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Mathematics Education in the Digital Era
Alison Clark-Wilson
Ornella Robutti
Nathalie Sinclair Editors
The Mathematics
Teacher in
the Digital Era
International Research on Professional
Learning and Practice
Second Edition
Volume 16
Series Editors
Dragana Martinovic, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
Viktor Freiman, Faculté des sciences de l’éducation, Université de Moncton,
Moncton, NB, Canada
Editorial Board Members

Marcelo Borba, State University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Rosa Maria Bottino, CNR – Istituto Tecnologie Didattiche, Genova, Italy
Paul Drijvers, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
Celia Hoyles, University of London, London, UK
Zekeriya Karadag, Giresun Üniversitesi, Giresun, Turkey
Stephen Lerman, London South Bank University, London, UK
Richard Lesh, Indiana University, Bloomington, USA
Allen Leung, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong
Tom Lowrie, University of Canberra, Bruce, Australia
John Mason, The Open University, Buckinghamshire, UK
Sergey Pozdnyakov, Saint Petersburg Electrotechnical University,
Saint Petersburg, Russia
Ornella Robutti, Dipartimento di Matematica, Università di Torino, Torino, Italy
Anna Sfard, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
Bharath Sriraman, University of Montana, Missoula, USA
Eleonora Faggiano, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
The Mathematics Education in the Digital Era (MEDE) series explores ways in
which digital technologies support mathematics teaching and the learning of Net
Gen’ers, paying attention also to educational debates. Each volume will address one
specific issue in mathematics education (e.g., visual mathematics and cyber-
learning; inclusive and community based e-learning; teaching in the digital era), in
an attempt to explore fundamental assumptions about teaching and learning
mathematics in the presence of digital technologies. This series aims to attract
diverse readers including researchers in mathematics education, mathematicians,
cognitive scientists and computer scientists, graduate students in education, policy-
makers, educational software developers, administrators and teacher-practitioners.
Among other things, the high-quality scientific work published in this series will
address questions related to the suitability of pedagogies and digital technologies
for new generations of mathematics students. The series will also provide readers
with deeper insight into how innovative teaching and assessment practices emerge,
make their way into the classroom, and shape the learning of young students who
have grown up with technology. The series will also look at how to bridge theory
and practice to enhance the different learning styles of today’s students and turn
their motivation and natural interest in technology into an additional support for
meaningful mathematics learning. The series provides the opportunity for the
dissemination of findings that address the effects of digital technologies on learning
outcomes and their integration into effective teaching practices; the potential of
mathematics educational software for the transformation of instruction and
curricula; and the power of the e-learning of mathematics, as inclusive and
community-based, yet personalized and hands-on.
Submit your proposal: Please contact the Series Editors, Dragana Martinovic
([email protected]) and Viktor Freiman ([email protected]) as well as
the Publishing Editor, Marianna Georgouli ([email protected]).
Forthcoming volume:
• The Evolution of Research on Teaching Mathematics: A. Manizade, N. Buchholtz,
K. Beswick (Eds.)
Alison Clark-Wilson • Ornella Robutti
Nathalie Sinclair
Editors
The Mathematics Teacher

in the Digital Era
International Research on Professional
Learning and Practice
Second Edition
Editors
Alison Clark-Wilson Ornella Robutti
UCL Institute of Education Dipartimento di Matematica
University College London Università di Torino
London, UK Torino, Italy
Nathalie Sinclair
Faculty of Education
Simon Fraser University
Burnaby, BC, Canada
This work contains media enhancements, which are displayed with a “play” icon. Material in
the print book can be viewed on a mobile device by downloading the Springer Nature “More
Media” app available in the major app stores. The media enhancements in the online version
of the work can be accessed directly by authorized users.
ISSN 2211-8136 ISSN 2211-8144 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-031-05253-8 ISBN 978-3-031-05254-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05254-5
1st edition: © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

2nd edition: © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
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Introduction
The eight intervening years between this second edition of The Mathematics Teacher
in the Digital Era and the first edition have seen increased attention on the role of
the teacher within technology-enhanced educational contexts, leading to a more
developed understanding of the components of related teacher education pro-
grammes and initiatives for both pre- and in-service teachers. The shock to the edu-
cation system caused by the global coronavirus pandemic simultaneously highlighted
the key role that teachers and lecturers play in the nurturing of generations of learn-
ers, alongside increased global attention to the role that (educational) technology
plays as a mediator of teaching and learning. Studies that have taken place during
the pandemic have provided insights into how teachers’ practices have had to
evolve, whilst also highlighting theoretical and methodological gaps in our under-
standing of the relatively new phenomena of “hybrid”, “at distance” or “remote”
teaching in school and university settings (Bretscher et al., 2021; Clark-Wilson
et al., 2021; Crisan et al., 2021; Drijvers et al., 2021; Maciejewski, 2021).
As we reflect on the academic impacts of the first edition of the book, the chap-
ters within have offered theoretical constructs and methodological approaches,
which have provided other researchers in the field with research tools that are con-
tinuing to advance our collective understandings of the field. In this second edition,
we invited all of the authors who had contributed to the first edition to submit new
research that evidenced advances in their experiences, knowledge and practices. We
also invited new authors, whose research had emerged in the intervening years, to
offer new critical perspectives that broaden the international commentary, with con-
tributions from Argentina, Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Hong Kong,
Iceland, Italy, Mexico, Turkey and the United Kingdom.
vii
viii Introduction
A Journey Through the Text
The evolution of the research on technology in mathematics education has enabled

a more nuanced understanding of the teacher’s perspective to take account of their
trajectories of development from pre-service contexts through to in-service prac-
tices over time. Hence, we have chosen to loosely organise the text body in accor-
dance with teachers’ trajectories of experience with technology use. These
experiences concern those within: university undergraduate courses as learners of
mathematics; university-based pre-service teacher education courses; university-
based teacher education courses and research projects with in-service teachers as
participants.
We begin with chapters by Thurm, Ebers and Barzel, and Bozkurt and Koyunkaya
that address more practical considerations regarding the provision of support and
training for both in-service and pre-service teachers of mathematics.
The growth of large-scale, online professional development initiatives aimed at
teachers has resulted in new research that seeks to develop theoretical understand-
ing of the design and impact of such initiatives alongside the development of appro-
priate methodologies to inform both aspects. The chapter by Thurm, Ebers and
Barzel addresses aspects of the design of professional development for mathematics
teachers in Germany with a particular focus on the role of the professional develop-
ment facilitators within a regional professional development programme for 30 par-
ticipants who are all such facilitators. The programme was conducted online (due to
the Covid-19 pandemic) and Thurm and colleagues’ findings focus on the impact of
a module of the programme that supported participants’ understanding (and use) of
video-based case studies of mathematics teaching that embed multi-representational
technology. They use Prediger, Roesken-Winter and Leuders’ Three-Tetrahedron
Model as a framework to highlight the complexities of PD design that has a class-
room level, teacher PD level and facilitators’ PD level (Prediger et al., 2019). Their
findings, which highlight aspects of facilitators’ noticing, emphasise the need for
carefully structured prompts to support the analysis of video-based activities that
serve the dual needs of the facilitators and the teachers with whom they are working.
A pre-service teacher education context in Turkey is the subject of the qualitative
action research reported by Bozkurt and Koyunkaya in which they study the impacts
of a redesigned practicum course informed by the Instrumental Orchestration model
(Drijvers et al., 2010; Trouche, 2004). The course design emphasises the pre-service
mathematics teachers’ (PSTs, n=4) developing use of a dynamic mathematics soft-
ware (GeoGebra) from the university setting (through micro teaching to their peers)
as their practices move to school classrooms. Their study adopts a cyclical research
method that draws on data from the PSTs’ lesson plans, supported by analyses of
their teaching and associated interviews. The research findings offer insights into
how the PSTs initially overlooked the exploitation modes for the technology in their
planning but became more systematic in their approach through both the processes
of micro teaching and during the practicum itself. Given that many pre-service pro-
grammes stop short of requiring PSTs to apply their learning about mathematical
Introduction ix
technologies within authentic teaching situations, this chapter provides valuable

insights on the design decisions taken by the teacher educators to develop such an
approach.
The majority of the remaining chapters in the book report studies that involve
in-service teachers as participants within a range of research settings, each with a
different focus. We order these chapters according to teachers’ trajectories of devel-
opment with novel to them technologies. We adopt this phrase from Ng and Leung
(Chap. 10) as it better reflects our experience and expectation that it is not possible
for all teachers to be cognisant of all available (and educationally relevant) tech-
nologies at any point in time, irrespective of how mature the wider community
considers these technologies to be.
The study by Bakos explores how a novel multi-touch tablet technology,
TouchTimes, is used by two primary teachers in British Columbia, Canada, through
a lens that considers the teacher, the tool and the mathematical concept as an ensem-
ble. Rooted in the instrumental approach, and in particular Haspekian’s elaboration
of double instrumental genesis (2011, 2014), Bakos uses her case studies to reveal
three new orchestration types alongside sharing insights on how the agency exerted
by the tool extends our existing understandings of the nature of multiplication, and
the role of haptic devices within young children’s development.
Ng, Liang and Leung’s study also focuses on a more novel technology, 3D pens,
which enable 3-dimensional models to be drawn as physical objects. The 3D pen
warms and extrudes a plastic filament to produce a model that then hardens as it
cools. Ng, Liang and Leung’s method adopts the use of video-aided reflection with
a group of four in-service secondary school teachers in Hong Kong to support their
realisations of the affordances of such technologies as a potential teaching tool. In
their findings, Ng, Liang and Leung provide evidence for how the videos operate as
a boundary object between the teachers and researchers in the study (Robutti
et al., 2019).
Although the concept of silent animated films to show mathematical concepts
dates back to the early twentieth century and was further developed in the 1950s by
Nicolet, the design-based research developed by Kristinsdóttir examines aspects of
their design and use in her case study in an upper secondary mathematics classroom
in Iceland. Kristinsdóttir describes silent videos as short (< 2 min) videos that do not
pose a mathematical problem to be solved but rather invite the viewer to wonder, to
experience dynamically changing mathematical objects such that they might dis-
cover something new or consolidate previous thoughts about the mathematics
shown in the video. Each associated silent video task invites students to work in
pairs to prepare and record a voice-over for the video clip, which is then shared with
the class during a whole-class discussion that is led by the teacher. Framed by a lens
that focuses on the formative assessment dimension of such discussions,
Kristinsdóttir adapted Schoenfeld’s Teaching for Robust Understanding framework
(2018) to identify opportunities and challenges associated with such discussions.
McAlindon, Ball and Chang’s study also explores an innovative technology-
enhanced pedagogic approach, the flipped classroom, through a case study involving
an experienced teacher in an Australian secondary school. Defining the flipped
x Introduction
classroom as one in which the activities that would normally be conducted in the
classroom are flipped with those that would normally be conducted as homework,
they explore their case study teacher’s experiences and perceptions of a first imple-
mentation for the teaching of linear equations. This exploratory study, which involves
the teacher making qualitative comparisons with a parallel class that she taught using
her traditional approach, concludes positive outcomes such as improved student
engagement and improved formative assessment practices. Although the design pro-
cess for the teacher requires new technology skills and is time consuming, the authors
offer some guidelines to inform professional development initiatives that have the
goal to support mathematics teachers’ flipped classroom pedagogies.
Gueudet, Besnier, Bueno-Ravel and Poisard extend earlier research that featured
in the first edition of the book, which shone a theoretical lens on teachers’ classroom
practices at the kindergarten level from a Documentational Approach to Didactics
perspective (Gueudet et al., 2014). In the intervening years, evolutions of this theory
and its associated research methods have enabled the authors to consider a kinder-
garten teacher’s development as evidenced by both one of her documents (a micro
view) and the encompassing resource system (a macro view). The authors conclude
that both the micro and macro views are necessary to fully appreciate a teacher’s
design capacity within the context of long-term professional development concern-
ing digital technologies for education.
Staying in France, Abboud-Blanchard and Vanderbrouck report findings from a
study in France that explores the implementation of tablet computers in the French
primary school setting. Although tablets are no longer widely considered a new
technology, the authors’ contribution extends ideas reported in the first edition of
the book, which concludes three axes (cognitive, pragmatic and temporal) through
which to consider teachers’ adoption of new technologies within their mathematics
classrooms (Abboud-Blanchard, 2014). Abboud-Blanchard and Vanderbrouck
introduce the additional constructs of tensions and proximities, which they argue
align more specifically to classroom uses of tablet computers. In their chapter, the
authors articulate how these two new constructs evolve from Activity Theory, and
elaborations of Vygotsky’s and Valsiner’s respective Zone Theories.
Sandoval and Trigueros’ chapter is also situated in a primary school setting, this
time in Mexico. They offer new perspectives on the teaching of mathematics in
primary schools, with an emphasis on how two teachers integrate digital technolo-
gies to particularly meet the needs of learners from challenging socio-economic
contexts. In common with their contribution to the first edition of the book (Trigueros
et al., 2014), they adopt an enactivist approach to characterise teachers’ actions and
the resulting student activities that reveal high levels of participation in immersive
environments for learners who are commonly disenfranchised by education systems.
We move from primary school contexts to the secondary phase in the next two
chapters, which both follow teachers over a period of time with the aim to identify
aspects of their evolving practices. The first, by Simsek, Bretscher, Clark-Wilson
and Hoyles, is situated in England and focuses on three in-service teachers’ evolv-
ing use of a dynamic mathematical technology (Cornerstone Maths) for the teach-
ing of geometric similarity to 11–14 year olds over a period of months. The chapter
Introduction xi
extends the understanding of Ruthven and colleagues’ notion of curriculum script,

