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Performance Analysis
in Game Sports:
Concepts and Methods
Martin Lames
123
Performance Analysis in Game Sports:
Concepts and Methods
Martin Lames
Performance Analysis in
Game Sports: Concepts
and Methods
Martin Lames
Faculty of Sports and Health Sciences
Technical University Munich
Munich, Germany
ISBN 978-3-031-07249-9 ISBN 978-3-031-07250-5 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07250-5
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
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now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
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The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
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This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
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Preface
This book is based on many years of teaching the subject of performance analysis
as a master’s course at TU München, Germany. Even more influential, it is based on
three decades of research in this area covering theoretical as well as practical
aspects. Theoretical activities include the search for conceptual and methodological
achievements in the analysis of game sports (a term for net games plus invasion
games), including mathematical and stochastic modelling. Practical activities com-
prise the introduction of technological innovations, giving support in match analysis
to top-level, mostly national teams, and deriving a conceptual framework for work-
ing in the practice of performance analysis based on these experiences.
The scientific roots of this work lie in the discipline of sports science one could
call “training and exercise science” as closest translation of German
“Trainingswissenschaft”. The aim of this discipline of sports science is to provide
scientific foundation for practical action in training and competition. Although it
seems to be a quite narrow and merely applied perspective, a closer look reveals that
this is by no means the case. To give a scientific foundation for practice it is, for
example, necessary to understand the structure of the respective sports discipline.
This, in turn, requires investigations of the type of basic research trying to establish
general findings that for example explain success in competition. Also, it is neces-
sary to identify properties of athletes as determinants of performance and to estab-
lish the relationships between them, what will altogether be called “theoretical
performance analysis”. Nevertheless, scientifically founded support for practice
remains the ultimate task that may only be solved by applying special and different
methods and concepts: “practical performance analysis”.
The book has six major chapters, starting with basic concepts, continuing with
the two most important methods of data collection in performance analysis, action
detection and position detection. Finally, concepts and methods of theoretical and
practical performance analysis are presented.
Chapter 1: Basics explains the underlying concepts and functions of performance
analysis in the broader framework of training and exercise science. Special attention
is given to—compared to other sports—the unique structure of game sports. The
concept introduced to explain the nature of game sports is a dynamic interaction
process with emerging behaviour. This concept will be substantiated in detail
because it is the reference point of the whole book. Another basic concept is the
distinction between theoretical and practical performance analysis that is introduced
v
vi Preface
and will be referenced to throughout the book as well. It is interesting to compare

this concept of performance analysis with different approaches like notational anal-
ysis (UK) and sports analytics (USA).
Chapter 2: Action Detection refers to the standard method of action recording
with observational systems. It will derive the most common types of observational
systems from concepts of behavioural assessment in psychology. Control of
observer agreement is an important topic in this context to quantify reliability of
observations either for examining data provided by external sources or to check/
improve one’s own observational systems. Finally, practical examples demonstrate
power and flexibility of well-designed observational systems.
In the recent two decades technological progress has made it possible to track the
positions of athletes. Chapter 3: Position Detection starts with a brief introduction
to the different technologies in use, GPS-, radio- and video-based systems. It then
discusses methods to control the accuracy of tracking systems which used to be a
surprisingly under-reported area. Only recently one has become aware of the com-
plexity of validation studies and potential error sources in position detection.
In Chapter 4: Theoretical Performance Analysis the different approaches to anal-
yse the structure of sports are described in detail. It contains the classical statistical
approaches and modelling approaches with the direct modelling of sports phenom-
ena from action and position data and the valuable approach of importing models
from other scientific areas and applying them to performance analysis. A special
section is devoted to Dynamical Systems Theory with special focus on synergetics
and ecological dynamics. All approaches are questioned critically whether or in
how far they are capable of solving the problems of performance analysis.
Chapter 5: Practical Performance Analysis is dedicated to explaining the con-
cepts and methods of scientifically founded performance analysis conducted in
practice. As the central method, qualitative game analysis makes use of qualitative
methods; this research methodology not so common in performance analysis is
briefly introduced. A more comprehensive view on performance analysis is advo-
cated, including the collection of all information necessary for generating practical
recommendations for training. Concepts and methods are described in depth and
specific attention is given to main tasks in practical performance analyses such as
identifying strengths and weaknesses of one’s own team and the opponent, develop-
ing a match strategy, and support tactical instruction and learning by video-based
tactics training.
At the end, Chapter 6: Outlook mentions the most interesting future perspectives
for performance analysis and analysts. It is not speculative at all to expect a further
progress in technological options for match analysis. Also, the role of performance
analysts will change when working increasingly in “training systems”, a term
expressing the tendency towards many experts from different areas being integrated
in a professional support system of a team or an athlete.
This book emphasizes a certain perspective on performance analysis. Always
keeping in mind that the ultimate aim is to provide scientific foundation for practical
action in sport it focuses on conceptual bases of performance analysis. Accordingly,
the basic scenario for application is always sports practice. The most important
Preface vii
methods and concepts for giving scientific support to practice are addressed in a
systematic, comprehensive manner, whereas giving a review on existing studies in
PA is not the priority. Readers of this textbook are scientists and students interested
in a comprehensive, concept-driven overview of the scientific discipline of perfor-
mance analysis, but also practitioners working in sports practice with an interest in
conceptual backgrounds and a critical reflection of their daily work.
Munich, Germany Martin Lames

Contents
1 Basics�� 1
1.1 Definitions and Concepts�� 1
1.1.1 Performance Analysis �� 2
1.1.2 Competition, Training, and Athletes’ Abilities �� 2
1.1.3 Theoretical and Practical Performance Analysis�� 4
1.1.4 General Model of Sports Performance Structure�� 7
1.2 Performance Analysis in Game Sports �� 9
1.2.1 The Nature of Game Sports�� 9
1.2.2 Basic Problems of Performance Analysis
in Game Sports�� 12
1.3 Approaches in Performance Analysis �� 14
1.3.1 Classical Performance Analysis�� 15
1.3.2 Notational Analysis�� 19
1.3.3 Sports Analytics�� 21
2 Action Detection �� 23
2.1 Assessment of Behaviour�� 23
2.2 Design of Observational Systems �� 25
2.2.1 Type of Observational Systems�� 27
2.2.2 Elements of Observational Systems�� 31
2.2.3 Complex Observational Systems�� 37
2.3 Validation of Observational Systems�� 37
2.3.1 General Framework of Validation �� 38
2.3.2 Role of Observer �� 40
2.3.3 Methods and Statistics for Testing Observer
Agreement�� 43
2.4 Examples for Studies Using Action Detection�� 53
2.4.1 Event Profiling�� 53
2.4.2 Detailed Event Observation�� 54
2.4.3 Hierarchical Categorial System�� 56
ix
x Contents
3 Position Detection�� 59
3.1 Functioning of Position Tracking�� 60
3.1.1 Position Detection Methods�� 60
3.1.2 Signal Processing�� 66
3.2 Validation of Tracking Systems�� 70
3.2.1 Gold Standards for Position Tracking in Sports �� 72
3.2.2 Design of Validation Studies�� 74
3.2.3 Accuracy of Position Tracking in Sports�� 79
4 Theoretical Performance Analysis�� 83
4.1 Statistical Approaches of TPA�� 84
4.1.1 Performance Profiles�� 85
4.1.2 Impact of Influencing Factors �� 88
4.1.3 Criticism of Statistical Approaches�� 92
4.2 Modelling Approaches�� 93
4.2.1 Methodological Aspects of Modelling Approaches�� 94
4.2.2 Direct Modelling of Game Behaviour�� 97
4.2.3 Importing Models to PA�� 115
4.3 Dynamical Systems Theory Approaches�� 133
4.3.1 Dynamical Systems Theories�� 133
4.3.2 Complex Systems, Synergetics, and Relative Phase�� 136
4.3.3 Ecological Psychology�� 144
4.3.4 Applications of DST in PA �� 148
4.3.5 Outlook DST in PA �� 167
5 Practical Performance Analysis�� 177
5.1 Introduction�� 177
5.2 Concepts of PPA �� 178
5.2.1 Definition, Aims, and Research Strategies�� 178
5.2.2 Informational Coupling of Competition and Training�� 181
5.2.3 Comprehensive Performance Analysis �� 188
5.3 Methods of PPA�� 190
5.3.1 Qualitative Game Analysis�� 190
5.3.2 Development of Match Strategies�� 201
5.3.3 Video-Based Tactics Training (VTT)�� 204
5.4 Game Analysts in Professional Training Systems�� 214
5.4.1 Applications of Game Analysis�� 215
5.4.2 The Role of Game Analysts�� 218
5.4.3 Game Analysis Software�� 220
5.4.4 Club Information Systems�� 223
6 Outlook�� 227
6.1 Outlook on the Core Topics of PA�� 227
6.1.1 Basic Concepts�� 227
6.1.2 Action Detection �� 228
Contents xi
6.1.3 Position Detection�� 229

6.1.4 Theoretical Performance Analysis�� 230
6.1.5 Practical Performance Analysis�� 232
6.2 The Future of PA�� 233
6.2.1 Artificial Intelligence and PA�� 233
6.2.2 Sports Practice and PA�� 234
References �� 237
Index�� 255
Abbreviations
AI Artificial intelligence
DMA Double moving average
DST Dynamical systems theory
EPTS Electronic performance tracking system
FIFA Fédération Internationale de Football Association
GDR German Democratic Republic
GNSS Global navigation satellite system
GPS Global positioning system
IFAB International Football Association Board (rule commission of FIFA)
LPS Local positioning system
MLS Minimum least squares
NBA National basketball association (highest US basketball league)
NTSC National Television Standards Committee (video norm)
PA Performance analysis
PAL Phase alternation line (video norm)
PPA Practical performance analysis
QGA Qualitative game analysis
RFID Radio-frequency identification
SNA Social network analysis
TPA Theoretical performance analysis
TU Technical University
VBT Video-based tracking
VR Virtual reality
VTT Video-based tactics training
xiii
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Scientific subject of training and exercise science

