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NEW DIRECTIONS IN IRISH AND IRISH AMERICAN LITERATURE

THE POETICS OF MIGRATION

IN CONTEMPORARY
IRISH POETRY

Ailbhe McDaid
 New Directions in Irish
and Irish American Literature

Series Editor
Claire A. Culleton
Department of English
Kent State University
Kent, OH, USA
New Directions in Irish and Irish American Literature promotes fresh
scholarship that explores models of Irish and Irish American identity
and examines issues that address and shape the contours of Irishness
and works that investigate the fluid, shifting, and sometimes m
­ ultivalent
discipline of Irish Studies. Politics, the academy, gender, and Irish and
Irish American culture, among other things, have not only inspired but
affected recent scholarship centered on Irish and Irish American litera-
ture. The series’s focus on Irish and Irish American literature and cul-
ture contributes to our twenty-first century understanding of Ireland,
America, Irish Americans, and the creative, intellectual, and theoretical
spaces between.

More information about this series at

http://www.springer.com/series/14747
 Ailbhe McDaid

The Poetics
of Migration
in Contemporary
Irish Poetry
Ailbhe McDaid
The Institute of Irish Studies
University of Liverpool
Liverpool, UK

New Directions in Irish and Irish American Literature

ISBN 978-3-319-63804-1 ISBN 978-3-319-63805-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-63805-8

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017948315

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction
on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and
information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication.
Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied,
with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published
maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: Martina Galvin, Hidden Spaces No. 2, 1993, oil on canvas, 123 × 135 cm.
Image courtesy of Crawford Art Gallery, Cork

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
For John
 Acknowledgements

This book is the result of the support of many people over the years
since its inception as a doctoral project. I am very grateful to the team at
Palgrave Macmillan for their advice in bringing this book to publication,
especially to Tomas René and Vicky Bates. I also wish to express my grat-
itude to Martina Galvin for permission to reproduce her painting Hidden
Spaces no.2 for the cover image and to Anne Boddaert at the Crawford
Art Gallery, Cork for her assistance.
The research underpinning this book was conducted at the Centre for
Scottish and Irish Studies, University of Otago, New Zealand. I received
generous and thoughtful mentorship from Professor Peter Kuch and
Professor Liam McIlvanney at the Centre for Irish and Scottish Studies
and I wish to sincerely thank them both for their guidance and encour-
agement throughout. I am grateful to the University of Otago for fund-
ing the research, and to the Department of English and Linguistics, the
Division of Humanities and the American Otago Alumni Association for
financial support.
This book was completed during a Moore Institute Visiting Research
Fellowship at National University of Ireland, Galway and I wish to thank
Professor Dan Carey and Dr. Louis de Paor for the opportunity. The
Keough-Naughton Institute for Irish Studies and O’Connell House
Dublin, University of Notre Dame also supported this project in various
ways, not least for the intellectual stimulation and companionship of the
Irish Seminar 2013 on Contemporary Irish Poetry. I am especially grateful
to Professor Brian Ó Conchubhair and to Nathaniel Myers, Ailbhe Darcy,

vii
viii Acknowledgements

Kelly Sullivan, Lisa McGonigle and many others for the multiple ways
their insightful friendships assisted me in writing this book. I received
invaluable encouragement from the History and English Departments at
Liverpool John Moores University, especially from Professor Nick White
and Dr. Nadine Muller. I also wish to thank my colleagues at the Institute
of Irish Studies at University of Liverpool for their warm and wise support.
I am extremely grateful to my family who have supported me over the
years in many different places and in many different ways: the Morrisseys,
Caoimhe, Colin, Iseult, Róisín, Liam, Bríd and Niamh, and my parents
Fergus and Bridie. Finally, my overwhelming debt of gratitude is to
John, to whom this book is dedicated.
 Contents

1 American Highways 1
‘the busy work of forgetting’: Memory and Community
in Eamonn Wall’s America 3
‘Half and halfed’: Greg Delanty’s Modes of Belonging 19
‘merely a brown trout / with wanderlust’: Migrant Identity
in Paul Muldoon’s Poetry 33

2 Alternative Cartographies 55
‘I mean it as no ordinary return’: Vona Groarke in America 57
‘laying holy miles between myself and home’: Sara
Berkeley’s Ecopoetics 71

3 Memory Spaces 89
‘Neither here nor there, and therefore home’: Memory
and Myth in Bernard O’Donoghue’s Poetry 91
‘Listen to that for twisting’: Martina Evans and
Manipulations of the Past 107
‘Imagine a tilt and the consequence’: Colette Bryce’s
Strategies of Escape 122

ix
x Contents

4 Wandering Songs 147

‘No need to mention where all this was’: Harry Clifton’s
Cultivated Marginality 149
‘As at home here as I’ll ever be’: Sinéad Morrissey
and the Poetry of Parallax 170

5 Technologies of Distance 197

‘personal history irrelevant’: Justin Quinn’s Fuselage 198
‘Refresh: There’s nothing left to send/receive.’:
Migration, Technology and Poetic Innovation
in Conor O’Callaghan’s Poetry 215

Conclusion 237

Bibliography 241

Index 261
 Introduction

In placing a candle-shaped lamp in the window of Áras an Uachtarán as

a symbol of national solidarity with the Irish diaspora, President Mary
Robinson signified a broader reconsideration of emigration underway in
Irish society towards the end of the 20th century.1 As Breda Gray notes,
this shift was occurring elsewhere: ‘Like many other emigrant nations in
the 1990s (e.g. India, Mexico, El Salvador and Haiti), the Republic of
Ireland was reclaiming its diaspora as a means of refiguring the national
as global’.2 This reconfiguration of emigration and diaspora precipitated
changes in individual, collective and cultural conceptions of the migrant
experience moving into a new century; specifically, in the ways migration
is remembered and recreated. The poetics of migration in contemporary
Irish poetry is composed of memory and ethical reinvention, as dem-
onstrated by the varieties of approaches of the poets considered here.
Engaging theoretical frameworks of cultural, social and individual mem-
ory, this analytic approach is merged with critical discourses of migra-
tion and argues that, through consciously ethical gestures of reinvention,
recent Irish poetry invokes new, dynamic interactions between these
established paradigms. Through a series of close readings that are in dia-
logue with these theoretical approaches, this study asserts that memory
and ethics are crucial elements of the poetics of migration in Irish poetry
since the 1980s.
As ‘a nomadic art of many voices’, contemporary poetry exposes the
limitations of a place-privileging critical approach that prioritises roots
over routes.3 Questions of influence and affiliation, and of identity and

xi
xii Introduction

belonging, apply anew to the generation who—having fled the ‘inherited

boundaries’ of Irish literature—inhabit a hybrid, globalised world.4 The
well-recognised synchronicity between place and poet has often provided
the dominant critical paradigm of interpreting Irish poetry in the 20th
century.5 With its origins in dinnseanchas and bardic poetry, the poet’s
responsibility has traditionally been to the tribe, to the landscape and
to the nation, as espoused in various ways by W.B. Yeats, Lady Gregory,
Daniel Corkery, Patrick Kavanagh and Seamus Heaney. In his 1997 essay
‘The Sense of Place’, Heaney defines ‘Irishness as a spiritual, mythical
and psychic link to the land and to a place … a marriage between the
geographical country and the country of the mind’.6 Yet, the significant
social and cultural developments in Ireland towards the end of the cen-
tury pose serious challenges to established definitions of national identity,
thereby complicating the representative role of the poet.
Accelerated by Ireland’s accession to the EEC, the Troubles in
Northern Ireland, the emergence of a burgeoning Celtic Tiger econ-
omy and an increasingly educated, urbanised and mobile population,
Ireland had changed dramatically by the end of the 20th century. The
profundity of societal change, as recognised by Patricia Coughlan,
‘caused questioning of the hitherto dominant image (and self-image)
of Irishness as essentially rooted in the land, the West, and traditional
ways of the life’.7 To some younger poets, these debates appeared jaded
and dated; as poet Michael O’Loughlin explains ‘[w]hen academic argu-
ments about identity, nationality and so on were raised, this generation
preferred to quietly leave the room’.8 Not merely leaving the room,
many of O’Loughlin’s generation also left the country during the emi-
gration surge of the 1980s, leading to an ideological and actual detach-
ment from the idea and the island of Ireland. This trend continues even
after economic recovery and the birth of the Celtic Tiger with the result
that, by the turn of the millennium, the migration impulse is argu-
ably the single shared characteristic of contemporary Irish poetry. Poets
choose to leave Ireland and relocate, for temporary or prolonged peri-
ods, to other countries, and this brings geographical and creative mobil-
ity to their work.
The critical and cultural issues outlined here are familiar as being inte-
gral, if troublesome, within contemporary Irish poetry. Difficult and
contested concepts of emigration and diaspora are continually subject to
scrutiny, and the various ways in which these terms are defined and delin-
eated also warrant reflection.9 Modern experiences of migration are often
 Introduction xiii

voluntary, emancipatory and temporary as contrasted with the forced,

traumatic and permanent nature of historical emigration. This is not to
suggest that these categories are binding, nor to imply that contempo-
rary migration is less psychically disruptive, but to acknowledge certain
essential distinctions between (e)migration, past and present. How then
to discuss ‘Irish’ poetry written elsewhere, by poets living elsewhere, that
takes, for its subject or backdrop, the stuff of elsewhere? The provocative
implications of the vocabulary of living abroad are problematic and, as
Longley notes, ‘owing to restrictive and coercive categories like “exile”,
“emigration” and “colonialism”, the question of Abroad in Irish litera-
ture has been only patchily explored’.10 In order to navigate this loaded
lexicon, this analysis employs the term- ‘migration’- throughout to
describe the late 20th century experience under discussion. -‘Migration’-
is taken to describe the act of departure from one’s home country and of
relocating in another country. Repeat migration and return migration are
further features of contemporary migration, which are also addressed.

