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i
This book describes the optical structure and optical properties of the human eye.
For ease of reference, the most commonly useful topics are at the beginning and
topics with narrower appeal are placed towards the end. The book is divided into five
sections, covering:
• Basic optical structure of the eye, including the refracting components, the
pupil, axes, and simple models of the eye
• Image formation and refraction of the eye, including refractive errors, measure-
ment, and correction
• Interactions between light and the eye, considering transmission, reflection, and
scatter in the media and at the fundus
• Aberrations and retinal image quality
• Depth-of-field and age-related changes in the optics of the eye
The book concludes with five appendices; these cover mathematics relating to par-
axial optics, aberration theory, image quality criteria and refraction across the pupil,
and they provide construction data and optical parameters of several schematic eyes.
There have been many developments in the field of visual optics since the first
edition was published in 2000. There have been advances in instrumentation for
imagery, biometry, and aberrations of the eye. The refraction anomaly of myopia
has increased in prevalence throughout the world, and is getting increasing attention
because of its association with ocular pathology in the middle and later years of life.
Ocular aberrations are now considered in terms of Zernike polynomials rather than
Taylor polynomials. Aberrations can be manipulated to better understand their effects
on visual performance to improve imagery of the retina for the betterment of diag-
nosis of various ocular conditions, and to treat the progression of myopia in children.
To deal with these developments, the section on aberrations and retinal image quality
has undergone considerable revision.
This book will be an invaluable purchase for all those with an interest in vision,
such as optometrists, ophthalmologists, vision scientists, optical physics, and
students of visual optics. An understanding of the optics of the human eye is particu-
larly important to designers of ophthalmic diagnostic equipment and visual optical
systems, such as telescopes.
ii
Contemporary Holography
C. S. Narayanamurthy
Contents
Acknowledgements.....................................................................................................xi
About the Authors.................................................................................................... xiii
Sign Convention and Symbols...................................................................................xv
Introduction..............................................................................................................xvii
v
vi
vi Contents
Contents vii
viii Contents
Contents ix
SECTION V Miscellaneous
Chapter 19 Depth-of-Field....................................................................................379
19.1 Introduction..............................................................................379
19.2 Criteria for Determining Depth-of-Field.................................381
19.3 Modeling Depth-of-Field.........................................................386
19.4 Methods for Increasing Depth-of-Field...................................390
Appendices
x Contents
Index........................................................................................................................471
xi
Acknowledgements
Several colleagues commented on drafts or provided references and advice: David
Alonso-Caneiro, Arthur Bradley, Juan Bueno, Charles Campbell, Neil Charman,
Stephen Dain, Andreas Hartwig, Mo Jalie, Matt Jaskulski, Linda Lundström, Ankit
Mathur, Vinay Nilagiri, Sotiris Plainis, Scott Read, Jos Rozema, Tom Salmon, Katrina
Schmid, Michael Simpson, Lawrence Stark, Marwan Suheimat, Larry Thibos,
Christopher Tyler, Tom van den Berg, and Stephen Vincent. In particular, we thank
Larry Thibos for the derivations of refractive power across the pupil in Appendix 4.
We are grateful to Pablo Artal, Shrikant Bharadwaj, Linda Lundström, Jos Rozema,
Tom Salmon, Larry Thibos, and Barry Winn for providing data for some figures;
these are also acknowledged at relevant figure captions.
xi
xii
xiii
xiii
xiv
xv
Greek Alphabet
Greek letters are used extensively throughout the book.
meter* m
centimeter cm
millimeter mm
micrometer μm
nanometer nm
diopter D
prism diopter Δ
Joule J
Watt W
candela* cd
lumen lm
xv
xvi
steradian st
second* s
Hertz Hz
Kelvin* K
radian rad
degree °, deg
minutes of arc min.arc
mole* mol
xvi
Introduction
The purpose of this book is to describe the optical structure and optical properties
of the human eye. It will be useful to those who have an interest in vision, such as
optometrists, ophthalmologists, vision scientists, optical physicists, and students of
visual optics. An understanding of the optics of the human eye is particularly important
to designers of ophthalmic diagnostic equipment and visual optical systems, such as
telescopes.
