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Lecture Notes in Applied and Computational Mechanics 60
Tarek I. Zohdi
Modeling and Simulation

of Functionalized
Materials for Additive
Manufacturing and 3D
Printing: Continuous and
Discrete Media
Continuum and
Discrete Element Methods
Lecture Notes in Applied and Computational
Mechanics
Volume 60
Series editors
Peter Wriggers, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover, Germany
e-mail: [email protected]
Peter Eberhard, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
e-mail: [email protected]
This series aims to report new developments in applied and computational
mechanics—quickly, informally and at a high level. This includes the fields of fluid,
solid and structural mechanics, dynamics and control, and related disciplines. The
applied methods can be of analytical, numerical and computational nature.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/4623

Tarek I. Zohdi
Modeling and Simulation

of Functionalized Materials
for Additive Manufacturing
and 3D Printing: Continuous
and Discrete Media
Continuum and Discrete Element Methods
123
Tarek I. Zohdi
University of California
Berkeley, CA
USA
ISSN 1613-7736 ISSN 1860-0816 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Applied and Computational Mechanics
ISBN 978-3-319-70077-9 ISBN 978-3-319-70079-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70079-3
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017957665
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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Printed on acid-free paper
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The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To my patient and loving wife, Britta
Schöenfelder-Zohdi and to the memory of my
close friend, colleague and mentor, David
Dornfeld.
Preface
Within the last decade, several industrialized countries have stressed the importance
of advanced manufacturing to their economies. Many of these plans have high-
lighted the development of additive manufacturing techniques, such as 3D printing
which, as of 2018, are still in their infancy. The objective is to develop superior
products, produced at lower overall operational costs. For these goals to be realized,
a deep understanding of the essential ingredients comprising the materials involved
in additive manufacturing is needed. The combination of rigorous material mod-
eling theories coupled with the dramatic increase of computational power can
potentially play a significant role in the analysis, control, and design of many
emerging additive manufacturing processes. Specialized materials and the precise
design of their properties are key factors in these processes. Specifically,
particle-functionalized materials play a central role in this field, in three main
regimes:
• (1) To enhance overall filament-based material properties, by embedding par-
ticles within a binder, which is then passed through a heating element and
deposited onto a surface,
• (2) To “functionalize” inks by adding particles to freely flowing solvents
forming a mixture, which is then deposited onto a surface, and
• (3) To directly deposit particles, as dry powders, onto surfaces and then to heat
them with a laser, e-beam, or other external sources, in order to fuse them into
place.
The goal of these processes is primarily to build surface structures which are
extremely difficult to construct using classical manufacturing methods. The
objective of this monograph is to introduce the readers to basic techniques which
can allow them to rapidly develop and analyze particulate-based materials needed in
such additive manufacturing processes.
This monograph is broken into two main parts: “Continuum Method”
(CM) approaches and “Discrete Element Method” (DEM) approaches. The mate-
rials associated with methods (1) and (2) are closely related types of continua
(particles embedded in a continuous binder) and are treated using continuum
vii
viii Preface
approaches. The materials in method (3), which are of a discrete particulate char-
acter, are analyzed using discrete element methods. I am certain that, despite
painstaking efforts, there remain errors of one sort or another in this monograph.
Therefore, I would be grateful if readers who find such flaws could contact me at
[email protected].
This document is under copyright. No part can be copied, electronically
stored, transmitted, reproduced, or translated into another language without
written permission from Tarek I. Zohdi.
Berkeley, USA Tarek I. Zohdi

September 2017
Contents
1 Introduction: Additive/3D Printing Materials—Filaments,

Functionalized Inks, and Powders . ......................... 1
1.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................... 5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................... 6
2 Continuum Methods (CM): Basic Continuum Mechanics . . . . . . . . 9
2.1 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Kinematics of Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.1 Deformation of Line Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Equilibrium/Kinetics of Continua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.1 Postulates on Volume and Surface Quantities . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.2 Balance Law Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 The First Law of Thermodynamics/An Energy Balance . . . . . . . 14
2.5 Linearly Elastic Constitutive Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5.1 The Infinitesimal Strain Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5.2 Material Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5.3 Material Component Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3 CM Approaches: Characterization of Particle-Functionalized
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 Basic Micro–Macro Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2.1 Testing Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2.2 The Average Strain Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2.3 The Average Stress Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2.4 Satisfaction of Hill’s Energy Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2.5 The Hill–Reuss–Voigt Bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2.6 Improved Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
ix
x Contents
4 CM Approaches: Estimation and Optimization of the Effective

Properties of Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.1 Combining Bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.2 Local Fields: Stresses and Strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.3 Optimization: Formulation of a Cost Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.4 Suboptimal Properties Due to Defects—Effects of
Pores/voids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 40
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 41
5 CM Approaches: Numerical Thermo-Mechanical Formulations . . . 43
5.1 Transient Thermo-Mechanical Coupled Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.2 Iterative Staggering Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.3 Temporal Discretization of Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.4 The Overall Solution Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.5 Numerical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.6 Summary and Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.7 Chapter Appendix 1: Summary of Spatial Finite Difference
Stencils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 62
5.8 Chapter Appendix 2: Second-Order Temporal Discretization ... 63
5.9 Chapter Appendix 3: Temporally Adaptive Iterative
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 65
5.10 Chapter Appendix 4: Laser Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 67
5.10.1 Formulations for Particulate-Laden Continua . . . . . ... 68
5.10.2 A Specific Numerical Example—Controlled
Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 69
5.10.3 Numerical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 70
5.10.4 Extensions: Advanced Models for Conduction
Utilizing Thermal Relaxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 75
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 78
6 PART II—Discrete Element Method (DEM) Approaches:
Dynamic Powder Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.1 Direct Particle Representation/Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.1.1 Comments on Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.1.2 Particle-to-particle Contact Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.1.3 Particle-Wall Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.1.4 Contact Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.1.5 Regularized Contact Friction Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.1.6 Particle-to-particle Bonding Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6.1.7 Electromagnetic Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6.1.8 Inter-particle Near-Field Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.1.9 Magnetic Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.1.10 Interstitial Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.2 Time-Stepping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Contents xi
6.2.1 Iterative (Implicit) Solution Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

6.2.2 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.3 Thermal Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.3.1 Heat Transfer Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.3.2 Lasers—Various Levels of Description . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.3.3 Numerical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.4 Total System Coupling: Multiphysical Staggering Scheme . . . . 100
6.4.1 A General Iterative Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.4.2 Overall Solution Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.4.3 Interaction Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.6 Summary for DEM Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
6.7 Chapter Appendix 1: Contact Area Parameter and Alternative
Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.8 Chapter Appendix 2: Phase Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7 DEM Extensions: Electrically Driven Deposition of Polydisperse
Particulate Powder Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.2 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.3 Numerical Examples of Involving Polydisperse Depositions . . . 123
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
8 DEM Extensions: Electrically Aided Compaction
and Sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
8.1.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
8.2 Direct Particle Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
8.3 Thermal Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
8.3.1 Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
8.3.2 Numerical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
8.4 Modeling of Current Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
8.4.1 Particle Model Simplification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
8.4.2 Iterative Flux Summation/Solution Process . . . . . . . . . 141
8.4.3 Overall Solution Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8.5.1 STEP 1: Pouring the Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
8.5.2 STEP 2: Compacting the Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
8.6 Extensions and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
8.7 Chapter Appendix 1: Joule-Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
8.7.1 Characterizing Electrical Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
8.7.2 Joule-Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
xii Contents
8.8 Chapter Appendix 2: Time-Scaling Arguments for @P @t 0 . . . . . 150

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
9 DEM Extensions: Flexible Substrate Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
9.2 A Multibody Dynamics Model for the Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
9.2.1 Overall Contributing Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
9.3 Induced Substrate Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
9.3.1 Individual Particle Contributions—Normal Load . . . . . 157
9.3.2 Individual Particle Contributions—Tangential
Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
9.3.3 Superposition of Contributions for the Total Substrate
Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
9.5 Summary, Conclusions, and Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
10 DEM Extensions: Higher-Fidelity Laser Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
10.1 Propagation of Electromagnetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
10.1.1 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
10.1.2 Plane Harmonic Wave Fronts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
10.1.3 Special Case: Natural (Random) Electromagnetic
Energy Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
10.1.4 Beam Decomposition into Rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
10.2 Thermal Conversion of Beam (Optical) Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
10.2.1 Algorithmic Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
10.3 Phase Transformations: Solid ) Liquid ) Vapor . . . . . . . . . . . 182
10.3.1 Optional Time Scaling and Simulation
Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
10.5 Summary and Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
10.6 Chapter Appendix: Geometrical Ray Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
11 DEM Extensions: Acoustical Pre-Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
11.2 Dynamic Response of an Agglomeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
11.3 Particle-Shock Wave Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
11.3.1 Ray-Tracing: Incidence, Reflection, and
Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
11.3.2 Acoustical-Pulse Computational Algorithm . . . . . . . . . 203
11.3.3 Iterative (Implicit) Solution Method Algorithm . . . . . . . 204
11.4 Numerical Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Contents xiii
11.5 Closing Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

