Reciprocating Engines

PRC AERONAUTICAL ENGINEER COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW

Engr. Ken Guanzon

Instructor

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2
3
4
I am an aviation enthusiast, I really enjoy taking pictures of airplanes, these were
taken back when I was still a college student, everytime I feel sad about acads all I do
is to bike towards the airport and take pictures.

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So that’s a brief introduction about me, and I hope you have learned something from
my habits back when I was still reviewing, and most importantly if you ever feel
frustrated or sad during your review phase, take a pause, do what makes you happy.

Alright so enough of that let us now address the elephant in the room,

6
 Engr. Ken Guanzon
Aeronautical Engineer

Philippine State College of Aeronautics

Batch 2018

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So once again everyone Good morning. I am Engr. Ken Guanzon, and I am your
instructor for today’s session which talks about the Fundamentals of
Thermodynamics, I graduated from Philippine State College of Aeronautics, but
before I moved to Philsca, I actually came from Cebu Aeronautical Technical School, I
did 2 years there and then moved to Manila back in 2015 well the main reason was
just to be with my gf because she was studying at Miriam College, but enough about
that hahahah so I graduated last 2018, took the board exams also on that year and
amazingly I made it to 4th place on that board exam, that’s me right there, do check
out by how much is the difference between me, and the third placer and the 5th placer.

But guys I just want to take this opportunity to inform you how I did it, and how
achievable it is to reach the top.

Okay here’s how I did it, Back when I was still reviewing I usually hang out with my
accountancy friends who are also doing their review in manila, and as we were
conversing about review habits, they told me that their review instructors gave them
an advice to not just blindly aim for a top, without setting achievable standards for
yourself.

So they were told to aim for an achievable score, which guarantees you to pass the

7
board exams and also to give you a chance to top it, and that score is 88.

Now I followed this, I made this my target score whenever I answer mock questions for
my self.
Every time I check my own answers if it doesn’t reach 88, aside from getting frustrated of
myself, what I do is that I try to understand the question again, and try to understand
which concept did I lack in understanding that I have failed to apply in this question? So
I write that down, look for the appropriate concept.

So when the results came out, these are my scores: and as you can see this is my
average 88. 20

Now this technique right here is really helpful because it just won’t let you dive into
wishful thinking na “sana pumasa ako” but it changes your habits, it changes how you
approach things, it changes your standards. Because guys the board exams isn’t a
matter of fate or destiny, it’s purely a matter of hardwork and a bit of luck (swerte kasi
naturo sa review center yung mga lumabas, or naaral mo yung lumabas, or swerte kasi
yung hula mo tama)

So as you can see guys during the board exams, I was really sure of most of my answers
when it comes to aerody, and thermody and design because these mostly consist of
solving and when it comes to solving problems you are backed with the foundation
taught by the concepts you read.

I hated airlaws, and ACRM because these subjects forces you to memorize, if you
missed something in your readings, then you’re good as dead. But for the other subjects
if you just understood the concept behind a problem then you still have a chance to
arrive at an answer.

So this is what we will do in this review session, I will teach you the fundamental
concepts and we will apply these concepts in answering questions. Alright?

So when I moved back to Cebu after the board exams, I applied as an instructor at Cebu
aeronautical Technical school, teaching the following and aside from that I am a
licensed private pilot, this was me after my first solo flight, and this was me back in
February after my private pilot checkride.

7
 ATTITUDE. SKILLS. KNOWLEDGE. facebook.com/everythingaviation.1Aero

So once again everyone Good morning. I am Engr. Ken Guanzon, and I am your
instructor for today’s session which talks about the Fundamentals of
Thermodynamics, I graduated from Philippine State College of Aeronautics, but
before I moved to Philsca, I actually came from Cebu Aeronautical Technical School, I
did 2 years there and then moved to Manila back in 2015 well the main reason was
just to be with my gf because she was studying at Miriam College, but enough about
that hahahah so I graduated last 2018, took the board exams also on that year and
amazingly I made it to 4th place on that board exam, that’s me right there, do check
out by how much is the difference between me, and the third placer and the 5th placer.

But guys I just want to take this opportunity to inform you how I did it, and how
achievable it is to reach the top.

Okay here’s how I did it, Back when I was still reviewing I usually hang out with my
accountancy friends who are also doing their review in manila, and as we were
conversing about review habits, they told me that their review instructors gave them
an advice to not just blindly aim for a top, without setting achievable standards for
yourself.

So they were told to aim for an achievable score, which guarantees you to pass the

8
board exams and also to give you a chance to top it, and that score is 88.