Many animals have some sort of eye structure or sophisticated light sense. Like
humans, some rely heavily on vision, including predatory birds and insects such as
honeybees and dragonflies. However, many animals rely much more on other senses,
particularly hearing and smell, than on vision. The visual sense is very complex and
can process huge amounts of information very rapidly. How this is done is not fully
understood; it requires greater knowledge of how the neural components of vision
(retina, visual cortex, and other brain centers) process the retinal image. However, the
first stage in this complex process is the formation of the retinal image. In this text, we
investigate how the image is formed and discuss factors that affect its quality.
Most animal eyes can be divided into two groups: compound eyes (as possessed
by most insects), and vertebrate eyes (such as the human eye). Compared with ver-
tebrate eyes, there is considerable variation in the compound eyes. Compound eyes
contain many optical elements (ommatidia), each with its own aperture to the external
world. Vertebrate eyes have a single aperture to the external world, which is used by
all the detectors. Several other animals have simple eyes, which can be described
as less developed versions of the vertebrate eye. All eyes, of whatever type, involve
compromises between the need for detection (sensitivity), particularly at low light
levels, and spatial resolving capability in terms of the direction or form of an object.
Although this book is about the optics of the human eye, we do not wish to con-
sider the optics in complete isolation from the neural components, as otherwise we
cannot appreciate what influence changes in the retinal image will have on vision
performance. As an example, altering the optics has considerable influence on reso-
lution of objects for central vision but not for peripheral vision. This is because the
retina’s neural structure is fine enough at its center, but not in the periphery, for
large changes in optical quality to be of importance (Chapter 18). Thus, the neural
components of the visual system, particularly the retinal detector, rate some mention
in the book. The neural structures of the retina themselves produce optical effects. As
an example, the photoreceptors exhibit waveguide properties that make light arriving
from some directions more efficient at stimulating vision than light arriving from
other directions. Another example is that the regular arrangement of the nerve fiber
layers produces polarization effects.
While image formation in the eye is similar to that in man-made optical systems,
such as cameras and must obey the conventional optical laws, there are some
interesting differences because of the eye’s biological basis. Perhaps the greatest
difference is that, as a living organ, the eye responds to its environment, often to
give the best image under different circumstances. Also, it grows, ages, and suffers
xvii
xvi
xviii Introduction
disease. Unlike most man-made optical systems, the eye is not rotationally symmet-
rical about a single axis, and different axes must be used to define image formation.
There are many interesting and important optical effects associated with ocular
diseases such as keratoconus (conical cornea) and cataract. Furthermore, the balance
between optical and neural contributions to overall vision performance changes with
diseases of the retina and beyond. Although there are some passing references to
cataract, we have concentrated on the healthy human eye. We give some promin-
ence to age-related changes in the optics of the eye throughout the book, and devote
Chapter 20 to this topic.
To make the book easy to read it is divided into several chapters, with each chapter
dedicated to a single theme. The most commonly useful topics are at the beginning,
and topics with narrower appeal (such as ocular aberrations) are placed towards the
end. Section I covers the basic optical structure of the human eye, including the
refracting components, the pupil, axes, and simple models of the eye. Section II is
about image formation and refraction of the eye. This includes the refractive errors
of the eye, their measurement and correction, and paraxial treatments of focused and
defocused image sizes and positions. Section III deals with the interactions between
light and the eye, considering transmission, reflection, and scatter in the media of the
eye and at the fundus. Section IV deals with aberrations and retinal image quality. As
well as considering these for real eyes, it covers the modeling of eyes and the per-
formance of a range of schematic eyes of different levels of sophistication. Section
V considers the topics of depth-of-field and age-related changes in the optics of the
eye. While depth-of-field effects could possibly have been placed earlier in the book,
understanding them well requires some knowledge about aberration and diffraction.