11.6 Chapter Appendix: Basics of Acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
12 Summary and Closing Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Monograph Appendix A: Elementary Notation and Mathematical
Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Monograph Appendix B—CM Approaches: Effective Electrical
Properties of Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Monograph Appendix C—CM Approaches: Extensions to Multiphase
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Monograph Appendix D—Pumping of Fluidized Particle-Laden
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Monograph Appendix E—Hybrid DEM-CM Approaches for
Particle-Functionalized Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 Typical printing ingredients: top left: finely ground metallic
powder (iron). Top right: extruded PLA. Bottom left: ABS
pellets and bottom right: coarsely ground steel flakes . . . . . . . .. 2
Fig. 1.2 Left: a linkage schematic of a 3D printer. Right: a multiphase
droplet representation using the Discrete Element Method . . . .. 5
Fig. 2.1 Different descriptions of a deforming body. Xo is the reference
configuration, and X is the current configuration . . . . . . . . . . .. 10
Fig. 2.2 Left: Cauchy tetrahedron: a “sectioned point” and right: stress
at a point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12
Fig. 3.1 A matrix binder and particulate additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22
Fig. 3.2 Nomenclature for the averaging theorems (for a general
body) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24
Fig. 4.1 Comparing microstructures with the same volume fractions.
Cases where particles touch need a higher value of / . . . . . . .. 32
Fig. 4.2 Left: a characterization of the class of objective functions of
interest. Right: a loss of superior older genetic strings if the top
parents are not retained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38
Fig. 5.1 A typical three-dimensional finite difference stencil for a field
wðx; y; zÞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 48
Fig. 5.2 Overall coupled staggering (left) solution and the matrix-free
approach (right). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 52
Fig. 5.3 Left: Hot deposited particles on a surface. With the framing
method, a sample is probed with interior subsamples, within
the larger sample, in order to avoid boundary layer effects that
occur from imposing boundary conditions on the large-sample
exterior. Right: A mesh of the curing subsample (showing only
one of the particle phases for illustration purposes) . . . . . . . . .. 55
Fig. 5.4 From left to right and top to bottom: the deviatoric stress (in
gigapascals). The morphology is shown in Fig. 5.9 . . . . . . . . .. 58
xv
xvi List of Figures
Fig. 5.5 Left: The volume averaged normed deviator jjr0 jj (in
def
gigapascals). Right: The volume averaged pressure p¼ trr 3 (in
gigapascals) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 59
Fig. 5.6 Left: The volume averaged temperature hhiX (in Kelvin) Right:
The volume averaged norm of the plastic strain jjp jj . . . . . . . .. 59
Fig. 5.7 Left: The volume averaged damage jjDjj. Right: The time-step
size variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60
Fig. 5.8 Various finite difference stencils in “computational molecule”
@u
form (centered at ðxi ; xj ; xk Þ), where (1) TERM-I: a @x ,
i
@ @u @ @u
(2) TERM-II: @xi a @xi , and (3) TERM-III: @xj a @xi . . . . . . .. 60
Fig. 5.9 Left: With the framing method, a sample is probed with
interior subsamples, within the larger sample, in order to avoid
boundary layer effects that occur from imposing boundary
conditions on the large-sample exterior. Right: A mesh of the
subsample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 61
Fig. 5.10 Left: representations of laser input and absorption. Right:
upcoming results showing mesh, absorption of energy, and
temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 70
Fig. 5.11 From left to right and top to bottom: the temperature (in
Kelvin),with pulsed laser input. The morphology is shown in
Fig. 5.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 71
Fig. 5.12 From left to right and top to bottom: orthogonal slices through
the microstructure for the temperature (in Kelvin),with pulsed
laser input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 72
Fig. 5.13 From left to right and top to bottom: the norm of the deviatoric
stress (in GPa),with pulsed laser input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 73
Fig. 5.14 From left to right and top to bottom: orthogonal slices through
the microstructure for the norm of the deviatoric stress (in
GPa),with pulsed laser input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 74
Fig. 6.1 An example of powder-based processes: (1) particle deposition
and (2) selective laser processing Zohdi [1–43] . . . . . . . . . . . .. 85
Fig. 6.2 Normal contact and friction forces induced by neighboring
particles in contact (after Zohdi [1–43]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87
Fig. 6.3 An example of overlap contact between a wall and a particle.
The amount of overlap of the particle with the wall position
dictating the force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 89
Fig. 6.4 Heat flux exchange for a particle induced by neighboring
particles in contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97
Fig. 6.5 Representations of laser penetration based on modification
(right) of the classical Beer–Lambert relation (left) . . . . . . . . . .. 99
Fig. 6.6 A flowchart for the modular, staggered computation . . . . . . . . . . 103
Fig. 6.7 Scenario 1: left to right and top to bottom, a sequence of
frames for deposition of particles without laser input . . . . . . . . . 105
List of Figures xvii
Fig. 6.8 Scenario 2: left to right and top to bottom, a sequence of

frames for deposition of particles with laser input . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Fig. 6.9 Temperatures for scenario 1 (no laser input) and scenario
2 (with selective laser input) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Fig. 6.10 A multiphase droplet representation which can be used for
depositions that are comprised of multiple particle types, as
well as particles with a fluid (solvent) binder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Fig. 6.11 Melting of a deposited material top layer and subsequent
densification of the lower layer by allowing the liquid to seep
into the voids in between the particles below . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Fig. 6.12 An approximation of the contact area parameter for two
particles in contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Fig. 7.1 A schematic of a 3D printer (deposition) mechanism . . . . . . . . . 122
Fig. 7.2 A multiphase droplet in contact with a substrate modeled using
the Discrete Element Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Fig. 7.3 Schematic of the initial configuration for the model
problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Fig. 7.4 Example #1: no external electric field and no
particle-to-particle ionization interaction effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Fig. 7.5 Example #2: external electric field and no particle-to-particle
ionization interaction effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Fig. 7.6 Example #3: no external electric field and particle-to-particle
ionization interaction effects. We note the presence of a pseudo
Plateau–Rayleigh instability that leads to a breakup of the
stream into droplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Fig. 7.7 Example #4: external electric field and particle-to-particle
ionization interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Fig. 7.8 A zoom for example #4: external electric field and
particle-to-particle ionization interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Fig. 7.9 Baseline “reference” monodisperse example: external electric
field and particle-to-particle ionization interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Fig. 7.10 Time-step adaptation for Example #4: external electric field
and particle-to-particle ionization interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Fig. 8.1 A model problem: The sequence of events: a particles dropped
onto a surface, b an electrified head compresses and electrifies
the particles, c the particles heat up and fuse together, and d the
electrified head is removed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Fig. 8.2 Heat flux exchange between particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Fig. 8.3 Left: current exchange between particles. Right: The particles
in contact with the walls are assumed to become fully
electrified and to attain the magnitude of current in the wall as
well as the temperature of the wall. From particles that contact
the walls, the current flows radially to contact pairs . . . . . . . . . . 141
Fig. 8.4 A one-dimensional example of current flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
xviii List of Figures
Fig. 8.5 A flowchart for the modular, staggered, computation . . . . . . . . . 144

Fig. 8.6 A series of frames for compaction using the model (side walls
not shown). Left to right and top to bottom: (1) Pouring of the
particles, (2) Contact with the lower electrified wall,
(3) Contact with the upper and lower electrified walls, and
(4) Release of the upper electrified wall (loss of upper surface
contact) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Fig. 8.7 Densification and temperature: The process can be described
as having three phases: (1) Phase 1: pouring to roughly 50–
60% volume fraction. The temperature rises due to contact
with the lower electrified wall. (2) Phase 2: The compacting
wall compresses the material to virtually 100% volume
fraction. The temperature rises due to contact with the upper
and lower electrified walls. (3) Phase 3: The compacting wall is
released, and the material springs back somewhat, resulting in
a lower volume fraction than the fully compressed state, but
higher than the purely poured state. The temperature starts to
drop due to conduction with the surrounding walls. The basic
trends are: (1) The longer time the fully compressed state, the
better the Joule-heating induced bonding and less springback.
(2) The higher densification (higher volume fraction) in the
fully compressed state, the better the Joule-heating induced
bonding and less springback. The volume fraction was
calculated based on the volume contained within the lowest
compression point in Fig. 8.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Fig. 8.8 An example of binning of the particles in the sample
domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Fig. 9.1 Left: deposition of a stream of particles onto a substrate . . . . . . 156
Fig. 9.2 Algorithm for computation of the loading of a surface . . . . . . . . 160
Fig. 9.3 Deposition scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Fig. 9.4 Example: deposition onto a surface. The substrate colors
indicate the norm of the total summed deviatoric stresses. Both
the top (left) and bottom (right) are shown. The localized
nature of the surface stresses is smeared out with increasing
depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
List of Figures xix

depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Fig. 10.1 Left: a laser pulse applied to a powdered material. Right:
control volume for heat transfer, with an incident ray that
encounters an idealized smooth particle scatterer . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Fig. 10.2 Decomposition of an incoming beam into idealized “rays” . . . . . 175
Fig. 10.3 Reflection and absorption of an incoming ray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Fig. 10.4 Reflectance (IR) as a function of incident angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Fig. 10.5 A laser pulse applied to a plug of material with Nr ¼ 1000
parallel, randomly placed rays in the circular cross-sectional
plane of the beam, corresponding to unpolarized incoming
optical energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Fig. 10.6 Frames for the progressive absorption of a laser beam and
subsequent heating for conductivity IK ¼ 100. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Fig. 10.7 Volume fraction of vaporized material for IK ¼ 0, IK ¼ 10,
IK ¼ 20, IK ¼ 50, IK ¼ 100, and IK ¼ 200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Fig. 11.1 A particle-ladenfluid in a channel with an agglomeration . . . . . . 198
Fig. 11.2 Pulsing to break up and disperse an agglomeration . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Fig. 11.3 Zoom on a ray-particle contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Fig. 11.4 Construction of the initial plane wave of rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Fig. 11.5 Pulsing a free-standing agglomeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Fig. 11.6 From left to right and top to bottom, the progressive movement
of rays comprising a beam. The vector lengths indicate the
energy associated with the ray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Fig. 11.7 From left to right and top to bottom, the progressive movement
of rays comprising a beam. The vector lengths indicate the
energy associated with the ray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Fig. 11.8 Number of ray reflections as a function of time for 4 successive
pulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Fig. 11.9 Top to bottom and left to right: a normalized pulse strength in
PNr ray
def Iq ex
the x-direction: I x ¼ PNr q¼1ray .
q¼1
jjIq ðt¼0Þjj
b Normalized pulse strength in the y-direction:

PNr ray
def Iq ey
I y ¼ PNr q¼1ray . c Normalized pulse strength in the
jjIq ðt¼0Þjj
q¼1
PNr ray
def Iq ez
z-direction: I z ¼ PNr q¼1ray . d Normalized pulse
jjI q ðt¼0Þjj
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
P
q¼1
Nr
ððIray 2 ray 2 ray 2
q ex Þ þ ðI q ey Þ þ ðI q ez Þ Þ
PNr
q¼1
magnitude: ................
q¼1
jjI ray
q ðt¼0Þjj 210
Chapter 1
Introduction: Additive/3D Printing
Materials—Filaments, Functionalized Inks,
and Powders
Additive manufacturing (AM) is usually defined as the process of joining materials

to make objects from 3D model data, typically layer upon layer, as opposed to
subtractive manufacturing methodologies, which remove material (American Society
for Testing and Materials, ASTM). We refer the reader to the recent overview article
by Huang et al. [1] on the wide array of activities in the manufacturing community in
this area. One subclass of AM, so-called 3D printing (3DP), has received a great deal
of attention over the last few years. Typically, such a process takes CAD drawings
and slices them into layers, printing layer by layer. 3DP was pioneered by Hull [2] of
the 3D Systems Corporation in 1984. 3DP was a 2.2 billion dollar industry in 2014,
with applications ranging from motor vehicles, consumer products, medical devices,
military hardware, and the arts.
A key ingredient of these processes is the specialized materials and the precise
design of their properties, enabled by the use of fine-scale “functionalizing” particles.
The rapid rise in the use of particle-based materials has been made possible by
the large-scale production of consistent, high-quality particles, which are produced
in a variety of ways, such as: (a) sublimation from a raw solid to a gas, which
condenses into particles that are recaptured (harvested), (b) atomization of liquid
streams into droplets by breaking jets of metal, (c) reduction of metal oxides, and
(d) comminution/pulverizing of bulk material. As mentioned in the preface, particle-
functionalized materials play a central role in this field, in three main ways:
(1) To enhance overall filament-based material properties, by embedding particles

within a binder, which is then passed through a heating element and deposited
onto a surface,
(2) To “functionalize” inks by adding particles to freely flowing solvents forming a
mixture, which is then deposited onto a surface, and
(3) To directly deposit particles, as dry powders, onto surfaces and then to heat them
with a laser, e-beam, or other external source, in order to fuse them into place.
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1

T. I. Zohdi, Modeling and Simulation of Functionalized Materials for Additive
Manufacturing and 3D Printing: Continuous and Discrete Media, Lecture Notes in
Applied and Computational Mechanics 60, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70079-3_1
2 1 Introduction: Additive/3D Printing Materials—Filaments …
Fig. 1.1 Typical printing ingredients: top left: finely ground metallic powder (iron). Top right:
extruded PLA. Bottom left: ABS pellets and bottom right: coarsely ground steel flakes
In more detail, we have (see Fig. 1.1):
• Heated filament-based materials (historically for prototyping) are comprised

of thermoplastics. To extend the materials to applications beyond prototyping,
second-phase particles are added to the heated mixture which solidify (cure) to
form the overall material properties comprised of particles in a binding matrix when
deposited onto a substrate. The particles are used to “tune” the binding matrix prop-
erties to the desired overall state. Specifically, much of the commercial additive
manufacturing processes are polymer-based, with second-phase particles added to
enhance the properties of the binder, which is typically either (1) polylactic acid or
polylactide (PLA), which is a biodegradable thermoplastic aliphatic polyester or
(2) acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) which is a common thermoplastic poly-
mer. In 2015, PLA had the second highest consumption volume of any bioplastic
of the world. PLA is derived from renewable resources, such as plants (corn starch,
sugarcane, etc.). ABS is a terpolymer that is significantly stronger than PLA. It is
made by polymerizing styrene and acrylonitrile in the presence of polybutadiene.
The styrene gives the plastic a reflective surface, while the rubbery polybutadiene
endows toughness. The overall properties are created by rubber toughening, where
fine particles of elastomer are distributed throughout the rigid matrix. Typically,
metal and ceramic particles are also added to endow specific mechanical, thermal,
electrical, and magnetic effective overall properties.
1 Introduction: Additive/3D Printing Materials—Filaments … 3
• Functionalized ink materials (primarily for printed electronics) are comprised

of particles in a solvent/lubricant which cure when deposited. Oftentimes, these
inks are used to lay down electric circuit lines or to have some other specific
electromagnetic function on a surface. One application where such functionalized
inks are important is printed electronics on flexible foundational substrates, such
as flexible solar cells and smart electronics. One important technological obstacle
is to develop inexpensive, durable electronic material units that reside on flexible
platforms or substrates which can be easily deployed onto large surface areas.
Ink-based printing methods involving particles are, in theory, ideal for large-scale
electronic applications and provide a framework for assembling electronic cir-
cuits by mounting printed electronic devices on flexible plastic substrates, such
as polyimide and “PEEK” (polyether ether ketone, a flexible thermoplastic poly-
mer) film. There are many variants of this type of technology, which is sometimes
referred to as flexible electronics or flex circuits. Flex circuits can be, for example,
screen-printed silver circuits on polyester. For an early history of the printed elec-
tronics field, see Gamota [3]. In order to develop flexible micro-/nanoelectronics
for large area deployment, traditional methods of fabrication using silicon-based
approaches have become limited for applications that involve large area coverage,
due to high cost of materials and equipment (which frequently need a vacuum
environment). For flexibility and lower cost, the ability to develop these elec-
tronics on plastics is necessary. To accomplish this task, print-based technolo-
gies are starting to become popular for these applications. In many cases, this
requires the development of nanoparticle-functionalized “inks.” These nanoparti-
cles include germanium (which has higher mobility and better tailorable absorption
spectrum for ambient light than silicon) and silver (which is being studied due to
the possibility to sinter the particles without the need of directly applied intense
heating). Other semiconductor nanoparticles, including zinc- and cadmium-based
compounds and metals, such as gold and copper, can be considered. Precise pat-
terning of (nanoparticle-functionalized) prints is critical for a number of different
applications. For example, some recent applications include optical coatings and
photonics (Nakanishi et al. [4]), MEMS applications (Fuller et al. [5], Samaras-
inghe et al. [6], and Gamota et al. [3]), and biomedical devices (Ahmad et al. [7]).
In terms of processing techniques, we refer the reader to Sirringhaus et al. [8],
Wang et al. [9], Huang et al. [10], Choi et al. [11–14], and Demko et al. [36, 37]
for details.1 We further mention that electromagnetically sensitive fluids are typi-
cally constructed (“functionalized”) by embedding charged or electromagnetically
sensitive particles in a neutral fluid. Such fluids date back, at least, to Winslow [19,
20] in 1947. While the most widely used class of such fluids are electrorheological
fluids, which are comprised of extremely fine suspensions of charged particles (on
the order of 50 microns) in an electrically neutral fluid, there has been a renewed
interest in this class of materials because of so-called e-inks (electrically func-
1 For reviews of optical coatings and photonics, see Nakanishi et al. [4] and Maier and Atwater [15],
for biosensors, see Alivisatos [16], for catalysts, see Haruta [17], and for MEMS applications, see
Fuller et al. [5] and Ho et al. [18].
tionalized inks) driven by printed electronics. Inkjet printing is attractive due to

its simplicity, high throughput, and low material loss. However, patterning with
inkjet printing is limited to a resolution of around 20–50 µm with current printers
(Ridley et al. [21]) with higher resolution possible by adding complexity to the
substrate prior to printing (Wang et al. [9]). Electrohydrodynamic printing has
also been proposed to increase the resolution beyond the limits of inkjet printing,
achieving a line resolution as small as 700 nm (Park et al. [22]).
• Dry powder-based materials (primarily for sintered load-bearing structures) are
deposited onto a surface and then heated by a laser, e-beam, or other external
source, in order to fuse them into place. These types of applications and associated
technology are closely related to those in the area of spray coatings, and we refer
the reader to the extensive works of Sevostianov and Kachanov [23–25], Nakamura
and coworkers: Dwivedi et al. [26], Liu et al. [27, 28], Nakamura and Liu [29],
Nakamura et al. [30] and Qian et al. [31] and to Martin [32, 33] for the state of
the art in deposition technologies. In powder-based processes, after deposition,
laser processing is applied to heat particles in a powder to desired temperatures
to either subsequently soften, sinter, melt or ablate them. Selective laser sintering
was pioneered by Householder [34] in 1979 and Deckard and Beaman [35] in
the mid-1980s.2 Laser-based heating is quite attractive because of the degree of
targeted precision that it affords.3 Because of the monochromatic and collimated
nature of lasers, they are a highly controllable way to process powdered materials,
in particular with pulsing, via continuous beam chopping or modulation of the
voltage. Carbon dioxide (C O2 ) and yttrium aluminum garnet (Y AG) lasers are
commonly used. The range of power of a typical industrial laser is relatively wide,
ranging from approximately 100–10000 W. Typically, the initial beam produced
is in the form of collimated (parallel) rays, which are then focused with a lens onto
a small focal point as fine as 0.00001 m in diameter. However, a chief concern of
manufacturers are residual stresses and the microstructural defects generated in
additively manufactured products, created by imprecisely controlled heat-affected
zones, brought on by miscalibration of the laser power needed for a specific goal. In
particular, because many substrates can become thermally damaged, for example,
from thermal stresses, ascertaining the appropriate amount of laser input is critical.
2A closely related method, electron beam melting, fully melts the material and produces dense
solids that are void-free.
3 There are a variety of other techniques that may be involved in an overall additive manufacturing
processes, such as: (a) electron beam melting, which is a process by where powder is bonded together
layer per layer with an electron beam in a high vacuum, (b) aerosol jetting, which consists of utilizing
streams of atomized particles at high velocities toward a substrate, and (c) inkjet printing, which
works by projecting small droplets of ink toward a substrate through a small orifice by pressure,
heat, and vibration. The deposited material is then heated by UV light or other means to rapidly dry.
1.1 Objectives 5
1.1 Objectives
In order for emerging additive manufacturing approaches to succeed, such as the