Figure 1.2 General structural model of sports performance
Figure 1.3 General structural model of performance in game sports
Figure 1.4 Hits in Google Scholar for “Performance Analysis Football”
Figure 1.5 The general structural model for sports performances
Figure 1.6 Empirical structure of performance in cross-country skiing
Figure 2.1 Model projection
Figure 2.2 General structure of invasion games and net games
Figure 2.3 Criteria for selecting an observational variable
Figure 2.4 Role of the observer
Figure 2.5 Absolute and case-by-case agreement
Figure 2.6 Compensation of objectivity
Figure 2.7 Agreement matrix for observer training
Figure 2.8 Matrix of agreement, matrix of weights, and weighted agreement matrix
Figure 2.9 Type I agreement matrix for recording duels in match
Figure 2.10 Start and end location of episodes (ball control periods) of the dominant
and the inferior team in a Bundesliga match
Figure 3.1 Two-dimensional Illustration of triangulation of a position given the
distances from three satellites
Figure 3.2 Calculation of area with sufficient elevation angle dependent on camera
position
Figure 3.3 Approximation of a trajectory by measurements of different frequency
Figure 3.4 Simulated smoothing with moving averages
Figure 4.1 Levels of modelling
Figure 4.2 Percent of match duration of ball control categories in 11 matches of
Bayern Munich
Figure 4.3 Distance covered in m/min per 5 min-interval
Figure 4.4 Distance covered (m/min) of teams visiting the teams with the lowest
and highest season average in home games
Figure 4.5 Match standings of 306 matches of Bundesliga season 2012/13 per min
Figure 4.6 Spectral Fatigue Index over 5 bouts of 2 vs. 2 small sided game under
fatigued and not fatigued conditions
Figure 4.7 The course of distance covered in 5-min intervals in three selected
matches and of the average of 36 matches
xv
xvi List of Figures
Figure 4.8 ACF of distance covered for the mean of each 5-min interval and mean
ACF the lags of all matches
Figure 4.9 Z-values for playing time, total distance covered, and distance covered
standardized with playing time for the 5-min interval with maximum
intensity (max) and for max+1
Figure 4.10 Interaction graphs and minimum spanning trees for basketball, football,
and handball
Figure 4.11 Two plays, their network, and their adjacency matrix
Figure 4.12 State-transition model for tennis
Figure 4.13 State-transition model for table tennis
Figure 4.14 Transition matrix of a tennis match
Figure 4.15 Transition matrix of a table tennis match
Figure 4.16 Relevance of tactical behaviours in tennis
Figure 4.17 System dynamics of a damped and a driven pendulum
Figure 4.18 A tennis rally of Justine Henin and Serena Williams with phase space
trajectories of each player
Figure 4.19 Illustration of Relative Phase for in-phase, anti-phase, and the general
phase relation between two objects
Figure 4.20 Coordination patterns in finger-waggling; positions of the two finger
tips over time in Kelso’s finger waggling experiment; potential land-
scapes for coupled oscillators
Figure 4.21 Conceptual model of a phase space in football
Figure 4.22 Left: Basic nonlinearities in team and net sports Right: Nonlinearities
in football matches
Figure 4.23 Left: Goals shot in Bundesliga season 2019/20 plotted against shots at
goal; Right: Plotted against goal attempts
Figure 4.24 Proportion of “chance variables” and chance goals of all goals
Figure 4.25 The rate of chance goals in scored and conceded goals by the first and
last team and the four first and last teams of Bundesliga 2011–12
Figure 4.26 Distribution of results in a football match assuming two independent
negative binomial distributions
Figure 4.27 Team centroids of Italy and France in the World Championship final
2006 with Relative Phase
Figure 4.28 Illustration of a rally in a net game as dynamical system
Figure 4.29 Perturbation profile for two matches of Nadal and Federer, French
Open 2007
Figure 4.30 Age-dependent course of critical goal situations (CGS) and perturba-
tions per match and CGS per goal and perturbations per CGS
Figure 4.31 Perturbation profiles of football teams of different age groups
Figure 4.32 Colour-coded recurrence plot for a football match
Figure 4.33 Recurrence plots of nine randomly selected football matches
Figure 5.1 The informational coupling between competition and training
Figure 5.2 Illustration of the concept of comprehensive performance analysis
Figure 5.3 Illustration of the concept of considering interactions between match
analyst and coach, staff, and athletes as being embedded in a
social context
List of Figures xvii
Figure 5.4 Illustration of the analogy between Qualitative Content Analysis and
Qualitative Game Analysis
Figure 5.5 Steps of QGA
Figure 5.6 Conceptual model of strategy development including feedback through
strategy check
Figure 5.7 The trimodal communication model of Merten
Figure 5.8 Organizational sequence and results of video-based tactic test and
match behaviour of service
Figure 5.9 Different roles of match analysts in a sports club
Figure 5.10 Design and user interfaces of a table tennis match analysis software
Figure 5.11 Different roles in the staff of a professional football club
Figure 5.12 Architecture of a club information system
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Comparison of TPA and PPA

Table 2.1 Starting events of ball possessions leading to a critical goal situation in
youth football
Table 2.2 Examples for observational variables
Table 2.3 Specification of an observational system for discrete, continuous, and
enumerative variables
Table 2.4 Frequency and duration of game stoppages in football per match
Table 2.5 Expert ratings of OSPAF variables with mean and Aiken’s V and intra/
inter-rater kappa
Table 2.6 Hierarchical observational system with game phases (categorial sys-
tem) on first level and game phase specific variables on second and
third level
Table 3.1 Comparison between different tracking technologies
Table 3.2 Assessment of the accuracy of LPS position tracking
Table 3.3 RMSE for position, speed, and acceleration
Table 4.1 Correlations between match intensity and teams’ average performances
and product (interaction) of average performances for typical kinematic
PIs; all correlations significant: min p = 0.007
Table 4.2 Descriptive statistics for the percentage of chance goals per team in
Bundesliga and Premier League 2011–12
Table 4.3 Descriptive statistics of the recurrence parameters of 21 football matches
Table 4.4 Inter-correlations between recurrence parameters and traditional PIs for
n = 21 matches
Table 5.1 Comparison of qualitative and quantitative research based on different
criteria
Table 5.2 The analogy between Qualitative Content Analysis and Qualitative
Game Analysis
xix
List of Boxes
Definition Performance Analysis

Anomy in the role of coaches
Theoretical Performance Analysis
Practical Performance Analysis
The practical impact debate
The structure of performances and ecological psychology
Definition of game sports
Performance indicators
Traditions of observational studies
Model theory
Variants of observational systems
Equivalence classes
Action feeds
Automated game observation
Observer agreement for interval-scaled judgements
Sufficient levels of measurement quality
Problems with “pure” methodological concepts
Performance Analysis and Technological Progress
Commercial data providers
Correlation as measure of agreement
Is PA a science?
Analysis of world top-level performances
Modelling with regression functions
Methodology of index building
Spectral analysis in PA
Importing a theory/a methodology to PA
Laplace’s demon and football matches
Hysteresis, critical fluctuations, critical slowing down
A synergetic experiment in golf
The agenda of DST modelling in sports
Where is the ball 10 s after a corner?
Expected goals and nonlinearity
Practical experiences
xxi
xxii List of Boxes
Is giving feedback the central task of PPA?

Norms for the required level of performance prerequisites
Attitudes of qualitative researchers
Qualitative Game Analysis
Qualitative content analysis (Mayring 1994, 2014)
Video-based tactics training
Virtual reality for PPA?
Is game analysis “big data”?
Basics
1
This chapter deals with basics of performance analysis embedded in a broader per-
spective of training and exercise science starting with central definitions and con-
cepts. Although this is an arduous and tiresome, not at all easy-going start, these are
necessary prerequisites not only for the course of the book but also to show the
contrast to different approaches of performance analysis. After this, a paragraph
outlines the particularities of game sports compared to other types of sports. It will
be proven that in performance analysis literature, these differences are not suffi-
ciently acknowledged, and sometimes even a tacit identification of sports and game
sports is found. The chapter closes with a comparison of different approaches
including UK’s notational analysis and US sports analytics.
1.1 Definitions and Concepts
In a classical academic tradition, this textbook starts with definitions necessary for
creating a common background of understanding. Sports science is not famous for
being a very analytical science, but the roots of this approach can be seen in the
conceptual systems going back to Soviet Union and GDR (German Democratic
Republic) with their acknowledged strong definitions and systematics. In the field
of performance analysis, these traditions meet an application field with completely
different traditions, frequently associated with professional (US- and West
European) team sports, specific head-coach personalities and scouts and analysts
relying on gut feelings. As things have changed dramatically in modern professional
team sports, nowadays being characterized by large, scientifically educated staffs, it
is about time to raise the conceptual framework of performance analysis on a cor-
responding level, starting with a precise understanding of the terms used.
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 1

M. Lames, Performance Analysis in Game Sports: Concepts and Methods,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07250-5_1
2 1 Basics
1.1.1 Performance Analysis
A most interesting key term in a textbook on performance analysis (PA) is “perfor-

mance analysis”. Studying the explanations of this term in the literature reveals an
increase in activities and application areas being ascribed to PA over time. Traditional
notational analysis only recorded events in competitions (Hughes and Franks 1997,
2004), whereas nowadays each method assessing any relevant aspect of a perfor-
mance in sports is included. In earlier times, PA was mostly implicitly restricted to
the analysis of game behaviour (McGarry 2009, p. 128); at present any type of sport
is the object. O’Donoghue (2010, p. 2) has extended the area of investigations fur-
ther to performances in training.
This has led to the suggestion of a very comprehensive definition of performance
analysis:
Definition Performance Analysis