which is one of the five Structuring Features of Classroom Practice that was
described and critiqued in the first edition of the book (Ruthven, 2014). Simsek and
colleagues’ chapter contributes a case example of such a curriculum script for the
teaching of a specific mathematics topic, highlighting aspects of more productive
teaching practices which are often difficult to notice.
Villareal’s chapter, in which she describes research in Argentina, follows a sec-
ondary school mathematics teacher from her pre-service teacher education pro-
gramme into her role as a novice in-service teacher. The research dually categorises
the teacher’s evolving relationships with technology, which adopts Goos’ taxonomy
of sophistication (master, servant, partner and extension of self (Goos, 2000), along-
side Ruthven’s five Structuring Features of Classroom Practice (Ruthven et al.,
2009). These two frameworks offer an interesting and novel perspective for cate-
gorising the evolution of teachers’ classroom practices that have implications for
the design of teacher education programmes and initiatives.
A university in Canada is the setting for the research reported by Buteau, Muller,
Santacruz Rodriguez, Mgombelo, Sacristan and Gueudet, which expands research
understanding on the long-term development for a faculty-wide integration of pro-
gramming technologies within undergraduate-level courses for both mathematics
students and future mathematics teachers. Situated in the same context as the earlier
study by Buteau and Muller (2014), the instrumental orchestration framework is
used to examine the 20-year trajectory of this integration from the perspective of the
faculty members. The authors’ analysis of the course instructors’ and selected stu-
dents’ schemes concludes an orchestration and genesis alignment model that high-
lights the complexities of the instructor’s role as both policy maker and teacher with
responsibility for orchestrating the students’ instrumental geneses.
The Covid-19 pandemic provides the context for the research study that features in
the chapter by Sánchez Aguilar, Esparza Puga and Lezama. Set in South America, the
authors conducted a survey (n = 179) across five Latin American Countries (Argentina,
Chile, Colombia, Mexico and Uruguay) that aimed to elicit teachers’ perceptions of
the abrupt integration of digital technologies into their practices, triggered by wide-
spread and mandatory school closures in the first six months of 2020. This was framed
within a methodology that aims to capture the lived experience of teachers by giving
them a voice to express the obstacles that they faced. The study captures the broad
range of technologies in play, extending beyond solely mathematical technologies
(i.e., calculators, dynamic geometry software or spreadsheets) to include more general
technologies such as videoconferencing software and learning management plat-
forms. The findings revealed six categories of obstacles that capture both what they
did and how they felt as they worked to overcome the challenges that they faced.
The penultimate two chapters of the book offer theoretical contributions.
In the first edition of the book, the chapter by Arzarello, Robutti, Sabena, Cusi,
Garuti, Malara and Martignone introduced a new theoretical model, Meta-Didactical
Transposition (MDT), which was developed to respond to the need to consider the
complexity of teacher education with respect to the institutions in which teaching
operates, alongside the relationships that teachers must have with these institutions
xii Introduction
(Arzarello et al., 2014). The original MDT model (now referred to as MDT.1), an
extension of Chevallard’s Anthropological Theory of Didactics (1985, 1992, 1999),
describes the evolution of teachers’ education over time by analysing the different
variables involved: components that change from external to internal (internalisa-
tion); brokers who support teachers interacting with them; and dialectic interactions
between the community of teachers and researchers. The chapter by Cusi, Robutti,
Panero, Taranto and Aldon presents an evolution of MDT, namely, Meta-Didactical
Transposition.2 (MDT.2), which offers a deeper insight into the process of inter-
nalisation that captures the way in which the actors within the teachers education
programme develop shared praxeologies over time through the introduction of the
external (and, in some cases digital) components.
The final chapter, by Sinclair, Haspekian, Robutti and Clark-Wilson, charts the
development of theories that frame research on teaching mathematics with technol-
ogy from both a historical perspective and an epistemological one. Building directly
on Ken Ruthven’s chapter in the first edition of this book, it aims to highlight the
evolution of the relevant theories since 2014 and highlights trends in the ways that
these have been operationalised in recent studies. Furthermore, the authors seek to
make explicit the philosophical roots of the commonly adopted theories to provoke
the reader to consider what each might reveal—or conceal—concerning aspects of
teaching mathematics with digital technologies.
Alison Clark-Wilson
Ornella Robutti
Nathalie Sinclair
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Contents
Professional Development for Teaching Mathematics

with Technology: Fostering Teacher and Facilitator Noticing �� 1
Daniel Thurm, Patrick Ebers, and Bärbel Barzel

Using the Instrumental Orchestration Model for Planning
and Teaching Technology-Based Mathematical Tasks
as Part of a Restructured Practicum Course�� 31
Gülay Bozkurt and Melike Yiğit Koyunkaya
An Ensemble Approach to Studying the Teaching
of Multiplication Using TouchTimes�� 65
Sandy Bakos
Using First- and Second-Order Models to Characterise
In-Service Teachers’ Video-Aided Reflection on Teaching
and Learning with 3D Pens �� 95
Oi-Lam Ng, Biyao Liang, and Allen Leung
Opportunities and Challenges That Silent Video Tasks
Bring to the Mathematics Classroom�� 119
Bjarnheiður Kristinsdóttir
Teaching Linear Equations with Technology:
A Flipped Perspective�� 149
Andrew McAlindon, Lynda Ball, and Shanton Chang

Tensions and Proximities in Teaching and Learning Activities:
A Case Study of a Teacher’s Implementation of Tablet-Based Lessons�� 181
Maha Abboud and Fabrice Vandebrouck
Digital Resources in Kindergarten Teachers’ Documents
and Resource Systems: A Case Study in France �� 211
Ghislaine Gueudet, Sylvaine Besnier, Laetitia Bueno-Ravel,
and Caroline Poisard
xv
xvi Contents
Analysis of Primary School Teachers’ Roles in the Dynamics

of Mathematics Lessons That Integrate Technology
Resources in Challenging Socio-economic Contexts�� 235
Ivonne Sandoval and María Trigueros
Characterising Features of Secondary Teachers’
Curriculum Scripts for Geometric Similarity
with Dynamic Mathematical Technology�� 263
Ali Simsek, Nicola Bretscher, Alison Clark-Wilson, and Celia Hoyles
Instrumental Orchestration of the Use of Programming
Technology for Authentic Mathematics Investigation Projects �� 289
Chantal Buteau, Eric Muller, Joyce Mgombelo,
Marisol Santacruz Rodriguez, Ana Isabel Sacristán,
and Ghislaine Gueudet
Researching Professional Trajectories Regarding
the Integration of Digital Technologies: The Case of Vera,
a Novice Mathematics Teacher �� 323
Mónica E. Villarreal and Cristina B. Esteley

The Abrupt Transition to Online Mathematics Teaching
Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic: Listening to Latin American
Teachers’ Voices �� 347
Mario Sánchez Aguilar, Danelly Susana Esparza Puga,
and Javier Lezama
Meta-Didactical Transposition.2: The Evolution of a Framework
to Analyse Teachers’ Collaborative Work with Researchers
in Technological Settings �� 365
Annalisa Cusi, Ornella Robutti, Monica Panero, Eugenia Taranto,
and Gilles Aldon
Revisiting Theories That Frame Research
on Teaching Mathematics with Digital Technology�� 391
Nathalie Sinclair, Mariam Haspekian, Ornella Robutti,
and Alison Clark-Wilson
Index�� 419
Contributors
Maha Abboud is a professor and researcher in Mathematics Education in France.

She is the head of the LDAR lab (Laboratoire de Didactique André Revuz), the larg-
est science and mathematics education laboratory in France. Her research interests
focus on teachers’ activities with digital technologies. She also studies the practices
of teacher educators and their impact on the teaching and learning of mathematics
and, more broadly, within STEM education. Her professional interests aim at
improving teachers’ professional development in the light of technological change.
She has supervised eight doctoral theses related to these topics. Her theoretical con-
cerns focus on conceptualising teacher and student activities in technology-based
lessons that aim to enhance students’ mathematical thinking. As leader of her
research team, she initiates and participates in the development and refinement of
concepts and methods in educational investigation of the daily life of the mathemat-
ics/science classroom. She teaches mathematics and didactics at the Master’s degree
level at the universities of Cergy and Paris Cité.
Mario Sánchez Aguilar is the Head of the Mathematics Education Program of the
National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico. He serves as an Associate Editor of the
research journals Educación Matemática and Implementation and Replication
Studies in Mathematics Education. He is a visiting professor at the University of
San Carlos of Guatemala. He obtained his PhD in Mathematics Education from
Roskilde University in Denmark in 2010. He is interested in the use of digital tools
in the teaching and learning of mathematics.
Gilles Aldon is now retired after a career as a mathematics teacher and then as a
researcher at the French Institute of Education (Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon)
where he was head of the EducTice research team until his retirement. His main
research topic is the use of technology in mathematics teaching and learning.
Particularly, he is interested in the issues of the modifications of teaching and learn-
ing in the digital era, the contribution of technology in the experimental part of
mathematics, and the problem solving processes. The research methodology that
was developed in the EducTice team rests upon design-based research and the
xvii
xviii Contributors
collaborative research where teachers and researchers are involved in both the
research description and the methodology. He is also the president of the International
Commission for the Study and Improvement of Mathematics Teaching (CIEAEM in
French), which investigates the conditions and the possibilities for the development
of mathematics education, taking into account both teachers’ and researchers’
experiences.
Sandy Bakos achieved her PhD in mathematics education at Simon Fraser

University, Canada. Prior to this, she taught elementary school (K–6) for 15 years in
Alberta, Canada, and also spent a year teaching grades 4/5 in Victoria, Australia.
Her research examines how elementary school teachers implement digital technolo-
gies for teaching and learning mathematics. Sandy’s work has primarily focused on
teachers’ adoption and use of TouchTimes as a pedagogical tool, how this particular
digital technology shapes their own understanding of multiplication, and how teach-
ers then use it to build student understanding.
Lynda Ball is a senior lecturer in Mathematics Education at the Melbourne

Graduate School of Education at the University of Melbourne. Her doctoral study
and subsequent research focuses on teaching and learning secondary mathematics
with technology. Her early research focused on the use of Computer Algebra
Systems (CAS) for teaching, learning and assessment in senior secondary mathe-
matics, with particular interest in the evolution of written communication of exami-
nation solutions in the presence of CAS. Teacher beliefs and experiences in teaching
with technology were also a focus. Recent research collaborations, including those
with research students, are in the area of STEM education, flipped learning, online
diagnostic assessment systems, technology-assisted guided discovery, communica-
tion with technology and computer algebra systems in mathematics. The evolution
of teacher practices and opportunities to improve student learning with technology,
as well as teacher professional development, are ongoing research interests.
Bärbel Barzel is a full professor of Mathematics Education at the University of

Duisburg-Essen. Her research focuses on the meaningful use of technology in the math-
ematics classroom and the professionalisation of teachers to orchestrate and manage this
successfully. She is a leading member of the German Centre for Mathematics Teacher
Education (DZLM), a nationwide centre that researches and develops professional
development (PD) courses and materials for teachers and PD facilitators.
Sylvaine Besnier is a kindergarten teacher in Rennes (France). She has been a

member of the Center for Research for Education, Learning and Didactics (CREAD)
since 2012. In 2016, she defended a PhD on the documentation work of kindergar-
ten teachers in mathematics, with specific attention to their use of digital resources
and its consequences in terms of professional development. Her work focuses on the
resources and professional knowledge of teachers. She is particularly interested in
the teaching of numbers at kindergarten level and in digital resources. In terms of
theory, her research uses the documentational approach to didactics and the notion
of orchestration.
Contributors xix
Gülay Bozkurt is an assistant professor in the Department of Mathematics

Education at İzmir Demokrasi University, Turkey. She received both her MPhil
degree in Educational Research (2012) and her doctoral degree in Education (2016)
from the University of Cambridge. She also holds an MSc degree in Mathematics
Education (2010) from the University of Warwick. Additionally, she has extensive
experience as a secondary school teacher of mathematics in Turkey and is thus
aware of the practical world of school teaching. Her research interests centre around
the use of digital technologies in mathematics education and, in particular, the
development of pre-service and in-service mathematics teachers’ professional
knowledge for teaching with technology.
Nicola Bretscher is a lecturer in Mathematics Education at UCL Institute of

Education. Her research interests centre around the use of (digital) technology in
mathematics education and, in particular, how mathematics teachers integrate tech-
nology into their classroom practice and their mathematical knowledge for teach-
ing. She is also interested in the use of quantitative and mixed methods in
mathematics education research. These research interests inform her teaching on
initial teacher education, Master’s programmes as well as doctoral supervision.
Nicola first became interested in the use of technology in the teaching and learning
of mathematics as a pre-service teacher during her training year. As a secondary
school mathematics teacher, she developed this interest through her Master’s dis-
sertation, focusing on the development of teaching techniques for using dynamic
geometry software in her own classroom practice. Her doctoral research focused on
mathematics teachers’ knowledge and how it is involved in interacting with technol-
ogy, as a means of exploring technology integration further. She is a statistician for
the SMART Spaces project, an evaluation of an intervention based on spaced learn-
ing in science education funded by the Education Endowment Foundation.
Laetitia Bueno-Ravel is an associate professor of Mathematics Education at the