ones mentioned, one must draw upon rigorous theory and computation to guide
and simultaneously develop design rules for the proper selection of particle, binder,
and solvent combinations for upscaling to industrial manufacturing levels (Fig. 1.2).
This motivates the content of this monograph. This monograph is broken into two
main methodologies: “Continuum Method” (CM) approaches and “Discrete Element
Method” (DEM) approaches. The materials associated with heated filament and
functionalized-ink methods are closely related types of continua (particles embedded
in a continuous binder) and are analyzed using continuum approaches. The dry
powder materials, which are of a discrete particulate character, are analyzed using
discrete element methods for the deposition phase of the analysis, and continuum
approaches are used for the curing (cooling) stress analysis. This monograph seeks
to introduce the reader to some of the main approaches for modeling and simulation
of particle-based materials used in additive manufacturing, namely:
• Basic continuum mechanics,

• Continuum characterization of particle-functionalized materials,
• Continuum properties of mixtures and optimization,
• CM approaches for ascertaining time-transient thermo-mechanical responses,
residual stresses, and laser processing,
• DEM approaches for modeling the deposition of dry powders,
• DEM approaches for modeling laser–particle interaction, and
• DEM approaches for modeling of advanced processing and the associated multi-
physical effects.
DEPOSITION
SUBSTRATE
Fig. 1.2 Left: a linkage schematic of a 3D printer. Right: a multiphase droplet representation using
the Discrete Element Method
In addition to appendices within the chapters themselves (labeled “Chapter Appen-

dices”), background material is also included in the “Monograph Appendices” on
the following related topics:
• Monograph Appendix 1: A review of essential mathematics,
• Monograph Appendix 2: Continuum electrical properties of mixtures,
• Monograph Appendix 3: Continuum properties of multiphase mixtures,
• Monograph Appendix 4: Continuum fluid properties of mixtures, and
• Monograph Appendix 5: Combining DEM and continuum approaches.
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Chapter 2
Continuum Methods (CM): Basic Continuum
Mechanics
2.1 Notation
Throughout this work, boldface symbols denote vectors or tensors. Furthermore, we

exclusively employ a Cartesian basis. For the inner product of two vectors (first-
order tensors), u and v, we have u · v = u i vi = u 1 v1 + u 2 v2 + u 3 v3 in three
dimensions, where a Cartesian basis and Einstein index summation notation are
used. In this introduction, for clarity of presentation, we will ignore the difference
between second-order tensors and matrices. Accordingly, if we consider the second-
order tensor A = Aik ei ⊗ ek , then a first-order contraction (inner product) of two
second-order tensors A· B is defined by the matrix product [ A][B], with components
of Ai j B jk = Cik . It is clear that the range of the inner index j must be the same for [ A]
and [B]. For three dimensions, we have i, j = 1, 2, 3. The inner product of a tensor
(matrix) with a vector is defined as A · v = Ai j v j . The second-order inner (scalar)
product of two tensors (matrices) is defined as A : B = Ai j Bi j = tr ([ A]T [B]).
Monograph Appendix 1 provides a basic mathematical review.
2.2 Kinematics of Deformations
In this chapter, we synopsize a more detailed discussion found in Zohdi and Wriggers
[1]. The term deformation refers to a change in the shape of a continuum between
a reference configuration and current configuration. In the reference configuration,
a representative particle of a continuum occupies a point P in space and has the
position vector (Fig. 2.1)
X = X 1 e1 + X 2 e2 + X 3 e3 , (2.1)
where e1 , e2 , e3 is a Cartesian reference triad, and X 1 , X 2 , X 3 (with center O) can

be thought of as labels for a material point. Sometimes the coordinates or labels
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 9
T. I. Zohdi, Modeling and Simulation of Functionalized Materials for Additive
Manufacturing and 3D Printing: Continuous and Discrete Media, Lecture Notes in
Applied and Computational Mechanics 60, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70079-3_2
10 2 Continuum Methods (CM): Basic Continuum Mechanics
X 3, x 3
u+du
dx
dX u
X+dX
P’
P
X x
O
X 2, x 2
X 1, x 1
Fig. 2.1 Different descriptions of a deforming body. Ωo is the reference configuration, and Ω is
the current configuration
(X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ) are called the referential or material coordinates. In the current config-

uration, the particle originally located at point P (at time t = 0) is located at point
P and can be also expressed in terms of another position vector x, with coordi-
nates (x1 , x2 , x3 ). These are called the current coordinates. In this framework, the
displacement is u = x − X for a point originally at X and with final coordinates x.
When a continuum undergoes deformation (or flow), its points move along various
paths in space. This motion may be expressed as a function of X and t as
x(X, t) = u(X, t) + X(t), (2.2)
which gives the present location of a point at time t, written in terms of the refer-
ential coordinates X 1 , X 2 , X 3 . The previous position vector may be interpreted as
a mapping of the initial configuration onto the current configuration. In classical
approaches, it is assumed that such a mapping is one-to-one and continuous, with
continuous partial derivatives to whatever order is required. The description of mo-
tion or deformation expressed previously is known as the Lagrangian formulation.
Alternatively, if the independent variables are the coordinates x and time t, then
x(x1 , x2 , x3 , t) = u(x1 , x2 , x3 , t) + X(x1 , x2 , x3 , t), and the formulation is denoted
as Eulerian (Fig. 2.1).1
1 Frequently, analysts consider the referential configuration to be fixed in time; thus, in that case it is
not a function of time, X = X(t). We shall consider X = X(t) for the remainder of the monograph.
2.2 Kinematics of Deformations 11
2.2.1 Deformation of Line Elements
Partial differentiation of the displacement vector u = x − X, with respect to X,

produces the following displacement gradient:
∇ X u = F − 1, (2.3)
where ⎡ ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1

⎤
∂x ∂ X1 ∂ X2 ∂ X3
def def ⎢ ∂x2 ∂x2 ∂x2 ⎥
F = ∇X x = =⎣ ∂ X1 ∂ X2 ∂ X3 ⎦. (2.4)
∂X ∂x3 ∂x3 ∂x3
∂ X1 ∂ X2 ∂ X3
F is known as the material deformation gradient.

Now, consider the length of a differential element in the reference configuration
d X and d x in the current configuration, d x = ∇ X x · d X = F · d X. Taking the
difference in the squared magnitudes of these elements yields
d x · d x − d X · d X = (∇ X x · d X) · (∇ X x · d X) − d X · d X
def
= d X · (F T · F − 1) · d X = 2 d X · E · d X. (2.5)
Equation (2.5) defines the so-called Lagrangian strain tensor
def
E = 21 (F T · F − 1) = 21 [∇ X u + (∇ X u)T + (∇ X u)T · ∇ X u]. (2.6)
Remark 1 It should be clear that d x can be reinterpreted as the result of a mapping F·

d X → d x or a change in configuration (reference to current). An important quantity
def
is the Jacobian of the deformation gradient, J = det F, which relates differential
volumes in the reference configuration (dΩ0 ) to differential volumetric domains in
the current configuration (dΩ) via dΩ = J dΩ0 . The Jacobian of the deformation
gradient must remain positive, otherwise we obtain physically impossible “negative”
volumes. One way is compare the differential volume of mutually orthogonal triad of
differential vectors in the reference configuration d X (1) , d X (2) , d X (3) (forming the
edges of a cube), given by the triple product d X (1) · (d X (2) × d X (3) ) to the volume
of the mapping of the triad d x (1) = F · d X (1) , d x (2) = F · d X (2) , d x (3) = F · d X (3) ,
given by d x (1) · (d x (2) × d x (3) ). Another way to prove this is by formulating a
conservation of mass over an arbitrary volume within the domain

ρo dωo = ρ dω = ρJ dωo , (2.7)
ωo ω ωo
which immediately leads to the conclusion that ρo = ρJ , since ωo is arbitrary.