Performance analysis (PA) is the assessment of competition, parts of competi-
tion, and performance prerequisites with different methods for different
purposes.
A first comment must state that this suggested definition represents an “open”
concept of performance analysis, open to different methods including modern
machine learning approaches, but the grass-rooted coach’s out-dated gut feeling is
still included (he for sure assesses the competition!). Purposes of PA range from
establishing statistical laws on the structure of performances to supporting the foot-
ball coach in deriving recommendations for tactical changes in the last 10 min with
one goal behind.
A second comment refers to the notion that PA is not limited to scientific activi-
ties. Assessing performances is something that happens in sports practice as well,
and thus, a much broader framework is drawn. Differences and commonalities of
PA conducted in academic and practical settings are issues that will turn up through
the whole of this book.
1.1.2 Competition, Training, and Athletes’ Abilities
As mentioned in the introduction, the scientific home of book and author is training
and exercise science in the sense of German “Trainingswissenschaft”. This disci-
pline of sports science aims at providing scientific support for practical action in
sports (Hohmann et al. 2020). The scientific subject of training and exercise science
consists of three areas: competition, training, and athletes’ capabilities including the
interrelationships between them (see Fig. 1.1).
The terms “training” and “competition” need no further explanation. With “capa-
bilities”, personal properties of athletes are denoted that are required for acting
1.1 Definitions and Concepts 3
Fig. 1.1 Scientific subject

of training and exercise
science. (With permission
of Limpert-Verlag from
Hohmann et al. (2020))
successfully in competition and can be influenced by training. The term “perfor-

mance prerequisites” means all personal properties that have an impact on perfor-
mance including—besides the capabilities—those not being subject to training such
as constitutional factors, for example, body height.
To clarify the nature of the three areas, it is appropriate to refer to ecological
psychology with constraints and affordances as basic concepts (Newell 1986; a
detailed discussion of this approach is given in the section on dynamical systems
modelling in Chap. 4). Being dispositions for action, capabilities may be termed
structural organismic constraints and affordances of the athletes. Very much like
environmental affordances allow a subject to do things (Glazier 2017), these inter-
nal affordances are prerequisite for an athlete to act successfully in competition, for
example, a sufficient level in endurance, strength, and agility but also technical
skills and tactical proficiency. Complementarily, if the level of capabilities is not
sufficient, this constitutes individual organismic constraints in reaching goals in a
competition.
Studying the nature of the interrelationships between these three topics of train-
ing and exercise science reveals some basic insights in the conceptual background
of performance analysis:
• The purpose of training at least in elite sports is preparation for competition.

• Success in competition is the ultimate criterion for every action taken in training.
• The demands of performance in competition are the primary source for identify-
ing the required levels of athletes’ capabilities.
• Certain levels of capabilities are prerequisite for optimal performance in compe-
tition (performance prerequisites).
• The required levels of athletes’ capabilities act as targets for training.
• Training impacts on athletes’ capabilities with the intention to provide or opti-
mize the required levels.
4 1 Basics
A first conclusion on the nature of training may be derived from this scheme:
The basic function of training, preparing athletes for competition, may be
achieved only indirectly via impacting on the required levels of athletes’ capa-
bilities. Only these capabilities have a direct impact on behaviour in competi-
tion, for example, my jumping capability allows me to accomplish a header
after a corner. Using a belligerent metaphor, one could say: In training the
weapons for the battle are sharpened, but the battle is decided on the battle-
ground. This holds true to an even larger extent for game sports compared to
other groups of sports as will be explained in the section on the nature of game
sports below.
Anomy in the Role of Coaches

Considerations on the subjects of training and exercise science (Fig. 1.1) and
especially examining the interactions between them may also be useful for
other purposes, for example, for understanding the role of coaches.
Acknowledging direct impact of training on capabilities but not on success in
competition refers to a basic problem in the role of coaches. The daily work
and main responsibility of coaches is to organize training. On the other hand,
the criterion mostly used to evaluate the quality of training is success in com-
petition. This mismatch is a characteristic feature of the coach’s role: he is
evaluated on behalf of a criterion that is not directly under his control. In
sociology, a conflict between acknowledged aims and the means at disposal is
called “anomy” (Merton 1949).
Analysing the relations between the three big topics allows for identifying two
main tasks of performance analysis (PA): First, PA has to identify determinants of
success in competition and to support conclusions on required levels of athletes’
capabilities. Second, PA has to analyse behaviour in competition to identify
strengths and weaknesses of the athletes. The latter is conducted with regard to
deriving practical recommendations for training. These two different tasks give rise
to the important distinction between practical and theoretical PA being introduced
in the next paragraph.
1.1.3 Theoretical and Practical Performance Analysis
One of the most important conceptual achievements in PA is the distinction between

its two sub-disciplines: theoretical performance analysis (TPA) and practical perfor-
mance analysis (PPA; Lames and McGarry 2007). Distinguishing between TPA and
PPA does not only give an answer to most of the critical questions that were dis-
cussed in the last years in PA’s practical impact debate (see Box “The practical
impact debate”) but also provides guidelines for the scientific founding of practical
action in scientific as well as in practical contexts. The necessity of two different
sub-disciplines of PA will become obvious immediately after determining precisely

their respective aims and methods.
Theoretical Performance Analysis

Theoretical performance analysis (TPA) aims at investigating the structure of
sports performances. It searches for general laws describing behaviour in dif-
ferent sports (action and movement profiles, performance level comparisons,
etc.) or quantifying the impact of determinants on competition behaviour, for
example, winning or losing. In addition, a task of TPA is to find adequate
models for sports competition reflecting its specific nature.
Determinants of competition behaviour may be found in competition (e.g. time

line, score line), in environment (e.g. weather, pitch conditions), or in athletes’
capabilities (e.g. endurance, strength). Finding an adequate model for the nature of
a sport is a more demanding task in game sports than in other groups of sports as
will be explained below.
In order to attain general laws, TPA applies typical methods of behavioural basic
research. Large, representative samples are used to ensure capturing typical struc-
tures of the game. Statistical evidence is looked for giving confidence intervals for
behavioural norms as well as significance levels and effect sizes for law-like rela-
tionships between determinants and outcome. Using a reductionist approach dimin-
ishes the complexity of the subject under investigation and allows pointing out
clearly the relationship under investigation. Recently, in addition to methods from
behavioural research, methods from computer science are used to solve this task, for
example, machine learning approaches. Chapter 4 is dedicated to a detailed presen-
tation of TPA including the search for adequate models for game sports in the realm
of dynamical systems theory.

Practical performance analysis (PPA) comprehends all performance analysis
activities conducted in sports practice. It aims at supporting practice to achieve
the respective goals of the club/team/athlete. In particular, performances in
competition are analysed, that is, competitions of one’s own team to identify
strengths and weaknesses as well as recent matches of the next opponent to
develop a match strategy but also training exercises and athletes’ abilities. The
general aim is to generate useful recommendations for practical action (prac-
tical impact).
Methodologically, the analysis of particular competitions means that single-case

studies are conducted. The research strategy applied is close to formative evaluation
using scientifically approved methods, for example, observational systems or motor
tests, to assess behaviour in competition and training. Conclusions are not drawn
6 1 Basics
Table 1.1 Comparison of TPA and PPA

TPA PPA
Aim Establish general laws Support for practice
Research strategy Basic research Evaluation research
Design Descriptive studies Process evaluation
Samples Large, representative Single cases
Criterion of effectiveness Statistical evidence Practical usefulness
Qualitative methods Prohibited Important
Accounting for context Reductionist approach Comprehensive approach
Setting Science, university Sports, sports facility
from statistical laws but from sound reconstruction of behaviour and interpretations
relying on a broad information based on the whole relevant context, for example,
game situation, opponent, one’s own tactics, preparation, motivation, and injuries/
rehabilitation. In Chap. 5, dedicated to details and methods of PPA, it will be
explained why qualitative methods play an important role in this process.
In the aspects discussed above and others (see Table 1.1), there are differences in
many respects between TPA and PPA. These differences in aim, method, sample,
setting, and design make a clear distinction more than appropriate. Especially what
scientific methodology is concerned, differences cannot be underestimated. The dis-
tinction between TPA and PPA as two different research areas promises also to
clarify many problems discussed in the so-called practical impact debate.
The Practical Impact Debate

In 2013/2014, some papers were published that discussed the practical useful-
ness of PA results. Carling (2013) made clear that for practical purposes, PA
findings on physical performance are mostly not relevant, for example, they
fail to establish a link to success, prove significant but hardly relevant posi-
tional differences, and mostly fail to measure the degree of fatigue. He pleads
for more pragmatism using results of PA in practice.
Drust and Green (2013) state that although there is great progress in PA
research and dissemination in sports practice, “the data available is frequently
descriptive in nature and … of little impact in the ‘real world’” (p. 1380).
They see a main reason for this in an insufficient distinction between basic
and applied research and advocate for a research model specific to applied
problems in sports science.
Some issues earlier, Mackenzie and Cushion (2013) gave a review on
research in PA and stated some general methodological problems such as
sample sizes, operational definitions, and dealing with complexity. Also, they
put the question of practical utility of PA results. They note that there has been
not much research on PA in practice done yet and mention that a naturalistic
and qualitative framework would be most appropriate here.
Finally, Carling et al. (2014) wrote a letter to the editor commenting on
Mackenzie and Cushion. They gave some explanations for the problems of
maintaining methodological standards in PA and also plead for an opening

towards PA in practice as a research subject of PA as scientific discipline.
Of course, the practical impact debate is not finished yet. In a recent study
on the use of PIs in practice, Herold et al. (2021) found out that old-fashioned,
easy-to-observe PIs such as shots on goal are still dominantly used in practical
settings.
Finally, one must mention that there are areas in PA for which the ultimate
aim of improving practice is not obligatory anymore. Examples are results of
PA being used “only” for media enhancement or when data from PA is used
for demonstrating the capabilities of visualization or artificial intelligence
applications.
Many of the issues brought up in the practical impact debate could be solved
partially by omitting misunderstandings of the nature of scientific findings but most
important by acknowledging the differences between the two sub-disciplines of PA,
TPA and PPA!
Nevertheless, it would create a wrong impression if these two areas were per-
ceived as being totally independent. First, people engaged in PPA should have and
usually have an education in TPA. Ideally, during their education, they are made
aware of the differences between practical and scientific work concerning both con-
ceptual and more hands-on aspects of each area. Second, there are specific relation-
ships: Results of TPA provide a valuable background for doing even more informed
PPA by giving, for example, a normative framework for analyses of one’s own team.
On the other hand, because of its close connection to the “real world”, PPA should
be the place where new hypotheses, new explanations, and new determining vari-
ables appear that are candidates for an investigation within the framework of TPA.
1.1.4 General Model of Sports Performance Structure
Scientifically founded PA should start with a solid idea, concept, or model of its
subject, that is, performances in sports. In Fig. 1.2, it is illustrated that athletes’
performance in competition is of top interest. Compared to environmental factors,
the capabilities of the athletes are the primary influencing factor from a practical
point of view, because they may become targets of training as shown in Fig. 1.1. In
the following section, the model will be introduced more in detail before it will be
tailored to game sports.
Competition comprises the overall result as well as parts of performance. Parts of
performance are obtained by the following:
• A partition of the overall performance such as intermediate times adding up to