University of Brest and a member of the Center for Research for Education, Learning
and Didactics (CREAD). Her PhD (defended in 2003, University of Grenoble,
France) concerned the place given to algorithmics by teachers in high school math-
ematics education. The use of new technologies by teachers has always been a cen-
tral theme in her research. For several years, she has been reorienting her research
work towards the integration of new technologies in the teaching of mathematics
and the documentary work of teachers at primary school level, focusing on the
teaching of number construction, numeration and calculation. From 2012 to 2018,
Laetitia was a member of COPIRELEM, a French association of primary school
teacher trainers promoting research in mathematics education to the community of
teacher trainers, in particular through the annual organisation of conferences.
Chantal Buteau is a full professor in the Department of Mathematics and Statistics

at Brock University (Canada). Since she joined Brock in 2004, Chantal has been
progressively involved in education research with a main focus on the integration of
digital technology for (university) mathematics learning, including programming,
xx Contributors
CAS, and epistemic mathematics (computer) games. Over the years, Chantal has
taken part in various collaborative research projects funded by the Canadian Social
Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC), such as “Computer Algebra
Systems (CAS) in University Instruction: An International Research Study on CAS
Usage and Sustainability”, and leads the research under which this chapter falls.
Chantal recently conducted research work for the Ontario Ministry of Education
(Canada) on the teaching and learning of elementary coding and secondary school
computer studies. She is Co-director of the Mathematics Knowledge Network
(http://mkn-rcm.ca) that brings together diverse mathematics education stakehold-
ers from across Ontario (Canada), and Lead of its Computational Modelling com-
munity of practice. In terms of teaching related to this chapter, Chantal has been
directly involved in her department in the teaching of the programming-based math-
ematics MICA courses. In 2018, she also introduced a MICA III course section
specifically designed for future teachers.
Shanton Chang is a professor of Information Behavior at the School of Computing

and Information Systems, the University of Melbourne. He is an Associate Dean
(International) at the Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology. He is
also the co-chair of the Digital Access and Equity Program at the Melbourne Social
Equity Institute. His research focuses on examining information needs and online
behaviours in education, health and business contexts. Shanton has published exten-
sively in this field. He is also the co-author of Digital Experiences of International
Students: Challenging Assumptions and Rethinking Engagement (2020) as part of
the Routledge Series on Internationalization in Higher Education. He is also co-
editor of the Journal of Studies in International Education Special Issue on
“Digitalization of International Education”. He was also recognised by the
Australian Computer Society as Information Communication Technology (ICT)
Educator of the Year in 2017.
Annalisa Cusi graduated in Mathematics from Modena and Reggio Emilia

University, where she also obtained a PhD in Mathematics. She worked as a research
fellow at Torino University from 2014 to 2016, within the European Project
FaSMEd, aimed at investigating the role played by digital technologies in support-
ing formative assessment processes. She is an associate professor of Mathematics
Education at the Department of Mathematics of the Sapienza University of Rome,
where she is involved in pre-service and in-service teacher education programmes.
Her main research interests are: (1) early algebra and innovative approaches to the
teaching of algebra; (2) analysis of teaching/learning processes, with a focus on the
role played by the teacher during classroom discussions; (3) methodologies for pre-
and in-service teacher education; (4) analysis of the dynamics that characterise
teachers’ and researchers’ interactions within communities of inquiry; (5) formative
assessment practices in mathematics within technology-enhanced classrooms; and
(6) design and use of digital tools and resources to foster individualisation at univer-
sity level.
Contributors xxi
Patrick Ebers is a PhD student in Mathematics Education at the University of

Duisburg-Essen. In his PhD thesis he is analysing how video cases can be used to
improve teachers’ noticing regarding how students use technology. He is an external
member of the German Centre for Mathematics Teacher Education (DZLM) and he
also works as a secondary school mathematics and physics teacher.
Cristina B. Esteley was a mathematics teacher who worked in several secondary

schools in Córdoba, Argentina. She has a Master’s degree in mathematics education
from the City University of New York (USA). She has a PhD in Education Sciences
from the National University of Córdoba (UNC). She has taught mathematics and
mathematics education at several Argentine universities. She conducts research
focused on professional trajectories of teachers or future teachers of mathematics
when they are involved with mathematical modelling activities in contexts that pro-
mote collaborative work and the use of technologies. She participates or has partici-
pated as a researcher in charge of research projects and as advisor of PhD theses or
others graduate works on topics related to her research. She is a member of the
Science and Technology Education Group (GECYT) of FAMAF and of the editorial
committee of Revista de Educación Matemática published at UNC since 1979. She
collaborates and has collaborated with colleagues in the framework of the
International Commission on Mathematical Instruction. Such collaborations focus
on inquiries, analyses and evaluations of research on mathematical modelling and
on collaborative work among mathematics teachers.
Ghislaine Gueudet has been a full professor of Mathematics Education at the

University Paris-Saclay, France since September 2021 and was previously a profes-
sor at the University of Brest (France). Her PhD (defended in 2000, University of
Grenoble, France) concerned university Mathematics Education, and she is still
researching this theme. She is Co-editor-in-chief of the International Journal for
Research in Undergraduate Mathematics Education. Since 2006 she has been
developing a new research direction on the design and use of educational resources
(including digital resources). Concerning these resources, she has introduced in a
joint work with Professor Luc Trouche, then with Professor Birgit Pepin, the docu-
mentational approach to didactics, analyzing teachers’ interactions with resources
and the consequences of these interactions in terms of professional development.
The documentational approach is now used in studies concerning teaching practices
and teachers’ professional development at all school levels and in teacher education
programmes. Ghislaine has been involved as Co-editor for several collective books
on university mathematics education and/or teaching resources and the documenta-
tional approach, and is author or co-author of more than fifty articles and book
chapters.
Mariam Haspekian is a researcher in Mathematics Education at the EDA labora-

tory, and a senior lecturer in Didactics of Mathematics at University of Paris Cité,
where she is the head of the three-year Bachelor’s degree (Licence) in “Educational
Sciences” programme. She completed her thesis in 2005 under the direction of
xxii Contributors
Michèle Artigue, on the integration of spreadsheets for algebra teaching. Since then,
her work, within diverse national and international projects, has concerned the
teaching of mathematics in digital environments and is oriented along two direc-
tions: the networking of theoretical frames in mathematics education, and the analy-
sis of instrumented teaching practices. Contributing to the Instrumental Approach in
didactics, her work seeks to develop tools for studying the mathematical practices
implemented by teachers in new situations. To analyse these, she introduced and is
working on the concepts of distance from practices, didactic reference points and
double instrumental genesis of the teacher. She has participated in the organisation
of many international conferences (ICME, CERME, EMF). In France, she is a
member of the Committee of the ARDM (Association for Research in Didactics of
Mathematics, part of the French Commission for Mathematics Teaching-CFEM).
Celia Hoyles taught mathematics in London schools from the late 1960s before
moving into higher education, becoming a professor at the Institute of Education,
University of London, in 1984. She was inspired by the vision of Seymour Papert to
use digital technology to open access to mathematics, and has led many research
and development projects to promote this aim with a range of colleagues, notably
Richard Noss. Celia worked to change the public face of mathematics by co-
presenting a popular TV mathematics quiz show in the UK, Fun and Games, which
topped the prime-time ratings between 1987 and 1990. She was the first recipient of
the International Commission of Mathematics Instruction (ICMI) Hans Freudenthal
medal in 2004, and the Royal Society Kavli Education Medal in 2011. She was the
UK Government’s Chief Adviser for mathematics (2004–07) and the director of the
National Centre for Excellence in the Teaching of Mathematics (2007–13). Celia
gave a keynote speech at the International Congress on Mathematical Education
(ICME, 11), Monterrey, Mexico in 2008. Celia was President of the Institute of
Mathematics and its Applications (IMA) (2014–15) and she was made an Officer of
the Order of the British Empire in 2004 and a Dame Commander in 2014.
Melike Yiğit Koyunkaya is an associate professor in the Department of

Mathematics Education at Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey. She received her doc-
toral degree in Curriculum and Instruction with a focus on Mathematics Education
from Purdue University in 2014. She also holds Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees in
Mathematics from Ege University, Turkey. Her research interests concern geometry
education from a constructivist theoretical approach and the professional develop-
ment of pre-service mathematics teachers in relation to teaching with technology.
Bjarnheiður Kristinsdóttir works as an adjunct lecturer at the University of

Iceland. She holds a BSc degree in Mathematics from the University of Iceland, a
Dipl. Math. (MSc) degree in Applied Mathematics from the Freiberg University of
Mining and Technology in Germany, and a PhD in Mathematics Education from the
University of Iceland. Her doctoral project on the definition, development and
implementation of silent video tasks was conducted in close collaboration with
mathematics teachers in upper secondary schools in Iceland. Before and during her
Contributors xxiii
doctoral studies, Bea worked for eight years as a licensed mathematics teacher at
upper secondary school level. Her research focus is on mathematics teaching prac-
tices and task design, especially involving practices that require students to think,
the use of dynamic geometry software and videos, formative assessment, and the
orchestration of classroom discussion. Bea has been active within the Nordic-Baltic
GeoGebra Network since 2012 and has collaborated on research projects with
Professor Zsolt Lavicza and his team at the Johannes Kepler University Linz School
of STEM Education in Austria since 2016, most recently on task design for the EU
project <colette/> (https://colette-project.eu/), which aims to develop a computa-
tional thinking learning environment for teachers and students in Europe.
Allen Leung is a professor of Mathematics Education at Hong Kong Baptist

University. He received his PhD in Mathmatics from the University of Toronto,
Canada. His research interests include geometric reasoning in dynamic geometry
environments, development of mathematics pedagogy using variation, tool-based
mathematics task design, and integrated STEM pedagogy. Allen has published in
major international mathematics education journals, books and conference proceed-
ings. He was involved in ICME 11, 12 and 13 as a Topic Study Group organising
member, a presenter of a Regular Lecture and a member of an ICME survey team.
He has contributed to two ICMI Studies and was an IPC member of the 22nd ICMI
Study: Task Design in Mathematics Education. He co-edited the Springer book
Digital Technologies in Designing Mathematics Education Tasks – Potential and
Pitfalls (Mathematics Education in the Digital Era Book Series) (2016). Allen is an
associate editor of the Springer journal Digital Experiences in Mathematics
Education.
Javier Lezama has a PhD in Mathematics Education from the research centre
CINVESTAV in Mexico City. He is a member of the National System of Researchers
of Mexico, Level 1. He is one of the founders of the Mathematics Education Program
of the National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico. Javier also created the social network
“DocenMat” aimed at mathematics teachers from all over Latin America. He is a
visiting professor at the Autonomous University of Guerrero in Mexico. His research
interests are connected to the area of mathematics teacher education and development.
Biyao Liang is a postdoctoral fellow sponsored by the Hong Kong Research Grants
Committee’s (RGC) Research Fellowship Scheme and supervised by Dr Oi-Lam Ng
at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. She obtained her BSc in Mathematics from
South China Normal University (China) and a PhD in Mathematics Education from
the University of Georgia (USA). Her research programme is at the intersections of
mathematical cognition, social interactions and teacher education. Specifically, her
research draws on radical constructivism and Piagetian theories to characterise stu-
dents’ and teachers’ ongoing constructions of mathematical knowledge through social
interactions and to design educational opportunities, tools and materials that can sup-
port learning through interactions. She has diverse classroom experiences in Mainland
xxiv Contributors
China, Hong Kong, Kansas and Georgia, and has been teaching content and pedagogy
courses for pre-service secondary mathematics teachers since 2019.
Andrew McAlindon is a secondary school teacher of Mathematics and integrated

Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) in Victoria, Australia.
His doctoral research centred on the efficacy of the flipped classroom in secondary
school mathematics, with a focus on student outcomes and teacher perspectives.
Andrew has an ongoing focus on educational improvement in school contexts, with
teacher professional development in pedagogical approaches within mathematics
and STEM being an ongoing research interest.
Joyce Mgombelo is an associate professor of Mathematics Education at Brock

University, Ontario, Canada, where she teaches courses and supervises graduate
students in mathematics education and cognition. Her research interests are in the
areas of mathematics/STEM education, teacher education (in-service and pre-
service) and curriculum studies. Her research programme focuses on mathematics
cognition, identity and ethics, based on principles of human cognition. This work is
developed from the theoretical perspectives of enactivism, complexity science and
psychoanalysis. Joyce’s most recent research includes the Canadian Social Sciences
and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC)-funded collaborative research projects
“Educating for the 21st Century: post-secondary students learning ‘progmatics’
(computer programming for mathematical investigation, simulation, and real-world
modeling)” and “Advancing research methodology in mathematics education for
collective learning systems” as well as the Canada Global Affairs collaborative
development project “Capacity Development for mathematics teaching in rural and
remote communities in Tanzania”.
Eric Muller is a professor emeritus in the Department of Mathematics and Statistics

at Brock University and a fellow of the Fields Institute for Research in Mathematical
Sciences. He has published in the areas of theoretical physics, operations research
and mathematics education. He continues to collaborate in research that focuses on
the use of programming technology in project-based courses in undergraduate
mathematics. Eric completed an MSc in 1963 in the area of Calculus of Variations
under Professor Hanno Rund at the University of Natal in Durban. He then briefly
taught at Rhodes University in Grahamstown before moving to the University of
Sheffield where he completed a PhD in the area of Thermal Conductivity under
Professor Norman March. He joined the Department of Mathematics at the fledg-
ling Brock University in 1967 and retired in 2004. Thereafter he spent time with
Pacific Resources for Education and Learning located in Honolulu and visited
mathematics departments in colleges on isolated islands dispersed over the North
Pacific.
Oi-Lam Ng is an assistant professor in the Department of Curriculum and

Instruction at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. Her research interests include
technology innovations in mathematics education, language and mathematics
Contributors xxv
discourse, mathematics teacher noticing, and STEM education. Particularly, she is

interested in advancing a Papert-inspired conception of “learning as making” and
the new opportunities it entails for engaging learners in constructionist practices
with emergent technologies (3D printing, coding, etc). Oi-Lam’s research has been
funded by the Research Grant Councils of Canada and Hong Kong respectively, and
her funded research is entitled “The effects of implementing a ‘learning as Making’
pedagogy on school mathematics learning: Primary students’ inquiry-based Making
with 3D Printing Pens”. Her work has been published in Educational Studies in
Mathematics, ZDM: International Journal on Mathematics Education, and the
British Journal of Educational Technology. Oi-Lam teaches mathematics and
STEM education courses. She received her PhD from Simon Fraser
University, Canada.
Monica Panero holds a PhD in Mathematics and is a lecturer and researcher in

Mathematics Education in the Dipartimento formazione e apprendimento of the
Scuola universitaria professionale della Svizzera italiana. Her main research foci
are on formative assessment, technology in mathematics education, attitudes
towards mathematics and its teaching, and mathematics teacher education. In her
recent publications she interrelates such interests by investigating the role of tech-
nology formative assessment, during her postdoctoral research within the European
project called FaSMEd (2014–16); by studying design principles for fostering and
assessing involvement and collaboration in MOOCs for mathematics teachers; and
by analyzing the evolution of pre-service primary school teachers’ attitudes towards
mathematics and its teaching. She is part of the executive board of the International
Commission for the Study and Improvement of Mathematics Teaching, and part of
the scientific committee of the open access semestral journal Didattica della
matematica. Dalla ricerca alle pratiche d’aula.
Caroline Poisard is an associate professor of Mathematics Education at the