The book concludes with five appendices, four of which (Appendices 1, 2, 4, and
5) cover some mathematics relating to paraxial optics, aberrations theory, image
quality criteria, and refraction across the pupil. Appendix 3 lists construction data,
optical parameters, and the Seidel aberrations of several schematic eyes.
There have been many developments in the field of visual optics since 2000 when
the first edition was published. There have been advances in instrumentation for
imagery, biometry, and aberrations of the eye. The refraction anomaly of myopia has
increased in prevalence throughout the world, particularly in many Asian countries,
and is getting increasing attention because of its association with ocular pathology in
the middle and later years of life. The way that people think about ocular aberrations
was changing about the time the book was first published in 2000, with the swapping
from a system of Taylor aberration terms to Zernike polynomials; at the time of
the first edition, the measurement of aberrations was the preserve of a few research
laboratories whereas now aberrations for the eye and the cornea can be obtained by
a practitioner at the touch of a button. Furthermore, aberrations can be manipulated
to better understand their effects on visual performance, to improve imagery of the
retina for the betterment of diagnosis of various ocular conditions, and to treat the
progression of myopia in children. To deal with these developments, Section IV on
aberrations and image quality has undergone considerable revision.
The important visual function accommodation, whose loss we rue when we get
into our forties, has no dedicated chapter. We did not see a need as it features in all
but three chapters and is prominent in Chapters 2 and 20.
newgenprepdf
xix
Introduction xix
The previous edition made extensive use of Seidel aberration theory. Although
this is not accurate for large pupils and large field angles, this has the useful prop-
erty of showing surface contributions to aberrations, including that of asphericity.
Contributions of gradient index can also be determined. Seidel theory and aberrations
are not used within the text, but for continuity with the previous edition they are
covered in Appendices 2 and 3.
xx
Section I
Basic Optical Structure of the
Human Eye
2
3
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter is a short overview of the optical structure and function of the human eye.
It mentions briefly some important aspects such as the cornea, the lens, and ocular
axes, which are covered in more detail in later chapters. Other important topics, such
as the passage of light, aberrations, and retinal image quality, are also discussed in
later chapters.
The structure of the human eye is shown in Figure 1.1. The outer layer is in two
parts: the anterior cornea and the posterior sclera. The cornea is transparent and
approximately spherical with a radius of curvature of about 8 mm. Its diameter is
approximately 11.5 mm horizontally and 10.5 mm vertically. The sclera is a dense,
white, opaque, fibrous tissue that is mainly protective in function and is approxi-
mately spherical with a diameter of about 24 mm. The centers of curvature of the
sclera and cornea are separated by about 5 mm. More accurate measures of shapes
are given in subsequent chapters.
The middle layer of the eye is the uveal tract. It is composed of the iris anteriorly,
the choroid posteriorly, and the intermediate ciliary body. The iris plays an important
optical function through the size of its aperture, the ciliary body is important to the
process of accommodation, and both the ciliary body and choroid support important
vegetative processes.
The inner layer of the eye is the retina, which is an extension of the central nervous
system and is connected to the brain by the optic nerve.
The inside of the posterior segment is called the fundus. This generally refers to
the back of the eye that is visible in internal examination, such as in retinoscopy. The
fundus includes the retina along with the optic disc and aspects of the choroid and
possibly the sclera.
The inside of the eye is divided into three compartments:
1. The anterior chamber, between the cornea and iris, which contains the
aqueous fluid.
2. The posterior chamber, between the iris, the ciliary body, and the lens, which
contains the aqueous fluid.
3. The vitreous chamber, between the lens and the retina, which contains a
transparent colorless and gelatinous mass called the vitreous humor or vit-
reous body.
The lens of the eye is immediately behind the iris, and is connected to the ciliary
body via suspensory fibers called zonules.
DOI: 10.1201/9781003128601-2 3
4
FIGURE 1.1 The horizontal section of the right eye as seen from above. The pupil is the
opening in the iris. The cardinal points (F, F′, P, P′, N, and N′) are for the relaxed eye.