the final performance in a running or racing event
• Recording actions in competition, such as action profiles in a match or a free
section in gymnastics, action chains leading to successful attacks or actions with
their quality of execution
8 1 Basics
Fig. 1.2 General

structural model of sports
performance
• Recording positions and derived aspects of competitions, such as movement

kinematics, movement profiles, tactical configurations, and position-based math-
ematical models of performance in competition
The capabilities of an athlete contain the relevant performance prerequisites for

being successful in competition. A general systematics (Hohmann et al. 2020) dis-
tinguishes athletics, technical skills, and tactical capabilities.
Finally, we have environmental determinants, whose influence on competition is
very much dependent on the type of sports, for example, in outward bound sports
such as skiing, adapting to the changing environment is quite decisive, whereas in
sports with more closed skills such as gymnastics taking place indoor, the environ-
ment is held constant by standardized equipment.
As mentioned above, a concept of PA just giving a description of competition
behaviour would only give limited support to practice. It is of major importance to
provide explanations of competition behaviour on the two levels shown in Fig. 1.2,
environmental conditions and athletes’ capabilities. Identifying influential aspects
of the environment such as opponents, home/away matches, spectators, referees,
weather conditions, properties of sports equipment, and others contributes to the
background knowledge of the sport or the event. Athletes’ capabilities play a differ-
ent, even more important, role. Whereas environmental factors have to be more or
less accepted and a good preparation should anticipate their influence on match day,
athletes’ capabilities become, once identified by PA as explanation for inferior per-
formance, target of training, and this is the most important link between PA and
practice.
Though arguing for a wide concept of PA, limits are reached when athletes’
capabilities in turn are subject to explanation. Typically this is done by identifying
underlying determinants such as oxygen uptake and metabolism as explanation for
1.2 Performance Analysis in Game Sports 9
endurance capabilities. Identification and diagnostics of determinants of endurance

capabilities are clearly the realm of physiology. In the same vein, the origin of defi-
cits in technical and tactical capabilities must be identified by psychologists, for
example, motivation, vigilance, or aggressiveness, or by movement scientists when
talking about determinants for perception, skill execution, and decision-making
capabilities. Exercise science, on the other hand, deals with the search for appropri-
ate interventions in training to cure these deficits.
The Structure of Performances and Ecological Psychology

From a scientific perspective, it is very interesting and challenging to embed
the frame concept for the general structure of sports performances in Fig. 1.2
into the theory of ecological psychology. The different types of Newell’s con-
straints (1986) fit excellently into this scheme: task and environmental con-
straints are nearly literally contained. Also, the notion of athletes’ capabilities
as organismic properties constituting constraints and affordances is appropri-
ate. Whereas weaknesses in an athlete’s performance may be explained by his
personal organismic constraints, strengths in competition are most likely to be
associated with structural organismic affordances.
In Chap. 4 on TPA, ecological psychology will be presented in detail and
also a critical discussion of its suitability as theoretical framework for PA may
be found there.
1.2 Performance Analysis in Game Sports
Since this book is dedicated to performance analysis in game sports, it is evident

that commonalities in the structure of performance of game sports are of interest.
Even within game sports we find sub-groups with (to a certain degree) different
performance structures. The nature of game sports has important consequences for
methods and concepts of PA in game sports. Finally, typical approaches of PA in
other groups of sports will be mentioned.
1.2.1 The Nature of Game Sports
What is a game sport? The term is not very common in English, where, for example,
expressions like “team sports” or “individual sports” are more in use with team
sports sometimes implicitly taken for game sports. But obviously, there are sports
run by teams (rowing, relays) not being games and most net games are individual
sports. The term “formal games” (consisting of net games, invasion games, and
striking/fielding games) created by Read and Edwards (1992) and adopted by
Hughes and Bartlett (2002) and Hughes and Franks (2004) was never popular and
is nowadays reserved for serious games and eSports. Moreover, since PA deals also
10 1 Basics
with other sports than game sports, it is a good start to look for a definition of these
sports when aiming to point out the peculiarities of PA in game sports.
Searching for a more apt definition of game sports, it is helpful to consider them
as a group of sports (Aristotle’s genus proximum) with special characteristics (dif-
ferentia specifica). From a PA perspective, it is convenient to distinguish groups of
sports according to their leading determinant of performance. There is a suggestion
by Thiess and Schnabel (1976), two leading sports taxonomists in GDR, comprising
five groups of sports, that is, endurance and strength sports, game and combat
sports, and technical sports, the latter with the sub-groups of artistic and driving-
flying-shooting sports.
What is the typical property of game sports as a group of sports? There is an early
answer in the author’s doctoral thesis:
Definition of Game Sports

“Game sports are a group of sports, where two parties (single, double, team)
engage in a dynamic interaction process that is established by the parties in
simultaneously trying to reach their aim and to prevent the opponent from
reaching his one; the aim in a game sport is a symbolic action” (Lames
1991, 33).
Explanations:
• The definition follows the classical structure: Game sports form a group of sports
with a distinguishing property from other groups of sports.
• The distinguishing property of game sports is given by the specific way of inter-
action between the (two) parties.
• The specific way of interaction is given by the simultaneous striving of the par-
ties for their aim (offence) and by preventing the opponent from reaching his one
(defence).
• The only way to distinguish game sports from combat sports is connected with
the different nature of the aims in these two groups of sports. While in combat
sports the aim is a manipulation of the opponent’s body (hitting, kicking, stab-
bing, throwing on the mat, etc.), aims in game sports are symbolic acts per-
formed with the game object (e.g. to throw the ball in a basket or to hit a winner).
According to Read and Edwards (1992), three sub-groups of game sports with
variants of the typical interaction process are distinguished:
1. Invasion games such as football codes (soccer, rugby, American, Australian, and
Gaelic football), handball, basketball, and several others: The two teams are on the
pitch at the same time (different: American football with only the special teams
facing each other on the pitch!). The aim is to bring the game object (the ball) into
a certain space, typically a goal or a basket, but also an “end-zone” marked by a
line or through a “goal” built up by two posts and a bar. There are phases of ball
possessions either finishing with rule-based events (goal, shot at goal, offensive
foul, out of bounds, and others) or turnovers. There is physical contact between the
two parties, and we typically have a back and forth on the pitch, because the play-
ers group themselves more or less around the playing object.
2. Net games such as volleyball, tennis, table tennis, and squash (the net is a wall
here!): The game is made up of rallies ending with a point for one party. Rallies
consist of alternating strokes (different: volleyball, a team net game!) by the two
parties. The aim of the rally is to hit a winner or to force the opponent to hit an
error. The parties being separated by a net (different: squash!) are not in physical
contact. The sequence of alternating actions is the typical interaction in this
group of game sports, making something such as “alternating strokes games” a
better (there is a net in football as well!), but inconvenient, denomination.
3. Pitcher/batter games such as baseball, cricket, and softball: In these game sports,
we find a special interaction structure given by the fact that the aims of the teams
on the pitch are not the same. For example, in baseball, the batter’s team tries to
score runs and the pitcher’s team tries to avoid this and getting players out. These
roles are changed in the second part of an inning. In the light of our definition,
the teams are simultaneously striving for their respective aims, but these aims are
different ones over certain periods of the match.
Summing up these considerations on the nature of game sports, one may state
that their constitutive property is interaction. From this basic statement, some fur-
ther conclusions on their nature with important consequences for PA may be drawn:
Achieving a symbolic aim against the resistance of the opponent requires a plan,
a strategy how to do this. Such a plan has to take one’s own and the opponent’s
capabilities into account. These plans may also be called the tactics of a player or a
team, showing that in game sports, tactics is of outstanding importance compared to
other groups of sports. In the case of team games, tactics is even more dominant
since within-team cooperation demands for an additional dimension of planning or
tactics.
With respect to success, one may state that if a team makes an unsuccessful
move, it will very likely try a different move to avoid failure thereafter. On the other
hand, if there is a successful move or action, the opponent has every reason to
change his behaviour. In sum, it is very unlikely to find a constant playing pattern
all over a match; behaviour changes over time, and it is dynamic!
Taken together with the constitutive aspect of interaction, the nature of game
sports is best captured by treating them as dynamic interaction processes with
emerging behaviour. This concept was suggested by several researchers in the area,
already (e.g. Lames (1991), Passos et al. (2011)). The consequences for PA may
hardly be underestimated. For example, the frequent practice in PA to describe a
performance with summative statistics on the frequency of a certain behaviour dur-
ing a match (“stats”) and taking it as a measure of the capability of one player or one
team is a questionable method in the light of this concept, as the first practice does
not reflect dynamics and the second does not reflect interaction!
The resulting behaviour in a game perceived as a dynamic interaction process is
only weakly connected to the levels of abilities of the players. It spontaneously
12 1 Basics
Fig. 1.3 General