University of Brest and a member of the Center for Research for Education, Learning
and Didactics (CREAD). Her research concerns the resources for teaching and
learning mathematics at primary school. It has three axes: world languages as a
resource for doing mathematics; material and virtual resources for teaching (calcu-
lating instruments, the Chinese abacus); and mathematical workshops in the class-
room (manipulations and games).
Marisol Santacruz Rodriguez is an assistant professor at the Faculty of Education

and Pedagogy of Universidad del Valle (Cali, Colombia). Her specialty is geometric
education using digital resources. Her research focuses on the study of the student’s
activity using digital technologies, the teacher’s documentational work and the anal-
ysis of the professional knowledge involve in the geometry classroom. For many
years, Marisol also taught mathematics at elementary school level. At present, she
is more focused on mathematics teacher education and the use of programming for
teaching mathematics.
xxvi Contributors
Ana Isabel Sacristán is a full researcher in the Department of Mathematics

Education of the Centre for Research and Advanced Studies (Cinvestav) in Mexico
City, where she has worked since 1989. Her main area of research is the teaching
and learning of mathematics through digital infrastructures. She is particularly fond
of the constructionism paradigm as a basis for the design of learning environments
where students can explore, and build ideas and concepts through computer pro-
gramming activities. She has published many academic papers in that area, but has
also developed tasks and authored materials for the Mexican Ministry of Education,
in particular those for the national “Teaching Mathematics with Technology” pro-
gramme, on the use of computer programming activities for mathematical learning.
She has trained teachers across Mexico and has co-led nationwide research and
evaluation on the use of technological tools in Mexican classrooms. She has also
been part of many international committees, including the International Programme
Committee of the 17th ICMI Study on “Mathematics Education and Technology—
Rethinking the Terrain” and has been a visiting professor in several countries,
including at the Institute of Education, University of London in England; Université
du Québec à Montréal in Canada; and the French Institute of Education at Lyon-
ENS in France. More recently she has collaborated with Canada’s Brock University.
Ivonne Sandoval has been a teacher and researcher at the National Pedagogical
University, Mexico City (Mexico), since 2008. She is a member of the National
System of Researchers of Mexico, Level 1. Her research focuses on designing and
implementing digital technologies and other resources for mathematics education.
Due to this interest, she has co-authored mathematics textbooks for elementary and
middle school students in Mexico. She also participated in a Mexican National proj-
ect dealing with the integration of digital technologies in elementary schools. Ivonne
also has an interest in research related to the development of spatial reasoning. She
is concerned with elaborating STEM tasks in different cultural contexts through
using various resources for students and teachers at elementary school level, specifi-
cally in socioeconomically disadvantaged contexts. In this case, she is concerned
with studying students, teachers and resources. She also investigates mathematics
teaching specialised knowledge, and for this reason, she belongs to the Iberoamerican
network for Mathematics Teaching Specialized Knowledge (MTSK) recognised by
the Iberoamerican Universities Postgraduates Association (AUIP) since 2019. Her
main contributions to mathematics education knowledge have focused on teachers’
use of technology and geometry. She has also participated in research with several
national and international groups in Mexico, Spain, Colombia, the United States
and Canada.
Ali Simsek has primary research interests in secondary school mathematics educa-
tion in general with a particular focus on the use of dynamic mathematical technolo-
gies (DMTs) in the classroom. In his four-year teaching experience in Turkey, Ali
developed a keen interest in the use of DMTs to enhance his students’ mathematical
learning. This led to him pursuing postgraduate studies in the field of Educational
Technologies in Mathematics Education. Having been awarded a competitive
Contributors xxvii
scholarship from the Turkish government, he completed an MA degree at University

College London (UCL)’s prestigious Institute of Education (IOE) in England in
2016. Following this, he then completed a PhD at the same university in 2021 under
the supervision of Professor Dame Celia Hoyles, Professor Alison Clark-Wilson
and Dr Nicola Bretscher. In his PhD research, he investigated lower secondary
mathematics teachers’ actual classroom practices as they used DMTs in the class-
room to promote their students’ understanding of the mathematical domain of geo-
metric similarity (GS). The findings of his PhD research revealed salient differences
and some commonalities between the teachers, pointing to key characteristics of
classroom practice involving DMTs for teaching GS. Ali now works as a national
educational expert at the Ministry of National Education in Turkey.
Danelly Susana Esparza Puga obtained a Bachelor’s degree in mathematics from

the Autonomous University of Ciudad Juárez (UACJ) in 2011. In 2014 she received
a Master’s degree in Mathematics Education from the UACJ and obtained her PhD
in Mathematics Education from the National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico in
2018. She is a member of the National System of Researchers of Mexico, and her
research interests focus on the use of digital tools in the teaching and learning of
mathematics.
Eugenia Taranto holds a PhD in Pure and Applied Mathematics and is a postdoc-
toral researcher at the University of Catania, where she is also a lecturer in
Mathematics Education for a graduate-level course. Her research fields include
MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses) for mathematics teacher education, in par-
ticular, she collaborated on the design and delivery of five Italian MOOCs and she
is the instructional designer of an international MOOC and technologies to mediate
the teaching and learning of mathematics (dynamic geometry systems, MathCityMap,
learning videos, serious games). She is the author of papers and chapters in various
prestigious journals and books.
Daniel Thurm is an assistant professor of Mathematics Education at the University

of Siegen in Germany. His research focuses on professional development for teach-
ing mathematics with technology as well as on digital formative assessment. He is
a member of the German Centre for Mathematics Teacher Education (DZLM), a
nationwide centre that researches and develops professional development (PD)
courses and materials for teachers and PD facilitators.
Maria Trigueros is an invited professor in the Mathematics Education Department

at the Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de México. She was a professor in the
Department of Mathematics at Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México for forty
years. She received her PhD in Education from Universidad Complutense de Madrid
in Spain and her degree and MSc in Physics from the Universidad Nacional
Autónoma de México (UNAM). She is a member of the Mexican Academy of
Sciences and of the Mexican National Researchers’ System. Her research focuses
on advanced mathematics teaching and learning, and on the use of technology in the
xxviii Contributors
teaching and learning of mathematics at elementary and middle school level. Her
main contributions to mathematics education knowledge have focused on teachers’
use of technology, algebra, linear algebra and calculus. Maria has received several
awards, among them the Luis Elizondo Prize, and has participated in national proj-
ects on the use of technology in mathematics teaching. She has developed instruc-
tional materials for students at elementary and middle school level and has served
as editor for several Mexican and international mathematics education research
journals. She has also participated in research with several national and interna-
tional groups in Mexico and other countries.
Fabrice Vandebrouck is a professor at Université Paris Cité and member of the

LDAR lab (Laboratoire de Didactique André Revuz). He is Co-director of the doc-
toral school Savoirs Sciences Education. He defended his PhD thesis in Mathematics
in 1999 before moving into the mathematics education field. He teaches mathemat-
ics to undergraduate students at the university and didactics at Master’s level. His
research concerns the transition from high school to tertiary level alongside the
integration of technologies in the teaching of mathematics. Fabrice has supervised
eight theses on these topics. He is one of the main contributors to the development
of activity theory in didactics of mathematics, alongside Maha Abboud, Aline
Robert and Janine Rogalski. He is editor of the book Mathematics Classrooms:
Students’ Activities and Teachers’ Practices (2013), and presented an invited lecture
at the 13th International Congress on Mathematical Education entitled “Activity
Theory in French Didactic Research”.
Mónica E. Villarreal has a degree in Mathematics from the Universidad Nacional

de Córdoba (UNC) (Argentina). She holds a PhD in Mathematics Education from
the Universidade Estadual Paulista (Brazil). She is a professor at the Faculty of
Mathematics, Astronomy, Physics and Computer Sciences (FAMAF) of UNC and
researcher at the National Council of Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET)
of Argentina. Mónica is a member of the Science and Technology Education Group
(GECYT) of FAMAF. She is involved in the initial education of mathematics teach-
ers. She has conducted and continues to conduct research on the professional devel-
opment of pre-service and in-service mathematics teachers, mathematical modelling,
and the use of digital technologies in educational contexts, directing research proj-
ects and theses on these topics. Mónica has numerous national and international
publications in co-authorship, and has participated in many congresses and invited
conferences. Since 2017 she has been Associate Editor of the Revista de Educación
Matemática published at UNC since 1979. She was a member of the International
Program Committee for the organisation of ICME 13 in Hamburg (2016). Mónica
is the Argentinean representative for the International Commission on Mathematical
Instruction (ICMI).
About the Editors
Alison Clark-Wilson is a professorial research fellow at UCL Institute of

Education (Faculty of Education and Society), University College London. Alison’s
research spans aspects of designing, implementing and evaluating educational digi-
tal technologies with a particular interest in mathematics education. This includes
theoretical contributions (the hiccup theory), alongside design-based research inter-
ventions and evaluation studies (Cornerstone Maths, TI-Nspire/TI-Navigator).
Between 2017 and 2021 Alison led the European Society for Research in
Mathematics Education’s working group on “Teaching mathematics with technol-
ogy and other resources”. As a former school mathematics teacher and teacher edu-
cator, Alison has particular empathy for the challenges faced by teachers as they
seek to stay abreast of technological developments, often with little systemic sup-
port and few professional incentives. Alison is the lead editor of the book
Mathematics Education in the Digital Age (2021) and presented the invited lecture
at the 14th International Congress on Mathematical Education in 2021 entitled
“(Re)Assessing Mathematics: Retaining the Integrity of Mathematics as a Human
Activity in the Digital Age”.
Ornella Robutti is a full professor of Mathematics Education in the Department of

Mathematics “G. Peano” of the University of Torino. Her fields of research are stu-
dents’ cognitive processes in mathematical activities; teaching mathematics within
technological environments; teachers’ work as individuals and in communities,
when teaching mathematics, when learning in professional development pro-
grammes, and when designing tasks for students; meanings of mathematical objects
in institutional and social contexts; mathematics students’ and teachers’ identities;
and boundary objects and boundary crossing between communities. She is the
author of articles/chapters in mathematics education and a team leader/lecturer/par-
ticipant in many international congresses (ICMI Study, ICME, PME, CERME,
ICTMT). In Italy she has been a member of CIIM (the scientific commission for
mathematics teaching of the Italian Mathematics Association), and in charge of in-
service and pre-service teachers’ professional development programmes.
xxix
xxx About the Editors
Nathalie Sinclair is a distinguished university professor in the Faculty of Education

at Simon Fraser University. She is the founding editor of Digital Experiences in
Mathematics Education and has written several books, including Mathematics and
the Body: Material Entanglements in the Classroom (2014). She directs the Tangible
Mathematics Project, which has created the multitouch applications TouchCounts
and TouchTimes.
Professional Development for Teaching
Mathematics with Technology: Fostering
Teacher and Facilitator Noticing
Daniel Thurm, Patrick Ebers, and Bärbel Barzel
Abstract Professional development of facilitators has been highlighted as a deci-

sive factor for scaling-up professional development (PD) efforts. However, research
on facilitators is still burgeoning and, for many areas like teaching mathematics
with technology, little research is available on how to professionalise facilitators. In
this paper we question how to prepare facilitators to support teachers for teaching
mathematics with multi-representational-tools (MRT). Teaching mathematics with
MRT requires a teacher to notice the subtle ways in which technology supports
students learning and the challenge for facilitators is to support such a nuanced
teacher noticing. Therefore, we focus on the constructs of teacher and facilitator
noticing when teaching with MRT, and describe the design and implementation of a
video-case-based strategy to professionalise PD facilitators to support teachers
noticing of students learning when working with MRT. For this we developed the
Content-Activity-Technology-Model (CAT-Model) that helps to capture in graphic
form the students’ learning processes when working with technology. This provides
a more accessible format for teachers and facilitators, which can also be used to
reconstruct teacher and facilitator noticing. Our analyses across the three levels of
the CAT-Model leads us to identify the potential and challenges for this method and
outline how the multi-level video-based design can be further improved.
D. Thurm (*)
University of Siegen, Siegen, Germany
e-mail: [email protected]
P. Ebers · B. Barzel
University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Switzerland AG 2022
A. Clark-Wilson et al. (eds.), The Mathematics Teacher in the Digital Era,
Mathematics Education in the Digital Era 16,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05254-5_1
2 D. Thurm et al.
Keywords Professional development · Facilitators · Mathematics · Digital

technology · Noticing · Teachers · Video · Cognitive-Activity-Technology Model
(CAT-Model)
1 Introduction
Nowadays, in many high-income countries, the use of digital technology for teach-
ing and learning mathematics is well-established in the mathematics curriculum
(Clark-Wilson et al., 2020; Thurm et al., 2023). In addition to great progress in the
development of teaching ideas and theoretical lenses, research has highlighted the
important role of the teacher (Clark-Wilson et al., 2014; Thurm &
Barzel, 2020, 2021; Drijvers et al., 2010; Thurm et al., 2023). Teachers contribute
decisively to the extent to which the potential of technology is exploited in the class-
room. In light of this, PD programs are regarded as important for supporting teach-
ers to integrate technology in their mathematics classrooms in meaningful ways. PD
programs can help to equip teachers with the special knowledge they need for teach-
ing with technology (for example, pedagogical technological knowledge; Thomas
& Palmer, 2014) and to support them to manage the complex task of orchestrating
technology-enhanced mathematics classrooms (Thurm et al., 2023; Drijvers et al.,
2010). Focusing on the design of teacher PD programs, research has identified sev-
eral characteristics that constitute high-quality teacher PD (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-
Leftwich, 2010; Grugeon et al., 2010; Ratnayake et al., 2020; Thurm et al.,
2023; Thurm & Barzel, 2020). These characteristics (or design principles) include,
for example, a focus on teachers’ technological pedagogical content knowledge,
fostering reflection of technology use, and a focus on helping teachers to understand
(and notice) how students might benefit from learning mathematics with technology
(Clark-Wilson & Hoyles, 2019; Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010; Thurm &
Barzel, 2020). Furthermore, professionalising teachers should be case-related,
which means relating PD activities to practical aspects such as specific student out-
comes, video-cases or other representations of practice (ibid.).
However, designing high-quality PD programs alone is not enough to ensure a
high-quality PD experience for teachers. Just as the teacher’s role has been found to
be critical at the classroom level, so research has pointed out the importance of PD
facilitators at the PD level. Facilitators are responsible for the design, adapt, and
implement PD programs for teachers: “Facilitators play a crucial role when scaling
up continuous professional development (CPD). They have to design and conduct
programs to initiate the process of teachers’ professionalization” (Peters-Dasdemir
et al., 2020, p. 457). Yet, despite this important role, little is known about how to
professionalise facilitators (Lesseig et al., 2017; Peters-Dasdemir et al., 2020;
Prediger et al., 2019; Roesken-Winter et al., 2015; Thurm et al., 2023). In particular
more research is needed to identify appropriate design principles that guide the
Professional Development for Teaching Mathematics with Technology: Fostering… 3
design of PD for facilitators and to investigate associated challenges (ibid). This