Now I followed this, I made this my target score whenever I answer mock questions for
my self.
Every time I check my own answers if it doesn’t reach 88, aside from getting frustrated of
myself, what I do is that I try to understand the question again, and try to understand
which concept did I lack in understanding that I have failed to apply in this question? So
I write that down, look for the appropriate concept.

So when the results came out, these are my scores: and as you can see this is my
average 88. 20

Now this technique right here is really helpful because it just won’t let you dive into
wishful thinking na “sana pumasa ako” but it changes your habits, it changes how you
approach things, it changes your standards. Because guys the board exams isn’t a
matter of fate or destiny, it’s purely a matter of hardwork and a bit of luck (swerte kasi
naturo sa review center yung mga lumabas, or naaral mo yung lumabas, or swerte kasi
yung hula mo tama)

So as you can see guys during the board exams, I was really sure of most of my answers
when it comes to aerody, and thermody and design because these mostly consist of
solving and when it comes to solving problems you are backed with the foundation
taught by the concepts you read.

I hated airlaws, and ACRM because these subjects forces you to memorize, if you
missed something in your readings, then you’re good as dead. But for the other subjects
if you just understood the concept behind a problem then you still have a chance to
arrive at an answer.

So this is what we will do in this review session, I will teach you the fundamental
concepts and we will apply these concepts in answering questions. Alright?

So when I moved back to Cebu after the board exams, I applied as an instructor at Cebu
aeronautical Technical school, teaching the following and aside from that I am a
licensed private pilot, this was me after my first solo flight, and this was me back in
February after my private pilot checkride.

8
HOUSE RULES

Rule #1
Jot down notes

Rule #2
Raise your hand for any questions
Questions and concerns shall be sent via chat box.

Rule #3
Do not sleep.

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 Review References

1. Jeppessen
2. JAA ATPL Powerplant
3. Prepware
4. ATPL Training Videos on Youtube
5. Answer as many as mock exams you can find

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 COURSE OUTLINE

I. Introduction
II. History of Heat Engines
III. Principles of Operation
IV. Reciprocating Engines
V. Reciprocating Engines Arrangement
VI. Reciprocating Engines Components
VII. Reciprocating Engines Cooling
VIII. Supplemental Information

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 Principles of Operation

Heat Engine
• Converts chemical energy (fuel) into heat energy.
• Heat energy is then converted into mechanical
energy

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Principles of Operation

Win
Wout

KE1
PE1
WF1
U1
System KE2
PE2
WF2
U2

Qout
Qin

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Principles of Operation

Net Work (Wn)

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Principles of Operation

Steam Engine
Piston/Reciprocating Engine

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 Principles of Operation

Types of Heat Engines

Internal Combustion Engine

External Combustion Engine

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• The internal combustion of fuel takes place inside the

working cylinder. Whereas the external combustion
of fuel takes place outside the working cylinder.
• The working fluid used in the internal combustion
engine is maybe Petrol, Diesel & Various types of
gases. Whereas the working fluid used in the external
combustion engine is maybe steam.

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 Principles of Operation

The internal combustion engine has an efficiency of about 35-45

%. As compared to the external combustion engine has an
efficiency of about 15-25 %.

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 Principles of Operation

2 Governing Cycle of External Combustion Engine

Ericsson Cycle – composed of 2 Isothermal and 2 Isobaric processes

Stirling Cycle - composed of 2 Isothermal and 2 Isochoric processes

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Principles of Operation

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Principles of Operation

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 Principles of Operation

2 Governing Cycles of Internal Combustion Engine

Otto Cycle – composed of 2 Isobaric and 2 Isentropic

Diesel Cycle - composed of 2 Isentropic and 1 Isobaric and 1

Isochoric processes

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Principles of Operation Diesel Cycle

Vin Diesel

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Principles of Operation Otto Cycle

Rudolf Diesel

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Principles of Operation Diesel Cycle

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 Principles of Operation Diesel Cycle

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The diesel cut-off ratio, also known as the "cut-off ratio," is a critical parameter in the
performance of a diesel engine. It refers to the ratio of the cylinder volume at the start
of the combustion process (when fuel injection begins) to the volume at the end of the
combustion process (when fuel injection ends).

Effect on Engine Performance: A higher cut-off ratio indicates a longer duration of

fuel injection, which can affect engine performance characteristics, including power
output and fuel efficiency. A lower cut-off ratio typically leads to a shorter duration of
fuel injection and may result in more efficient combustion.
Influence on Engine Efficiency: The cut-off ratio affects the thermal efficiency of the
diesel engine. The thermal efficiency is typically higher with a longer cut-off ratio
because it allows for more complete combustion of the fuel.
Control: In modern engines, the cut-off ratio can be controlled electronically to
optimize performance, fuel economy, and emissions based on various operating
conditions.