The internal pressure of the eye must be higher than that of the atmosphere in order
to maintain the shape of the cornea, and must be maintained at an approximately
constant level in order to maintain the transparency of the ocular media. The pressure
is controlled by the production of aqueous fluid in the ciliary body and by drainage
of this aqueous fluid from the eye. This drainage is through the angle of the anterior
chamber (between the cornea and the iris) to the canal of Schlemm (not shown in
Figure 1.1) and, finally, to the venous drainage of the eye.
The eye rotates in its socket by the action of six extra-ocular muscles.
More detailed anatomical descriptions of the human eye can be found in books,
such as those by Hogan et al. (1971), Snell and Lemp (1998), Bron et al. (2001),
Remington (2012), and Freddo and Chaum (2018).
FIGURE 1.3 The layers of the retina. This figure was kindly provided by Scott Read and
Stephen Vincent.
all optical systems, the aperture stop is a very important component of a system,
affecting a wide range of optical processes, and it is discussed in detail in Chapter 3.
Figure 1.2 shows two light beams from object points forming images on the retina.
The image is inverted, as it is for a camera. We discuss this image formation in more
detail in Chapter 6.
1.3 THE RETINA
The light-sensitive tissue of the eye is the retina (Figure 1.3). It consists of a number
of cellular and pigmented layers and a nerve fiber layer. These layers have varying
degrees of optical significance, with the amount of incoming light being reflected
6
FIGURE 1.4 The density of cones and rods across the retina in the temporal direction
from Østerberg (1935) and from Curcio and Hendrickson (1991). The data from Curcio and
Hendrickson have been converted from distances along the retina to angles relative to the back
nodal point of the eye, assuming a spherical retina of diameter 12 mm and a distance between
the back nodal point and retina of 17.054 mm.
specularly and scattered by each layer being of particular importance. This aspect is
discussed in greater depth in Chapter 14. The thickness of the retina varies from about
220 μm (0.22 mm) at the foveal center (Gong et al. 2016; Read et al. 2015) to about
350 μm about 1 mm from the center (Read et al. 2015) and then decreases to
about 110 μm at its limits (Hogan et al. 1971).
There is a layer of light-sensitive cells at the back of the retina, and the light must
pass through the other layers to reach these cells. These receptor cells are of two
types, known as rods and cones. The names refer to their shapes, but considerable
variations in shape occur with location, and it is not always possible to distinguish
between the two types on this basis. Figure 1.4 shows their distribution along the hori-
zontal temporal section of the retina. There are about 100 million rods in the retina,
and they reach their maximum density at about 20° from the fovea. There are approxi-
mately 5 million cones in the retina.
In general, rods are longer and narrower than cones. Rods are sometimes described
as highly sensitive low-level light detectors. However, much of this is due to the
neural wiring that occurs rather than differences between the receptors. The retinal
neural network of rods is such that the output of about 100 rods can combine on the
way to the brain, so that the rod system has very high sensitivity to light but poor
7
spatial resolution. In contrast, the output of fewer cones is combined, so the cone
system functions at higher light levels and is capable of higher spatial resolution.
Cones recover from exposure to light more quickly than rods. The first stage in color
vision is the existence of three types of cones, each with different wavelength sensi-
tive properties: L (long), M (medium), and S (short) cones.
The cones predominate in the fovea, which is 1.5 mm or approximately 5° wide as
subtended at the back nodal point N′ of the eye. The fovea is free of rods in its central
1° field. At high light levels the best resolution is attained by the cones in the fovea,
which occupies only about 1/1000th of the total retinal area. Despite the predomin-
ance of cones at the fovea, it contains only about 50,000 cones, or 1 % of the total,
and an even smaller proportion (0.05 %) is found in the high-resolution foveola (Tyler
2015, 1996). Therefore, most cones are distributed throughout the peripheral retina.
