

Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Minerals Handbook,
Statistical Summary 1998, 1996, 2000
Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Minerals Handbook, Mining
and Qurrying Trends, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000

3.3.2 Energy Requirements

In the 1992, the total amount of energy consumed in potash, soda ash, and borate mining
was 68.8 trillion Btu.10 While these estimates represent total energy consumption in
potash, soda ash, and borate mining, few studies have been conducted on the energy
consumption associated with specific mining processes since the 1970s.

Earlier studies to estimate energy consumption in potash production found various

results. The Bureau of Mines reported that for 2.17 million tons of potassium oxide
produced, an estimated 6 million Btu per short ton of potassium oxide (K20) was needed.
The Fertilizer Institute surveyed the energy consumption of four North American muriate
of potash producers in 1979. This survey found that the average energy consumption was
2.2 million Btu per short ton of product, equivalent to about 4.2 million Btu per short ton

10
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census, Census of Mineral Industries, Subject Series, Fuels
and Electricity Consumed, 1992

Potash, Soda Ash, and Borates 3-12

Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Mining Industry

of K2O, a reduction of 30 percent since 1973. This was comprised of about 1 million Btu
of natural gas, 1 million Btu of electricity, and 1,000 Btu per short ton of K2O.11

Estimated energy consumption in soda ash indicated that 15.8 million Btu were required
to produce 1 ton of synthetic soda ash, whereas the energy requirement to produce the
same quantity from trona was 7.2 million Btu. The domestic soda ash industry has
reduced its energy requirements significantly since 1973 by replacing gas-fired dryers
with steam-tube units, triple-effect evaporators with mechanical vapor recompression
units and converting to coal exclusively as a fuel source or coal combined with other fuel
sources. As a result of these energy-saving measures, energy requirements have been
reduced from 4.5 to 12 million Btu per ton of synthetic soda ash produced. An estimated
one-half of the energy consumed in natural soda ash refining goes to triple-effect
evaporators, one-third is for calcining and the remainder is for drying.12

About 4.5 million Btu are required to produce 1 ton of natural sodium sulfate.13
Technical improvements, such as the installation of mechanical vapor recompression
crystallizers, have reduced the overall energy requirement to slightly less than 3 million
Btu per ton of sulfate produced.

Major energy sources include coal and purchased electric energy. Table 3-1 shows the
type and quantity of fuels consumed during potash, soda ash and borate mining as
reported by the U.S. Census of Mineral Industries.

11
U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Mineral Facts and Problems, p. 617-633, 1985
12
U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Mineral Facts and Problems, p. 617-633, 1985
13
U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Mineral Facts and Problems, p. 617-633, 1985

Potash, Soda Ash, and Borates 3-13

Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Mining Industry

Table 3-1. Potash, Soda Ash and Borates Production and Energy
Consumed by Type a

Units 1987 1992 1997

Potash, Soda
Ash, and
Borates
Production Million tons - 13.4 15.8
Energy
Consumption

Coal Million tons 1.7 1.3 1.7

Fuel oil b Thousand bbl. 443.8 190.3 Withheld

Billion Cubic
Gas Feet 30.5 27.8 25.2

Gasoline Thousand bbl. Withheld 33.3 7.1

Electricity
Purchased Million kWh 1,100 1,600 1,300
Electricity
Generated Less
Sold Million kWh 789.2 Withheld Withheld
a Potash, Soda Ash and Borate Mineral is SIC Code 1474 (1997 NAICS Code 212392)
b Summation of distillate and residual fuel oil
Sources: U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, Bureau of the Census, Census of
Mineral Industries, Industry Series, Potash, Soda Ash and Borate Minerals.

Due to a lack of current information on the energy requirements of mining and

beneficiation, the SHERPA Mine Cost Estimating Model along with the Mine and Mill
Equipment Cost, An Estimators Guide from Western Mine Engineering, Inc. were used to
estimate the energy requirements of mining and beneficiation potash in an underground
cut and fill mine.

The model was used to estimate the energy requirements of a hypothetical underground
cut-and-fill potash mine. The results are shown in Table 3-2. This hypothetical mine
operates over a 20-year lifetime with a 56,172,480-ton output at the end of its life. The
mine runs 365 days a year with two 8.00 hour shifts per day, which gives it a daily
production rate of 7,695 tons per day. The deposit characteristics are a bedded deposit
with an average dip of 25 degrees. It has an average maximum horizontal of 26 feet and a
minimum of 26 feet. The average maximum vertical is 8 feet with a vertical distance to
the surface of 2,296 feet.