structural model of
performance in game
sports
emerges from the interaction and is not repeatable and hard to predict (see Box
“Where is the ball 10 s after a corner?” in Chap. 4). Emergence, the development of
new structures from complex interactions between sub-systems, is a crucial concept
for understanding game behaviour. This concept has already been introduced earlier
(Kelso 1995; Glazier 2010; Duarte et al. 2013), and PA is still looking for appropri-
ate methods to deal with it (see Sect. 4.3.1 in Chap. 4 on TPA).
1.2.2 Basic Problems of Performance Analysis in Game Sports
Reflections on the nature of game sports like in the last section have far-reaching
consequences for PA as already denoted. The general model for a performance in
sports (Fig. 1.2) has to be adapted to reflect the conditions in game sports. In
Fig. 1.3, the observable behaviour in competition is depicted as the result of the
dynamic interaction of the two sets of athletes’/players’ capabilities.
A problem caused by the nature of game sports is the fact that we only can “see”
the result of the interaction process between the parties on the pitch and we do not
directly perceive the capabilities of the parties. On the other hand, drawing infer-
ences on players’ capabilities is a most important aim of PPA. In the light of the
previous considerations, it is no surprise that it requires specially designed methods
that allow looking behind the curtain of the interaction process (see Chap. 5 on PPA).
Lames and McGarry (2007) compared the structure of performance in a game
sport with the one of a 100 m sprint. The time scored in a 100 m sprint may be inter-
preted as an expression of the sprinter’s potential. It may even be conceived as a
realization of his capabilities at the occasion of the performance under scrutiny. It is
obvious that there is a very close relationship between his capabilities and his per-
formance. It is a comparatively easy task for PA to identify strengths and
weaknesses of a sprinter given the kinematics of his 100 m performance, for exam-
ple, with reaction time, peak acceleration, peak velocity, and sprint endurance index.
This does not hold true at all for performances in game sports. Since observable
behaviour emerges from the dynamic interaction with the opponent, PA in game
sports has to solve two basic problems: taking into account the changes in perfor-
mance over time of a match and estimating the performance taking into consider-
ation the behaviour of the opponent.
Performance Indicators
As pioneers of performance analysis already mentioned (in Germany:
Hagedorn 1972), performance in game sports is expressed by the frequency of
actions either directly associated with reaching the aim of the game, for exam-
ple, scoring or preventing a goal, or being supportive to this. Therefore, per-
formance indicators, being single or combined action variables that describe
some or all aspects of performance (Hughes and Bartlett 2002), are used to
assess performance in game sports. O’Donoghue (2010) added necessary
conditions for a variable becoming a performance indicator borrowed from
business and engineering: it must have been proven to be a valid indicator for
an important aspect of performance and possess three metric properties,
namely, an objective measurement procedure, a known scale of measurement,
and a valid means of interpretation.
Confronting this notion of performance indicators with the nature of game sports,
both constitutive properties, dynamics and interaction, create problems. A typical
performance indicator consisting of (normalized) frequencies of actions in a match
is first, a summative statistic and as such static and not dynamic, and is second,
attributed to the performance of one player or one team and thus does not reflect the
interaction.
Sampaio and Leite (2013) mention this problem and optimistically state that
continuing development is required in the forthcoming years, whereas the author
sees it as a basic “dilemma of game sport research” (Lames 1991) and consequences
are to be drawn concerning basic concepts of research strategies and methodologies
to be explained in the remainder of this book.
Of course, classical approaches in PA have perceived these problems as well.
One way of dealing with the problem of dynamics is to refer to the “law of large
numbers” that will cure dynamic changes in behaviour based on a large number of
observations. This might seem to be acceptable in TPA, but in PPA, we are inter-
ested in the “true value” of a performance of one player in one game. This is one
reason why in PPA qualitative research methodology is applied.
What the influence of opposition is concerned, a suggestion in TPA is to intro-
duce opponent’s strength as a confounding variable (O’Donoghue 2009; Lago
2009). One must state though, that this procedure is far away from analysing behav-
iour emerging from the interactions between the opponents. Instead, emergence
14 1 Basics
means the situational mutual shaping of behaviour, which is hardly accounted for by
introducing another summative, static variable “level of opponent”. For the purpose
of PPA, a much deeper analysis of how the qualities of the opponent impact the
performance of one’s own players is required bringing qualitative methods with in-
depth reconstruction and interpretation into play (see Chap. 5 on PPA).
Finally, it is worth noting that the impact of interaction and dynamics on perfor-
mance in game sports varies between the different game sports.
In net games, there is a tight interaction induced by the alternating sequence of
strokes. Each stroke, except service, can be seen as highly influenced by or as an
answer to the prior stroke. For a service, we must acknowledge that its impact
strongly depends on the qualities of the return player as well.
In invasion games, trying to invade a certain space against a defence implies
strong interactions, too. In addition, it is maybe a good idea to distinguish between
high-scoring games (basketball, handball) and low-scoring ones (soccer, field and
ice hockey). In high-scoring games (basketball and handball roughly show around
40% successful ball possessions), attacks are more successful, and points are scored
on a regular base with fewer opportunities for the defence to interfere to a well-
planned and executed attack. In low-scoring games though, we have additional
components that make the success of attacks unlikely, such as chance and instability
or chaotic phenomena (see Chap. 4).
In pitcher/batter games, actions are strictly sequential and frequently analysed in
isolation (pitching game, batting game). Apart from the (crucial) pitcher-batter
interaction, success depends to a great extent on individual skill. This means that in
this group of sports, where performance is made up of sequential, rather indepen-
dent actions (pitching, batting, catching, running), the connectedness of game
behaviour and individual skill is comparatively close, and interaction is lower than
in the other two families of game sports. In this light, it is not a surprise that the
longest tradition in recording summative static PIs is found in baseball.
1.3 Approaches in Performance Analysis
Performance analysis has a rather long history with respect to disciplines of sports
science. Nevertheless, only in recent years technological developments have
increased the potential of PA dramatically. This may be documented with the num-
ber of publications found in Google Scholar with the keyword “performance analy-
sis in football” given in Fig. 1.4. There is an exponential growth until 2013 and a
levelling off at a high level since then. The modelling method of using regression
functions is discussed below in Sect 4.2 in Chap. 4.
In the remainder of this paragraph, historically and actually relevant approaches
of PA are described.
1.3 Approaches in Performance Analysis 15
Fig. 1.4 Hits in Google Scholar for “Performance Analysis Football”; from 1990 to 2013, an
exponential trend fits data with R2 = 0.998
1.3.1 Classical Performance Analysis
The term “classical performance analysis” is chosen here, because this is a rela-
tively old approach of performance analysis but a basic one for more recent devel-
opments. It was established in the late 70ies/early 80ies of last century in the form
presented here by Manfred Letzelter from Johannes Gutenberg University at Mainz,
Germany. He merged analytical models on the structure of performances in sports
with empirical research methodology, which was a big achievement for applied
sports science in these times. There are three main characteristics of this approach:
• Holistic perspective: All relevant parts of a sports performance as well as all

relevant performance prerequisites are of interest to classical performance
analysis.
• Applied perspective: The ultimate aim of conducting a study under this paradigm
is to generate useful information for training, specifically a list of performance
prerequisites each weighted according to its impact on the complex
performance.
• Empirical perspective: The structure of performance is established in a strictly
empirical way, that is, by operationalization, measurement, and statistical testing
of the single elements of a sports performance and their relations.
In his seminal paper, the method of classical performance analysis was described
in three steps (Letzelter and Letzelter 1982):
16 1 Basics
Fig. 1.5 The general structural model for sports performances. (With permission of Limpert-
Verlag from Hohmann et al. (2020))
1. Theoretical modelling: A hypothetical structural model of the performance is

developed using a general model (see Fig. 1.5) which is adapted to the sport
under consideration by identifying the variables that should be addressed in a
study on this specific sport. This theoretical model includes the complex perfor-
mance, hypothetically relevant parts of this performance and hypothetically rel-
evant performance prerequisites.
2. Examination of empirical structure: After the operationalization of the variables
in the hypothetical model and their assessment in a large, representative sample
for a certain sports setting, the empirical relations between and within the model
components are studied with statistical methods, using, for example, correlation
and regression methods or factor analysis.
3. Identification of targets for training: The impact of each variable on the complex
performance is studied, and a “priority list” is generated giving the most impor-
tant parts of performance and the most influential performance prerequisites
according to weights obtained, for example, from multivariate regression meth-
ods or from structural equation modelling.
A general structural model for sports performances is depicted in Fig. 1.5. It

resembles very much the structure presented in Fig. 1.2, just giving more details and
illustrating the idea of a “performance pyramid” with complex performance as the
top and the lower levels being prerequisite to the upper ones. There is a distinction
made between specific and general performance prerequisites with the former
meaning stable properties needed directly in the execution of the sport, whereas the
latter focus on determinants of these properties at a more general level, for example,
a marathon runner needs a specific marathon endurance, which in turn depends on
some physiological properties.
Fig. 1.6 Empirical structure of performance in cross-country skiing. (Reproduced with permis-
sion of Philippka Verlag from Ostrowski and Pfeiffer (2007))
An example for step 2 of the above agenda of classical performance analysis, the
examination of the empirical structure, is given in Fig. 1.6. This study on Nordic or
cross-country skiing (Ostrowski and Pfeiffer 2007) shows the empirical relations
between four levels of the general model. The complex performance is given by the
running time on a cross-country skiing trail. Parts of performance are given by the
time used for parts of the trail with different slopes (uphill, flat, downhill with and
without use of arms). The level of specific performance prerequisites is represented
by three capabilities, running endurance on a skiing treadmill and strength endur-
ance on an arm-pull ergometer for diagonal and parallel pulls. Finally, physiological
parameters such as heart rates, watts per kilogram bodyweight, and VO2 at certain
intensities specified by lactate levels in the blood are given representing the level of
general performance prerequisites.
The small figures depicted in Fig. 1.6 show the respective R2-values of a regres-
sion with all variables from the lower level as independent variable and the con-
struct on the higher level as dependent variable. One may see, for example, that
skiing treadmill endurance performance is more determined by physiological vari-
ables than arm pull strength endurance obviously requiring specific skills. On the
next level, it is interesting to note that only uphill and flat parts are substantially
influenced by the capabilities under examination and that we have a substantial
amount of unexplained variance. On the other hand, the time needed for these parts
18 1 Basics
of the trail determines to a great extent the overall running time, with the exception
of passive downhill that shows almost no impact. It becomes obvious from this
example that results of a study performed under the paradigm of classical perfor-
mance analysis create valuable background information for training, especially how
to distribute efforts and resources to the many parts of the system.
Despite its conceptional merits, there has been some criticism on classical per-
formance analysis. First, there are some general methodological issues. Empirical
models are based on empirical samples, that is, the athletes that happen to be in a
sample “create” in a way the resulting model of the structure of performance. At this
point, we run into the general problem of samples in top-level sports: at the very top,
the samples are necessarily too small to allow for decent statistical evaluation.
Especially when a differentiated performance model with many variables is to be
filled with empirical content, this becomes an almost insurmountable problem.
Ostrowski and Pfeiffer (2007) built their model on n = 31 athletes and several (nine)
single regressions are run, because a more appropriate structural equation model
does not work at this ratio of sample size vs. number of variables.
Other critical aspects are the variables included in the studies. The claim of clas-
sical performance analysis is that all hypothetically relevant variables are included,
which is very demanding. In practice, the selection of variables is less determined
in a deductive manner, that is, all variables that are hypothetically relevant are
included, but rather in an inductive way, that is, the variables one has at hand are
included in the study. Ostrowski and Pfeiffer (2007) used the results of three tests
applied in routine testing in Nordic skiing as representation of the performance
prerequisites. Maybe the perceived gap with respect to explained variance between
performance prerequisites and performances in different parts of the trail is due to
missing skill or explosive power tests at the level of performance prerequisites.
Another methodological concern is associated with the way statistical methods
treat independent and dependent variables. The linear relationship typically
assumed and assessed by traditional statistical methods may not be adequate for
modelling some well-known relationships between performance prerequisites and
performance, for example:
• Threshold concepts, i.e., a certain level of a performance prerequisite that is to be