At low light levels the cones at the fovea do not operate; thus, the center of the fovea
is “night blind”, and it is necessary to look eccentrically to see objects using the rods.
At very low light levels, maximum visual acuity and detection ability occur about
10–15° away from the fovea.
The location of the fovea is shown in Figure 1.1. When the eye fixates on an object
of interest, the center of its image is formed on the foveal center, which is inclined at
about 5° from the “best fit” optical axis. At the fovea, the layers overlying the receptor
cells are thinner than elsewhere in the retina (Figure 1.3) and, as a result, the fovea
has a pit-like structure. The bottom of this pit is about 1° wide and corresponds to the
rod-free region. The foveola is the approximately 0.5°-wide avascular center of the
foveal pit and is the region of highest resolution.
The diameters and packing of the foveal cones affect visual acuity, and we
examine this relationship briefly in section 18.4. Curcio et al.’s (1990) estimates of
the diameters of foveal cones are given in Table 1.1.
The off-axis position of the fovea is most intriguing since aberration theory
predicts that the best image of an optical system is usually formed on the optical axis.
Therefore, the retinal image quality at the fovea should be worse than at the posterior
pole. The off-axis position of the fovea has some interesting visual effects, which we
discuss in Chapter 17.
TABLE 1.1
Diameters of Foveal Cones
FIGURE 1.5 Demonstration of the blind spot. Look steadily at the cross with your right eye
(left eye closed) from about 20 cm. Vary this distance until you find a position for which the
spot disappears.
The fovea is the central part of the macula, whose peripheral limits are where the
cells of the outer nuclear layer are reduced to a single row (Hogan et al. 1971). The
macular diameter is 5.5 mm (19°).
The photoreceptor cells synapse with bipolar cells, which in turn synapse with
ganglion cells whose axons combine to form the optic disc. There are several types
of ganglion cells, including intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells that are
themselves photoceptors (Do 2019); these have a role in steady state pupil responses
and circadian rhythms. They are several other cell types in the retina, some of which,
such as the horizontal and amacrine cells, form synapses with the main retinal cells
in the visual pathway.
1. Focal points (F and F′). Light leaving the front (also first and anterior)
focal point F passes into the eye, and would be imaged at infinity after final
9
refraction by the lens if the retina was not in the way. Light parallel to the axis
and coming into the eye from an infinite distance is imaged at the back (also
second and posterior) focal point F′. Thus, for the eye focused at infinity, the
retina coincides with the back focal point.
2. Principal points (P and P′). These are images of (or conjugate to) each other,
such that their transverse magnification is +1. That is, if an object were placed
at one of these points, an erect image of the same size would be formed at the
other point. For raytracing purposes, object positions can be referenced to the
front principal plane and image positions can be referenced to the back prin-
cipal plane.
3. Nodal points (N and N′). These are also images or conjugates of each other,
but have a special property such that a ray from an off-axis point passing
towards N appears to pass through N′ on the image side of the system, while
inclined at the same angle to the axis on each side of the system. Such a ray
is called the nodal ray, and when the off-axis point is the point of fixation, the
ray is called the visual axis.
where n′ is the refractive index in the vitreous chamber. The average power of the
eye for adults is about 60 m–1, but the value varies greatly from eye to eye. Using
this power and the commonly accepted refractive index n′ of the vitreous chamber
(1.336), the focal lengths of the eye are
Note that power is usually specified as being in diopters, rather than m–1, with the
abbreviation “D”.
While the equivalent power of the eye is a very important property of the eye, it is
not easy to measure directly. Its value is usually inferred from the other measurable
quantities, such as surface radii of curvature, surface separations and eye length, and
assumed refractive indices of the ocular media.
However, more important than equivalent power is refractive error. The refractive
error can be regarded as an error in the equivalent power due to a mismatch between
the equivalent power and the eye length. For example, if the equivalent power is too
high for a certain eye length, the image is formed in front of the retina and this results
in a myopic refractive error. If the power is too low, the image is formed behind the
retina and results in a hyperopic refractive error. Refractive errors are discussed in
Chapter 7.