The single hoist, which is run on electricity, is the most energy-intensive piece of
equipment used in the mine. Alone, it accounts for 16 percent of the total energy
consumed per ton. This is followed by the continuous miners, also run on electricity. The

Potash, Soda Ash, and Borates 3-14

Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Mining Industry

Table 3-2. Energy Requirements for a 7,695 ton/day Underground

Potash Mine
Energy Consumption
Equipment Daily Single
(number of hours/ Unit All Units All Units All Units
units) unit (Btu/ton) (Btu/hour) (Btu/day) (Btu/ton)
Service Trucks b
(23) 16.00 706 7,810,000 125,000,000 16,200
Continuous
Miner a
(2) 16.00 4,140 3,980,000 63,700,000 8,280
Drain Pumps c
(8) 16.00 918 3,530,000 56,500,000 7,350
Hoist a
(1) 16.00 7,240 3,480,000 55,700,000 7,240
Compressor a
(3) 0.72 955 30,600,000 22,000,000 2,860
Conveyor a
(2) 16.00 910 875,000 14,000,000 1,820
a
Main Fan
(1) 16.00 459 221,000 3,530,000 459
Backfill Pumps a
(2) 16.00 91 87,800 1,400,000 182
Water Pumps a
(2) 16.00 23 22,300 357,000 46
Total 50,600,000 342,000,000 44,500
a Calculated at $0.049 per kWH: average for Rocky Mountain Region, 1999
b Calculated at $0.535 per gallon: average prices for sales to end-users in U.S. Petroleum Administration
for Defense District No. IV, 1999
Note: Mine operates during a 20-year lifetime with a 56,172,480-ton output at the end of its
life. Mine runs 364 days a year with one shift per day of 8.00 hours, which gives it a daily
production rate of 7,695 tons per day. Assumes deposit characteristics are a bedded
deposit with an average dip of 25 degrees. Assumes average maximum horizontal of 26
feet and a minimum of 26 feet. Assumes maximum vertical is 8 feet with a vertical
distance to the surface of 2,296 feet.
Source: BCS, Incorporated estimates (June, 2000) using the Western Mining Engineering, Inc. SHERPA
Mine Cost Software and Mine and Mill Cost, An Estimators Guide
Conversations with Industry Experts

new continuous miners combined are similarly energy-intensive and account for 19
percent of the total energy consumed per ton. Also, a number of pumps are needed in the
mine. Pumps needed include drain, water and backfill pumps. These pumps operating on
electric energy, account for 17 percent of the total energy required in the mine. As with
the mining industry in general, transportation energy account for a major portion of total
energy consumption in the industry. The service trucks require 16,200 Btu/ton or 36
percent.

Estimated energy consumption in potash beneficiation is shown in Table 3-3. The rod
mill operating on electric energy requires the most energy in beneficiation and is the most
energy-intensive piece of equipment. This is partially due to the inefficiency of the rods
striking the ore. Every time a rod strikes the casing of the mill instead of ore, energy is

Potash, Soda Ash, and Borates 3-15

Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Mining Industry

Table 3-3. Energy Requirements for Potash Beneficiation

Energy Consumption
Equipment Daily Single
(number of hours/ Unit All Units All Units All Units
units) unit (Btu/ton) (Btu/hour) (Btu/day) (Btu/ton)
Rod Mill a
(1) 16.00 41,300 19,900,000 318,000,000 41,300
Crusher a
(1) 16.00 224 108,000 1,730,000 224
Flotation a
(20) 16.00 138 1,320,000 21,200,000 2,750
Dryer a
(1) 16.00 91 43,900 702,000 91
Screens a
(1) 16.00 46 22,300 357,000 46
Compactor a
(1) 16.00 23 11,100 178,000 23
Total 21,400,000 342,000,000 44,400
a Calculated at $0.049 per kWH: average for Rocky Mountain Region, 1999
b Calculated at $0.535 per gallon: average prices for sales to end-users in U.S. Petroleum Administration for
Defense District No. IV, 1999
Note: Mine operates during a 20-year lifetime with a 56,172,480-ton output at the end of its life.
Mine runs 364 days a year with two 8.00 shifts per day, which gives it a daily production rate
of 7,695 tons per day. Assumes deposit characteristics are a bedded deposit with an average
dip of 25 degrees. Assumes average maximum horizontal of 26 feet and a minimum of 26 feet.
Assumes maximum vertical is 8 feet with a vertical distance to the surface of 2,296 feet.
Source: BCS, Incorporated estimates (June, 2000) using the Western Mining Engineering, Inc. SHERPA Mine
Cost Software and Mine and Mill Cost, An Estimators Guide
Conversations with Industry Experts

wasted. A rod mill requires 93 percent of the total energy consumed per ton. All crushing
and grinding steps include the rod mill with the crusher. These steps account for 94
percent of the total energy consumed per ton. The crusher also operates on electric
energy. The energy required by mining accounts for 50 percent of the total energy
required. The combined energy requirements for mining and beneficiation of potash are
88,900 Btu per ton.