achieved with no additional improvements beyond this level,
• Optimal levels, i.e., when not enough and too much of a prerequisite both have
negative consequences for performance, which is, for example, the case with
body height in several sports.
In addition to these rather technological problems, there are also conceptual

issues in the criticism of classical performance analysis:
• A covariation between variables does not reveal the basic mechanisms that are
responsible for the statistical covariation.
• Cases of biased correlations are discussed in research methodology, for example,
correlations induced by moderator or mediator variables.
Knowing the underlying mechanisms would be very helpful for practice for
designing training interventions. In the same vein, one must admit that empirical
results frequently show ambiguities, for example, is it really justified to devote more
resources to a performance prerequisite that has a common variance of R2 = 0.55
with a complex performance than to one that correlates with R2 = 0.53, especially
given the methodological problems mentioned above?
The most severe objection against classical performance analysis comes from its
basic assumption that performance is determined by the performance prerequisites
of the athletes or teams. As explained in the paragraph on the nature of game sports
above (see Fig. 1.3), this is not the case for game sports and combat sports, where
performance must be considered as the result of the interaction process between the
two parties. Moreover, aspects such as dynamics and emergence, both being consti-
tutive of game and combat sports, are not an issue in classical performance analysis.
Taken together, classical performance analysis was a great innovation for perfor-
mance analysis at the time of its foundation. It was a big support in striving for
academic dignity of applied sports science that was at stake in these times. For game
and combat sports though, this is a conceptually inapplicable approach. Its merits
are to be seen in individual sports, where overall performance is to a great extent
determined by performance prerequisites, for example, track and field or swimming
disciplines. Methodological improvements, for example, capturing nonlinear rela-
tionships with neural network methods or finding design solutions for the sample
problem of top-level sports, will result in further valuable contributions of classical
performance analysis to applied sports science.
1.3.2 Notational Analysis
The title of two textbooks “Notational Analysis in Sports” (Hughes and Franks
1997, 2004) gave the name to a very early and influential school of performance
analysis predominantly located in the UK. Hughes and Bartlett give a definition:
“Notational analysis is an objective way of recording performance, so that critical
events … can be quantified in a consistent and reliable manner. This enables quan-
titative and qualitative feedback that is accurate and objective” (2008, p. 9).
From this definition, two aspects can be derived being characteristic for nota-
tional analysis. First, it is about event detection which is used to be the only relevant
method of performance analysis for a long time. Only later, technological progress
made position detection available for performance analysis, which since then is the
second standard method in PA (see Chaps. 2 and 3 addressing these standard
methods).
The second aspect of interest is the purpose of notational analysis, which is seen
in providing feedback about the events that took place in competition. Emphasizing
the feedback function of notational analysis may be due to the impact of two
research traditions, first, studies on coaches’ ability to correctly reproduce a match,
and second, the investigation of motor learning processes in movement science.
20 1 Basics
In very early studies, Franks and his co-workers were able to demonstrate that
coaches’ memory of what had happened on the pitch is far away from being flawless
(Franks and Miller 1986, 1991) and, in addition, coaches tend to be very confident
in their judgements (Franks 1993). These proven perceptual weaknesses of coaches
watching a match of course gave rise to a demand for accurate and objective feed-
back which was met by notational analysis. The second source of demand for feed-
back is to be found in movement science, where it is unanimously acknowledged
that feedback, for example, intrinsic or extrinsic feedback, is essential for any motor
learning process. Taking training in game sports as such a learning process, the
importance of feedback becomes obvious.
The position taken in this book is that feedback is of course important, but
in Chap. 5 on PPA, the restriction on just giving feedback will be given up. In
addition, the differences between a motor learning process and cognitive learn-
ing processes will be mentioned there with respect to consequences for the
need and the structure of feedback in PPA. Instead of being restricted to merely
giving feedback, the position taken in this book opens performance analysis to
the derivation of practical measures as well. In notational analysis, deriving
these measures is an exclusive task of the coach as it becomes clear in their
early concepts of the coupling of athletes’ performance and practice (Maslovat
and Franks 2008).
The restriction on giving feedback made it hard for notational analysis to deal
with some specific conceptual issues of game sports. The distinction between
behaviour in competition and players’ capabilities, which is essential for practical
performance analysis, is not important when one just aims at describing matches.
Also, dynamics and interaction in game sports were initially not of interest to
notational analysis and the search for summative PIs for the whole match pre-
vailed (Hughes and Bartlett 2002; Nevill et al. 2008). In contrast to within-match
dynamics, which was treated more or less only via modified score lines (Hughes
2004; Hughes et al. 2013), match-to-match variability became more an issue
(Hughes et al. 2001b). The desire for PIs that had “stabilized,” i.e., that match-to-
match fluctuation of PIs is below an acceptable level allowing to speak about a
“normative profile” was expressed. A normative profile is required when infer-
ences about strengths and weaknesses are to be made. A considerable number of
studies were conducted to determine empirically the number of matches required
to obtain a reasonably stable estimate for the mean values of PIs. O’Donoghue
and Ponting (2005) made clear that this question could be answered also analyti-
cally by a probability estimation assuming the law of large numbers in statistics.
It is interesting to see that researchers who have great experiences as players,
coaches, or performance analysts and for sure have an excellent understanding
of the structure of performances in game sports fail to adopt the corresponding
concepts in their scientific work. Nevertheless, notational analysis is to be
acknowledged as a pioneering approach in PA that has remained very influential
ever since.
1.3.3 Sports Analytics
In US sports, especially in the professional clubs of the big five leagues (NBA,
MLB, NFL, MLS, NHL), there is a long tradition of analysing sports data. The so-
called sabermetrics (SABR, Society for American Baseball Research) in baseball,
for example, go back until the early 1980s. They replaced the mere accumulation of
baseball statistics, which may be traced back for baseball until 1845, when the box
score was introduced (Lewis 2003). Interestingly, more advanced PIs from saber-
metrics were first appreciated by fans and media and became a successful business
model, for example, for STATS (Sports Team Analysis and Tracking Systems) Inc.
and ESPN (Entertainment and Sports Programming Network) before the clubs took
notice of it and applied it in their daily work (Lewis 2003). A breakthrough in this
direction was the book Moneyball by Michael Lewis describing the successful use
of sports analytics by manager Billy Beane from the Oakland A’s. Beane managed
to arrive at great decisions, for example, in drafting new players, giving his team a
position in competition that was much better than to be expected from the financial
resources available.
The standard book on sports analytics is Alamar (2013). He describes sports
analytics as the search for patterns in sports data to optimize decisions in sports. A
distinguishing feature of sports analytics in comparison to the two other approaches
mentioned above is that it is not dedicated or restricted for use in sports practice
(Miller 2016) but maybe even more relevant to media and club management (Fried
and Mumcu 2017). In addition, there was hardly any formative involvement of
sports science in the development of sports analytics, instead highly qualified
experts from other sciences, especially informatics (typically being nerds in their
respective sports), applied their knowledge and methods to sports data. Taken
together, sports analytics has become a giant field of business (Harrison and
Bukstein 2017; Link 2018).
Link (2018) gives an impressively long list of stakeholders in sports analytics
with their specific interests in it. This list contains large businesses that pursue spe-
cial interests in sports analytics:
• Media, entertainment industry: Sports analytics is used for media enhancement,

that is, making media products more attractive. This gives a competitive advan-
tage directly by increasing the audience, that is, the number of customers, and
indirectly by becoming more attractive for advertising.
• Data providers: Companies are engaging in recording match data and producing
PIs with the aim of selling it to clubs, leagues, media, or fans.
• IT companies: Big IT companies take sports analytics as showcases for demon-
strating their capabilities, for example, SAP with their sports information system
“Sports one” or Siemens with their digital twin initiative originally designed for
industry 4.0.
• Event management: Sports analytics is used for advertising matches, for in-event
information enhancement, and for social media contacts to potential spectators.
22 1 Basics
• Betting industry: Optimizing betting odds relies very much on sports analytics,
but also betting frauds may be detected with it.
• E-games: The e-game industry uses sports analytics to make tactical behaviour
in their games as realistic as possible and/or to map individual or team character-
istics onto their avatars.
Besides the interests of business in sports analytics, recent developments in

information technology have changed the way how sports data are used for decision
support. Methods and concepts of other areas of analytics, including business ana-
lytics, are made available to sports analytics (Blobel and Lames 2020; Jayal et al.
2018). Machine learning and artificial intelligence (AI) (Araújo et al. 2020) will
have even more impact in future real-world performance analysis. These aspects
will be dealt with in Chap. 6. Nevertheless, Alamar (2013) claim that good informa-
tion cannot be produced from bad data holds true for sports analytics as well as for
any other application field. This also means that scientifically founded domain
knowledge, the target of this book on concepts and methods of performance analy-
sis, is indispensable, no matter which kind of analytics will be used in the future.
Action Detection
2
Historically, recording events in sports competitions is most likely the earliest activ-
ity in PA. In this chapter, action detection in PA is put in the tradition of behavioural
research as a relatively recent development. As notational analysis may be seen as a
special case of behavioural observation, this link opens a broader perspective on the
issue. All observational methods share two important properties: they are limited to
the perceivable surface of behaviour and the measurement instrument is the human
observer. Based on these commonalities, a paragraph is dedicated to the design of
observational systems in sports. Dealing with the central methodological issue of
agreement between the human observers requires introducing some special tech-
niques that maybe are not common in a typical methodological education in sports
science. Finally, examples of observational systems for action detection in sports
are given.
One might ask why to treat observational methods in a special chapter in a text-
book on performance analysis in the age of data providers, action feeds, and artifi-
cial intelligence. The simple answer is that one is relying on competency in these
methods in case there is a deeper interest in details than provided by action feeds or
when there is no coverage by data providers either because of a too low performance
level or in game sports that are not commercially attractive for data providers.
Moreover, pursuing an AI approach in sports does not absolve from testing data
quality, in the case of event data typically applying observational validation methods.
2.1 Assessment of Behaviour
Textbooks of notational analysis often do not mention that methods and designs of
notation systems for sports analyses must be seen as a special case of observational
methods. This perspective, though, allows making use of decades of methodologi-
cal developments and considerations that have led to a complex body of knowledge.
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 23