1.7 CENTER-OF-ROTATION
The eye rotates in its socket under the action of the six extra-ocular muscles. Because
of the way these muscles are positioned and operate, there is no unique center-of-
rotation; however, we can nominate a mean position for this point. Fry and Hill (1962)
found that the mean center-of-rotation was about 15 mm behind the cornea in hori-
zontal gaze. Ohlendorf et al. (2022) obtained a similar result of 15.3 ± 1.5 mm, but a
much smaller result of 12.5 ± 1.4 mm in vertical gaze.
1.8 FIELD-OF-VISION
Examination of the pupil from different angles shows that the pupil can still be seen
at angles greater than 90° in the temporal field. Light can enter the pupil from about
105° to the temporal side, as shown in Figure 1.7. While this suggests that the radius
of the field-of-vision may be as great as 105°, the real extent of the field-of-vision
depends upon the extent of retina in the extreme directions. On the nasal side, vision
is cut-off at about 60° because of the combination of the nose and the limited extent
of the temporal retina.
11
1.9.1 Interpupillary Distance
The interpupillary distance, or PD, is usually measured by the distance between
the centers of the two pupils of the eyes. The distance PD is measured for the eyes
looking straight ahead; that is, the visual axes are parallel. When the eyes focus on
nearby objects, the eyes rotate inwards and hence there is a corresponding decrease
in interpupillary distance. The near PD can then be measured or determined from the
distance PD using simple trigonometry.
Yildirim et al. (2015) reported distance PDs in an adult Turkish population. Males
and females had mean values of 63.9 ±3.7 mm and 61.4 ±3.7 mm, respectively. PDs
increased until the eighth decade of life, and then decreased. The gender difference
for adults across studies is 2−3 mm (Fesharaki et al. 2012; Osuobeni and Al-Musa
1993; Murphy and Laskin 1990; Pointer 2012).
12
FIGURE 1.8 Representative dimensions (millimeters) and refractive indices of the (relaxed)
eye. The starred values depend upon accommodation.
1.9.2 Binocular Overlap
As shown in Figure 1.7, the total field-of-vision in the horizontal plane is about 210°
with a 120° binocular overlap.
1.10 TYPICAL DIMENSIONS
All dimensions of the eye vary greatly between individuals. Some depend upon
accommodation and age. Representative data are shown in Figure 1.8. Average values
have been used to construct representative or schematic eyes, which we discuss in
Chapter 5. More detailed data are presented in later chapters.
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Osuobeni, E. P., and K. A. Al-Musa. 1993. “Gender differences in interpupillary distance among
Arabs.” Optom. Vis. Sci 70 (12):1027–30. doi: 10.1097/00006324-199312000-00006.
Pardhan, S. 1996. “A comparison of binocular summation in young and older patients.” Curr
Eye Res 15 (3):315–9. doi: 10.3109/02713689609007626.
Plainis, S., D. Petratou, T. Giannakopoulou, D. A. Atchison, and M. K. Tsilimbaris. 2011.
“Binocular summation improves performance to defocus- induced blur.” Invest
Ophthalmol Vis Sci 52 (5):2784–9. doi: 10.1167/iovs.10-6545.
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doi: 10.1111/j.1475-1313.2012.00910.x.
14
2 Refracting Components
Cornea and Lens
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The refracting elements of the eye are the cornea and the lens. To provide a good
quality retinal image, these elements must be transparent and have appropriate
curvatures and refractive indices. Refraction takes place at four surfaces, the anterior
and posterior interfaces of the cornea and the lens, and there is also continuous refrac-
tion within the lens.
In this chapter we describe the optical structure of the normal cornea and lens,
but we must be aware that in many eyes there are significant departures from these
norms. Some of these are due to serious ocular defects or irregularities, which can
have major impacts on vision. There are also changes with age, and any descriptions
given in this section relate only to mean adult values. Detail on age dependencies is
given in Chapter 20.