Irish Emigration History

The historical facts of Irish emigration have been widely disseminated in
cultural, political and social histories, with particular emphasis on Irish
emigration to the United States.11 In order to understand the context
in which the poets under discussion are writing, it is necessary to spend
some time outlining the existing critical perspectives on emigration and
emigration literature. Kerby A. Miller’s Emigrants and Exiles: Ireland
and the Irish Exodus to North America (1988) is widely considered the
definitive exposition of the causes and consequences of the many waves
of transatlantic emigration spanning the 17th to the early 20th centuries.
Miller’s study draws a number of conclusions: ‘[f]irst, both collectively
and individually the Irish—particularly Irish Catholics—often regarded
emigration as involuntary exile, although they expressed that attitude
with varying degrees of consistency, intensity and sincerity. Second, this
outlook reflected a distinctive Irish worldview—the impact of a series of
interactions among culture, class, and historical circumstance upon Irish
character. Finally, both the exile motif and its underlying causes led Irish
emigrants to interpret experience and adapt to American life in ways
which were often alienating and sometimes dysfunctional, albeit tradi-
tional, expedient, and conducive to the survival of Irish identity and the
success of Irish-American nationalism.’12
xiv Introduction

Miller’s study fully interrogates and ultimately supports the perception

of Irish, and Irish-American, cultural memory of emigration as trauma.
However, due to ensuing challenges to those well-established tropes of
emigration discourse, popular perceptions of emigration stall around
the early 20th century, the point at which Miller’s analysis concludes.
Central to what is termed ‘traditional emigration’ (referring to the type
of emigration represented as forced, tragic, and irreversible, precisely
the experiences relayed in Miller’s study) lies the conviction that the
Irish of Ireland under British rule would be fated to suffer mass emigra-
tion.13 This intertwining of nationalism and emigration reaches back to
the Flight of the Earls but finds popular expression in the 19th century
through Daniel O’Connell and Charles Stewart Parnell. Independence in
1922 brought changed political conditions in Ireland, thereby disrupt-
ing the continuity of the emigration narrative, but not the flow of emi-
gration itself. Timothy Guinnane suggests that ‘[t]hriving overseas Irish
communities could finance emigration to a degree otherwise impossible
in such a poor society. Once started, this emigration process meant that
Ireland would remain a country of emigrants, as it has, and that virtually
any economic crisis would lead to a heightened outflow’.14 Furthermore,
the particular typology of ‘chain migrations’ in Irish migration history
facilitated and even normalised emigration from individual rural villages
to pre-existing diaspora communities, in particular cities and established
Irish communities in the United States and Australia.15
The numerous economic and social challenges facing the new Free
State during its early years maintained the country in a state of pov-
erty, deprivation and unemployment throughout most of the 20th cen-
tury.16 Indeed, the shifting fortunes of the Irish nation during the latter
half of that century can be apprehended through the prism of emigra-
tion statistics, as with Enda Delaney’s analysis of emigration during the
mid-decades in his article ‘State, politics and demography: The case of
Irish emigration 1921–1971’.17 The initial decades of independence
maintained the trend of population decline while emigration continued,
spiking during the 1950s with almost half a million departures, amount-
ing to approximately 16% of the population. The economic stability of
the 1960s and membership of the European Union engineered massive
reductions in emigration figures, leading to a total reversal of migration
trends during the 70s, but by the 80s, record numbers were once more
emigrating; 1988 saw 46,000 departures, a near ten-fold increase on
figures for a decade earlier.18 On various levels, this recession marked a
 Introduction xv

symbolic regression to the well-established paradigm of emigration as a

necessary, inevitable aspect of Irish life. Political rhetoric at the time rein-
forced the inexorability of emigration, with Brian Lenihan Snr in 1987
dousing those daring to dream with the cold hard fact, as he saw it, that
‘after all we can’t all live on a small island’.19 Cultural discourse also dis-
seminated emigration as part of everyday life; contemporaneous advertis-
ing campaigns, such as Aer Lingus’ You’re Home and ESB’s Going Back
deployed traditional and familiar tropes of parting and reuniting, familial
bonds, and comforting images of home, reiterating entrenched attitudes
to emigration as it remerged toward the end of the 1980s.20
Some cultural commentators refute this reassertion of traumatic emi-
gration, pointing out the changed demographic of highly educated,
highly skilled emigrants as just one feature of the altered reality of emi-
gration from 1980s Ireland.21 Perceiving the dominance of cultural
sentimentality over contemporary truths, Fintan O’Toole strikes at the
heart of the conflict between those opposing positions in his article enti-
tled ‘Some of our emigrants are happy to go’: ‘We want our friends and
our brothers, our sisters and our children to feel unhappy about leaving
Ireland … we want them crying on the phone, feeling alien, disoriented,
ill-at-ease … we still want to think of our emigrants in a continuous line
with all those who have left since the Famine.’22 The increased availa-
bility and affordability of air-travel, as well as improved telecommunica-
tions, are also cited as evidence of the transformation of the emigration
experience. Other academics and sociologists, however, caution against
representing emigrants as homogenously successful, noting particularly
the numbers of illegal Irish immigrants in the United States for whom
social mobility and economic prosperity proved elusive, and against the
‘sanitisation and voluntarisation’ of contemporary migration.23 The
‘various and contradictory invocations of the diaspora in the Republic
of Ireland’ as analysed by Gray in Women and the Irish Diaspora (2003)
testify to the continuing debates over representation and memory with
regard to historical and contemporary migration.24
This study argues that the realities struggles over how to receive and
represent the new realities of emigration mark a key moment in the rein-
vention of cultural memory surrounding diaspora. Taking its cue from the
existing debates, this project explores how migration is interrogated and
reinvented through ethical stances of engagement, rejection and/or dis-
missal of tropes of migration and memory in contemporary Irish poetry.
The shift from ‘traditional’ emigration to ‘contemporary’ migration can be
xvi Introduction

seen to take place during the resurgence of diaspora studies in the 1980s,
a period of ‘resuscitated debate about “Irishness”’, according to Michael
Boss and Irene Gilsenan Nordin.25 Dianne Hall and Elizabeth Malcolm
expertly delineate the historiography of migration studies in their article
‘Diaspora, Gender and the Irish’, linking usage of the term diaspora as
an analytic and theoretical signifier to the popularisation of Irish migra-
tion discourse.26 Wider international developments in diaspora theory saw
a flourish of important publications in the nineties—amongst them Stuart
Hall’s ‘Identity and Diaspora’, Homi Bhabha’s Location of Culture, Arjun
Appadurai’s Modernity At Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalisation,
Caren Kaplan’s Questions of Travel: Postmodern Discourses of Displacement,
James Clifford Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth
Century and Avtar Brah’s Cartographies of Diaspora. These studies posited
new formulations of diasporic and migratory experience, asking key ques-
tions around concepts of nationhood and ideologies of home, and interro-
gating identity, affiliation and aspiration in conditions of exile, emigration,
transnationalism, cosmopolitanism and/or globalisation.
Within the waves of historical immigration to the United States, female
voices from any country are rarely heard or else superficially represented.27
The figure of the Irish domestic servant, ‘Biddy’, has been explored
by Maureen Murphy,28 and Margaret Lynch-Brennan expands upon
Murphy’s work in her 2009 book;29 both these works build on Diner’s
comprehensive study of 19th century female immigration from Ireland.30
Literary self-representation by women emigrants, aside from letters, has not
survived.31 The silence of female narratives is troubling, but it has offered
a certain freedom to contemporary women (e)migrant poets. The fluid-
ity and flexibility of migrant poetry reflects the contemporary reality that,
for female poets, the ‘relationship to place and community, both past and
present, is a complex and contingent one’, continually evolving both in
Ireland and beyond.32 The poetry of Eavan Boland, Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill,
Medbh McGuckian and Eiléan Ní Chuilleanáin has been analysed in terms
of their individual engagements with irrelevant, limiting, or proscriptionist
constructions of nationalist feminine ideals.33 Boland describes the synthe-
sis of woman and nation as ‘a corrupt transaction between nationalism and
literature which feminized the national and nationalized the feminine …
their place in the poem was prescribed; it was both silent and passive.’34 As
highlighted in this analysis, migration can offer an alternative avenue for
female poets whose work demonstrates the possibilities of an identity that is
not inhibited by national or diasporic narratives.
 Introduction xvii