3.4 Emissions

Potash

In potash recovery, electrostatic dust precipitators are used to minimize dust emissions to
the environment.

Soda Ash (monohydrate process)

Emissions from both soda ash processes are reported in Table 3-4.

Potash, Soda Ash, and Borates 3-16

Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Mining Industry

Particulates from crushing and calcination are generated. The calciner offgases contain
carbon dioxide. Airborne particulate emissions from crushing is about 1.5 kg per kkg of
product. From calcination, emissions are about 95 kg per kkg or product. The particulates
from crushing and conveying are collected in bags and recycled to the ore bin, which
feeds the calciners. Residual emissions from the bag collectors are 0.015 kg per kkg of
product. Particulates from the calciner consist of raw sodium carbonate dust. These
particulates are passed through dry cyclones and electrostatic precipitators in series. The
overall removal efficiency is 99.5 percent, resulting in residual particulates of 0.28 kg per
kkg of product. Collected particulate is periodically recycled to the calciner.

Airborne emissions from product drying, cooling and packaging are generated from the
monohydrate process. These wastes are controlled by the use of baghouses and wet
scrubbers, with the recovered materials being recycled to the process. Emissions from the
sodium carbonate dryer are generated at about 2 kg per kkg of product. After bag dust
collection, the residual emission is 0.005 kg per kkg of product. Product screening,
storing, and packaging generates 1.4 kg of emissions per kkg of product. After bag dust
collection, residual emission is 0.005 kg per kkg of product.

Soda Ash (sesquicarbonate process)

Trona particulates generated from Table 3-4. Emissions from Soda Ash
crushing, drying and calcination Emission Quantity
are about 99.5 Kg per kkg. About Airborne Particulates 1.5 kg per kkg of product
1.5 kg per kkg of trona Calcination Particulates 95 kg per kkg or product
particulates are generated from 0.015 kg per kkg of
crushing. Drying operations Residual Particulates product
generate about 3 kg per kkg of Airborne Emissions 2kg per kkg of product
particulates. Approximately 95 kg 415 kg of carbon dioxide
per kkg of particulate are Calciner Offgases per kkg of soda ash
Particulate Emissions
produced by calcination. Wet
from Dryers 3 kg per kkg
scrubbers and dry bag collectors Crushing ore
control particulate emissions from Particulates 1.5 kg per kkg
drying and packaging, Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid
respectively. Emissions after Waste, Identification and Description of Mineral
control average 0.02 kg per kkg Processing Sectors and Waste Streams.
from the driers and 0.02 kg per
kkg from the product packaging operations. Solids recovered from the dry bag collectors
are recycled to product storage. Emissions from ore calcination are also collected and
recycled.

Calciner offgases are about 170 kg of water vapor and 415 k of carbon dioxide per kkg of
soda ash generated by calcination of the sodium bicarbonate intermediate. These offgases
are cooled to recover water for other on-site uses and for use in product purification.
After water removal, the carbon dioxide is recycled to the initial process calcination step.
Carbon dioxide is emitted as a result of the production process. During production,
natural sources of sodium carbonate are heated and transformed into a crude ash that

Potash, Soda Ash, and Borates 3-17

Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Mining Industry

Table 3-5. Carbon Dioxide Table 3-6. Emissions from Borate

Emissions from Soda Ash Minerals
Manufacture and Emission Quantity
Consumption Particulate Emissions 14 kg per kkg of product
Million Metric Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Tons of Carbon Solid Waste, Identification and Description of Mineral
Year Equivalent Processing Sectors and Waste Streams.
1990 1.1
1991 1.1
1992 1.1
1993 1.1
1994 1.1
1995 1.2
1996 1.2
1997 1.2
1998 1.2
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Policy Planning and
Evaluation, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse
Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-1998.

requires further refining. Carbon dioxide is generated as a by-product of this reaction and
is eventually emitted into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide emissions from 1990 to 1997
are shown in Table 3-5.

Borate Brines

Emissions from borates are shown is Table 3-6. Particulate generated from drying
operations are collected in dry bags and recycled. In 1980, the wastes were generated at
approximately 14 kg per kkg of product.