2.2 THE CORNEA
Most of the refracting power is provided by the cornea, the clear, curved “window” at
the front of the eye. It has about two-thirds of the total power for the relaxed eye, but
this fraction decreases as the lens increases in power during accommodation.
2.2.1 Anatomical Structure
A schematic cross-sectional structure of the cornea is shown in Figure 2.1. It has a tear
film at its front surface, and several distinct parts. These are, in order from the outer
surface of the eye, the epithelium, Bowman’s membrane, the stroma, Descemet’s
membrane and the endothelium. Approximate thicknesses of these components are
given in Table 2.1.
The tear film is 4-7 μm thick (Tomlinson 1992). It is composed of oily, aqueous,
and mucous layers, with 98 per cent of the thickness being provided by the aqueous
layer. The tear film is essential for clear vision because it moistens the cornea and
smooths out the “roughness” of the surface epithelial cells. The tear film does not
contribute significant refractive power itself, since it is very thin and consists effect-
ively of two very closely spaced surfaces of almost equal radii of curvature. However,
the importance of this tear film is realized if it dries out. If this occurs, the transpar-
ency of the cornea decreases significantly.
The epithelium protects the rest of the cornea by providing a barrier against water,
larger molecules, and toxic substances. It consists of approximately six layers of
DOI: 10.1201/9781003128601-3 15
16
FIGURE 2.1 The structure of the cornea and the approximate positions of its principal points.
TABLE 2.1
Thicknesses (μm) of Corneal Layers (Hogan et al. 1971)
cells, and only the innermost layer of these cells can divide. After cells are formed,
they move gradually towards the surface as the superficial cells are shed.
Bowman’s membrane is 8-14 μm thick and consists mainly of randomly arranged
collagen fibrils.
The stroma comprises 90 per cent of the corneal thickness, and consists mainly
of 200 or more collagen lamellae, which may extend across the extent of the cornea.
The collagen fibrils within each lamella run parallel to each other, and the successive
lamellae run across the cornea at angles to each other. This arrangement maintains an
ordered transparent structure while enhancing mechanical strength. Transparency of
the cornea (and of the lens) is discussed in Chapter 12. An additional part called Dua’s
layer has been claimed to be present between the stroma and Descemet’s membrane
(Dua et al. 2013).
Descemet’s membrane is the basement membrane of the endothelial cells.
17
Refracting Components 17
The endothelium consists of a single layer of cells, which are hexagonal and fit
together like a honeycomb. Unlike the case for the inner epithelium, the cells lack the
capacity to regenerate. The endothelium regulates the fluid balance of the cornea to
maintain the stroma at about 78 per cent hydration and thus retain transparency.
2.2.2 Refractive Index
The refractive index of the cornea varies considerably, with estimates of 1.401–1.433
for the epithelium and 1.357–1.380 for the stroma (Lai and Tang 2014; Patel et al.
1995). There may be a slight reduction in index from the anterior to the posterior
stroma (Patel and Alio 2012; Patel et al. 1995), which Barbero (2006) has shown
would have some influence on spherical aberration. Since the stroma is by far the
thickest layer, its refractive index dominates. The mean value of refractive index is
usually taken as 1.376, or similar, and is adopted as the index of the whole cornea.
However, this has been challenged by Patel and Tutchenko (2019), who claim the
mean is of the order of 1.43. Values like 1.376 are used in much of this book, but revi-
sion of these values must be considered.