If contemporary migration, with its ambiguous relationship to national

identity, necessarily challenges the established parameters of diasporic
discourse, contemporary female migrant experience complicates the dis-
cussion even further. Gerardine Meaney reminds us that ‘Irish (literary)
history offers Irish women little except a record of exclusion and denial. It
is therefore unsurprising that Irish women writers should show a marked
preference for forms and material which appear to offer a way out of
that history’.35 As Gerardine Meaney, Anne Fogarty, Patricia Coughlan,
Sarah Fulford and Ellen McWilliams, amongst others, have depicted in
their scholarly work, the relationship between female writers, identity,
and nationalism is complex, shifting and problematic.36 The gendered
nature of diasporic discourse posts another barrier for female migrant
poets to negotiate, especially given that the writer-in-exile is, almost
without exception, male. While female emigrant characters, written by
men, have featured in literature—Joyce’s ‘Eveline’ (1914); ‘The Letter’
(1966) by Liam O’Flaherty; William Trevor’s Felicia’s Journey (1994);
Colm Tóibín’s Brooklyn (2009)—the work of female migrant writers is
far less recognised.37 Aside from Edna O’Brien, the canonical invisibility
of female emigrant writers is almost absolute, the astonishing neglect of
Maeve Brennan instantiating the fact.38 Ellen McWilliams, in her compre-
hensive 2013 book Women and Exile in Contemporary Irish Fiction, goes
a great distance towards redressing the imbalance in critical discourse of
that genre.39 Tina O’Toole’s article ‘Cé Leis Tú? Queering Irish Migrant
Literature’ opens another window onto the diversity of migration expe-
rience which has historically, as well as critically, been interpreted and
represented as a male heterosexual endeavour.40 The data of 19th- and
20th-century trans-Atlantic movements challenge this misperception
with regard to gender, with at least as many women as men making the
journey from Ireland, while emerging research on queer migration is
beginning to uncover the narratives of LGBT migrants.41 The enshrined
relationship between Mother Ireland and her exiled sons figures not
only in fiction but in the ballad tradition, in drama, and in poetry, fol-
lowing the paradigm that configures (e)migration as a kind of secondary
birth-separation trauma between mother and (male) child. Expressions of
romantic fidelity and devotion permeating established tropes of emigra-
tion reinforce an embedded gendered discourse that problematises the
ways female migration is read, reproduced and understood.
While it is not the purpose here to undertake an investigation into
the gendered and heteronormative biases of historical emigration, it is
xviii Introduction

necessary to recognise how the situation in which contemporary female

poets write differs from that of their male peers, and to highlight some
of the issues embedded in the gender divide. Likewise, the intersections
of sexuality and migration also require particular consideration. Treating
emigration as an homogenous shared experience threatens to elide the
idiosyncrasy of each migration by absorbing it into an overarching nar-
rative of departure. By recognising the specific conditions of each poet’s
work, the individual poetry can be situated without being subsumed
within an engaged critical analysis of the poetics of migration. Through
the modes of memory and reinvention, this study contends that con-
temporary poetry of migration diverges from historical migration litera-
ture and requires new interpretative paradigms that accommodate these
changed realities.

Migration, Memory and Ethics

In pushing beyond what Sebastian Barry calls the ‘inherited boundaries’,
migrant poets confront a troubling tension between artistic innovation
and a perception of ethical obligation. This tension is identified by Derek
Attridge in his essay ‘Innovation, Literature, Ethics: Relating to the
Other’ as ‘the obligation to be inventive in one’s responses to cultural
productions’. Attridge asks ‘[w]hat is the relation between [this obli-
gation] and the obligation to respond to cultural artefacts with fidelity
and justness’?42 The question of ethics—relating to the codes of creative
responsibility by which an artist is bound—is simultaneously a question
of memory, tied up in decision-making processes of active remembering
and forgetting. The existing emigration narrative, as unspooled above,
exerts a claim (whether consciously acknowledged or not) on every
migrant writer. The writer must decide how to respond to that claim,
whether by recognising, rejecting, modifying or forgetting the conferred
ethical responsibility. Phillip Wolf outlines the central crux that ‘lies at
the very heart of the idea of cultural memory: Humans are always born
into a pre-existent situation, towards which they have to take a symbolic
and moral stand.’43 Crucially, moral and symbolic positioning is related
to memory and to the way memory is continually subject to revision
contingent on subject and context.
The concept of an ‘ethic of reinvention’ is invoked throughout this
critical analysis. Ethics is understood as a guiding principle of poetic
action, which includes structural, formal and thematic decisions as well
 Introduction xix

as how a poet stages him/herself within a poem. The aesthetic assertions

of a poet are related to his/her ethical positionings, particularly with
regard to the symbols and allusions engaged in their poetry. The term
ethical denotes a deliberate poetic response to an existing value system,
whether environmental, political, aesthetic, nationalist or commemora-
tive. In asking what constitutes an ethical action in poetry, it is necessary
to consider the distinction between the autonomy of the individual poet
and the responsibility of the artist as a poet. The term reinvention is used
to denote the nuances of engagement with pre-existing generic expecta-
tions of Irish poetry: as such, transformation, modification and rejection
are all recognised as versions of reinvention. Migration itself is an act of
reinvention, in the spatial and psychological reconfiguration of the self
inherent in the acts of departure and return. Memory, too, is premised
on reinvention—it recreates the past and is charged with essential ethical
decisions concerning active remembering and forgetting.
Maurice Halbwachs introduced the term mémoire collective in the
1950s, defined as memory that ‘does not preserve the past but recon-
structs it’.44 Relatively speaking, cultural memory studies is ‘a recent
phenomenon’, and yet has garnered rapid interdisciplinary momentum
since it ‘developed fully in the 1990s’.45 In an Irish context, the theo-
risation of memory has been recently and convincingly applied. Oona
Frawley’s series Memory Ireland opens a door onto the theory of mem-
ory in multiple disciplines in her edited volumes that include Memory
and Identity in Irish History (2011), Diaspora and Memory Practices
(2012), The Famine and The Troubles (2014), James Joyce and Cultural
Memory (2014).46 Frawley’s collection explores the continual battles over
what constitutes the past at various moments in the story of a nation
obsessed with its history. Barbara Misztal sees the ‘cultural turn in his-
tory’ as instigating a wider regard of the discipline ‘as another form of
narration’.47 In Ireland, the revisionist debates of the 1980s and 1990s,
the recovery of supressed narratives associated with religious and institu-
tional organisations, the ongoing Troubles in Northern Ireland, and the
reinterrogation of inherited political and cultural beliefs, in particular for
the purposes of this discussion around migration and identity, contribute
to the fluidity of Irish history. As Pine observes in The Politics of Irish
Memory, ‘Over the last 30 years, Irish remembrance culture has opened
up our recent history’; consequently ‘[w]e are not who we thought we
were, or put another way, we remember ourselves differently now’.48
Discourses of history and identity that were once fixed are now subject
xx Introduction

to scrutiny and deconstruction from a variety of positions, as explored by

Guy Beiner, Emilie Pine and Frawley, amongst others.49
As ‘the interplay of present and past in socio-cultural contexts’, cul-
tural memory studies underpins the theoretical approach undertaken
here.50 Paul Connerton offers ‘personal, cognitive and habit-memory’
as a mode of classifying memory,51 but Aleida Assmann’s theorisation
of the ‘complex networks of memories’ is preferred for the way it can
accommodate shifting intersections across personal and collective experi-
ences of migration.52 Her analysis yields four formats of memory that are
invoked throughout: individual, social, political and cultural memory.53
In addition to Assmann’s classifications, intertextual memory—that is,
the ways in which poems speak to, with, from and about other literary
works—is another essential aspect of how memory functions in poetry.
Intertextual memory also functions on the level of genre, as defined by
Astrid Erll and Ansgar Nünning in their key essay ‘Where Literature and
Memory Meet’, in which they define genres as ‘conventionalized reposi-
tories of memory’.54 Remembering and forgetting takes on particular
significance in the context of paradigmatic shifts in Irish literature of the
period, especially given the established and problematic genre of emigra-
tion narratives.
The intersection of poetry and memory is where this analysis rests,
following Renate Lachmann’s formulation that literature is a ‘mnemonic
art par excellence. It supplies the memory for a culture and records such
a memory. It is in itself an act of memory’.55 As such, literary memory
both resides in cultural memory and forms cultural memory, and these
exchanges enact intriguing negotiations on textual and extra-textual
levels. As the poetry of migration transmits memories, it also mutates
those memories. In her essay ‘The Literary Representation of Memory’,
Birgit Neumann defines ‘mimesis of memory’ as ‘the ensemble of nar-
rative forms and aesthetic techniques through which literary texts stage
and reflect the workings of memory’.56 The mimesis, or poetics, of mem-
ory in contemporary Irish poetry is read through the ways memory is
invested and troubled in the poem’s formal and stylistic acts, and is criti-
cally intertwined with existing literary theoretical formations including
Gaston Bachelard’s Poetics of Space and Michel Foucault’s heterotopias.57
As the transformation and mediation of memory in the late-capitalist,
digital interconnectivity of the 21st-century requires new currencies
of interpretation, the most recent poetry here is considered via Jean
Baudrillard, N. Katherine Hayles and Brian Massumi. The mutations of
 Introduction xxi