chapter makes a first step towards addressing this gap by focusing on teacher and
facilitator noticing as a key concept of their competencies (Lesseig et al., 2017;
Schueler & Roesken-Winter, 2018; Stahnke et al., 2016). Sherin, Russ, and
Colestock (2011b) define the concept of noticing as “professional vision in which
teachers selectively attend to events that take place and then draw on their existing
knowledge to interpret these noticed events” (Sherin, Russ, & Colestock, 2011b,
p. 80). Clearly, teacher noticing is highly relevant for teaching mathematics with
technology. Teachers will only use technology if they notice how technology
impacts positively on students’ learning. In addition, teachers noticing of students’
learning is a prerequisite to be able to scaffold students’ learning. Similarly, facilita-
tors noticing of teacher learning is also important. For example, facilitators need to
notice what teachers notice with respect to student learning in order to support
teachers in the PD program. In this paper we describe a video-case-based way to
foster teacher and facilitator noticing. The methodological basis for our design and
research endeavor is based on the Three-Tetrahedron-Model (3 T-Model) for
content-related PD research which highlights strategies for connecting class-
room level, teacher PD level and facilitator PD level (Prediger et al., 2019).
2 Theory
2.1 Teaching Mathematics with Multi-representational Tools
While the scope of available technologies has increased massively, commonly used
technology in the mathematics classroom are multi-representational-tools (MRT)
(also called “mathematics analysis software”; Pierce & Stacey, 2010) which com-
bine the capabilities of scientific calculators, function plotters, spreadsheets, statis-
tics and geometry applications, and computer algebra systems. In this chapter,
unless stated otherwise, the term “technology” is used to refer to such MRT. MRT
can support student learning by providing easy access to different forms of repre-
sentations, such as numerical and graphical representations and allowing dynamic
linking of different forms of representations (Drijvers et al., 2016; Heid & Blume,
2008). In particular, students can work simultaneously with the different mathemat-
ical representations and can explore relations between these. This is especially
important since research has highlighted that transforming, linking, and carrying
out translations between different mathematical representations is crucial for devel-
oping an understanding of mathematical concepts (Duval, 2006). In addition, the
easy access to different forms of representations can support more student-centered
teaching approaches such as discovery learning (Barzel & Möller, 2001; Pierce &
Stacey, 2010; Thurm, 2020). In the following we exemplify the affordances of MRT
with respect to a particular task, which is shown in Fig. 1. This task was used in the
research study as a basis to support teacher and facilitator noticing and we will refer
4 D. Thurm et al.
Fig. 1 MRT-task adapted from Drijvers (1994)
to it as the “MRT-task” throughout the chapter. In the MRT-task students are

prompted to amend the two given linear functions in such a way that the product
function satisfies certain mathematical conditions. In addition, students are asked to
write a conjecture about the types of parabolas that cannot be obtained by multiply-
ing two linear functions. In this task, various affordances of MRT become apparent.
Firstly, the MRT can support students in generating many pairs of graphs of differ-
ent linear functions and the respective product functions. Without MRT students
would have to engage in the tedious and repetitive work of drawing many functions
by hand. This would take much time and would constrain learners from focusing
their attention on the relationships between the linear functions and the respec-
tive product function. Furthermore, MRT make it possible to dynamically change
the slope of the linear function, for example, by dragging. At the same time MRT
offer simultaneous access to the symbolic and graphical representations, which sup-
ports students observing and investigating the links between these two forms of
representation. To summarise, using MRT with this task allows students to explore,
test and discover mathematical relationships between linear and quadratic functions.
2.2 Facilitators
In the research literature many terms are used to describe the group of people who
initiate and lead processes to professionalise teachers, for example, “facilitators”,
“teacher trainers”, “multipliers”, “coaches”, “didacticians” and “teacher educators”
(Peters-Dasdemir et al., 2020). In this chapter we use the term “facilitator” which
highlights that the process of facilitating PD for teachers is rather a “give-and-take
than a one-sided teacher-pupil relationship” (Peters-Dasdemir et al., 2020, p. 457).
Research related to PD facilitators is an emerging field of study (Lesseig et al.,
2017; Poehler, 2020; Prediger et al., 2019; Thurm et al., 2023). In the last decade
pioneering research studies have focused on identifying the required skills and
knowledge for them to be effective (Borko et al., 2014; Elliott et al., 2009; Lesseig
et al., 2017; Peters-Dasdemir et al., 2020). Clearly, facilitators require “competen-

cies about adult learning and the specific knowledge and needs of mathematics’
teachers, which are much broader than teachers’ competencies.” (Peters-Dasdemir
et al., 2020, p. 457). This is, for example, illustrated by the competency model for
facilitators developed by Peters-Dasdemir et al. (2020). The model conceptualises
facilitators’ knowledge as an extension of the knowledge needed for teaching and
it adapts the well-established specifications of content knowledge (CK), pedagogi-
cal knowledge (PK) and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) from the classroom
level to the PD level. In particular, pedagogical content knowledge on the PD level
(PCK-PD) concerns the knowledge needed “to engage teachers in purposeful activ-
ities and conversations about those mathematical concepts, relationships and to
help teachers gain a better understanding of how students are likely to approach
related tasks” (Jacobs et al., 2017, p. 3). Moreover, research has generated first
insights about the effective design of facilitators’ preparation programs (e.g., Kuzle
& Biehler, 2015; Lesseig et al., 2017; Roesken-Winter et al., 2015). For example,
Lesseig et al. (2017), propose a set of design principles, which include focusing on
teacher learning goals, providing opportunities for facilitators to expand their spe-
cialised content knowledge, and using video-cases as representations of practice to
generate in-depth discussion and reflection of facilitators’ practices and beliefs.
Despite these results “research on preparing and supporting facilitators of math-
ematics PD is still at a very early stage [...].” (Jacobs et al., 2017, p. 12), which
holds particularly true with respect to facilitators in the context of teaching mathe-
matics with technology (Thurm et al., 2023). This can be illustrated, for example,
by the fact, that neither the previous edition of this book (Clark-Wilson et al., 2014)
nor the ICMI study of Hoyles and Lagrange (2010), nor the ICME-13 monograph
on uses of technology in primary and secondary mathematics education (Ball et al.,
2018), nor the ICME-13 topical surveys by Drijvers et al. (2016) and Hegedus et al.
(2017), nor the last two proceedings of the International Conference on Technology
in Mathematics Teaching (ICTMT, Barzel et al., 2020; Aldon & Trgalová, 2017),
nor the recently published ZDM special issue on teaching with technology (Clark-
Wilson et al., 2020), have contributions or sections particularly addressing PD for
facilitators. However, research activity in this field is slowly burgeoning. For exam-
ple, Psycharis and Kalogeria (2018) and the recent ICME25 proceedings (Borko &
Potari, 2020) provide some elements on this theme. Placing a greater focus on facil-
itators’ professional development is particularly important, since in many countries
facilitators are not required to complete any specific PD programme or accreditation
to prepare them to offer courses for teachers (Lesseig et al., 2017; Roesken-Winter
et al., 2015). Rather “formalized professional development opportunities for lead-
ers are exceptions rather than the norm” (Lesseig et al., 2017). In addition, profes-
sionalising facilitators in formal ways becomes increasingly important due to the
emergence of PD institutions such as the “National Centre for Excellence in the
Teaching of Mathematics” (NCETM) in England, the “National Center for
Mathematics Education” (NCM) in Sweden, the “Institut für Unterrichts- und
Schulentwicklung” (IUS) in Austria or the “German Centre for Mathematics
6 D. Thurm et al.
Teacher Education” (DZLM) in Germany, which aim to provide high-quality PD on

a larger scale which brings to the forefront the question of how to professionalise
facilitators.
While it is clear that more research with respect to facilitators is needed, con-
ducting such research is not an easy endeavor. For example, Borko (2004) high-
lighted that facilitators, the PD program, the participating teachers and the context
are inevitably intertwined through interactive and reciprocal relationships. Recently
Prediger et al. (2019) have started to further unpack this complexity and proposed
the Three-Tetrahedron Model (3 T-Model) for PD research and design, which cap-
tures the complexity of learning and teaching at the classroom, teacher PD, and
facilitator PD level. This model will be explained in detail in the next section.
2.3 The Three-Tetrahedron Model for Design

and Research on PD
The Three-Tetrahedron Model (3 T-Model) of Prediger et al. (2019) provides a

framework for the design of and research on teacher and facilitator PD programs. Its
goal is to capture “the complexity of learning and teaching at the classroom, teacher,
and facilitator level that is needed to inform design and research into PD” (Prediger
et al., 2019, p. 407). Extending the idea of the commonplace didactic triangle, which
relates teachers, learners and the content to be learned, the 3 T-Model takes the
format of a series of tetrahedrons which are considered at the classroom, teacher PD
and facilitator PD levels (see Fig. 2). The classroom level tetrahedron comprises
Fig. 2 The three-Tetrahedron Model (3 T-Model) for content-related PD research (Prediger

et al., 2019)
relations between students, content, classroom resources and the teacher. This struc-
ture can now be transferred to the teacher PD level. Here the teacher takes the posi-
tion of the learner and the facilitator takes the role of the teacher. At the teacher PD
level (TPD), learning is supported by teacher PD resources and the content on the
classroom level is replaced by the teacher PD content. Finally, this structure can also
be transferred to the facilitator PD level (FPD). This model has been used in a vari-
ety of contexts. For example, it has been used to investigate facilitators’ practices
(Leufer et al., 2019), for describing implementation strategies on different levels
(Roesken-Winter et al., 2021) and to gain insights about effective strategies for sup-
porting PD facilitators to incorporate content and skills introduced in facilitator PD
sessions into their own practice (Borko et al., 2021).
Prediger et al. (2019) describe three general strategies (lifting, nesting, unpack-
ing) for design and research on PD which take into account the multi-level structure
of PD displayed in Fig. 2. In the following we elaborate on the lifting and nesting
strategy which we used in the design and research that we report here.
The lifting strategy (Fig. 3, left) comprises lifting design and research approaches
from one level to the next. For example, lifting a design approach “means that
design principles or design elements developed for the classroom level are implic-
itly or explicitly transferred (and adapted) to the TPD level (or from the TPD to
FPD level)” (Prediger et al., 2019, p. 412). Similarly, lifting a research practice
entails that research questions and/or methods from the classroom level “are implic-
itly or explicitly transferred (and adapted) to the TPD level (or from the TPD to
FPD level) and applied in an analogous way.” (Prediger et al., 2019, p. 413). For
example, design approaches that employ video-case-based learning to support
teacher noticing of student learning can be lifted from the teacher PD level to the
facilitator PD level, to support facilitator noticing of teacher learning. A further
Fig. 3 Lifting strategy (left) and nesting strategy (right) in the Three-Tetrahedron Model (Prediger
et al., 2019)
8 D. Thurm et al.
example would be, if research approaches for investigating students’ thinking and
learning pathways are lifted to the teacher PD level by investigating teachers’ think-
ing and teacher learning pathways.
The nesting strategy (Fig. 3, right) accounts for the fact that teacher PD content
is usually more complex than classroom content, and that facilitator PD content is
usually more complex than teacher PD content (Prediger et al., 2019). Therefore,
the nesting strategy considers that aspects of the complete classroom tetrahedron
should be nested in the teacher PD content and that aspects of the complete teacher
PD tetrahedron should be nested in the facilitator PD content. Hence the nesting
strategy “builds the PD design upon the idea of structuring the TPD/FPD content
in a self-similar nested structure, taking into account the complexities of the tetra-
hedrons below.” (Prediger et al., 2019, p. 413).
In our research project the 3 T-Model was used to guide the design of the PD
activities and to situate the different aspects of our project along the different levels
of professional learning, while accounting for the complexity resulting from the
inherent connections between the different levels. However, while the 3 T-Model is
well suited to provide a macro-view on design and research for PD it is often helpful
to combine the use of the 3 T-Model with other additional models. For example,
Borko et al. (2021) integrate the Learning to Lead Cycle with the 3 T-Model in order
to facilitate research about the leadership capacity of experienced teachers.
2.4 Teacher Noticing and Video-Case-Based-Learning
In our research endeavor we used the 3 T-Model to design a PD activity that focused
on teacher and facilitator noticing, a construct which we now explain in more detail.
Teacher noticing builds on the notion of professional vision which was introduced
by Goodwin (1994) as “socially organized ways of seeing and understanding events
that are answerable to the distinctive interests of a particular social group”
(Goodwin, 1994, p. 606). In line with the conceptualisation of Sherin (2007) we
understand noticing to be both the perception of aspects in teaching situations that
are relevant for teaching quality (selective attention) and the interpretation of these
aspects based on appropriate professional knowledge (knowledge-based reasoning).
Clearly, if teachers observe a classroom situation they might attend to very different
aspects and interpret these in different ways. In particular teacher noticing is impor-
tant for paying attention to, and interpreting students’ mathematical thinking, and to
recognise developing mathematical understanding of students (Sherin, Jacobs, &
Philipp, 2011a, p. 3). This is particularly true since “effective instruction requires
teachers to notice, pay attention to, and respond to students’ ideas” (Beattie et al.,
2017, p. 323; Kilic, 2018). However, noticing is not only crucial for teachers but
also for PD facilitators (Lesseig et al., 2017). Facilitator noticing with respect to
teachers’ learning is important in order to facilitate robust opportunities for teach-
ers’ learning, for example, by appropriate facilitation moves (Lesseig et al., 2017;
Schueler & Roesken-Winter, 2018). In literature, different levels of noticing have