For more details, we refer the reader to the texts of Malvern [2], Gurtin [3], Chan-
drasekharaiah and Debnath [4], and Zohdi and Wriggers [1].
12 2 Continuum Methods (CM): Basic Continuum Mechanics
Remark 2 One may develop so-called Eulerian formulations, employing the current
configuration coordinates to generate Eulerian strain tensor measures (see Zohdi and
Wriggers [1]).
2.3 Equilibrium/Kinetics of Continua
The balance of linear momentum in the deformed (current) configuration is

d
t da + ρb dω = ρu̇ dω , (2.8)
∂ω ω dt ω
surface forces body forces inertial forces
where ω ⊂ Ω is an arbitrary portion of the body (Fig. 2.1), with boundary ∂ω, ρ is the
material density, b is the body force per unit mass, and u̇ is the time derivative of the
displacement. The surface force densities, t, are commonly referred to as “tractions.”
2.3.1 Postulates on Volume and Surface Quantities
Now, consider a tetrahedron (commonly referred to as a Cauchy tetrahedron) in

equilibrium, as shown in Fig. 2.2, where a balance of forces yields
t (n) ΔA(n) + t (−1) ΔA(1) + t (−2) ΔA(2) + t (−3) ΔA(3) + ρbΔV = ρüΔV, (2.9)
where ΔA(n) is the surface area of the face of the tetrahedron with normal n
and ΔV is the tetrahedron volume. As the distance (h) between the tetrahedron
x2
(n)
t σ22
σ 21
(−1) (−3) σ2 3 σ12
t t σ3 2 σ11
σ13
σ31
σ33
x2
x1
x1
x3
(−2)
x3 t
Fig. 2.2 Left: Cauchy tetrahedron: a “sectioned point” and right: stress at a point
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Every one was therefore expected to send his contribution before the
1st of Nisan. On the 1st of Adar proclamations were made
throughout the country that the half-shekel was due. 58 Hence the
custom to read the above-named sections on the Sabbath before the
1st of Adar, or on the 1st, if this happens to be on a Sabbath.
2. ‫“‏שבת זכור‬Sabbath Remember” is the Sabbath on which the

paragraph concerning the enmity of Amalek is read from the
Pentateuch (Deut. xxv. 17–19), and the defeat of Amalek by King
Saul from the Prophets (I Sam. xv.). The Agagite Haman, one of the
principal figures in the history of Purim, is believed to be a
descendant of Agag, king of Amalek (ibid. ver. 8). And as the Law
commands us to remember the hostilities of Amalek against Israel, it
has been found appropriate to read the above sections on the
Sabbath before Purim.
3. ‫‏שבת פרה‬‎“The Sabbath of the Red Heifer,” i.e., the Sabbath on

which the law concerning the sacrifice of the red heifer and the
purification with its ashes is read from the Pentateuch (Num. xix.),
and “the future purification of Israel” (Ezek. xxxvi. 17–38) from the
Prophets. It is the Sabbath after Purim, or, when the 15th or 16th of
Adar falls on Saturday, the second Sabbath after Purim. All Israelites
had [371]to come to the Temple, and to offer the Passover-lamb on
the 14th of Nisan, and this could not be done by any unclean person.
By the reading of the above sections, all are, as it were, reminded to
take the necessary steps for their purification, and thus prepare
themselves for the celebration of Passover.
4. ‫‏שבת החדש‬‎“The Sabbath of ha-chodesh,” i.e., the Sabbath before

the 1st of Nisan, or on the 1st of Nisan if it falls on a Saturday, on
which the law that fixes Nisan as the first month 59 and the
commandment concerning Passover are read from the Pentateuch
(Exod. xii. 1–20), and the description of the sacrifices of the 1st of
Nisan, Passover, and other Festivals in the future Temple from the
Prophets (Ezek. xlv. 16–xlvi. 18).
In addition to these four Sabbaths, the Sabbath preceding Passover

is to be mentioned. It is not distinguished by any special lesson from
the Pentateuch, but it has nevertheless received the title “the Great
Sabbath,” ‫‏שבת הגדול‬‎60 on account of the importance of [372]the
approaching Festival. The last part of Malachi (iii. 4–24) is read as
the haphtarah of the day, in which the ultimate triumph of the God-
fearing is described by the Prophet.
‫‏פסח‬‎Passover.
Passover is the first of the Three Feasts, and is kept eight days, from
the 15th of Nisan to the 22nd; the four middle days being half-Holy-
days, called chol ha-moëd (“the week-days of the festival”).
The name Pesach, “Passover,” 61 reminds us of the way in which the

Israelites enjoyed the Divine protection before they left Egypt.
Pharaoh, king of Egypt, kept the Israelites as slaves, and when
asked in the name of God to let them go, refused to obey. But the
ten plagues which consecutively afflicted his land without causing
injury to the Israelites taught [373]him the existence of a higher
Power, to whose decrees the will of earthly rulers has to submit. It
was especially the tenth plague, the slaying of the first-born, that
convinced the king and his people of this truth. When the Lord smote
all the first-born in the land of Egypt, “he passed over the houses of
the children of Israel” (Exod. xii. 27).
The Feast has a second name, viz., “feast of unleavened bread,” ‫‏חג‬
‫המצות‬‎, a name derived from the commandment to eat ‫‏מצה‬‎
“unleavened bread,” instead of the ordinary ‫‏חמץ‬‎“leavened bread,”
during the Festival. The purpose of this commandment is to
commemorate the deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt as well as
the mode of their actual departure. For when the tenth plague, the
slaying of the first-born, had visited the Egyptians, they were
overcome with fear, and urged the Israelites at once to leave the
country. The Israelites therefore left Egypt hurriedly, [374]and had no
time for preparing the ordinary “leavened bread,” and baked for
themselves unleavened cakes (‫‏מצות‬‎) of the dough which they had
made.
Passover thus commemorates two distinct moments in the

deliverance of the Israelites from Egyptian slavery, viz. (1) the
special protection which the Almighty granted them in Egypt, and (2)
their departure from the house of bondage.
Two distinct observances, therefore, were ordained for the Feast of

Passover, viz. (1) the sacrifice of the Passover-lamb, and (2) the
eating of “unleavened bread” and the abstaining from “leavened
bread.”
1. The Passover-lamb.—A short time before their departure from

Egypt the Israelites were commanded by the Almighty that on the
tenth of the first month every family should procure a lamb, keep it
four days, 62 kill it in the afternoon of the fourteenth, sprinkle of its
blood on the “lintel and the two door-posts,” and “eat in the evening
the meat roast in fire, with unleavened bread and bitter herbs, in
haste, their loins girded, their shoes on their feet and their staff in
their hand” (Exod. xii. 3–11). Whatever the material benefit was
which the Israelites, in the moment of starting for a long and
uncertain journey, derived from the meal prepared and partaken of in
this manner, there was a higher purpose in the Divine
commandment; it was [375]demanded that the lamb should be “a
passover sacrifice unto the Lord” (ibid.). The proceedings should be
an expression of faith in God, 63 and of gratitude to Him for His
protection. Every house should thus form a place holy unto the Lord;
an altar, as it were, on which the blood of the sacrifice was sprinkled.
The Passover sacrifice first observed in Egypt was afterwards

ordained as a permanent institution (ibid. ver. 24). This difference,
however, was observed, that the Passover-lamb, like all sacrifices,
had to be brought to the Sanctuary, to “the place which the Lord
chose to place his name in” (Deut. xvi. 6). All who were prevented
from performing their duty on the 14th of Nisan were allowed to offer
the Passover on the 14th of the second month (Iyar). By way of
distinction from the sacrifice on the first date, this offering was called
“the second passover” (‫‏פסח שני‬‎, 64 Num. ix. 9–14). Since the
destruction of the Temple all sacrificial service has been
discontinued, and in accordance with the words, “We will
compensate with our lips for the bullocks” (Hos. xiv. 3), prayers and
recitals from [376]the Bible have taken the place of sacrifices, whilst
psalms and hymns are added such as used to accompany the act of
offering sacrifices. The Passover sacrifice has therefore been
discontinued; but the law of eating unleavened bread and bitter
herbs is still observed.
2. The Unleavened Bread.—“Seven days shall ye eat unleavened

bread; even the first day ye shall have put away leaven out of your
houses: for whosoever eateth leavened bread from the first day until
the seventh day, that soul shall be cut off from Israel” (Exod. xii. 15).
“Unleavened bread shall be eaten seven days; and there shall no
leavened bread be seen with thee, neither shall there be leaven
seen with thee in all thy quarters” (ibid. xiii. 7). “Seven days shall
there no leaven be found in your houses” (ibid. xii. 19). The
distinction between leavened and unleavened only applies to bread
or any other form of food prepared out of any of the following five
kinds of grain: barley, wheat, rye, oats, and spelt. Bread or cake
prepared from any of these five kinds is called unleavened bread, or
‫‏מצה‬‎, if the dough is baked immediately after it has been prepared, no
time being left for fermentation. 65 It is not only forbidden during the
[377]Festival to eat leavened bread, but it is not permitted to derive
any benefit whatsoever from it. 66 All leaven and leavened bread
must be removed before Passover comes in; and in accordance with
the traditional interpretation of the precept, “Thou shalt not offer the
blood of my sacrifice with leavened bread” (ibid. xxiii. 18), the leaven
must be removed before the time in which the Passover was
offered. 67
The law forbidding ‫‏חמץ‬‎“leavened bread,” to be kept in the house

during Passover is frequently and most emphatically repeated in the
Torah. Jews have therefore, as a rule, been very conscientious and
zealous in the fulfilment of this Divine command. In accordance with
this law, the following observances have been ordained:—
(1.) ‫‏בדיקת חמץ‬‎“the searching for leavened bread” on the eve of the
14th of Nisan. 68 The head of the family, or his deputy, examines his
residence thoroughly, and keeps the chamets, which he has found,
in a safe place till the next morning. This searching, like every other
performance of a religious duty, is preceded by a blessing, viz., ‫‏ברוך‬
‫… אשר קדשנו במצותיו וצונו על ביעור חמץ‬‎“Blessed art thou … who hast
sanctified us by thy [378]commandments, and hast commanded us
concerning the removal of the leavened bread.” 69
(2.) ‫‏ביעור חמץ‬‎, “the removal or the destruction of chamets.” All the
chamets that is left after the first meal on the 14th of Nisan must be
removed, i.e., sold or given as a present to a non-Israelite, or
destroyed. In addition to the actual removal or destruction of
chamets, a solemn declaration is made by the head of the family,
that if any chamets should be left in his house without his
knowledge, he would not claim it as his. The object of this
declaration is to free the master of the house from all responsibility in
case any chamets should be found on his premises, contrary to the
Law. 70
(3.) Utensils which have been used for chamets are put away, and
replaced by new ones, or by such as have exclusively been kept for
Passover. Some vessels used during the year may be used for
Passover, after having undergone a certain process called kasher; 71
i.e., “fitting” them as vessels for use on Passover. [379]
(4.) Although the articles of food that are directly forbidden as