M. Lames, Performance Analysis in Game Sports: Concepts and Methods,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07250-5_2
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regions unmercifully. Laden with immense booty, he halted at the
Donets to winter there. But the wealth which he had gathered roused
the greed of Ivak, Khan of the Shiban Horde, who, aided by Nogai
murzas, made a sudden attack upon Ahmed and killed him. Ivak
sent a swift courier with these tidings to Ivan in Moscow, and
received gifts in return.
The last blow was given to the Golden Horde by Girei, Khan of the
Crimea, Ivan’s faithful ally, against whom a mortal hatred was
cherished by Ahmed’s descendants. Girei attacked the Golden
Horde at Sarai, its capital, and destroyed it completely. Ahmed’s son,
then Khan of the Horde, sought refuge among the Nogais. Later on
he went to the Sultan at Tsargrad, and at last to his famous ally, the
King of Poland. There he was put in prison, however, and the king
sent word to Mengli Girei that as long as he remained in peace his
erstwhile disorderly neighbor would be retained in durance.
Thus in 1505 ended the Golden Horde, or the Horde of Sarai, which
had so bitterly oppressed Russia for more than two hundred and
forty years. The continuation of the Horde was the small Astrakhan
Kingdom, once a vassal state in Batu’s mighty empire.
THE END.
[483]
[Contents]
THE MONGOLS. A HISTORY. 📘
By JEREMIAH CURTIN.
WITH A FOREWORD BY THEODORE ROOSEVELT.
8vo. Cloth, gilt top, $3.00 net.
President Roosevelt in his “Foreword” says:
“The death of Jeremiah Curtin robbed America of one of

her two or three foremost scholars. His extraordinary
translations of the Polish novels of Sienkiewicz would
have been enough to establish a first-class reputation for
any man. But nothing that he did was more important
than his studies of the rise of the mighty Mongol Empire
and its decadence. In this particular field no other
American or English scholar has ever approached him.”
OPINIONS
This book the world actually needed.—Westminster,

Philadelphia.
A noteworthy contribution to American scholarship.—

Review of Reviews.
A triumph of condensation and a very vivid narrative.—

Boston Advertiser.
Written by a great scholar, one who knew Asiatic history
as have few.—The Outlook, New York.
Many will regard this as the most noteworthy contribution

to the literature of 1907.—Pittsburg Chronicle-Telegraph.
Mr. Curtin had no equal among English writers in his

knowledge of the Mongol people.—The
Congregationalist, Boston.
Mr. Curtin’s work gives in detail a most interesting and

graphic account of the rise of Mongol influence in Asia
and its westward spread. It contains many extracts from
almost inaccessible authorities, and is a valuable
contribution not only to history, but to ethnology.—
Chicago Tribune.
The best single work on the subject yet published in

English. Mr. Curtin’s chapters are vivid with brilliant
description, and his power to paint in words is shown on
many pages.… The book has a portrait, map, and good
index, and is of inestimable value to the serious student.
—Literary Digest.
LITTLE, BROWN, & CO., Publishers,

BOSTON. [484]
[Contents]
MYTHS AND FOLK-LORE OF IRELAND 📘.

BY JEREMIAH CURTIN.
With Etched Frontispiece. Crown 8vo. Cloth, gilt top, $2.00 net.
The myth tales included in this volume were collected

personally by the author, during 1887, in the west of
Ireland,—in Kerry, Galway, and Donegal,—and taken
down from the mouths of men who, with one or two
exceptions, spoke only Gaelic, or but little English and
that imperfectly. To this is due the fact that the stories are
so well preserved, and not blurred and rendered
indistinct, as is the case in places where the ancient
Gaelic language, in which they were originally told, has
perished.
CONTENTS.
Introduction. Shaking-Head.
The Son of the King of Erin Birth of Fin MacCumhail.
and the Giant of Loch Léin. Fin MacCumhail and the
The Three Daughters of Fenians of Erin in the
King O’Hara. Castle of Fear Dubh.
The Weaver’s Son and the Fin MacCumhail and the
Giant of the White Hill. Knight of the Full Axe.
Fair, Brown, and Trembling. Gilla na Grakin and Fin
The King of Erin and the MacCumhail.
Queen of the Lonesome Fin MacCumhail. the Seven
Island. Brothers, and the King of
The Shee an Gannon and France.
the Gruagach Gaire. Black, Brown, and Gray.
The Three Daughters of the Fin MacCumhail.
King of the East and the Cucúlin.
Son of a King in Erin. Oisin in Tir na n-og.
The Fisherman’s Son and
the Gruagach.
The Thirteenth Son of the
King of Erin.
Kil Arthur.
NOTICES.
Mr. Curtin is the first to give to the public a volume of

Irish popular tales which may justly be ranked with the
best recent collections of popular tales in Germany,
France, and Italy.… A delightful book alike for the scholar
and general reader.—The Nation.
I have now read the whole of your “Irish Myths,” with

perhaps one exception, and I compliment you most
heartily upon the book. It is wonderfully fresh and
suggestive, and in the mere capacity of a lot of fairy
stories it ought to have a big circulation. Fin MacCool
and the Fenians of Erin were great fellows anyway.—
Charles A. Dana.
A contribution to the literature of the subject which is of

the very first importance.… The stories are wonderfully
fresh and distinct, and they are pervaded with a most
rare and delicious humor.—The Beacon.
A more thoroughly delightful book has not come to hand

for many a long day. Its tales have, in the first place, the
genuine ring of original myths, the true ring of folk-lore,
that indescribable naïveté which is as charming as it is
inimitable.—Boston Courier.
No more interesting or more valuable contribution to the
literature of this subject has ever been made.… The tales
in this book are very charming. They cover a wide range,
and to adults as well as to children of tender years they
are simply fascinating.—Quebec Chronicle.
The work of the collector is not only performed faithfully,

but with such intelligence that the stories have a value in
literature worthy of being added to the Norse sagas and
other tales of wild adventure and myths.—Boston
Journal. [485]
[Contents]
HERO-TALES OF IRELAND 📘.
BY JEREMIAH CURTIN.
Crown 8vo. Cloth, gilt top, $2.00 net.
The tales included in this volume, though told in modern

speech, relate to heroes and adventures of an ancient
time, and contain elements peculiar to early ages of
story-telling. The chief actors in most of them are
represented as men; but we may be quite sure that these
men are substitutes for heroes who were not considered
human when the stories were told to Celtic audiences
originally.—Introduction.
CONTENTS.
Elin Gow, the Swordsmith Balor on Tory Island.
from Erin, and the Cow Balor of the Evil Eye.
Glas Gainach. Art, the King’s Son, and
Mor’s Sons and the Herder Balor Beimenach, Two
from Under the Sea. Sons-in-law of King Under
Saudan Og and the the Wave.
Daughter of the King of Shawn MacBreogan and
Spain; Young Conal and the the King of the White
Yellow King’s Daughter. Nation.
The Black Thief and King The Cotter’s Son and the
Conal’s Three Horses. Half Slim Champion.
The King’s Son from Erin, Blaiman, Son of Apple, in
the Sprisawn, and the Dark the Kingdom of the White
King. Strand.
The Amadan Mor and the Fin MacCool and the
Gruagach of the Castle of Daughter of the King of the
Gold. White Nation.
The King’s Son and the Fin MacCool, the Three
White-Bearded Scolog. Giants, and the Small Men.
Dyeermud Ulta and the Fin MacCool, Ceadach Og,
King in South Erin. and the Fish-Hag.
Cud, Cad, and Micad, Fin MacCool, Faolan, and
Three Sons of the King of the Mountain of Happiness.
Urhu. Fin MacCool, the Hard
Cahal, Son of King Conor, Gilla, and the High King.
in Erin, and Bloom of Youth, The Battle of Ventry.
Daughter of the King of
Hathony.
Coldfeet and the Queen of
Lonesome Island.
Lawn Dyarrig, Son of the
King of Erin and the Knight
of Terrible Valley.
OPINIONS.
These are thrilling hero-tales. No extract can do the
stories justice. Any one taking up the volume will not be
likely to lay it down without reading it.—The Cincinnati
Commercial Gazette.
Mr. Jeremiah Curtin, whose translation of the novels of

the great Polish novelist, Sienkiewicz, introduced him to
English readers, has shown equally admirable skill in
rendering into English many ancient hero-tales of Ireland.
The stories are marvels of exaggeration, and have a
genuine Irish flavor. Champions, giants, fairies, and
witches work their wonders and spells in a fascinating
way.—The Outlook.
The people of this country ought to be grateful to that

accomplished American scholar, Jeremiah Curtin, for the
translations from varied and quite dissimilar foreign
languages which he has added to our literature. His
version of the wonderful novels of Sienkiewicz opens up
to us a most interesting department of history, of which
English-speaking people have hitherto been profoundly
ignorant; and his latest publication, “Hero-Tales of
Ireland,” is perhaps quite as valuable, with the added
charm of a wild, delightful, primeval Celtic imagination.—
The New York Sun. [486]
[Contents]
MYTHS AND FOLK-TALES OF THE