been described, which capture the depth of noticing starting from general noticing
to more specific noticing (Lee & Choy, 2017; van Es, 2011). General noticing
focuses, for example, on superficial features that are not directly associated with
students learning (classroom level) or teacher learning (teacher PD level) and results
in a very general impression of what has occurred. In contrast, specific noticing
focuses on relationships between content, teachers, classroom resources and details
of student or teacher learning and thinking. Furthermore, specific noticing com-
prises specificity in recalling details, supporting statements with evidence and pro-
viding explanations (van Es, 2011). In this study we use an adapted framework
based on the work of van Es (2011), who proposed a model that distinguishes
between four levels of noticing, where teachers increasingly attend to more details
of students’ mathematical thinking (see Table 1).
Given the high importance of teacher and facilitator noticing, the question arises
how to support their noticing competencies. In this respect, research has highlighted
the potential of the use of video-cases because they can capture the high complexity
inherent in classroom teaching or PD without requiring immediate actions, as in a
real classroom or PD situation (Koc et al., 2009; Lesseig et al., 2017; Schueler &
Table 1 Framework for levels of noticing adapted from van Es (2011, p. 139)
Level What teachers notice How teachers notice
Level 1 Attend to generic aspects of teaching and Provide general descriptive or
Baseline learning, e.g., seating arrangement, student evaluative comments with little or no
Noticing behavior, etc. evidence from observations
Level 2 Begin to attend to particular instances of Form general impressions and
Mixed students’ mathematical thinking and highlight noteworthy events or details
Noticing behaviors Provide primarily evaluative with
some interpretive comments
Begin to refer to specific events and
interactions as evidence
Level 3 Attend to particular students’ Provide interpretive comments
Focused mathematical thinking Refer to specific students’ difficulties,
Noticing events and interactions as evidence
Elaborate on specific students’
difficulties, events and interactions
Level 4 Attend to the relations between particular Provide interpretive comments
Extended students’ mathematical thinking, Refer to specific events and
Noticing technology use and mathematical interactions as evidence
activities. Elaborate on specific events, and
interactions
Make connections between events
and principles of teaching and
learning
On the basis of interpretations,
propose alternative pedagogical
solutions
10 D. Thurm et al.
Roesken-Winter, 2018; Sherin, 2007): “While video captures much of the richness
of the classroom environment, it does not require an immediate response from a
teacher and can instead promote sustained teacher reflection (Sherin, 2004).
Moreover, because video provides a permanent record of classroom interactions, it
can be viewed repeatedly and with different lenses in mind, promoting new ways for
teachers to ‘see’ what is taking place.” (Sherin & Russ, 2015, p. 3). Hence, video-
cases allow a case-related approach to PD, where PD activities are centered around
authentic representations of practice, which is regarded as an important design prin-
ciple for PD for teachers as well as for facilitators (Kuzle & Biehler, 2015; Roesken-
Winter et al., 2015). However, video-cases are not by themselves sufficient to foster
teacher and facilitator noticing: “[...] using cases alone does not ensure learning,
[...] adequate instructional support is needed” (Goeze et al., 2014, p. 97; Kirschner
et al., 2006). Video-cases have to be carefully embedded in PD programs. Research
findings suggest that it is helpful if video-cases are combined with appropriate
prompts that set a focus in order to guide teacher or facilitator noticing (Lesseig
et al., 2017).
Noticing with Respect to Learning Mathematics with Technology
A nuanced and specific type of noticing is important for teaching with technology.
Learning mathematics with technology comprises a subtle interplay between the
mathematics, the technology and the learner (Trouche & Drijvers, 2010) and teach-
ers will only integrate technology into their teaching in the long term, if they notice
this subtle interplay and the potential of learning mathematics with technology.
Furthermore, discovery learning tasks, such as the MRT-task introduced earlier
(Fig. 1), require teachers to notice different ideas and individual approaches of
learners, in order to adequately guide their learning. Moreover, the specific noticing
of students’ mathematical learning when working with technology is a prerequisite
for offering adequate support for students, for example, by providing prompts, hints
or questions during the teaching process (Sherman, 2012). For facilitators, specific
noticing is not only needed with respect to student learning but also with respect to
teacher learning. In particular, facilitators must support teachers to develop deep
noticing of relevant aspects of teaching and learning mathematics with technology.
For this, facilitators need to elaborately notice what teachers notice with respect to
learning mathematics with technology.
A theoretical approach to describe the subtle processes of learning mathematics
with technology is the theory of instrumental genesis (Guin & Trouche, 1999).
Instrumental genesis describes the process of an artefact (e.g., a specific technol-
ogy) becoming an instrument for doing and learning mathematics. However, the
theory of instrumental genesis is an explanatory theory. It is not geared towards
suggesting how to develop approaches to foster teacher noticing related to teaching
mathematics with technology. In particular, the framework does not help to illumi-
nate learning pathways or make the interplay of technology and the learning of
mathematics easily accessible for teachers or PD facilitators. Therefore, we devel-
oped a framework that builds on the instrumental approach, but is explicitly suitable
to analyze, depict and notice learning pathways when learning mathematics with
technology within both teacher and facilitator PD programs. Our framework builds
on that of Prediger (2019), which was developed in the context of analysing and
describing learning pathways with respect to language responsive teaching. The
model of Prediger (2019) highlights different categories for teachers’ thinking and
noticing (content goals, learners discourse practices, lexical means) and their inter-
play and distinctions. We adapted this framework in order to highlight connections
between content goals, mathematical activities and technology use. The resulting
Content-Activity-Technology-Model (CAT-Model) is depicted in Fig. 4.
Content goals refer to normative content goals that can be inferred from stu-
dents’ behavior. These content goals are often distinguished as conceptual and pro-
cedural knowledge, both regarded as an integral part of mathematical competence:
“Mathematical competence rests on developing both conceptual and procedural
knowledge.” (Rittle-Johnson et al., 2015, p. 594). In the CAT-Model we acknowl-
edge that conceptual and procedural knowledge cannot always be separated (Rittle-
Johnson & Schneider, 2015) by conceptualising content goals on a continuum
ranging from procedural knowledge to conceptual knowledge. The achieved con-
tent goals inferred from student’s behavior in a specific situation might not neces-
sarily reflect the anticipated or intended content goal. For example, students working
on the MRT-task (Fig. 1) might not display any behavior that is indicative of con-
ceptual knowledge even though the goal of the task is to activate and promote this
type of knowledge.
Mathematical activities, refer to observable actions that allow inferences about
the cognitive processes. These activities can be located on a continuum reflecting
different levels of engagement (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Biggs, 2003).
Procedural activities relate to lower order activities, for example, if students mainly
communicate on a phenomenological level, if students talk about what they are
doing, or what they observe. Conceptual activities refer to higher order activities
like students trying to explain mathematical concepts (where explanations do not
necessarily have to be correct), argue about mathematical concepts, or formulate an
hypothesis. Again, students might not display procedural or conceptual activities
Fig. 4 The categories of the CAT-Model, their interplay (↔) and distinctions (↕)
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had arranged with Isaac Rolls, a hackman, to bring my baggage to
the train just on the moment of its starting, and jumped upon the car
myself when the train was already in motion. Had I gone into the
station and offered to purchase a ticket, I should have been instantly
and carefully examined, and undoubtedly arrested. In choosing this
plan upon which to act, I considered the jostle of the train, and the
natural haste of the conductor, in a train crowded with passengers,
and relied upon my skill and address in playing the sailor as
described in my protection, to do the rest. One element in my favor
was the kind feeling which prevailed in Baltimore and other seaports
at the time, towards “those who go down to the sea in ships.” “Free
trade and sailors’ rights” expressed the sentiment of the country just
then. In my clothing I was rigged out in sailor style. I had on a red
shirt and a tarpaulin hat and black cravat, tied in sailor fashion,
carelessly and loosely about my neck. My knowledge of ships and
sailor’s talk came much to my assistance, for I knew a ship from
stem to stern, and from keelson to cross-trees, and could talk sailor
like an “old salt.” On sped the train, and I was well on the way to
Havre de Grace before the conductor came into the negro car to
collect tickets and examine the papers of his black passengers. This
was a critical moment in the drama. My whole future depended upon
the decision of this conductor. Agitated I was while this ceremony
was proceeding, but still externally, at least, I was apparently calm
and self-possessed. He went on with his duty—examining several
colored passengers before reaching me. He was somewhat harsh in
tone, and peremptory in manner until he reached me, when,
strangely enough, and to my surprise and relief, his whole manner
changed. Seeing that I did not readily produce my free papers, as
the other colored persons in the car had done, he said to me in a
friendly contrast with that observed towards the others: “I suppose
you have your free papers?” To which I answered: “No, sir; I never
carry my free papers to sea with me.” “But you have something to
show that you are a free man, have you not?” “Yes, sir,” I answered;
“I have a paper with the American eagle on it, and that will carry me
round the world.” With this I drew from my deep sailor’s pocket my
seaman’s protection, as before described. The merest glance at the
paper satisfied him, and he took my fare and went on about his
business. This moment of time was one of the most anxious I ever
experienced. Had the conductor looked closely at the paper, he
could not have failed to discover that it called for a very different
looking person from myself, and in that case it would have been his
duty to arrest me on the instant, and send me back to Baltimore from
the first station. When he left me with the assurance that I was all
right, though much relieved, I realized that I was still in great danger:
I was still in Maryland, and subject to arrest at any moment. I saw on
the train several persons who would have known me in any other
clothes, and I feared they might recognize me, even in my sailor
“rig,” and report me to the conductor, who would then subject me to a
closer examination, which I knew well would be fatal to me.
Though I was not a murderer fleeing from justice I felt perhaps
quite as miserable as such a criminal. The train was moving at a
very high rate of speed for that time of railroad travel, but to my
anxious mind, it was moving far too slowly. Minutes were hours, and
hours were days during this part of my flight. After Maryland I was to
pass through Delaware—another slave State, where slave catchers
generally awaited their prey, for it was not in the interior of the State,
but on its borders, that these human hounds were most vigilant and
active. The border lines between slavery and freedom were the
dangerous ones, for the fugitives. The heart of no fox or deer, with
hungry hounds on his trail, in full chase, could have beaten more
anxiously or noisily than did mine, from the time I left Baltimore till I
reached Philadelphia. The passage of the Susquehanna river at
Havre de Grace was made by ferry boat at that time, on board of
which I met a young colored man by the name of Nichols, who came
very near betraying me. He was a “hand” on the boat, but instead of
minding his business, he insisted upon knowing me, and asking me
dangerous questions as to where I was going, and when I was
coming back, etc. I got away from my old and inconvenient
acquaintance as soon as I could decently do so, and went to another
part of the boat. Once across the river I encountered a new danger.
Only a few days before I had been at work on a revenue cutter, in
Mr. Price’s ship-yard, under the care of Captain McGowan. On the
meeting at this point of the two trains, the one going south stopped
on the track just opposite to the one going north, and it so happened
that this Captain McGowan sat at a window where he could see me
very distinctly, and would certainly have recognized me had he
looked at me but for a second. Fortunately, in the hurry of the
moment, he did not see me; and the trains soon passed each other
on their respective ways. But this was not my only hair-breadth
escape. A German blacksmith whom I knew well, was on the train
with me, and looked at me very intently as if he thought he had seen
me somewhere before in his travels. I really believe he knew me, but
had no heart to betray me. At any rate he saw me escaping and held
his peace.
The last point of imminent danger, and the one I dreaded most,
was Wilmington. Here we left the train and took the steamboat for
Philadelphia. In making the change here I again apprehended arrest,
but no one disturbed me, and I was soon on the broad and beautiful
Delaware, speeding away to the Quaker City. On reaching
Philadelphia in the afternoon I inquired of a colored man how I could
get on to New York? He directed me to the Willow street depot, and
thither I went, taking the train that night. I reached New York
Tuesday morning, having completed the journey in less than twenty-
four hours. Such is briefly the manner of my escape from slavery—
and the end of my experience as a slave. Other chapters will tell the
story of my life as a freeman.
CHAPTER II.
LIFE AS A FREEMAN.
Loneliness and Insecurity—“Allender’s Jake”—Succored by a Sailor—David