memory in an increasingly post-human society invoke a range of changed

debates about the ways and means of memory into the future.
These varieties of socio-cultural, psychoanalytic, historical, digital, tex-
tual, and semantic memory theory are applied to the range of migrant
poets in this analysis. This multitude of approaches is deliberate, in order
to demonstrate the diversity of migration experiences amongst contem-
porary poets. Both memory and migration are products of distance,
whether temporal or physical. Paul Ricoeur’s declaration that remember-
ing is distinguished from other cognitive acts because of its ‘relation …
to time and … the dialectic of presence, absence, and distance’ invokes
this essential interaction between memory and migration.58 The remove
at which memory necessarily operates is multiplied in a migratory con-
text; in her introduction to Memory and the Irish Diaspora, Frawley
writes of ‘the production of a new kind of memory of ‘home’, one that
involves the reconstruction of a place—Ireland, in this case—through
an alchemy of memory and imagination, one that no longer relies upon
daily physical interaction with a landscape and a people’.59 As memory
theorists repeatedly point out, however, integral to remembering is for-
getting, and in a contemporary context of migration, the reconstruction
of Ireland is a complex undertaking. Indeed, active and passive remem-
berings and forgettings play a significant role in these migrant poets’
interactions with the past.60 As Andreas Huyssen observes, ‘The past is
not simply there in memory, but it must be articulated to become mem-
ory’.61 In the process of articulation, remembering and forgetting are
conscious and ethical actions. The poetics of migration is crucially con-
cerned with memory and its reinventions, which are decisive elements
that resettle differently in each poet’s work. In appreciating these varie-
ties, the latitudes of contemporary Irish poetry are expanded through the
critical lens proposed here.

Migration and Contemporary Irish Poets

This analysis foregrounds migration as the definitive criterion for inclu-
sion in this study—all the poets under discussion here are migrants at
present, or have spent prolonged periods living outside Ireland, or
have configured a migration experience as poetically significant to
their work.62 This is by no means a comprehensive account of all Irish
migrant poets—indeed there are many other poets who might have been
included—but rather, this discussion proposes a poetics of migration that
xxii Introduction

is applied in depth to a selected cross-section of contemporary migrant

poets. Specifically, this study takes care to include poets who represent
diverse genders, ages, sexualities, migration longevities and locations as
well as demonstrating how broadly migration can feature or recede as a
subject for migrant poets. Significantly, this analysis argues not for a tra-
jectory, but rather for a spectrum of migration poetry, across which het-
erogeneous responses to inherited and individual memory practices are
positioned.
The poets are included for their own experiences of migration as
well as for the ways their work relays the migration experience. One
remarkable feature of contemporary Irish poetry is the impulse towards
migration—as Rosita Boland’s feature in The Irish Times recognised, a
significant portion of Ireland’s poets currently reside outside the coun-
try.63 Inevitably, then, decisions on who should be included means the
exclusion of other, equally relevant, poets. In prioritising diverse, alterna-
tive and less well-represented migration experiences, the study concen-
trates on poets whose work has not been read through a migration lens
(such as Vona Groarke, Sinéad Morrissey, Conor O’Callaghan) or whose
work, while critically regarded, has received less than its share of schol-
arly attention (Bernard O’Donoghue, Harry Clifton, Colette Bryce).
This discussion could have easily swung in different directions on the
wide compass of migration poetry; to America and James Liddy, Eavan
Boland and Eamon Grennan; to the European sensibilities of Pearse
Hutchinson, Desmond O’Grady and Derek Mahon; to the intersections
of language and migration for Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill, Derry O’Sullivan
and Louis de Paor. Furthermore, the poetry of migration to Ireland, as
opposed to migration from Ireland, is a topic in need of sustained atten-
tion in its own right and is the subject of publications by Borbála Faragó,
Eva Bourke and Pilar Villar-Argáiz.64
The question of audience takes on greater relevance when a poet is
between locales and the significance of publishing practices is an impor-
tant practical dimension of migrant poetry. The implications of a migrant
poet publishing exclusively with an Irish publisher (such as Eamonn Wall
with Salmon Poetry or Sara Berkeley, Vona Groarke and Justin Quinn
with The Gallery Press) differ in kind from the implications of publish-
ing with non-Irish publishers (as Bernard O’Donoghue with Faber &
Faber, Martina Evans with Anvil Press Poetry and Sinéad Morrissey with
Carcanet Press), in terms of audience, reception, and motivation. These
issues are further complicated by dual publishing (for instance, Harry
 Introduction xxiii

Clifton with Wake Forest University Press and The Gallery Press, or
Conor O’Callaghan’s initial publication of ‘The Pearl Works’ as a chap-
book from New Fire Tree Press and its later inclusion as part of The Sun
King from The Gallery Press) and by publishing practices involving sin-
gle poems in journals and newspapers (Greg Delanty occasionally pub-
lishes stand-alone poems in the Irish Times but has no collection from an
Irish publisher). Issues of imagined and actual audiences are addressed
in the following analysis, bound up with cultural memory practices.
The range and diversity of contemporary migration poetry and the con-
straints of this project mean that this analysis must necessarily leave cer-
tain avenues unexplored. The restrictions imposed here are the necessary
product of exigency rather than deliberate acts of omission, made with
due respect to the depth and breadth of the field of migration poetry.
Through its focus on carefully chosen poets, this study explores how
recent poetry diverges from established paradigms of emigration litera-
ture, arguing against ‘myths of totality’ in favour of advocating an alter-
native interpretative model for the poetics of migration in contemporary
Irish poetry.65

Notes
1. President Mary Robinson placed a candle in the window of her resi-
dence at Christmastime every year during her presidency, 1990–1997.
See Fergus Finlay, Mary Robinson: A President with a Purpose (Dublin:
O’Brien Press, 1990).
2. Breda Gray, Women and the Irish Diaspora (London: Routledge, 2003):
p. 157.
3. Jerzy Jarniewicz and John MacDonagh, ‘Scattered and Diverse: Irish
Poetry Since 1990,’ in Brewster, Scott & Parker, Michael (eds.), Irish
Literature Since 1990, (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2009):
p. 139.
4. Sebastian Barry (ed.), The Inherited Boundaries: Younger Poets of the
Republic of Ireland, (Mountrath: Dolmen Press, 1986). See also Dermot
Bolger (ed.), Ireland in Exile: Irish Writers Abroad, (Dublin: New Island
Books, 1993).
5. Terence Brown describes the ‘consolations’ of ‘a poetry of place custom-
arily involve[d] in Irish cultural tradition, with its suggestions of belong-
ing, of familial and tribal continuities’ in ‘Mahon and Longley: Place
and Placelessness,’ in The Cambridge Companion to Contemporary Irish
Poetry, edited by Matthew Campbell, (Cambridge: Cambridge University
xxiv Introduction

Press, 2003): p. 135. It would be impossible to give a complete bibliog-

raphy of critical studies of the relationship between place and poetry, and
its origins in the dinnseanchas tradition; significant publications include:
Terence Brown and Nicholas Grene (eds.) Tradition and Influence in
Anglo-Irish Poetry (London: Macmillan, 1989); John Goodby, Irish
Poetry since 1950: From Stillness into History (Manchester: Manchester
University Press, 2000); Elmer Kennedy-Andrews, Writing Home: Poetry
and Place in Northern Ireland 1968–2008 (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer,
2008); Ray Ryan (ed.) Writing in the Irish Republic : Literature, Culture,
Politics 1949–1999 (London: Macmillan Press, 2000), amongst others.
6. Seamus Heaney, Preoccupations: Selected Prose, 1968–1978. (London:
Faber and Faber, 1980): p. 132.
7. Patricia Coughlan, ‘Irish Literature and Feminism in Postmodernity’,
Hungarian Journal of English and American Studies, vol. 10 (1–2),
2005, p. 179.
8. Michael O'Loughlin, ‘MISSING: Have you seen these poets?’ in The
Irish Times, 10 October 2010.
9. Dianne Hall and Elizabeth Malcolm, ‘Diaspora, Gender and the Irish,’
Australasian Journal of Irish Studies, vol. 8, 2008/2009: pp. 1–29. Hall
and Malcolm reflect on the history and controversy of the term diaspora
in Irish Studies, while their essay offers wider-ranging observations on the
existent research on women in emigration historiography.
10. Edna Longley, ‘Irish Poetry and “Internationalism”: Variations on a
Critical Theme,’ The Irish Review, vol. 30 (Spring-Summer), 2003:
pp. 48–61.
11. Most of these studies tend to concentrate on Irish emigration to the
United States: Donald Akenson, The Irish Diaspora: A Primer (Toronto:
P.D. Meany, 1996); Andy Bielenberg, ed. The Irish Diaspora (Harlow,
England: Longman, 2000); Tim-Pat Coogan, Wherever the Green is
Worn: The Story of the Irish Diaspora (New York: Hutchinson, 2001);
Charles Fanning, The Irish Voice in America (Lexington: University Press
of Kentucky, 1998); Kerby A. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles: Ireland and
the Irish Exodus to North America (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1988); Patrick O’Sullivan, ed. The Irish World Wide Series (Leicester:
Leicester University Press, 1992–1997). For Australasian studies, see
David Fitzpatrick, Oceans of Consolation: Personal Accounts of Irish
Migration to Australia (New York: Cornell University Press, 1994);
Malcolm Campbell, Ireland’s New Worlds: Immigrants, Politics and
Society in the United States and Australia, 1815–1922 (Madison:
University of Wisconsin Press, 2008); Angela McCarthy, Irish Migrants
in New Zealand 1840–1937: The Desired Haven (Woodbridge: Boydell
and Brewer, 2005).
 Introduction xxv

12. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles: Ireland and the Irish Exodus to North
America: pp. 3–4.
13. Ibid.: p. 244.
14. Timothy Guinnane, ‘The Vanishing Irish: Ireland’s population from the
Great Famine to the Great War,’ History Ireland 5 (2) 1997.
15. David Fitzpatrick, Oceans of Consolation: Personal Accounts of Irish
Migration to Australia (New York: Cornell University Press, 1994).
16. Joseph J. Lee, Ireland 1912–1985: Politics and Society (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1990); Terence Brown, Ireland: A Social
and Cultural History 1922–2002 (London: Harper Perennial, 2004);
Diarmaid Ferriter, The Transformation of Ireland 1900–2000 (London:
Profile Books, 2004).
17. Enda Delaney, ‘State, politics and demography: The Case of Irish
Emigration, 1921–1971,’ Irish Political Studies 13, no. 1 (1998).
18. Irial Glynn, ‘Irish Emigration History,’ UCC, http://www.ucc.ie/en/
emigre/history; See also Bronwen Walter et al., ‘A study of the existing
sources of information and analysis about Irish emigrants and Irish com-
munities abroad,’ (Department of Foreign Affairs, 2002).
19. Qtd. in Piaras Mac Éinrí, ‘Emigration: we still can’t all live on a small
island,’ Politico, 21 January 2011.
20. Ailbhe McDaid, ‘“Sure we export all our best stuff”: changing representa-
tions of emigration in Irish television advertising,’ Journal of Nordic
Irish Studies, Special Issue on Cultural Memory and the Remediation of
Narratives of Irishness (Volume 13), 2014.
21. Fintan O’Toole, ‘Some of our emigrants are happy to go,’ The Irish
Times, 14 September 1989; Linda Dowling Almeida, ‘“And They Still
Haven’t Found What They’re Looking For”: A Survey of the New
Irish in New York City,’ in The Irish World Wide ed. Patrick O’Sullivan
(Leicester: University of Leicester Press, 1992); Russell King and Ian
Shuttleworth, ‘The Emigration and Employment of Irish Graduates
: The Export of High-Quality Labour From the Periphery of Europe,’
European Urban and Regional Studies 2, no. 21 (1995).
22. O’Toole, ‘Some of our emigrants are happy to go.’
23. Jim Mac Laughlin, ed. Location and Dislocation in Contemporary Irish
Society: Emigration and Irish Identities (Cork: Cork University Press,
1997): p. 136.
24. Breda Gray, Women and the Irish Diaspora (London: Routledge, 2003):
p. 30.
25. Michael Boss and Irene Gilsenan Nordin, ‘Introduction: Remapping
Exile,’ in Re-mapping Exile: Realities and Metaphors in Irish Literature
and History, ed. Michael Boss, Irene Gilsenan Nordin, and Britta Olinder
(Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 2006): p. 7.
xxvi Introduction

26. O’Toole, ‘Some of our emigrants are happy to go.’; Hall and Malcolm,
‘Diaspora, Gender and the Irish.’
27. Patrick O’Sullivan, ed. Irish Women and Irish Migration (Leicester:
Leicester University Press, 1995); Dorothea Schneider, ‘The Literature
on Women Immigrants to the United States,’ Actes de l’histoire de
l’immigration 3 (2003). The phenomenon of the silenced female is
a common issue in classic histories of American immigration, which
Schneider (2003) argues are ‘incomplete accounts because throughout
women are almost entirely absent from the story.’
28. Maureen Murphy, ‘Bridget and Biddy: Images of the Irish Servant Girl
in Puck Cartoons, 1880–1890,’ in New Perspectives on the Irish Diaspora,
ed. Charles Fanning (Carbondale & Edwardsville: Southern Illinois
University Press, 2000).
29. Margaret Lynch-Brennan, Irish Immigrant Women in Domestic Service in
America 1840–1930, (New York: Syracuse, 2009).
30. Hasla Diner, Erin’s Daughters in America: Irish Immigrant Women in the
Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 1986).
31. It is important to mention here the prolific output of Mary-Anne Sadlier,
who emigrated from Cavan in 1844, and published some sixty vol-
umes of novels, translations, short stories and plays. Although her work
is often dismissed as sentimental, Sadlier’s fictional representations of
the Irishwoman in America remain both pioneering and enlightening.
See the Mary-Anne Sadlier Archive online at University of Virginia for
an in-depth account of her life and critical reputation American Studies
at the University of Virginia, ‘The Mary-Anne Sadlier Archive,’ http://
xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper/SADLIER/Sadlier.htm; also Kevin Molloy,
‘Literature for Irish Colonials: The Example of Nineteenth-Century New
Zealand,’ LISA E-Journal III, no. 1 (2005) for more on Sadlier’s trans-
mission to a global diaspora.
32. Lucy Collins, ‘Northeast of Nowhere: Vona Groarke, Sinéad Morrissey
and Post-Feminist Spaces,’ in Irish Poetry After Feminism, ed. Justin
Quinn (Buckinghamshire: Colin Smythe, 2008).
33. There have been innumerable critical studies on these poets, particularly
with regard to gender, myth and national identity. Prominent intersec-
tional works include (but are by no means limited to): Guinn Batten,
‘Boland, McGuckian, Ní Chuilleanáin and the Body of the Nation,’ in
The Cambridge Companion to Contemporary Irish Poetry, ed. Matthew
Campbell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Michaela
Schrage-Fruh, Emerging Identities: Myth, Nation and Gender in the
Poetry of Eavan Boland, Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill and Medbh McGuckian
(Trier: WVT, Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier, 2004); Irene Gilsenan
Nordin, ‘Beyond the Borders of Home: The Subject-in-Exile in the Work
 Introduction xxvii

of Two Contemporary Irish Women Poets, Eiléan Ní Chuilleanáin and

Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill,’ in Proceedings from the 8th Nordic Conference on
English Studies, ed. Karin Ajimer and Britta Olinder (Gotenborg: Acta
Universitatis Gothorburgensis, 2003).
34. Eavan Boland, Object Lessons: The Life of the Woman and the Poet in Our
Time (New York: Norton, 1995): p. 7.
35. Gerardine Meaney, ‘History Gasps: Myth in Contemporary Irish
Women’s Poetry,’ in Poetry in Contemporary Irish Literature, ed. Michael
Kenneally (Buckinghamshire: Colin Smythe, 1995): p. 100.
36. Patricia Coughlan, ‘Irish Literature and Feminism in Postmodernity,’
Hungarian Journal of English and American Studies, 10, no. 1–2
(2004); Gerardine Meaney, ‘History Gasps: Myth in Contemporary
Irish Women’s Poetry,’; Sarah Fulford, Gendered Spaces in Contemporary
Irish Poetry (Bern: Peter Lang, 2002); Anne Fogarty, ‘“The Influence
of Absences”: Eavan Boland and the Silenced History of Irish Women’s
Poetry,’ Colby Quarterly 35, no. 4, December (1999): pp. 256–274;
Ellen McWilliams, Women and Exile in Contemporary Irish Fiction
(Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013).
37. James Joyce, ‘Eveline,’ in Dubliners (London: Penguin Classics, 2014
[1914]); Liam O’Flaherty, ‘The Letter,’ in The Short Stories of Liam
O’Flaherty (London: Four Square, 1966); William Trevor, Felicia’s
Journey (London: Penguin, 1996); Colm Tóibín, Brooklyn (London:
Penguin, 2009).
38. In Coughlan’s (2004) review of Angela Bourke, Maeve Brennan:
Homesick at the New Yorker (London: Jonathan Cape, 2004), Brennan
is described as ‘an anatomist of deracination’ whose writing is considered
alongside Elizabeth Bishop, Alice Munro and James Joyce. During her
lifetime, she received little critical attention, but posthumously, in addi-
tion to Bourke’s biography, two collections of short stories and a novel
have been published; Maeve Brennan, The Springs of Affection: Stories
of Dublin (New York: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1997); The Rose Garden
(Washington: Counterpoint, 2000); The Visitor (Dublin: New Island
Books, 2001).
39. Ellen McWilliams, Women and Exile in Contemporary Irish Fiction
(Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013).
40. Tina O’Toole, ‘Cé Leis Tú? Queering Irish Migrant Literature Women
and Exile in Contemporary Irish Fiction,’ Irish University Review 43,
no. 1 (2013).
41. Breda Gray, Women and the Irish Diaspora; Margaret Lynch-Brennan,
Irish Immigrant Women in Domestic Service in America 1840–1930
(New York: Syracuse, 2009). Given the conservative Catholicism and
the status of homosexuality in Ireland until recently, historical data
xxviii Introduction