chamets are very few, there are a great many things that contain an
admixture of chamets, and those “who fear the word of the Lord” use
during Passover only those articles of food concerning which there is
no doubt whatever that they are perfectly free from chamets. Articles
of food for Passover are therefore only bought of persons who can
be trusted to hold these observances in respect.
In addition to the commandments of the Passover-offering and the

unleavened bread, there is a special duty, mentioned four times in
the Pentateuch, for the Israelite to relate to his children the history of
the departure from Egypt, and to explain to them the meaning of the
several rites connected with the celebration of Passover. This duty is
called haggadah, “relating,” and a service has been arranged for the
purpose, called Seder, “the Order.” The first two evenings of
Passover are therefore called “Seder-evenings,” and the book which
contains this Service is generally called Haggadah.
The Seder-service contains four elements: (1) the relation of the

deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt; (2) the festive meal,
preceded by Kiddush and the partaking of bitter herbs and
unleavened bread, and followed by Grace; (3) Hallel and other
hymns; (4) the partaking of four cups of wine (arba kosoth). 72 [380]
The head of the family or his substitute who reads the Service has
before him on the table: (1) three unleavened cakes (matsoth); 73 (2)
bitter herbs and [381]other vegetables; 74 (3) salt water, in which the
vegetables (karpas) are dipped before they are eaten, and
charoseth, a mixture of apples, almonds, various spices, especially
cinnamon, and wine, in which mixture the bitter herbs are dipped; 75
(4) a bone with some meat on it and an egg, 76 both roasted.
The order of the Service is indicated in most [382]editions of the

Haggadah in rhymed Hebrew as follows:—
‎.‫ מוציא מָצ ה‬. ‫ מגיד רַח ץ‬. ‫ כרפס יַח ץ‬. ‫‏קדש ורַח ץ‬
‎‫ הלל נרָצ ה׃‬. ‫ צפון בֵר ְך‬. ‫ מרור כֵר ְך‬. ‫‏שלחן עֵר ְך‬
The following is the explanation of these lines:—
1. ‫‏קדש‬‎Say Kiddush. See above, page 379.
2. ‫‏רחץ‬‎“Wash,” scil., your hands.—Only the head of the family does

so at this part of the Service. 77
3. ‫‏כרפס‬‎“Vegetables.” A piece of parsley or salad or bitter herb is

dipped in salt water, and eaten after the recitation of the blessing:
‫‏ברוך … בורא פרי האדמה‬‎“Blessed art thou … who hast created the
fruit of the ground.” 78
4. ‫‏יחץ‬‎“He divides.” Of the three matsoth before him, the head of the
family breaks the middle one, part of which is laid aside, to be eaten
at the end of the meal. 79
5. ‫‏מגיד‬‎“Relating,” 80 scil., the history of the departure [383]from Egypt.

The reader, pointing to the broken ‫‏מצה‬‎before him, exclaims, “Such
was the bread of poverty which our forefathers ate in the land of
Egypt;” as if to say, “We are all alike descendants of those who ate
the bread of poverty in Egypt.” In the same sense, the reader
continues, “We all alike should rejoice in the kindnesses shown by
the Almighty to our nation, and all alike should seek and find true
comfort in the hope of the Messianic blessing promised by Him for
the future.” 81 One of the company, usually the youngest, puts to the
reader four questions, as formulated in the paragraph beginning ‫‏מה‬
‫נשתנה‬‎“Why is different?” 82 Additions and alterations may, of course,
be made by the inquirer according to his knowledge and intellect.
The object of these questions is to obtain an explanation of the rites
that distinguish this evening from others. In answer to these
questions, the reader refers to the past history of Israel in three
different forms, 83 viz.:—
(1.) The first answer begins, ‫‏עבדים היינו‬‎, “We were [384]slaves;” and
ends, ‫‏בשעה שיש מצה ומרור מונחים לפניך‬‎“When unleavened bread and
bitter herbs lie before thee.” Here the reader restricts himself, without
any comment, to the one fact that our forefathers were at first slaves
in Egypt, and were then delivered, and illustrates the duty of
speaking that night more fully concerning the departure from Egypt,
by precedent, by the authority of the Mishnah, and by the Midrashic
interpretation of the law commanding us to tell our children this
event.
(2.) The second form of the answer begins, ‫‏מתחלה עבדי עבודה זרה היו‬
‫אבתינו‬‎“Our forefathers were at first worshippers of idols,” and ends,
‫‏מצילנו מידם‬‎“delivers us out of their hand.” Here the exodus from
Egypt is described as the fulfilment of the promise made by God to
Abraham, that his descendants would be delivered out of the hands
of their oppressors.
(3.) The passage from Deut. xxvi. 5–8 is recited with its Midrashic
interpretations, 84 and in conclusion all the benefits received by the
Israelites from the [385]departure from Egypt till the building of the
Temple are enumerated, and our duty of gratitude is shown.
In all these three forms no notice has been taken of the particular
questions. Rabban Gamaliel insists that this should be done, and a
section is therefore added, containing the explanation why the
Passover-offering, the unleavened bread, and the bitter herbs were
to be eaten; this, like the three other sections, concludes with the
emphatic declaration that we—after so many generations—are still
bound to praise and to thank God for the benefits bestowed upon our
nation so long ago. Hereupon follows the Hallel, of which the first two
paragraphs, containing special reference to the departure from
Egypt, are sung before supper; the first part of the Seder-Service
concludes with a blessing, in which we praise God for our past
deliverance and pray for the approach of our future redemption.
6. ‫‏רחץ‬‎“Washing.” All those who partake of the meal wash their

hands, as is ordinarily done before meals.
7. ‫‏מוציא מצה‬‎. Two pieces of ‫‏מצה‬‎are taken; one piece, broken off the
whole cake, representing the bread eaten at ordinary meals for ‫‏מוציא‬‎,
and the other piece taken from the broken one, representing the ‫‏מצה‬‎
we are commanded to eat on the Seder-night. Before eating the two
pieces two blessings are recited ‫‏ברוך … המוציא לחם מן הארץ‬‎“Blessed
art thou … who bringest forth bread from the earth,” and ‫‏ברוך … אשר‬
‫קדשנו ּּּ על אכילת מצה‬‎“Blessed art thou … who hast sanctified us by
Thy commandments and hast commanded us to eat ‫‏מצה‬‎.” 85 [386]
8. ‫‏מרור‬‎“Bitter herb.” Bitter herbs dipped in charoseth are eaten, after

the following blessing has been recited ‫‏ברוך … אשר קדשנו … על אכילת‬
‫מרור‬‎“Blessed art thou … who hast sanctified us by thy
commandments and hast commanded us to eat bitter herbs.”
9. ‫‏כורך‬‎“Combining;” scil., unleavened bread and bitter herbs; these

are eaten together, just as formerly, in the time of the Temple, Hillel
used to eat together meat of the Passover-offering, unleavened
bread, and bitter herbs (Exod. xii. 8; Num. ix. 11).
10. ‫‏שלחן עורך‬‎“Table laid.” The evening meal is taken.
11. ‫‏צפון‬‎“Laid aside.” The meal is concluded with a piece of the half
matsah that has been laid aside at the beginning of the Service. It is
called afikuman, “dessert.” 86 [387]
12. ‫‏ברך‬‎“Say grace.” 87
13. ‫‏הלל‬‎“Hallel.”—The rest of Hallel is sung, followed by Ps. cxxxvi.,

and the whole of ‫‏נשמת‬‎with the concluding blessing.—The fourth cup
of wine is then taken, and the usual prayer after the partaking of
wine is recited.
14. ‫‏נרצה‬‎“Completed.” 88—The Seder-Service is [388]completed; it

concludes with a prayer for the rebuilding of the Temple and the
restoration of Israel to Zion. The prayer seems to have been
originally the conclusion of a Piyyut or liturgical poem on the
Passover Sacrifice.
The Haggadah contains, besides, several hymns and songs, of

which the following are found in the ordinary editions of the work:—
1. ‫‏ויהי בחצי הלילה‬‎“And it was in the middle of the night.” The author
reflects on the various marvellous events in our history that
happened in the night-time.
2. ‫‏ואמרתם זבח פסח‬‎“And ye shall say, It is a sacrifice of Passover.” A

song referring to wonderful events which, according to Tradition, took
place on Passover.
3. ‫‏כי לו נאה‬‎“To him praise is seemly.” A praise of God as the only

Being worthy to be called King and Ruler.
4. ‫‏אדיר הוא‬‎“He is mighty.” A praise of God, and an expression of

hope that He will soon rebuild the Temple.
5. ‫‏אחד מי יודע‬‎“One, who knows?” A popular song enumerating
persons and objects in Jewish History and Tradition, as well as in
Nature according to numbers up to thirteen, with the object of
emphasising the Unity of God.
6. ‫‏חד גדיא‬‎“One kid.” A popular song that illustrates the working of