Ruggles—Marriage—Steamer J. W. Richmond—Stage to New Bedford—
Arrival There—Driver’s Detention of Baggage—Nathan Johnson—Change
of Name—Why called “Douglas”—Obtaining Work—The Liberator and its
Editor.
MY free life began on the third of September, 1838. On the morning

of the 4th of that month, after an anxious and most perilous but safe
journey, I found myself in the big city of New York, a free man; one
more added to the mighty throng which like the confused waves of
the troubled sea, surged to and fro between the lofty walls of
Broadway. Though dazzled with the wonders which met me on every
hand, my thoughts could not be much withdrawn from my strange
situation. For the moment the dreams of my youth, and the hopes of
my manhood, were completely fulfilled. The bonds that had held me
to “old master” were broken. No man now had a right to call me his
slave or assert mastery over me. I was in the rough and tumble of an
outdoor world, to take my chance with the rest of its busy number. I
have often been asked, how I felt, when first I found myself on free
soil. And my readers may share the same curiosity. There is scarcely
anything in my experience about which I could not give a more
satisfactory answer. A new world had opened upon me. If life is more
than breath, and the “quick round of blood,” I lived more in one day
than in a year of my slave life. It was a time of joyous excitement
which words can but tamely describe. In a letter written to a friend
soon after reaching New York, I said: “I felt as one might feel upon
escape from a den of hungry lions.” Anguish and grief, like darkness
and rain, may be depicted; but gladness and joy, like the rainbow,
defy the skill of pen or pencil. During ten or fifteen years I had, as it
were, been dragging a heavy chain, which no strength of mine could
break; I was not only a slave, but a slave for life. I might become a
husband, a father, an aged man, but through all, from birth to death,
from the cradle to the grave, I had felt myself doomed. All efforts I
had previously made to secure my freedom, had not only failed, but
had seemed only to rivet my fetters the more firmly, and to render my
escape more difficult. Baffled, entangled, and discouraged, I had at
times asked myself the question, May not my condition after all be
God’s work, and ordered for a wise purpose, and if so, was not
submission my duty? A contest had in fact been going on in my mind
for a long time, between the clear consciousness of right, and the
plausible make-shifts of theology and superstition. The one held me
an abject slave—a prisoner for life, punished for some transgression
in which I had no lot or part; and the other counselled me to manly
endeavor to secure my freedom. This contest was now ended; my
chains were broken, and the victory brought me unspeakable joy.
But my gladness was short lived, for I was not yet out of the reach
and power of the slaveholders. I soon found that New York was not
quite so free, or so safe a refuge as I had supposed, and a sense of
loneliness and insecurity again oppressed me most sadly. I chanced
to meet on the street a few hours after my landing, a fugitive slave
whom I had once known well in slavery. The information received
from him alarmed me. The fugitive in question was known in
Baltimore as “Allender’s Jake,” but in New York he wore the more
respectable name of “William Dixon.” Jake in law was the property of
Doctor Allender, and Tolly Allender, the son of the doctor, had once
made an effort to recapture Mr. Dixon, but had failed for want of
evidence to support his claim. Jake told me the circumstances of this
attempt, and how narrowly he escaped being sent back to slavery
and torture. He told me that New York was then full of southerners
returning from the watering places north; that the colored people of
New York were not to be trusted; that there were hired men of my
own color who would betray me for a few dollars; that there were
hired men ever on the lookout for fugitives; that I must trust no man
with my secret; that I must not think of going either upon the
wharves, or into any colored boarding-house, for all such places
were closely watched; that he was himself unable to help me; and, in
fact, he seemed while speaking to me to fear lest I myself might be a
spy, and a betrayer. Under this apprehension, as I suppose, he
showed signs of wishing to be rid of me, and with whitewash brush in
hand, in search of work, he soon disappeared. This picture, given by
poor “Jake” of New York, was a damper to my enthusiasm. My little
store of money would soon be exhausted, and since it would be
unsafe for me to go on the wharves for work, and I had no
introductions elsewhere, the prospect for me was far from cheerful. I
saw the wisdom of keeping away from the ship-yards, for, if pursued,
as I felt certain I would be, Mr. Auld would naturally seek me there
among the calkers. Every door seemed closed against me. I was in
the midst of an ocean of my fellowmen, and yet a perfect stranger to
every one. I was without home, without acquaintance, without
money, without credit, without work, and without any definite
knowledge as to what course to take, or where to look for succor. In
such an extremity, a man has something beside his new-born
freedom to think of. While wandering about the streets of New York,
and lodging at least one night among the barrels on one of the
wharves, I was indeed free—from slavery, but free from food and
shelter as well. I kept my secret to myself as long as I could, but was
compelled at last to seek some one who should befriend me, without
taking advantage of my destitution to betray me. Such an one I found
in a sailor named Stuart, a warm-hearted and generous fellow, who
from his humble home on Centre street, saw me standing on the
opposite sidewalk, near “The Tombs.” As he approached me I
ventured a remark to him which at once enlisted his interest in me.
He took me to his home to spend the night, and in the morning went
with me to Mr. David Ruggles, the secretary of the New York
vigilance committee, a co-worker with Isaac T. Hopper, Lewis and
Arthur Tappan, Theodore S. Wright, Samuel Cornish, Thomas
Downing, Phillip A. Bell and other true men of their time. All these
(save Mr. Bell, who still lives, and is editor and publisher of a paper
called the Elevator, in San Francisco) have finished their work on
earth. Once in the hands of these brave and wise men, I felt
comparatively safe. With Mr. Ruggles, on the corner of Lispenard
and Church streets, I was hidden several days, during which time my
intended wife came on from Baltimore at my call, to share the
burdens of life with me. She was a free woman, and came at once
on getting the good news of my safety. We were married by Rev.
J. W. C. Pennington, then a well-known and respected Presbyterian
minister. I had no money with which to pay the marriage fee, but he
seemed well pleased with our thanks.
Mr. Ruggles was the first officer on the underground railroad with
whom I met after coming North; and was indeed the only one with
whom I had anything to do, till I became such an officer myself.
Learning that my trade was that of a calker, he promptly decided that
the best place for me was in New Bedford, Mass. He told me that
many ships for whaling voyages were fitted out there, and that I
might there find work at my trade, and make a good living. So on the
day of the marriage ceremony, we took our little luggage to the
steamer John W. Richmond, which at that time was one of the line
running between New York and Newport, R. I. Forty-three years ago
colored travelers were not permitted in the cabin, nor allowed abaft
the paddle-wheels of a steam vessel. They were compelled,
whatever the weather might be, whether cold or hot, wet or dry, to
spend the night on deck. Unjust as this regulation was, it did not
trouble us much. We had fared much harder before. We arrived at
Newport the next morning, and soon after an old-fashioned stage-
coach with “New Bedford” in large, yellow letters on its sides, came
down to the wharf. I had not money enough to pay our fare, and
stood hesitating to know what to do. Fortunately for us, there were
two Quaker gentlemen who were about to take passage on the
stage,—Friends William C. Taber and Joseph Ricketson,—who at
once discerned our true situation, and in a peculiarly quiet way,
addressing me, Mr. Taber said: “Thee get in.” I never obeyed an
order with more alacrity, and we were soon on our way to our new
home. When we reached “Stone Bridge” the passengers alighted for
breakfast, and paid their fares to the driver. We took no breakfast,
and when asked for our fares I told the driver I would make it right
with him when we reached New Bedford. I expected some objection
to this on his part, but he made none. When, however, we reached
New Bedford he took our baggage, including three music books,—
two of them collections by Dyer, and one by Shaw,—and held them
until I was able to redeem them by paying to him the sums due for
our rides. This was soon done, for Mr. Nathan Johnson not only
received me kindly, and hospitably, but, on being informed about our
baggage, at once loaned me the two dollars with which to square
accounts with the stage-driver. Mr. and Mrs. Nathan Johnson
reached a good old age, and now rest from their labors. I am under
many grateful obligations to them. They not only “took me in when a
stranger,” and “fed me when hungry,” but taught me how to make an
honest living.
Thus, in a fortnight after my flight from Maryland, I was safe in
New Bedford,—a citizen of the grand old commonwealth of
Massachusetts.
At the Wharf in Newport.
Once initiated into my new life of freedom, and assured by Mr.
Johnson that I need not fear recapture in that city, a comparatively
unimportant question arose, as to the name by which I should be
known thereafter, in my new relation as a free man. The name given
me by my dear mother was no less pretentious and long than
Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey. I had, however, while living
in Maryland disposed of the Augustus Washington, and retained only
Frederick Bailey. Between Baltimore and New Bedford, the better to
conceal myself from the slave-hunters, I had parted with Bailey and
called myself Johnson; but finding that in New Bedford the Johnson
family was already so numerous as to cause some confusion in
distinguishing one from another, a change in this name seemed
desirable. Nathan Johnson, mine host, was emphatic as to this
necessity, and wished me to allow him to select a name for me. I
consented, and he called me by my present name,—the one by
which I have been known for three and forty years,—Frederick
Douglass. Mr. Johnson had just been reading the “Lady of the Lake,”
and so pleased was he with its great character that he wished me to
bear his name. Since reading that charming poem myself, I have
often thought that, considering the noble hospitality and manly
character of Nathan Johnson, black man though he was, he, far
more than I, illustrated the virtues of the Douglas of Scotland. Sure
am I that if any slave-catcher had entered his domicile with a view to
my recapture, Johnson would have been like him of the “stalwart
hand.”
The reader may be surprised, that living in Baltimore as I had
done for many years, when I tell the honest truth of the impressions I
had in some way conceived of the social and material condition of
the people at the north. I had no proper idea of the wealth,
refinement, enterprise, and high civilization of this section of the
country. My Columbian Orator, almost my only book, had done
nothing to enlighten me concerning northern society. I had been
taught that slavery was the bottom-fact of all wealth. With this
foundation idea, I came naturally to the conclusion that poverty must
be the general condition of the people of the free States. A white
man holding no slaves in the country from which I came, was usually
an ignorant and poverty-stricken man. Men of this class were
contemptuously called “poor white trash.” Hence I supposed that
since the non-slaveholders at the south were ignorant, poor, and
degraded as a class, the non-slaveholders at the north must be in a
similar condition. New Bedford therefore, which at that time was
really the richest city in the Union, in proportion to its population, took
me greatly by surprise, in the evidences it gave of its solid wealth
and grandeur. I found that even the laboring classes lived in better
houses, that their houses were more elegantly furnished, and were
more abundantly supplied with conveniences and comforts, than the
houses of many who owned slaves on the Eastern Shore of
Maryland. This was true not only of the white people of that city, but
it was so of my friend, Mr. Johnson. He lived in a nicer house, dined
at a more ample board, was the owner of more books, the reader of
more newspapers, was more conversant with the moral, social, and
political condition of the country and the world than nine-tenths of the
slaveholders in all Talbot county. I was not long in finding the cause
of the difference in these respects, between the people of the north
and south. It was the superiority of educated mind over mere brute
force. I will not detain the reader by extended illustrations as to how
my understanding was enlightened on this subject. On the wharves
of New Bedford I received my first light. I saw there industry without
bustle, labor without noise, toil—honest, earnest, and exhaustive,
without the whip. There was no loud singing or hallooing, as at the
wharves of southern ports when ships were loading or unloading; no
loud cursing or quarreling; everything went on as smoothly as well-
oiled machinery. One of the first incidents which impressed me with
the superior mental character of labor in the north over that of the
south, was in the manner of loading and unloading vessels. In a
southern port twenty or thirty hands would be employed to do what
five or six men, with the help of one ox, would do at the wharf in New
Bedford. Main strength—human muscle—unassisted by intelligent
skill, was slavery’s method of labor. With a capital of about sixty
dollars in the shape of a good-natured old ox, attached to the end of
a stout rope, New Bedford did the work of ten or twelve thousand
dollars, represented in the bones and muscles of slaves, and did it
far better. In a word, I found everything managed with a much more
scrupulous regard to economy, both of men and things, time and
strength, than in the country from which I had come. Instead of going
a hundred yards to the spring, the maid-servant had a well or pump
at her elbow. The wood used for fuel was kept dry and snugly piled
away for winter. Here were sinks, drains, self-shutting gates,
pounding-barrels, washing-machines, wringing-machines, and a
hundred other contrivances for saving time and money. The ship-
repairing docks showed the same thoughtful wisdom as seen
elsewhere. Everybody seemed in earnest. The carpenter struck the
nail on its head, and the calkers wasted no strength in idle flourishes
of their mallets. Ships brought here for repairs were made stronger
and better than when new. I could have landed in no part of the
United States where I should have found a more striking and
gratifying contrast, not only to life generally in the South, but in the
condition of the colored people there than in New Bedford. No
colored man was really free while residing in a slave State. He was
ever more or less subject to the condition of his slave brother. In his
color was his badge of bondage. I saw in New Bedford the nearest
approach to freedom and equality that I had ever seen. I was
amazed when Mr. Johnson told me that there was nothing in the
laws or constitution of Massachusetts, that would prevent a colored
man from being governor of the State, if the people should see fit to
elect him. There too the black man’s children attended the same
public schools with the white man’s children, and apparently without
objection from any quarter. To impress me with my security from
recapture, and return to slavery, Mr. Johnson assured me that no
slaveholder could take a slave out of New Bedford; that there were
men there who would lay down their lives to save me from such a
fate. A threat was once made by a colored man to inform a southern
master where his runaway slave could be found. As soon as this
threat became known to the colored people they were furious. A
notice was read from the pulpit of the Third Christian church
(colored) for a public meeting, when important business would be
transacted (not stating what the important business was). In the
meantime special measures had been taken to secure the
attendance of the would-be Judas, and these had proved successful,
for when the hour of meeting arrived, ignorant of the object for which
they were called together, the offender was promptly in attendance.
All the usual formalities were gone through with, the prayer,
appointments of president, secretaries, etc. Then the president, with
an air of great solemnity, rose and said: “Well, friends and brethren,
we have got him here, and I would recommend that you, young men,
should take him outside the door and kill him.” This was enough;
there was a rush for the villain, who would probably have been killed
but for his escape by an open window. He was never seen again in
New Bedford.
The fifth day after my arrival I put on the clothes of a common
laborer, and went upon the wharves in search of work. On my way
down Union street I saw a large pile of coal in front of the house of
Rev. Ephraim Peabody, the Unitarian minister. I went to the kitchen
door and asked the privilege of bringing in and putting away this
coal. “What will you charge?” said the lady. “I will leave that to you,
madam.” “You may put it away,” she said. I was not long in
accomplishing the job, when the dear lady put into my hand two
silver half dollars. To understand the emotion which swelled my heart
as I clasped this money, realizing that I had no master who could
take it from me—that it was mine—that my hands were my own, and
could earn more of the precious coin—one must have been in some
sense himself a slave. My next job was stowing a sloop at Uncle Gid.
Howland’s wharf with a cargo of oil for New York. I was not only a
freeman but a free-working man, and no Master Hugh stood ready at
the end of the week to seize my hard earnings.
The season was growing late and work was plenty. Ships were
being fitted out for whaling, and much wood was used in storing
them. The sawing this wood was considered a good job. With the
help of old Friend Johnson (blessings on his memory) I got a “saw”
and “buck” and went at it. When I went into a store to buy a cord with
which to brace up my saw in the frame, I asked for a “fip’s” worth of
cord. The man behind the counter looked rather sharply at me, and
said with equal sharpness, “You don’t belong about here.” I was
alarmed, and thought I had betrayed myself. A fip in Maryland was
six and a quarter cents, called fourpence in Massachusetts. But no
harm came, except my fear, from the “fipenny-bit” blunder, and I
confidently and cheerfully went to work with my saw and buck. It was
new business to me, but I never did better work, or more of it in the
same space of time for Covey, the negro-breaker, than I did for
myself in these earliest years of my freedom.
Notwithstanding the just and humane sentiment of New Bedford
three and forty years ago, the place was not entirely free from race
and color prejudice. The good influence of the Roaches, Rodmans,
Arnolds, Grinnells, and Robesons did not pervade all classes of its
people. The test of the real civilization of the community came when
I applied for work at my trade, and then my repulse was emphatic
and decisive. It so happened that Mr. Rodney French, a wealthy and
enterprising citizen, distinguished as an anti-slavery man, was fitting
out a vessel for a whaling voyage, upon which there was a heavy job
of calking and coppering to be done. I had some skill in both
branches, and applied to Mr. French for work. He, generous man
that he was, told me he would employ me, and I might go at once to
the vessel. I obeyed him, but upon reaching the float-stage, where
other calkers were at work, I was told that every white man would
leave the ship in her unfinished condition, if I struck a blow at my
trade upon her. This uncivil, inhuman, and selfish treatment was not
so shocking and scandalous in my eyes at the time as it now
appears to me. Slavery had inured me to hardships that made
ordinary trouble sit lightly upon me. Could I have worked at my trade
I could have earned two dollars a day, but as a common laborer I
received but one dollar. The difference was of great importance to
me, but if I could not get two dollars, I was glad to get one; and so I
went to work for Mr. French as a common laborer. The
consciousness that I was free—no longer a slave—kept me cheerful
under this, and many similar proscriptions, which I was destined to
meet in New Bedford, and elsewhere on the free soil of
Massachusetts. For instance, though white and colored children
attended the same schools, and were treated kindly by their
teachers, the New Bedford Lyceum refused till several years after my
residence in that city to allow any colored person to attend the
lectures delivered in its hall. Not until such men as Hon. Chas.
Sumner, Theodore Parker, Ralph W. Emerson, and Horace Mann
refused to lecture in their course while there was such a restriction,
was it abandoned.
Becoming satisfied that I could not rely on my trade in New
Bedford to give me a living, I prepared myself to do any kind of work
that came to hand. I sawed wood, shoveled coal, dug cellars, moved
rubbish from back-yards, worked on the wharves, loaded and
unloaded vessels, and scoured their cabins.
This was an uncertain and unsatisfactory mode of life, for it kept
me too much of the time in search of work. Fortunately it was not to
last long. One of the gentlemen of whom I have spoken as being in
company with Mr. Taber on the Newport wharf, when he said to me
“thee get in,” was Mr. Joseph Ricketson; and he was the proprietor of
a large candle works in the south part of the city. In this “candle
works” as it was called, though no candles were manufactured there,
by the kindness of Mr. Ricketson, I found what is of the utmost
importance to a young man just starting in life—constant
employment and regular wages. My work in this oil refinery required
good wind and muscle. Large casks of oil were to be moved from
place to place, and much heavy lifting to be done. Happily I was not
deficient in the requisite qualities. Young (21 years), strong, and
active, and ambitious to do my full share, I soon made myself useful,
and I think liked by the men who worked with me, though they were
all white. I was retained here as long as there was anything for me to
do; when I went again to the wharves and obtained work as a laborer
on two vessels which belonged to Mr. George Howland, and which
were being repaired and fitted up for whaling. My employer was a
man of great industry: a hard driver, but a good paymaster, and I got
on well with him. I was not only fortunate in finding work with Mr.
Howland, but in my work-fellows. I have seldom met three working
men more intelligent than were John Briggs, Abraham Rodman, and
Solomon Pennington, who labored with me on the “Java” and
“Golconda.” They were sober, thoughtful, and upright, thoroughly
imbued with the spirit of liberty, and I am much indebted to them for
many valuable ideas and impressions. They taught me that all
colored men were not light-hearted triflers, incapable of serious
thought or effort. My next place of work was at the brass foundry
owned by Mr. Richmond. My duty here was to blow the bellows,
swing the crane, and empty the flasks in which castings were made;
and at times this was hot and heavy work. The articles produced
here were mostly for ship work, and in the busy season the foundry
was in operation night and day. I have often worked two nights and
each working day of the week. My foreman, Mr. Cobb, was a good
man, and more than once protected me from abuse that one or more
of the hands was disposed to throw upon me. While in this situation I
had little time for mental improvement. Hard work, night and day,
over a furnace hot enough to keep the metal running like water, was
more favorable to action than thought; yet here I often nailed a
newspaper to the post near my bellows, and read while I was
performing the up and down motion of the heavy beam by which the
bellows was inflated and discharged. It was the pursuit of knowledge
under difficulties, and I look back to it now after so many years with
some complacency and a little wonder that I could have been so
earnest and persevering in any pursuit other than for my daily bread.
I certainly saw nothing in the conduct of those around to inspire me
with such interest: they were all devoted exclusively to what their
hands found to do. I am glad to be able to say that during my
engagement in this foundry, no complaint was ever made against
me, that I did not do my work, and do it well. The bellows which I
worked by main strength was after I left moved by a steam engine.
I had been living four or five months in New Bedford when there
came a young man to me with a copy of the Liberator, the paper
edited by William Lloyd Garrison, and published by Isaac Knapp, and
asked me to subscribe for it. I told him I had but just escaped from
slavery, and was of course very poor, and had no money then to pay
for it. He was very willing to take me as a subscriber,
notwithstanding, and from this time I was brought into contact with
the mind of Mr. Garrison, and his paper took a place in my heart
second only to the Bible. It detested slavery, and made no truce with
the traffickers in the bodies and souls of men. It preached human
brotherhood; it exposed hypocrisy and wickedness in high places; it
denounced oppression, and with all the solemnity of “Thus saith the
Lord,” demanded the complete emancipation of my race. I loved this
paper and its editor. He seemed to me an all-sufficient match to
every opponent, whether they spoke in the name of the law or the
gospel. His words were full of holy fire, and straight to the point.
Something of a hero-worshiper by nature, here was one to excite my
admiration and reverence.
Soon after becoming a reader of the Liberator it was my privilege
to listen to a lecture in Liberty Hall, by Mr. Garrison, its editor. He
was then a young man, of a singularly pleasing countenance, and
earnest and impressive manner. On this occasion he announced
nearly all his heresies. His Bible was his text book—held sacred as
the very word of the Eternal Father. He believed in sinless perfection,
complete submission to insults and injuries, and literal obedience to
the injunction if smitten “on one cheek to turn the other also.” Not
only was Sunday a Sabbath, but all days were Sabbaths, and to be
kept holy. All sectarianism was false and mischievous—the
regenerated throughout the world being members of one body, and
the head Christ Jesus. Prejudice against color was rebellion against
God. Of all men beneath the sky, the slaves because most neglected
and despised, were nearest and dearest to his great heart. Those
ministers who defended slavery from the Bible were of their “father
the devil”; and those churches which fellowshiped slaveholders as
Christians, were synagogues of Satan, and our nation was a nation
of liars. He was never loud and noisy, but calm and serene as a
summer sky, and as pure. “You are the man—the Moses, raised up
by God, to deliver his modern Israel from bondage,” was the
spontaneous feeling of my heart, as I sat away back in the hall and
listened to his mighty words,—mighty in truth,—mighty in their simple
earnestness. I had not long been a reader of the Liberator, and a
listener to its editor, before I got a clear comprehension of the
principles of the anti-slavery movement. I had already its spirit, and
only needed to understand its principles and measures, and as I
became acquainted with these my hope for the ultimate freedom of
my race increased. Every week the Liberator came, and every week
I made myself master of its contents. All the anti-slavery meetings
held in New Bedford I promptly attended, my heart bounding at every
true utterance against the slave system, and every rebuke of it by its
friends and supporters. Thus passed the first three years of my free
life. I had not then dreamed of the possibility of my becoming a
public advocate of the cause so deeply imbedded in my heart. It was
enough for me to listen, to receive, and applaud the great words of
others, and only whisper in private, among the white laborers on the
wharves and elsewhere, the truths which burned in my heart.
CHAPTER III.
INTRODUCED TO THE ABOLITIONISTS.
Anti-Slavery Convention at Nantucket—First Speech—Much Sensation—