pertaining to queer migrations is difficult to ascertain; there is, however,

increasing impetus to recognise queer migration as an important part
of the diasporic story. See Tina O’Toole ‘Editors’ Introduction: New
Approaches to Irish Migration,’ Éire-Ireland 47, no. 1&2, Earrach/
Samhradh/Spring/Summer (2012): pp. 5–18; for a sociological angle,
see Hickman (2002; 2005) and also Róisín Ryan-Flood ‘Sexuality,
Citizenship and Migration: the Irish Queer Diaspora in London,’ ESRC
Full Research Report, RES-000-22-2612. Swindon: ESRC; for a per-
spective beyond the Irish context, see Eithne Luibhéid, and Lionel
Cantú Jr, Queer migrations: Sexuality, US citizenship, and border crossings
(Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press, 2005).
42. Derek Attridge, ‘Innovation, Literature, Ethics: Relating to the Other,’
PMLA 114, no. 1, January (1999): p. 20.
43. Phillip Wolf, ‘The Anachronism of Modern Cultural Memories and an
Ethics of Literary Memory,’ in Literature, Literary History, and Cultural
Memory, ed. Herbert Grabes (Tübingen: Narr Francke Attempto Verlag,
2005): p. 339.
44. Maurice Halbwachs, On Collective Memory, trans. Lewis A. Coser
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992): p. 119.
45. Aleida Assmann, ‘Memory, Individual and Collective,’ in The Oxford
Handbook of Political Science (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006):
p. 210.
46. Oona Frawley, ed. Memory Ireland, Volume 1: History and Modernity
(New York: Syracuse University Press, 2011); Oona Frawley, ed. Memory
Ireland, Volume 2: Diaspora and Memory Practices (New York: Syracuse
University Press, 2012); Memory Ireland, Volume 3: The Famine and the
Troubles (New York: Syracuse University Press, 2014); co-edited with
Katherine O’Callaghan, Memory Ireland, Volume 4: James Joyce and
Cultural Memory (New York: Syracuse University Press, 2014).
47. Barbara Misztal, Theories of Social Remembering (Berkshire: Open
University Press, 2003): p. 107.
48. Emilie Pine, The Politics of Irish Memory (Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2010): p. 3.
49. Emilie Pine, The Politics of Irish Memory; Guy Beiner, ‘Probing the
boundaries of Irish memory: from postmemory to prememory and back,’
Irish Historical Studies, Vol. 39, Iss. 154, November 2014: pp. 296–307.
50. Astrid Erll, ‘Cultural Memory Studies: An Introduction,’ in A
Companion to Cultural Memory Studies, ed. Astrid Erll and Ansgar
Nünning (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2010): p. 2.
51. Paul Connerton, How Societies Remember (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1989): p. 35.
52. Assmann, ‘Memory, Individual and Collective.’
 Introduction xxix

53. Ibid.
54. Astrid Erll and Ansgar Nünning, ‘Where Literature and Memory Meet,’
in Literature, Literary History, and Cultural Memory, ed. Herbert Grabes
(Tübingen: Narr Francke Attempto Verlag, 2005): p. 273.
55. Renate Lachmann, ‘Mnemonic and Intertextual aspects of Literature,’
in Cultural Memory Studies: An International and Interdisciplinary
Handbook, ed. Astrid Erll and Ansgar Nünning (Berlin: Walter de
Gruyster, 2008): p. 15.
56. Birgit Neumann, ‘The Literary Representations of Memory,’ in Cultural
Memory Studies: An Interdisciplinary Handbook, ed. Astrid Erll and
Ansgar Nünning (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2008): p. 334.
57. Gaston Bachelard, The Poetics of Space (New York: Orion Press, 1964); Michel
Foucault, ‘Of Other Spaces: Utopias and Heterotopias,’ Architecture /
Mouvement/ Continuité October (1984): pp. 46–49; Brian Massumi, Parables
for the Virtual: Movement, Affect, Sensation (Durham, N.C.: Duke University
Press, 2002).
58. Paul Ricoeur, Memory, History, Forgetting (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 2004): p. 426.
59. Oona Frawley, ‘Towards a Theory of Cultural Memory in an Irish
Postcolonial Context,’ in Memory Ireland Volume 1: History and
Modernity, ed. Oona Frawley (New York: Syracuse University Press,
2011): p. 4.
60. Aleida Assmann, ‘Canon and Archive,’ in A Companion to Cultural
Memory Studies, ed. Astrid Erll and Ansgar Nünning (Berlin: De Gruyter,
2010): p. 99.
61. Andreas Huyssen, Twilight Memories: Making Time in a Culture of
Amnesia (New York: Routledge, 1995): p. 2.
62. I have chosen to include poets from both Northern Ireland and the
Republic of Ireland in this study.
63. Rosita Boland, ‘What Daffodils Were to Wordsworth, Drains and
Backstreet Pubs Are to Me.’ The Irish Times, 12 March 2011.
64. Eva Bourke and Borbála Faragó (eds.) Landing Places: Immigrant Poets in
Ireland. (Dublin: Dedalus Press, 2010); Borbála Faragó, ‘“I am the Place
in Which Things Happen”: Invisible Immigrant Women Poets of Ireland,’
in Tina O’Toole and Patricia Coughlan, eds., Irish Literatures: Feminist
Perspectives. (Dublin, Carysfort Press: 2008): pp. 145–167; Villar-Argáiz,
Pilar, editor. Literary Visions of Multicultural Ireland: The Immigrant in
Contemporary Irish Literature. (Manchester: Manchester University Press,
2015).
65. Ihab Hassan, The Right Promethean Fire, qtd in Linda Hutcheon, A
Poetics of Postmodernism: History, Theory, Fiction (London: Routledge,
1995): p. 20.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 BENGAL CURRIE POWDER.

No. 1.
Mix thoroughly the following ingredients after they have been
separately reduced to the finest powder and passed through a fine
hair or lawn sieve:—

6 oz. coriander seed.

3 oz. black pepper.
1 oz. cummin-seed.
1-1/2 oz. fenugreek-seed.
3/4 oz. cayenne pepper.
3 oz. best pale turmeric.

Set the powder before the fire to dry, and turn it often; then
withdraw it, let it become cold, and bottle it immediately. Keep it
closely corked.
Obs.—We cannot think a large proportion of black pepper a
desirable addition to currie powder, as it gives a strong coarse
flavour: but as it may be liked by persons who are accustomed to it,
we give the preceding and the following receipt without varying
either: the second appears to us the best.
Coriander- 8 oz.
seed
Chinese 4 oz.
turmeric
Black 2 oz.
pepper
Cassia 1/2
oz.
White ginger 1 oz.
Cayenne 1/2
pepper oz.
 RISOTTO À LA MILANAISE.

Slice a large onion very thin, and divide it into shreds; then fry it
slowly until it is equally but not too deeply browned; take it out and
strain the butter, and fry in it about three ounces of rice for every
person who is to partake of it. As the grain easily burns, it should be
put into the butter when it begins to simmer, and be very gently
coloured to a bright yellow tint over a slow fire. Add it to some good
boiling broth lightly tinged with saffron, and stew it softly in a copper
pan for fifteen or twenty minutes. Stir to it two or three ounces of
butter mixed with a small portion of flour, a moderate seasoning of
pepper or cayenne, and as much grated Parmesan cheese as will
flavour it thoroughly. Boil the whole gently for ten minutes, and serve
it very hot, at the commencement of dinner as a potage.
Obs.—The reader should bear in mind what we have so often
repeated in this volume, that rice should always be perfectly cooked,
and that it will not become tender with less than three times its bulk
of liquid.
 STUFATO.