Divine Justice in the history of mankind.
Passover as an agricultural feast was kept “in the season of the

month of ripeness” (‫‏למועד חדש האביב‬‎), [389]when the barley sown in
the winter had become ripe. On the second day of Passover an
offering was brought of “the beginning of the harvest;” it consisted of
an omer 89 of barley (Lev. xxiii. 9 sqq.). Before this offering was
presented it was not allowed to eat of the new corn (ibid. 14).
From the bringing of the Omer to “the harvest feast” the days are
counted, viz., forty-nine days, and the fiftieth day is the feast of
harvest (‫‏חג הקציר‬‎), or “the day of the first-fruit offering” (‫‏יום הבכורים‬‎).
The counting commences on the second evening. It is done either

immediately after Maarib, or later on during the Seder-Service; it is
preceded by the following blessing: ‫‏ברוך … אשר קדשנו … על ספירת‬
‫העומר‬‎“Blessed art thou … who hast sanctified us by thy
commandments and hast commanded us … to count the days of the
Omer.” The following is the way of counting: ‫‏היום יום … לעומר‬‎“This
day is the first day since the Omer.” From seven upward the number
of weeks is likewise expressed, 90 ‫‏היום יום … שהם … שבועות … לעומר‬‎
“This day completes … that is … weeks … since the offering of the
Omer.”
The celebration of Passover serves to inculcate into our hearts the
first principle of our faith: the existence of God, the Supreme Being
who rules the whole universe, in whose hand are the destinies of
kings and peoples, whose power was recognised by the Egyptians
when they were punished for their misdeeds, [390]and whose might
was seen by the Israelites when He divided the Red Sea for them,
and fulfilled the Divine promise made to the patriarchs, Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob.
The season of Passover, in which we celebrate our liberation from

earthly taskmasters, is called ‫‏זמן חרותנו‬‎“The season of our freedom.”
The deliverance from Egypt, the first step leading to the fulfilment of
the promise, “And I will take you unto me for a people,” has been
poetically conceived as the betrothal of Israel to God, and in the
Piyyut for Passover ample use has been made of this idea. It has
further found expression in the custom of reading the Song of
Solomon on the first Sabbath after the first two days of Passover,
and by some also on the Seder-evening after the conclusion of the
ordinary Service.
The Service is, in general outline, the same as on Sabbath. It

consists of Maarib, Shacharith, Musaph, and Minchah. The Morning-
Service includes Hallel, the reading of the Law, and Lessons from
the Prophets (‫‏קריאת התורה‬‎and ‫‏הפטרה‬‎). The following sections,
containing description of, or reference to, Passover or to the
departure from Egypt, are read consecutively on the eight days:
Exod. xii. 21–51, on the Passover celebrated by the Israelites in
Egypt; Lev. xxii. 26 to xxiii. 44, on “the seasons of the Lord;” Exod.
xiii., xxii. 24 to xxiii. 19, and xxxiv. 1–26: Num. ix. 1–14, on the
second Passover; Exod. xiii. 17–xv. 26, the crossing of the Red Sea;
Deut. xv. 19 (on Sabbath, xiv. 22) to xvi. 17 contains laws referring to
the three Festivals. On Sabbath chol-ha-moëd, Exod. xxxiii. 12 to
xxxiv. 26.—In addition to these sections [391]verses from Num.
xxviii.–xxix., referring to the sacrifices prescribed for each day of the
Festival, are read from a second sefer.
The Lessons from the Prophets are the following:—Josh. v.

(preceded in the German Ritual by iii. 5–7), on the first Passover
kept by the Israelites in Palestine; 2 Kings xxiii. 1–9 and 21–25, on
the Passover celebrated in the days of King Josiah; 2 Sam. xxii., the
song of David after deliverance from his enemies, a parallel to the
Song of Moses; Isa. x. 32—xii., on the defeat of Sennacherib, and
the blessings of the Messianic days. According to Tradition the
defeat of Sennacherib took place on Passover; moreover, the
celebration of the deliverance from Egypt suggests the reflection on
the final Redemption of Israel. The Lesson from the Prophets chosen
for Sabbath chol-ha-moëd is taken from Ez. xxxvi. 1–14. The prophet
sees in a vision how the dry bones of the dead are awakened to
fresh life by the Will and the Spirit of the Lord: a precious lesson for
us, designed to strengthen our hope of a revival of every good and
noble idea, though for the present it be dormant within us. Nature
around us awakening to fresh life in the spring supplies a parallel to
the vision of Hezekiel.
The Machzor (lit. Cycle) or Prayer-book for the Holy-days contains

numerous additions to the ordinary prayers. They are called
Piyyutim, and vary according to the custom and the taste of the
congregation. The Piyyut added in the second paragraph of the
Musaph-amidah on the first day of Passover is called tal, “dew,” or
prayer for dew; the rain season having come to an end, we [392]pray
that the vegetation may, during the hot season, be refreshed by the
regular descent of the dew. The praise for “sending down rain” in the
same paragraph, viz., ‫‏משיב הרוח ומוריד הגשם‬‎, “Thou causest the wind
to blow and the rain to fall,” is discontinued after the shacharith
prayer of the first day of Passover. In the Portuguese Ritual the
words ‫‏מוריד הטל‬‎, “Thou causest the dew to fall,” are introduced
instead.
Similarly, there is an additional prayer for rain (‫‏גשם‬‎) in the Musaf of

Shemini-atsereth. The time chosen for these prayers is in
accordance with the meteorological conditions of Palestine. This
custom, however, does not exclude the addition of prayers for rain or
dew, according to the needs of the country in which we live.
The Days of the Counting of the Omer, ‫‏ימי הספירה‬‎
The period from Passover to the Feast of Weeks is full of sad

memories of massacres of Jews that took place in the days of the
Crusades; also of the miseries that befell the Jews in Palestine in the
days of the Emperor Hadrian. During the month of Iyar, the Jews
abstain from rejoicings and weddings, 91 with the exception of the
18th of the month, which is the 33rd of the Omer, because,
according to Tradition, a plague that had raged among the disciples
of Rabbi Akiba ceased on that day. The 18th of Iyar, ‫‏ל״ג בעומר‬‎is
therefore called “the scholars’ festival.” [393]
The Feast of Weeks, ‫‏שבועות‬‎
The Feast of Weeks is celebrated on the fiftieth day 92 of the Omer

(Lev. xxiii. 16); i.e., the 6th of Sivan. It is, in the first place, “the feast
of harvest,” ‫‏חג הקציר‬‎(Exod. xxiii. 16), especially of the wheat, and
“the day of the first-fruit offering,” ‫‏יום הבכורים‬‎(Num. xxviii. 26). The
first sacrifice of the new corn was offered: “the bread of the first-fruit,”
which was to serve as an expression of gratitude for the blessing of
the harvest. In the absence of sacrifices in our days, the custom
widely prevails of adorning the Synagogue and the home with plants
and flowers, in order that the sight of these beautiful objects might
awaken and strengthen feelings of gratitude toward the Almighty for
His loving-kindness. Each one of the plants and flowers reveals a
special form of the Creator’s wisdom, power, and goodness.—The
feast is called Feast of Weeks, ‫‏חג השבעות‬‎(Deut. xvi. 10), on account
of the completion of the seven weeks counted from the day of the
Omer.
The Feast of Weeks, the 6th and the 7th of Sivan, commemorates
also an historical event: the Law-giving on Mount Sinai. It is therefore
called “the season of the giving of our Law,” ‫‏זמן מתן תורתנו‬‎.
As Passover has been poetically called the day of Israel’s betrothal

to God, the Feast of Weeks would [394]correspond to the wedding-
day, and the counting of the Omer does thus not only connect two
harvest-feasts, but represents the longing of the bride for the day of
her complete happiness; i.e., the longing of the Israelites for the
Divine Revelation, which was to complete the work of their
deliverance from Egypt.
The celebration of the Feast of Weeks thus involves the second

principle of our faith: ‫‏תורה מן השמים‬‎“The belief in the Divine origin of
the Law,” or “Divine Revelation.”
On the first day we read Exod. xix.–xx., the account of the Law-
giving on Mount Sinai, and Ez. i., the first vision of the prophet
Ezekiel, in which the glory of God is revealed to him. On the second
day Deut. xv. 19 (on Sabbath, xiv. 22) to xvi. 17; and Hab. iii., “the
prayer of Habakkuk,” in reference to God’s Revelation as the Ruler
of the universe.—There is also the custom to read the Book of Ruth,
which contains the account of Ruth’s embracing the true faith, and a
description of the harvest and the treatment of the poor in the
harvest-season.
There is a custom among some of our brethren to employ the first
night of the Feast in preparing themselves for the coming celebration
of the giving of the Law. The greater part of the night is spent in
reading passages from the Scriptures and from the Talmudical
books. 93 The custom has its basis in the preparation commanded by
God to be made during “the three days of bordering” (‫‏שלשת ימי‬
‫הגבלה‬‎) which preceded the Law-giving (Exod. xix. 10–12). [395]
The Feast of Tabernacles, ‫‏סכות‬‎
“The fifteenth day of this seventh month (Tishri) shall be the Feast of
Tabernacles (‫‏סכות‬‎) for seven days unto the Lord” (Lev. xxiii. 34). The
name has its explanation in the commandment, “Ye shall dwell in
booths seven days” (ibid. 42); “that your generations may know that I
made the children of Israel to dwell in booths, when I brought them
out of the land of Egypt” (ver. 43). We are thus commanded to
commemorate the travelling of the Israelites through the wilderness.
They dwelt in tents, that gave them shelter to some extent; but
without the Divine protection this shelter would have proved
insufficient. Of this twofold shelter and protection we are reminded
by the tabernacle in which the Law commands us to dwell during the
Festival.
In fulfilment of this commandment we make booths (‫‏סכות‬‎). The chief