Extraordinary Speech of Mr. Garrison—Anti-Slavery Agency—Youthful
Enthusiasm—Fugitive Slaveship Doubted—Experience in Slavery Written
—Danger of Recapture.
IN the summer of 1841 a grand anti-slavery convention was held in

Nantucket, under the auspices of Mr. Garrison and his friends. I had
taken no holiday since establishing myself in New Bedford, and
feeling the need of a little rest, I determined on attending the
meeting, though I had no thought of taking part in any of its
proceedings. Indeed, I was not aware that any one connected with
the convention so much as knew my name. Mr. William C. Coffin, a
prominent abolitionist in those days of trial, had heard me speaking
to my colored friends in the little school house on Second street,
where we worshiped. He sought me out in the crowd and invited me
to say a few words to the convention. Thus sought out, and thus
invited, I was induced to express the feelings inspired by the
occasion, and the fresh recollection of the scenes through which I
had passed as a slave. It was with the utmost difficulty that I could
stand erect, or that I could command and articulate two words
without hesitation and stammering. I trembled in every limb. I am not
sure that my embarrassment was not the most effective part of my
speech, if speech it could be called. At any rate, this is about the
only part of my performance that I now distinctly remember. The
audience sympathized with me at once, and from having been
remarkably quiet, became much excited. Mr. Garrison followed me,
taking me as his text, and now, whether I had made an eloquent plea
in behalf of freedom, or not, his was one, never to be forgotten.
Those who had heard him oftenest, and had known him longest,
were astonished at his masterly effort. For the time he possessed
that almost fabulous inspiration, often referred to but seldom
attained, in which a public meeting is transformed, as it were, into a
single individuality, the orator swaying a thousand heads and hearts
at once, and by the simple majesty of his all-controlling thought,
converting his hearers into the express image of his own soul. That
night there were at least a thousand Garrisonians in Nantucket!
At the close of this great meeting I was duly waited on by Mr.
John A. Collins, then the general agent of the Massachusetts Anti-
Slavery Society, and urgently solicited by him to become an agent of
that society, and publicly advocate its principles. I was reluctant to
take the proffered position. I had not been quite three years from
slavery and was honestly distrustful of my ability, and I wished to be
excused. Besides, publicity might discover me to my master, and
many other objections presented themselves. But Mr. Collins was
not to be refused, and I finally consented to go out for three months,
supposing I should in that length of time come to the end of my story
and my consequent usefulness.
Here opened for me a new life—a life for which I had had no
preparation. Mr. Collins used to say when introducing me to an
audience, I was a “graduate from the peculiar institution, with my
diploma written on my back.” The three years of my freedom had
been spent in the hard school of adversity. My hands seemed to be
furnished with something like a leather coating, and I had marked out
for myself a life of rough labor, suited to the hardness of my hands,
as a means of supporting my family and rearing my children.
Young, ardent, and hopeful, I entered upon this new life in the full
gush of unsuspecting enthusiasm. The cause was good, the men
engaged in it were good, the means to attain its triumph, good.
Heaven’s blessing must attend all, and freedom must soon be given
to the millions pining under a ruthless bondage. My whole heart went
with the holy cause, and my most fervent prayer to the Almighty
Disposer of the hearts of men, was continually offered for its early
triumph. In this enthusiastic spirit I dropped into the ranks of
freedom’s friends and went forth to the battle. For a time I was made
to forget that my skin was dark and my hair crisped. For a time I
regretted that I could not have shared the hardships and dangers
endured by the earlier workers for the slave’s release. I found,
however, full soon that my enthusiasm had been extravagant, that
hardships and dangers were not all over, and that the life now before
me had its shadows also, as well as its sunbeams.
Among the first duties assigned me on entering the ranks was to
travel in company with Mr. George Foster to secure subscribers to
the Anti-Slavery Standard and the Liberator. With him I traveled and
lectured through the eastern counties of Massachusetts. Much
interest was awakened—large meetings assembled. Many came, no
doubt from curiosity to hear what a negro could say in his own
cause. I was generally introduced as a “chattel,”—a “thing”—a piece
of southern property—the chairman assuring the audience that it
could speak. Fugitive slaves were rare then, and as a fugitive slave
lecturer, I had the advantage of being a “bran new fact”—the first one
out. Up to that time, a colored man was deemed a fool who
confessed himself a runaway slave, not only because of the danger
to which he exposed himself of being retaken, but because it was a
confession of a very low origin. Some of my colored friends in New
Bedford thought very badly of my wisdom in thus exposing and
degrading myself. The only precaution I took at the beginning, to
prevent Master Thomas from knowing where I was and what I was
about, was the withholding my former name, my master’s name, and
the name of the State and county from which I came. During the first
three or four months my speeches were almost exclusively made up
of narrations of my own personal experience as a slave. “Let us have
the facts,” said the people. So also said Friend George Foster, who
always wished to pin me down to my simple narrative. “Give us the
facts,” said Collins, “we will take care of the philosophy.” Just here
arose some embarrassment. It was impossible for me to repeat the
same old story, month after month, and to keep up my interest in it. It
was new to the people, it is true, but it was an old story to me; and to
go through with it night after night, was a task altogether too
mechanical for my nature. “Tell your story, Frederick,” would whisper
my revered friend, Mr. Garrison, as I stepped upon the platform. I
could not always follow the injunction, for I was now reading and

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