(A Neapolitan Receipt.)
“Take about six pounds of the silver side of the round, and make
several deep incisions in the inside, nearly through to the skin; stuff
these with all kinds of savoury herbs, a good slice of lean ham, and
half a small clove of garlic, all finely minced, and well mingled
together; then bind and tie the meat closely round, so that the
stuffing may not escape. Put four pounds of butter into a stewpan
sufficiently large to contain something more than that quantity, and
the beef in addition; so soon as it boils lay in the meat, let it just
simmer for five or six hours, and turn it every half hour at least, that it
may be equally done. Boil for twenty-five minutes three pounds of
pipe maccaroni, drain it perfectly dry, and mix it with the gravy of the
beef, without the butter, half a pint of very pure salad oil, and a pot of
paste tomatas; mix these to amalgamation, without breaking the
maccaroni; before serving up, sprinkle Parmesan cheese thickly on
the maccaroni.”
We insert this receipt exactly as it was given to us by a friend, at
whose table the dish was served with great success to some Italian
diplomatists. From our own slight experience of it, we should
suppose that the excellence of the beef is quite a secondary
consideration, as all its juices are drawn out by the mode of cooking,
and appropriated to the maccaroni, of which we must observe that
three pounds would make too gigantic a dish to enter well, on
ordinary occasions, into an English service.
We have somewhere seen directions for making the stufato with
the upper part of the sirloin, thickly larded with large, well-seasoned
lardoons of bacon, and then stewed in equal parts of rich gravy, and
of red or of white wine.
 BROILED EELS WITH SAGE. (ENTRÉE.)

(German Receipt.) Good.

Skin, open, and cleanse one fine eel (or more), cut it into finger-
lengths, rub it with a mixed seasoning of salt and white pepper, and
leave it for half an hour. Wipe it dry, wrap each length in sage leaves,
fasten them round it with coarse thread, roll the eel in good salad oil
or clarified butter, lay it on the gridiron, squeeze lemon-juice over,
and broil it gently until it is browned in every part. Send it to table
with a sauce made of two or three ounces of butter, a tablespoonful
of chili, tarragon, or common vinegar, and one of water, with a little
salt; to keep this smooth, proceed as for the Norfolk sauce of
Chapter V. Broiled fish is frequently served without any sauce. A
quite simple one may supply the place of that which we have
indicated above: eels being of so rich a nature, require no other.
 A SWISS MAYONNAISE.

Beat half a pound of butter to a cream, and then add it very

gradually to the hard-boiled yolks of six fresh eggs which have been
cut into quarters, separated carefully from the whites, and pounded
to a perfect paste; when these are blended into a smooth sauce add,
a few drops at a time, some of the finest salad oil that can be
procured, and work the mixture in the same manner as the
mayonnaise of Chapter VI. until no particle of it remains visible: a
small quantity of salt also must be thrown in, and sufficient good
vinegar in very small portions, to give an agreeable acidity to the
preparation. (Fresh lemon-juice might be substituted in part for this,
and a little fine cayenne used with it; but though we suggest this, we
adhere to our original Swiss receipt for this excellent dish, even
when we think it might be slightly improved in flavour.)
Carve very neatly two delicate boiled fowls, and trim the joints into
handsome form. Lay the inferior parts upon a large plate, and spread
a portion of the sauce, which should be very thick, upon them;
arrange them in a flat layer in the dish in which they are to be
served; then sauce in the same way more of the joints, and arrange
them symmetrically over the others. Proceed thus to build a sort of
pyramid with the whole; and decorate it with the whites of the eggs,
and the hearts of small lettuces cut in halves. Place these last round
the base alternately with whole bantams’ or plovers’ eggs, boiled
hard, a small slice must be cut from the large end of each of these to
admit of their being placed upright. A slight branch of parsley, or
other foliage, may be stuck in the tops. Roast chickens divested
entirely of the skin, can always be substituted for boiled ones in a
mayonnaise: they should all be separated into single joints with the
exception of the wings. The quite inferior parts need not be used at
all.
The same sauce rather highly flavoured with cayenne, and other
condiments, and more or less, to the taste, with essence of
anchovies or anchovy butter, and coloured with lobster-coral, will
make an excellent fish-salad, with alternate slices of lobster,—cut
obliquely to increase their size,—and of cold turbot or large soles.
These can be raised into a high border or chain round a dish when
more convenient, and the centre filled with young fresh salad,
sauced at the instant it is sent to table.
A French mayonnaise does not vary much from the preceding,
except in the composition of the sauce, for which see Chapter VI. It
should always be kept very thick. A little rich cold white sauce is
sometimes mixed with it.
 TENDRONS DE VEAU.

The tendrons (or gristles) which lie under the flesh of the brisket of
a breast of veal are much used in foreign countries, and frequently
now in this, to supply a variety of the dishes called entrées. When
long stewed they become perfectly tender, and yield a large amount
of gelatine; but they are quite devoid of flavour, and require therefore
to be cooked and served with such additions as shall render them
palatable.
With a very sharp knife detach the flesh from them without
separating it from the joint, and turn it back, so as to allow the
gristles to be divided easily from the long bones. Cut away the chine-
bone from their outer edge, and then proceed first to soak them, that
they may be very white, and to boil them gently for several hours,
[191] either quite simply, in good broth, or with additions of bacon,
spice, and vegetables. Foreign cooks braise them somewhat
expensively, and then serve them in many different forms; but as
they make, after all, but a rather unpretending entrée, some
economy in their preparation would generally be desirable. They
may be divided at the joints, and cut obliquely into thin slices before
they are stewed, when they will require but four hours simmering; or
they may be left entire and braised, when they will require, while still
warm, to be pressed between two dishes with a heavy weight on the
top, to bring them into good shape before they are divided for table.
They are then sometimes dipped into egg and bread-crumbs, and
fried in thin slices of uniform size; or stewed tender, then well
drained, and glazed, dished in a circle, and served with peas à la
Française in the centre, or with a thick purée of tomatas, or of other
vegetables. They are also often used to fill vol-au-vents, for which
purpose they must be kept very white, and mixed with a good
béchamel-sauce. We recommend their being highly curried, either in
conjunction with plenty of vegetables, or with a portion of other meat,
after they have been baked or stewed as tender as possible.
191. We think that in the pasted jar which we have described in Chapter IX., in the
section of Baking, they might be well and easily cooked, but we have not
tried it.
 POITRINE DE VEAU GLACÉE.

(Breast of Veal Stewed and Glazed.)

When the gristles have been removed from a breast of veal, the
joint will still make an excellent roast, or serve to stew or braise. Take
out the long-bones,[192] beat the veal with the flat side of a cleaver,
or with a cutlet-bat, and when it is quite even, cut it square, and
sprinkle over it a moderate seasoning of fine salt, cayenne, and
mace. Make some forcemeat by either of the receipts Nos. 1, 2, 3, or
7, of Chapter VIII., but increase the ingredients to three or four times
the quantity, according to the size of the joint. Lay over the veal, or
not, as is most convenient, thin slices of half-boiled bacon, or of
ham; press the forcemeat into the form of a short compact rouleau
and lay it in the centre of one side of the breast; then roll it up and
skewer the ends closely with small skewers, and bind the joint firmly
into good form with tape or twine. When thus prepared, it may be
slowly stewed in very good veal stock until it is tender quite through,
and which should be hot when it is laid in; or embedded in the usual
ingredients for braising (see Chapter IX., page 180), and sent to
table glazed, sauced with an Espagnole, or other rich gravy, and
garnished with carrots à la Windsor (see page 335), or with
sweetbread cutlets, also glazed.
192. This is very easily done by cutting through the skin down the centre of each.
 BREAST OF VEAL. SIMPLY STEWED.[193]
193. We give here the English receipt of an excellent practical cook for “Stewed
Breast of veal,” as it may be acceptable to some of our readers, After it has
been boned, flattened, and trimmed, season it well, and let it lie for an hour
or two (this, we do not consider essential); then prepare some good veal
forcemeat, to which let a little minced shalot be added, and spread it over the
veal If you have any cold tongue or lean of ham, cut it in square strips, and
lay them the short way of the meat that they may be shewn when it is carved.
Roll it up very tight, and keep it in good shape; enclose it in a cloth as you
would a jam-pudding, and lace it up well, then lay it into a braising-pan with
three onions, as many large carrots thickly sliced, some spice, sweet herbs,
and sufficient fresh second-stock or strong veal broth to more than half cover
it, and stew it very gently over a slow fire for three hours: turn it occasionally
without disturbing the braise which surrounds it. Glaze it before it is sent to
table, and serve it with Spanish sauce, or with rich English brown gravy,
flavoured with a glass of sherry; and garnish it with stewed mushrooms in
small heaps, and fried forcemeat balls.

Omit the forcemeat from the preceding receipt, and stew the joint
tender in good veal broth, or shin of beef stock. Drain, and dish it.
Pour a little rich gravy round it, and garnish it with nicely fried balls of
the forcemeat No. 1, Chapter VIII., or with mushroom-forcemeat (No.
7). Mushroom-sauce is always an excellent accompaniment to a joint
of veal. The liquor in which the breast is stewed or braised is too fat
to serve as sauce until it has been cooled and cleared. The veal can
be cooked without boning, but will have but an indifferent
appearance. It should in that case be slowly brought to boil, and very
gently simmered: about two hours and a half will stew it tender. The
sweetbread, after being scalded, may be stewed with it for half the
time, and served upon it.
Obs.—The breast without the gristles, boned and filled with
forcemeat, makes a superior roast. It may also be boiled on
occasion, and served with balls of oyster-forcemeat in the dish; or
with white mushroom-sauce instead.
 COMPOTE DE PIGEONS (STEWED PIGEONS.)