difference between a booth and an ordinary house consists in the
mode and in the material employed for roofing the two structures.
For the succah must not be covered with fixed boards and beams or
with canvas, but with detached branches of trees, plants, flowers,
and leaves, in such a manner that the covering is not quite
impenetrable to wind and rain, or starlight. During the Festival the
succah is our dwelling-house, in which we take our meals, study,
receive our friends, and, if possible, enjoy rest and sleep. If, on
account of the severity of the climate, the constant dwelling in the
succah threatens to prove injurious to our health, we content
ourselves with taking our meals in the succah. Before each meal
[396]we recite the blessing ‫‏ברוך … אשר קדשנו … לישב בסוכה‬‎“Blessed
art thou … who hast sanctified us by thy commandments and hast
commanded us to dwell in the booth.” The first time we are in the
succah we add the blessing, ‫‏שהחינו‬‎(p. 358).
The Festival is, secondly, called “the Feast of Ingathering,” ‫‏חג האסיף‬‎.
The produce of the fields and gardens have been gathered in, and
the people rejoice before the Lord in gratitude for the blessings
which He has granted to them. “And ye shall take unto you on the
first day the fruit of the goodly tree, branches of palm-trees, and
boughs of thick-leaved trees, and willows of the brook; and ye shall
rejoice before the Lord your God seven days” (Lev. xxiii. 40). In
accordance with the traditional interpretation of this verse, we take
four kinds of plants (‫‏ארבעה מינין‬‎), viz., ‫‏אתרוג‬‎“the citron;” ‫‏לולב‬‎, “a
branch of the palm-tree;” ‫‏הדסים‬‎, three “myrtle branches;” and ‫‏ערבות‬‎,
two “branches of the willow.” According to a Midrashic interpretation,
they represent four different types of plants, that which has a
pleasant fragrance and a beautiful form (esrog); the beautiful in form,
but without fragrance (lulabh); that which smells pleasantly, but is
inferior in form (hadassim); and that which has neither a goodly form
nor an agreeable fragrance (arabhoth), as if to say that we are
thankful to God for all that He has given us, although to our mind
some of these seem imperfect in comparison with others.
In obedience to this commandment we take, every day of Succoth

except Saturday, 94 the above four kinds [397]into our hands, hold
them during the recitation of the Hallel, and make with them a
procession round the Synagogue, 95 while singing the hymns called
hoshaanoth (so called on account of the repeated occurrence of the
word hoshaanah in them).
Before taking the arbaah minim into our hands we say the following
blessing: ‫‏ברוך … אשר קדשנו … על נטילת לולב‬‎“Blessed art thou … who
hast sanctified us by thy commandments and hast commanded us to
take the lulabh.” 96 On the first day ‫‏שהחינו‬‎is added.
Succoth lasts seven days, the last five days being half Holy-days, ‫‏חול‬
‫המועד‬‎. The seventh day is called Hoshaana-rabba, because on that
day many prayers beginning with hoshaana are offered up, during
the [398]chanting of which seven processions round the Synagogue
are made. 97
The Feast of Tabernacles is closely followed by “the feast of the

eighth day,” ‫‏שמיני עצרת‬‎, 98 which, like all other Festivals, is kept two
days. The second day is, in addition, called “Rejoicing of the Law,”
‫‏שמחת תורה‬‎[399]because on this day the reading of the Pentateuch is
completed and recommenced.
The nine days of the Festival are called ‫‏זמן שמחתנו‬‎“The season of
our rejoicing,” and it is the third principle of our faith, the belief in
Divine Providence, that this Festival impresses on our hearts. On the
one hand, we have the rejoicing and the four species of plants as
proofs and tokens of Divine blessing; and, on the other hand, the
succah is a symbol of human frailties and imperfections. Thus, in all
our rejoicings we should remember that our abode on earth is not
permanent, and that all earthly happiness is like the plants that easily
fade away. In order to impress this idea on our mind, we read the
book of Koheleth on Sabbath chol-ha-moëd or on Shemini-atsereth.
The following portions are read from the Pentateuch: Lev. xxii. 26 to
xxiii. 44 99 (on the first two days); Exod. xxxiii. 12 to xxxiv. 26 (on
Sabbath chol-ha-moëd); Deut. xiv. 22 to xvi. 7 (on the eighth day);
Deut. xxxiii. to end of Pentateuch; and Gen. i. 1 to ii. 3 (on Simchath
Torah). In addition, the paragraph of the sacrifices of the day (Num.
xxix. 12–39) is read [400]from a second sefer. The Lessons for chol-
ha-moëd are taken from the same passage.
The Lessons from the Prophets are the following: Zech. xiv.,
prophecy on the future of Israel and on the punishment of those who
would not come to Jerusalem to celebrate there the Succoth
Festival; 1 Kings viii. 2–21, on the opening of the new Temple; on
Sabbath chol-ha-moëd, Ez. xxxviii. 18 to xxxix. 16, on the war with
Gog; 1 Kings viii. 22–66, prayer of Solomon on the eighth day of the
services for the consecration of the Temple; Jos. i., accession of
Joshua to the leadership of Israel.
[Contents]
Solemn Days, ‫‏ימים נוראים‬‎
By ‫‏ימים נוראים‬‎“solemn days,” we understand the first ten days of the

month Tishri, especially their beginning and their end: ‫‏ראש השנה‬‎,
“New-year,” and ‫‏יום כפור‬‎“the Day of Atonement.” 100
It is customary to prepare for the “solemn days” during the month of

Elul, by additional prayers, called ‫“‏סליחות‬forgiveness,” after or
before the Daily Service, and by blowing the shofar at the close of
the [401]Daily Service. 101 According to the Portuguese Ritual, the
Selichoth begin on the 1st of Elul, and are continued [402]morning
and evening till the Day of Atonement. The German Ritual has
Selichoth only in the Morning Service; they begin on the Sunday
before New-year, and if the Festival is on Monday or Tuesday, on the
second Sunday before, and end on the Day of Atonement. The
blowing of the shofar takes place in the German Synagogues during
the month of Elul, in the Portuguese this custom is not practiced.
‫‏ראש השנה‬‎New-year.
The first and the second days of Tishri are kept as New-year. 102 In
accordance with the command, “The first of the first-fruits of thy land
thou shalt bring unto the house of the Lord thy God” (Exod. xxxiv.
26), we devote the first ten days of the year as an offering to the
Lord; they are days of increased devotion, earnest self-examination,

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Modeling and Simulation of

Advances in 3D Printing Additive Manufacturing

From additive manufacturing to 3D 4D printing 3

Nonlinear Dynamics of Discrete and Continuous Systems

Advances in Additive Manufacturing, Modeling Systems

Additive Manufacturing of Emerging Materials Bandar

Discrete Calculus Methods for Counting 1st Edition

Laser Additive Manufacturing. Materials, Design,

Engineering Applications of Discrete Element Method:

Modeling and Simulation

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/4623

Modeling and Simulation

ISSN 1613-7736 ISSN 1860-0816 (electronic)

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

Berkeley, USA Tarek I. Zohdi

1 Introduction: Additive/3D Printing Materials—Filaments,

4 CM Approaches: Estimation and Optimization of the Effective

6.2.1 Iterative (Implicit) Solution Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

8.8 Chapter Appendix 2: Time-Scaling Arguments for @P @t 0 . . . . . 150

11.5 Closing Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Fig. 6.8 Scenario 2: left to right and top to bottom, a sequence of

Fig. 8.5 A flowchart for the modular, staggered, computation . . . . . . . . . 144

nature of the surface stresses is smeared out with increasing

b Normalized pulse strength in the y-direction:

Additive manufacturing (AM) is usually defined as the process of joining materials

(1) To enhance overall filament-based material properties, by embedding particles

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1

In more detail, we have (see Fig. 1.1):

• Heated filament-based materials (historically for prototyping) are comprised

• Functionalized ink materials (primarily for printed electronics) are comprised

tionalized inks) driven by printed electronics. Inkjet printing is attractive due to

In order for emerging additive manufacturing approaches to succeed, such as the

• Basic continuum mechanics,

In addition to appendices within the chapters themselves (labeled “Chapter Appen-

Throughout this work, boldface symbols denote vectors or tensors. Furthermore, we

2.2 Kinematics of Deformations

where e1 , e2 , e3 is a Cartesian reference triad, and X 1 , X 2 , X 3 (with center O) can

(X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ) are called the referential or material coordinates. In the current config-

x(X, t) = u(X, t) + X(t), (2.2)

2.2.1 Deformation of Line Elements

Partial differentiation of the displacement vector u = x − X, with respect to X,

where ⎡ ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x1

F is known as the material deformation gradient.

Equation (2.5) defines the so-called Lagrangian strain tensor

Remark 1 It should be clear that d x can be reinterpreted as the result of a mapping F·

which immediately leads to the conclusion that ρo = ρJ , since ωo is arbitrary.

2.3 Equilibrium/Kinetics of Continua

The balance of linear momentum in the deformed (current) configuration is

2.3.1 Postulates on Volume and Surface Quantities

Now, consider a tetrahedron (commonly referred to as a Cauchy tetrahedron) in

2. ‫“‏שבת זכור‬Sabbath Remember” is the Sabbath on which the

3. ‫‏שבת פרה‬‎“The Sabbath of the Red Heifer,” i.e., the Sabbath on

4. ‫‏שבת החדש‬‎“The Sabbath of ha-chodesh,” i.e., the Sabbath before

In addition to these four Sabbaths, the Sabbath preceding Passover

The name Pesach, “Passover,” 61 reminds us of the way in which the

Passover thus commemorates two distinct moments in the