R2 =0.81R1 (2.1)
From these radii of curvature, we can calculate the surface powers (F) using the
equation
where n and n′ are the refractive indices on the incident and refracted sides, respect-
ively. At the anterior surface
TABLE 2.2
Some Population Distributions of Corneal Vertex Radii of Curvature R and
Corresponding Powers Calculated from Equations (2.2) and (2.3), assuming
Corneal Refractive Index 1.376, Aqueous Refractive Index 1.336, and a
Corneal Thickness 0.5 mm. Where Results Were Provided for More than One
Meridian, Mean Values Have Been Used
Surface power values, using this equation and these refractive indices, are given
in Table 2.2. The total power F of the cornea can be calculated from the “thick lens”
equation:
1F2d/μ
F = F1 + F2 − F (2.3)
where F1 is the anterior surface power, F2 is the posterior surface power, d is the
vertex corneal thickness and μ is the refractive index of the cornea (usually taken as
1.376). The power of the cornea can be estimated from the sum of the surface powers
F ≈ F1 + F2 (2.3a)
19
Refracting Components 19
This value is different from the exact value by F1F2d/μ. Using the data given by Patel
et al. (1993) in Table 2.2, a corneal thickness of 0.5 mm and a refractive index of
1.376, the exact equation (2.3) gives a corneal power of 42.2 diopters (D) and the
approximate equation (2.3a) gives a slightly lower value of 42.1 D.
The above surface power values apply to the vertices of the cornea and would
apply to other parts of the corneal surfaces only if they were spherical. However,
surfaces have toricity and asphericity. Therefore, the radii of curvature do not fully
describe the shape of the cornea and its refracting properties, e.g., Navarro et al.
(2013a).
2.2.4.2 Asphericity
In general, the radius of curvature increases with distance from the surface vertex, so
that the surface flattens away from the vertex. Surfaces that are non-spherical in this
sense are often described as aspheric.
The shape of the anterior corneal surface has been extensively studied, especially
over the central 8 mm of its approximately 12 mm diameter. This central “optical”
zone is the maximum zone of the cornea through which light passes to form the foveal
image. To investigate the shape over this zone, corneal surfaces are often represented
by conicoids in three dimensions or by conics in two dimensions. A conicoid can be
expressed in the form
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Everybody laughed, the Duke more heartily than anyone.
Fletcher was one of the few of life’s gifts for which he was
consistently thankful.
“You shall come with us to-day,” he said, delighted with the
sudden inspiration; and Fletcher, who had intended to go whether he
was invited or not, graciously accepted.
The breakfast party was informal and gay. Toasts were given and
the responses clever. Even Mr. Forbes, who had no idea of being a
death’s head at a feast, forced himself into his best vein.
The Duke drank a good deal of wine and said little. He was, on
the whole, well content. Mr. Forbes had handed over two hundred
thousand pounds with which to repair Aire Castle, and settled the
income of eight hundred thousand pounds on the young people, the
principal to go to their children. The Duke reflected gratefully that he
should have no cause to be ashamed of his bride. She was not
beautiful, but even his relatives had approved of her manners and
style. He forgave her for having bored him, for she had brought him
a certain peace of mind; and she should have as many M.P.’s to talk
political economy to as she (or they) listed. He would talk to Fletcher,
and others.
Mrs. Forbes had her especial toasts. Even here, at this anti-
climax dear to the heart of a bride, she was the personage. She
looked regal and surpassing fair, for her eyes were very soft; and
she had never been happier of speech. The Duke, who admired her
with what enthusiasm was left in him, proposed a toast to which the
Ambassador himself responded.
CHAPTER XXIV.
When it was over and Mr. Forbes and his wife had returned to
the hotel, she put her hands on his shoulders and looked him in the
eyes.
“Tell me,” she said imperiously; “have you really forgiven me? I
have almost been sure at times that you had. I have felt it. But you
have not been quite your old dear self. I want to hear you say again
that you forgive me, and it is the last time that I shall refer to the
subject.”
“Yes,” he said, adjusting a lock that had fallen over her ear, “I
have forgiven you, of course. We are to live the rest of our lives
together. I am not so unwise, I hope, as to nurse offended pride and
resentment.”
The colour left her face. She came closer.
“Tell me!” she said, her voice vibrating. “Won’t it ever be quite the
same again? Is that what you mean?”
He took her in his arms and laid his cheek against hers. “Oh, I
don’t know,” he said, “I don’t know.”
THE END.
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