The French in much of their cookery use more bacon than would
generally be suited to a very delicate taste, we think. This bacon,
from being cured without saltpetre, and from not being smoked,
rather resembles salt pork in flavour: we explain this that the reader
may, when so disposed, adapt the receipts we give here to an
English table by omitting it. Cut into dice from half to three quarters
of a pound of streaked bacon, and fry it gently in a large stewpan
with a morsel of butter until it is very lightly browned; lift it out, and
put in three or four young pigeons trussed as for boiling. When they
have become firm, and lightly coloured, lift them out, and stir a large
tablespoonful of flour to the fat. When this thickening (roux) is also
slightly browned, add gradually to it a pint, or something more, of
boiling veal-stock or strong broth; put back the birds and the bacon,
with a few small button-onions when their flavour is liked, and stew
the whole very gently for three quarters of an hour. Dish the pigeons
neatly with the bacon and onions laid between them; skim all the fat
from the sauce, reduce it quickly, and strain it over them. The birds
should be laid into the stewpan with the breasts downwards.
The third, or half of a pottle of small mushrooms is sometimes
added to this dish. It may be converted into a compote aux petits
pois by adding to the pigeons when the broth, in which they are laid,
first begins to boil, a pint and a half of young peas. For these, a pint
and a quarter, at the least, of liquid will be required, and a full hour’s
stewing. The economist can substitute water for the broth. When the
birds can be had at little cost, one, two, or more, according to
circumstances, should be stewed down to make broth or sauce for
the others.
Obs.—Pigeons are excellent filled with the mushrooms au beurre,
of page 329, and either roasted or stewed. To broil them proceed as
directed for a partridge (French receipt), page 290.
 MAI TRANK (MAY-DRINK).

(German.)
Put into a large deep jug one pint of light
white wine to two of red, and dissolve in it
sufficient sugar to sweeten it agreeably.
Wipe a sound China orange, cut it in rather
thick slices, without paring it, and add it to
the wine; then throw in some small bunches
or faggots of the fragrant little plant called
woodruff; cover the jug closely to exclude
the air and leave it until the following day.
Serve it to all May-day visitors. One orange
will be sufficient for three pints of wine. The
woodruff should be washed and well
drained before it is thrown into the jug; and
the quantity of it used should not be very
large, or the flavour of the beverage will be
rather injured than improved by it. We have
tried this receipt on a small scale with
lemon-rind instead of oranges, and the
mixture was very agreeable. Rhenish wine should properly be used
for it; but this is expensive in England. The woodruff is more odorous
when dried gradually in the shade than when it is fresh gathered,
and imparts a pleasant fragrance to linen, as lavender does. It grows
wild in Kent, Surrey, and other parts of England, and flourishes in
many suburban gardens in the neighbourhood of London.
 A VIENNESE SOUFFLÉ-PUDDING, CALLED SALZBURGER
NOCKERL.

At the moment of going to press, we have received direct from

Vienna the following receipt, which we cannot resist offering to the
reader for trial, as we are assured that the dish is one of the most
delicate and delicious soufflé-puddings that can be made.
(A) Take butter, four ounces; sugar in powder, three ounces; fine
flour, one ounce and a half or two ounces; and the yellow of eight
eggs; beat these together in a convenient sized basin till the mixture
gets frothy. (The butter should probably first be beaten to cream.)
(B) Beat to snow the whites of the eight eggs.
(C) Take three pounds (or pints) of new milk, put it in an open
stewpan over a gentle fire, and let it boil.
(D) Next, prepare a china casserole (enamelled stewpan—a
copper one will do) by greasing its internal surface.
As soon as the milk boils, mix gently A and B together, and with a
small spoon take portions of this shape and size and lay them over
the surface of the boiling milk till it is entirely covered with them. Let
them boil for four or five minutes to cook them; then put them in
convenient order on the ground of the greased casserole (stewpan).
Go on putting in the same manner small portions of the mixture on
the surface of the boiling milk, and when cooked, place a new layer
of them in the stewpan over the first; and continue the same
operation until the mixture is all consumed. Take now the remainder
of the milk, and add it to the beaten yellow (yolks) of two eggs, some
sugar, and some powdered vanilla. Pour this over the cooked pastry
in the stewpan, and set it into a gently heated oven. Leave it there
until it gets brown; then powder it with vanilla-sugar, and send it to
the table.
 Author’s Note.—The preceding directions were written by a
physician of Vienna, at whose table the dish was served. It was
turned out of the casserole, and served with the greatest expedition;
but we think it would perhaps answer more generally here, to bake it
in a soufflé dish, and to leave it undisturbed. We would also suggest,
that the yolk of a third egg might sometimes be needed to bind the
mixture well together. A good and experienced cook would easily
ascertain the best mode of ensuring the success of the preparation.
We must observe, that the form of the enamelled stewpans made
commonly in this country prevents their being well adapted for use in
the present receipt: those of copper are better suited to it.
Half the proportion of the ingredients might, by way of experiment,
be prepared and baked in a tart-dish, as our puddings frequently are;
or in a small round cake mould, with a band of writing paper fastened
round the top.
The vanilla sugar is prepared by cutting the bean up small, and
pounding it with some sugar in a mortar, and then passing it through
a very fine sieve.
The “cooked portions” of which the soufflé is principally composed
are the shape, and about half the size of the inside of an egg-spoon.
If somewhat larger, they would possibly answer as well.
 INDEX.

Acton gingerbread, 552

Albert’s, Prince, pudding, 411
Almond, cake, 545
candy, 566
cream, for blamange, 478
macaroons, 544
paste, 367
paste, fairy fancies of, 368
paste, tartlets of, 367
pudding, 425
pudding, Jewish, 608
shamrocks (very good and very pretty), 574
Almonds to blanch, 542
chocolate, 568
to colour for cakes or pastry, 542
in cheese-cakes, 361
to pound, 542
in soups, 21
to reduce to paste, the quickest and easiest way, 542
Alose, or Shad, to cook, 79
American oven, 178
Anchovies, to fillet, 389
fried in batter, 84
potted, 306
curried toasts with, 389
Anchovy, butter, 138
sauce, 115
Appel krapfen (German receipt), 373
Apple cake, 362
calf’s-feet jelly, 464
Charlotte, or Charlotte de Pommes, 486
marmalade for Charlotte de Pommes, 487
custards, 482
dumplings, fashionable, 420
fritters, 384
hedgehog, or Suédoise, 480
jelly, 522
jelly, exceedingly fine, 523
juice, prepared, 456
pudding, 408
pudding, common, 409
sauce, 124
sauce, baked, 124
sauce, brown, 125
soup, 21
snow-balls, 421
tart, 363
young green, tart, 364
creamed tart, 364
Apples, baked compote of (our little lady’s receipt), 572
buttered, or Pommes au beurre, 488
Apricots, compote of green, 457
Apricots dried, French receipt for, 517
to dry, a quick and easy method, 517
Apricot blamange, 479
 fritters, 384
marmalade, 516
Arabian, or Turkish Piláw, Mr. Lane’s receipt for, 614
Artichokes, Jerusalem, à la Reine, 338
to boil, 326
en salade, 326
to remove the chokes from, 326
Jerusalem, to boil, 337
Jerusalem, to fry, 338
Jerusalem, mashed, 338
soup of, 19
Asparagus, to boil, 319
to serve cold (observation), 319
points, dressed like peas (entremets), 319
Aspic, or clear savoury jelly, 104
Arocē Docēe, or sweet rice à la Portugaise, 489
Arrow-root, to thicken sauces with, 106
to thicken soup with, 2, 4
Potato, 154
sauce (clear), 403
Bacon, to boil, 259
broiled or fried, 259
Cobbett’s receipt for, 252
dressed rashers of, 259
French, for larding, 254
lardoons of, 181
to pickle cheeks of, 254
genuine Yorkshire receipt for curing, 253
super-excellent, 256
Bain-marie, use of, 105
Baked apple-pudding, or custard, 437
apple-pudding, the lady’s or invalid’s, new, 608
apple-pudding, a common, 409
 compote of apples, 572
minced beef, 207
round of spiced beef, 199
beet-root, 339
bread-puddings, 429, 430
calf’s feet and head, 178
custard, 483
haddocks, 73
ham, 258
joints, with potatoes, 179
mackerel, 70
marrow bones, 208
mullet, 76
ox-cheek, 208
pike, 81
potatoes, 312
raisin puddings, 441, 442
salmon, 60, 179
smelts, 78
soles (or soles au plat), 66
soup, 178
sucking-pig, 250
whitings, à la Française, 68
Baking, directions for, or oven cookery, 178
Banbury cakes, 549
Bantam’s eggs, to boil or poach, 446, 449
Barberries, to pickle,
in bunches, to preserve, 526
stewed, for rice-crust, 459
Barberry jam, a good receipt for, 526
jam, another receipt for, 527
superior jelly and marmalade, 527
and rice pudding,
tart, 364