RUSSIANS, WESTERN SLAVS, AND
MAGYARS 📘.
BY JEREMIAH CURTIN.
Crown 8vo. Cloth, gilt top, $2.00 net.
CONTENTS.
RUSSIAN MYTHS AND FOLK-TALES.
The Three Kingdoms,—the Vassilissa Golden Tress,

Copper, the Silver, and the Bareheaded Beauty.
Golden. The Ring with Twelve
Ivan Tsarevich, the Fire Screws.
Bird, and the Gray Wolf. The Footless and the Blind.
Ivan the Peasant’s Son and Go to the Verge of
the Little Man Himself One Destruction and bring back
Finger Tall, his Mustache Shmat-Razum.
Seven Versts in Length. Marya Morevna.
The Feather of Bright Finist Yelena the Wise.
the Falcon. The Seven Simeons, Full
The Pig with Gold Bristles, Brothers.
the Deer with Golden The Enchanted Princess.
Horns, and the Golden- Vassilissa the Cunning and
Maned Steed with Golden the Tsar of the Sea.
Tail.
Water of Youth, Water of
Life, and Water of Death.
The Footless and Blind
Champions.
The Three Kingdoms.
Koshchéi Without-Death.
CZECH MYTHS AND FOLK-TALES.
Boyislav, Youngest of The Mouse-Hole and the

Twelve. Underground Kingdom.
The Table, the Pack, and The Cuirassier and the
the Bag. Horned Princess.
The King of the Toads. The Treacherous Brethren.
MAGYAR MYTHS AND FOLK-TALES.
The Poor Man and the King The Reed Maiden.

of the Crows. Kiss Miklos and the Green
The Useless Wagoner. Daughter of the Green King.
Mirko the King’s Son. The Hedgehog, the
Merchant, the King, and the
Poor Man.
OPINIONS.
A volume as fascinating as any fairy book that was ever

published; and simply for their wealth of imagination and
rare simplicity of diction these stories will be widely
read.… The volume, taken for all in all, is a distinct
addition to literature, a priceless boon to scientific
investigation, and a credit to American scholarship. The
educated people of this country will do well to buy and
read this truly remarkable book.—The Beacon.
Will be welcome to many readers, not only to students,

but to children, who find inexhaustible interest in just
such folk-tales.—Public Opinion.
At once thoroughly admirable and thoroughly delightful,

… there is a surprising freshness and individuality of
flavor in them.—Boston Courier.
Stories of unique character, full of grotesque and

marvelous adventures, told with a beautiful simplicity of
style which speaks well for the faithfulness of the
translator’s work.—Milwaukee Sentinel.
Prof. Jeremiah Curtin gives us a large collection of these

tales, many of which are very interesting, many beautiful,
and all strikingly curious.—Boston Advertiser.
Mr. Curtin spares no pains in his researches into the

early literature of the chief primitive races of the earth.
Less than a year has passed since the publication of his
admirable work on “Irish Folk-Lore.” The present volume
adds his discoveries among three other important
nations.—The Dial. [487]
[Contents]
CREATION MYTHS OF PRIMITIVE

AMERICA 📘.
In Relation to the Religious History and Mental

Development of Mankind
By JEREMIAH CURTIN
8vo. Cloth, gilt top, $2.50 net.

An important work on the unwritten mental productions of
primitive America, containing twenty long myths, all of
remarkable beauty and exceptional value, taken down
word for word by Mr. Curtin from Indians who knew no
language save their own, and the chief of whom had not
seen a white man until years of maturity.
CONTENTS
Introduction. Ilhataina.
Olelbis. Hitchinna.
Olelbis and Mem Loimis. Tirukala.
Norwan. Sukonia’s Wives and the
Tulchuherris. Ichpul Sisters.
Sedit and the Two Brothers The Finding of Fire.
Hus. Haka Kaina.
Hawr. Titindi Maupa and Paiowa,
Norwanchakus and Keriha. the Youngest Daughter of
Kele and Sedit. Wakara.
Kol Tibichi. The Two Sisters, Haka Lasi
The Winning of Halai Auna and Tsore Jowa.
at the House of Tuina. The Dream of Juiwaiyu and
The Hakas and the Tennas. his Journey to Damhauja’s
Country.
The Flight of Tsanunewa
and Defeat of Hehku.
The First Battle in the World
and the Making of the Yana.
OPINIONS
A specially valuable contribution to folk-lore.—London

Spectator.
Nothing in literature is quite so perennial, so fascinating,
so full of delight as folk-lore, and Mr. Jeremiah Curtin has
given a volume of mythical tales, many of remarkable
beauty, and all curious.—Saturday Evening Post,
Philadelphia.
No writer of our century is better equipped to write such a

book and make it historical, instructive, and interesting
than Mr. Curtin.—Chicago Inter-Ocean.
A permanent and valuable addition to the rapidly

increasing literature of folk-lore.—Chicago Tribune.
An intensely interesting and certainly a most valuable

work. Mr. Curtin has brought to bear upon his subject
great natural ability, the force of long experience, large
attainments, and a very attractive style. His enthusiasm
is admirable.—Independent, New York.
No one man has done more to preserve the folk-lore of

different countries than Mr. Jeremiah Curtin.—Boston
Herald.
LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY,

PUBLISHERS, BOSTON
Colophon
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The Mongols in
Title:
Russia
Jeremiah Curtin Info
Editor:
(1835–1906) https://viaf.org/viaf/37277243/
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Page Source Correction Edit
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ix Svaitoslav Sviatoslav 2
ix Kozars Kazars 1
xii Galiciae Galiciæ 2
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xx Ahmid Ahmed 1
7 year years 1
10 Okà Oká 1/0
14, 324 [Not in source] ” 1
14 ” ’ 1
14 , ? 1
21 Cheringoff Chernigoff 2
24 Rostislev Rostislav 1
27 expeled expelled 1
37 Muron Murom 1
39 [Not in source] : 1
93 Vyschgorod Vyshgorod 1
109,
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121 Tversta Tvertsa 2
132 woful woeful 1
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219
Novgorod- Novgorod-
163 1
Senersk Seversk
167 Nurom Murom 1
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instal install 1
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178 instaled installed 1
181 Sviastoslav Sviatoslav 1
213 has was 1
220 negotiaions negotiations 1
297 chronicle chronicles 1
303 caluminated calumniated 2
309 , [Deleted] 1
323 Feoder Feodor 1
334 Kalita’s Kalitá’s 1/0
334 childood childhood 1
365 Akinf Akinfi 1
405 Bogolybski Bogolyubski 1
411 down done 2
422 Zvenegorod Zvenigorod 1
437 Yaegllo Yagello 2
440 allpowerful all-powerful 1
441 Vitbsk Vitebsk 1
458 Obolinski Obolenski 1
463 Mahommed Mohammed 2
466 pretection protection 1
477 Serpuhoff Serpukoff 1
485 Keltic Celtic 1
Koshchéi
486 [Deleted] 23
Without-Death.
486 Cunniug Cunning 1
486 CHEKH CZECH 2
486 marvellous marvelous 1
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Full Download Performance Analysis in Game Sports Concepts and Methods Concepts and Methods Martin Lames PDF

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© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023

and will be referenced to throughout the book as well. It is interesting to compare

Munich, Germany Martin Lames

6.1.3 Position Detection������������������������������������������������������������������ 229

Figure 1.1 Scientific subject of training and exercise science

Table 1.1 Comparison of TPA and PPA

Definition Performance Analysis

Is giving feedback the central task of PPA?

1.1 Definitions and Concepts

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 1

1.1.1 Performance Analysis

A most interesting key term in a textbook on performance analysis (PA) is “perfor-

Definition Performance Analysis

1.1.2 Competition, Training, and Athletes’ Abilities

Fig. 1.1 Scientific subject

successfully in competition and can be influenced by training. The term “perfor-

• The purpose of training at least in elite sports is preparation for competition.

Anomy in the Role of Coaches

1.1.3 Theoretical and Practical Performance Analysis

One of the most important conceptual achievements in PA is the distinction between

sub-disciplines of PA will become obvious immediately after determining precisely

Theoretical Performance Analysis

Determinants of competition behaviour may be found in competition (e.g. time

Practical Performance Analysis

Methodologically, the analysis of particular competitions means that single-case

Table 1.1 Comparison of TPA and PPA

The Practical Impact Debate

maintaining methodological standards in PA and also plead for an opening

1.1.4 General Model of Sports Performance Structure

• A partition of the overall performance such as intermediate times adding up to

Fig. 1.2 General

• Recording positions and derived aspects of competitions, such as movement

The capabilities of an athlete contain the relevant performance prerequisites for

endurance capabilities. Identification and diagnostics of determinants of endurance

The Structure of Performances and Ecological Psychology

1.2 Performance Analysis in Game Sports

Since this book is dedicated to performance analysis in game sports, it is evident

1.2.1 The Nature of Game Sports

Definition of Game Sports

Fig. 1.3 General

1.2.2 Basic Problems of Performance Analysis in Game Sports

1.3 Approaches in Performance Analysis

1.3.1 Classical Performance Analysis

• Holistic perspective: All relevant parts of a sports performance as well as all

1. Theoretical modelling: A hypothetical structural model of the performance is

A general structural model for sports performances is depicted in Fig. 1.5. It

Munich, Germany Martin Lames

6.1.3 Position Detection�� 229

1.1 Definitions and Concepts

1.1.1 Performance Analysis

1.1.2 Competition, Training, and Athletes’ Abilities

1.1.3 Theoretical and Practical Performance Analysis

1.1.4 General Model of Sports Performance Structure

1.2 Performance Analysis in Game Sports

1.2.1 The Nature of Game Sports

1.2.2 Basic Problems of Performance Analysis in Game Sports

1.3 Approaches in Performance Analysis

1.3.1 Classical Performance Analysis

1.3.2 Notational Analysis

1.3.3 Sports Analytics

2.1 Assessment of Behaviour