3.5 Effluents

Soda Ash (monohydrate

process) Table 3-7. Effluents from Soda Ash and
Borate Minerals
Effluents from both soda ash Effluent Quantity
processes are shown in Table 3-7. Ore Insolubles 110 to 150 kg per kkg
Ore insolubles are about 110 to 150 Filter Aid and Carbon 0.5 to 2 kg per kkg of
kg per kkg of ore insolubles Absorbent product
generated. These insolubles are Scrubber water -
Spent Carbon and 0.5 to 2 kg per kkg per
transported to evaporation ponds Filter Wastes product
for disposal. Filter aid and carbon Suspended
absorbent ranges from about 0.5 to Particulate Matter 2 kg of suspend particulates
2 kg per kkg of product. Spent Spent Brine 16,000 kg per kkg of product
carbon absorbent and spent filter Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
aids are sent to on-site evaporation Solid Waste, Identification and Description of Mineral
Processing Sectors and Waste Streams.

Potash, Soda Ash, and Borates 3-18

Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Mining Industry

ponds for disposal. Scrubber water is recycled to the process for recovery of additional
product.

Soda Ash (sesquicarbonate process)

Scrubber water is generated from air pollution control devices. This is recycled to recover
additional product.

Spent carbon and filter wastes from carbon absorption and filtration range from 0.5 to 2
kg per kkg per product. Waste filter aids and carbon absorbents are washed to the
evaporation ponds for final disposal. Solid wastes from initial ore are slurried to tailing
ponds to settle out suspended materials and then to the final disposal ponds, which serve
as evaporation ponds where there is no discharge. Suspended particulate matter is
generated by the use of wet scrubbers for air pollution control, resulting in wastewater
containing 2 kg of suspended particulates.

Spent brine from the initial carbonation and filtration steps contains about 16,000 kg per
kkg of product of unrecovered sodium carbonate and other raw brine constituents. The
spent brine contains about 65 percent water, 16 percent sodium chloride, and 19 percent
of other constituents including sodium sulfate, borax, and potassium chloride. This waste
stream is combined with other waterborne waste streams and returned to the brine source.

Borates

Process wastewater from washing contains dissolved borax and other salts that may be
sent to lined evaporation ponds.14

3.6 By-products and Solid Waste

Soda Ash Extraction and Beneficiation

Extraction and beneficiation wastes include overburden, tailings, and spent dissolution
wastes. The trona ore dissolution wastes are sent to tailings ponds. Waste tailings are
injected underground.
Table 3-8. By-products from Soda
Soda Ash (monohydrate Ash
By-product Quantity
process)
110 to 150 kg per
kkg of ore are
Table 3-8 shows by-products with Ore insolubles generated
quantities from soda ash production. Filter aid and carbon 0.5 to 2 kg per kkg
Tailings generated from the calcining absorbent waste of product
process are discharged to the tailings Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
tank. The tailings tank also receives fly Office of Solid Waste, Identification and Description
ash and bottom ash generated from of Mineral Processing Sectors and Waste Streams.

14
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Identification and Description of Mineral Processing Sectors
and Waste Streams, p. 153-163, April 1998

Potash, Soda Ash, and Borates 3-19

Energy and Environmental Profile of the U.S. Mining Industry

using coal to fire the kiln and the steam boiler. This waste is treated in a thickening tank
by adding anionic and cationic flocculants to the tailings to increase the solids content
from approximately 10 to 50 pecent solids. The waste is then disposed of in one of two
waste management units, (1) the tailing pond, or (2) the mine void. The mine void is
located in an old mineshaft. Tailings are gravity fed into the mine when the holding tanks
full. Tailing supernatant that accumulates in the mine is collected in a sump and
periodically pumped and disposed of in the tailing pond.

Purge liquor from calcining is often sold as a sulfur neutralizer or dust suppressant.
Mother liquor is a possible waste stream from centrifugation. This waste stream is
recycled.15

Soda Ash (sesquicarbonate process)

As in the monohydrate, purge liquor from calcining can be generated. Again, it is often
sold as a sulfur neutralizer or dust suppressant. Mother liquor is a possible by-product
from centrifugation and is recycled.16

Borates

Gangue solids are generated from the initial dissolution step during the production of
sodium borate decahydrate. In 1980, these wastes were reported as generally inert
insolubles, although they contained 0.08 percent natural arsenic mineral realgar. The
solid wastes from ore residues and evaporation wastes were sent to on-site lined
evaporation ponds.17

The brine extraction process generates waste brine and spent solvents. The plant extract
or crud generated during the recovery of borates form brines containing arsenic and
halogens and is ignitable.18

Spent sodium sulfate is produced by crystallization. Waste liquor and underflow mud that
remains after the boric acid is filtered off contains arsenic. This waste is recycled.19

3.7 Hazardous Waste

There are no RCRA-listed hazardous wastes associated with potash, soda ash, and borate
production.

15
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Identification and Description of Mineral Processing Sectors
and Waste Streams, p. 599-609. April 1998
16
Ibid.
17
Ibid.
18
Ibid.
19
Ibid.

Potash, Soda Ash, and Borates 3-20