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Principles of Operation Diesel Cycle

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Principles of Operation Otto Cycle

Otto Hightower

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Principles of Operation Otto Cycle

Nicolaus Otto

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Principles of Operation Otto Cycle

1 – 2 : Isentropic Compression
2 – 3 : constant volume addition of heat
3 – 4 : Isentropic Expansion
4 – 1 : constant volume rejection of heat

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Principles of Operation Otto Cycle

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Common Engine Types

Diesel Engine Otto Engine 2-Stroke Engine

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Common Engine Types

Aspect Diesel Engines Otto (Gasoline) Engines

More fuel-efficient due to higher compression Less fuel-efficient but perform better at higher
Efficiency
ratios and energy density of diesel fuel RPMs
Heavier, typically due to robust construction;
Weight and Power-to-Weight Ratio Lighter with better power-to-weight ratio
lower power-to-weight ratio
Runs on diesel fuel or Jet-A, which is more Runs on avgas, which is more expensive and less
Fuel Type
energy-dense and cheaper than avgas widely available
Durable and long lifespan but more complex and Simpler and easier to maintain with well-
Maintenance and Reliability
expensive to maintain established support infrastructure
Struggles with performance at higher altitudes;
Handles altitude changes better; turbocharging is
Performance at Altitude turbocharging can help but adds complexity and
common to maintain performance
weight
Generally requires longer start-up and warm-up
Start-Up and Warm-Up Time Typically has shorter start-up and warm-up times
times
Better fuel efficiency and uses widely available Preferred for small aircraft in general aviation due
Summary fuel; heavier, complex, and less favorable at high to better power-to-weight ratio, ease of
altitudes maintenance, and quicker start-up times

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Common Engine Types

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Common Engine Types

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 Common Engine Types

Strokes of a 4-Stroke Engine (1 cycle = 2 rev)

1) Intake Stroke
2) Compression Stroke
3) Power Stroke Stroke – TDC to BDC
4) Exhaust Stroke

5 Events of a 4-Stroke Engine

Induction, Compression, Combustion, Power, Exhaust

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 Principles of Operation IC Engine – Reciprocating Engine

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It is a type of heat engine that derives its name from the back-
and-forth movement of its pistons. The principle of operation of
the engine is accomplished by inducing a mixture of air and fuel
into a cylinder, which is then compressed by a piston. The mixture
is ignited and the rapid rise in temperature causes the gas
pressure in the cylinder to rise and forces the piston down the
cylinder. Linear movement of the piston is converted into rotary
motion by a connecting rod and crankshaft. The burnt gases are
then exhausted to atmosphere.

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 Reciprocating Engines

Classification of Reciprocating Engine

1. Cylinder Arrangement

2. Method of Cooling

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 Reciprocating Engines
Classification – Cylinder Arrangement

Radial Engine

Characteristics of a Radial Engine:

• Revolutionary in aviation for their power and dependability
• Among the most widely used engines ever built
• High power-to-weight ratio
• Greatest drag of all types
• Cooling challenges

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 Reciprocating Engines
Classification – Cylinder Arrangement

Rotary - Type Static Type

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 Reciprocating Engines
Classification – Cylinder Arrangement

Wankel Type

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The Wankel engine, also known as the rotary engine, is a type of internal combustion
engine that uses a rotary design to convert pressure into rotating motion. Named after
its inventor, Felix Wankel, this engine operates on a unique principle different from
conventional piston engines.
How the Wankel Engine Works
The Wankel engine consists of a triangular rotor that orbits inside an epitrochoidal
(roughly oval) housing. The rotor’s three points stay in contact with the housing,
creating three separate volumes of gas. As the rotor moves, these volumes expand
and contract, enabling the four stages of the Otto cycle (intake, compression, power,
and exhaust) to occur in different chambers of the housing.
Advantages of the Wankel Engine
1.Compact Size and Lightweight:
1. The Wankel engine is more compact and lighter than a traditional piston
engine with equivalent power output. This makes it advantageous for
applications where space and weight are critical, such as in aircraft or
sports cars.
2.Smooth Operation:
1. The rotary design allows for smooth and continuous power delivery, as
there are no reciprocating parts (pistons moving back and forth). This
reduces vibration and mechanical stress.

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3. High Power-to-Weight Ratio:
1. The engine can produce a high power output relative to its size and
weight. This makes it attractive for performance-oriented applications.
4.Fewer Moving Parts:
1. The Wankel engine has fewer moving parts compared to a piston engine,
which can result in lower mechanical complexity and potentially lower
maintenance costs.
Disadvantages of the Wankel Engine
1.Fuel Efficiency:
1. The Wankel engine is generally less fuel-efficient than conventional piston
engines. The combustion chamber shape and the large surface area
relative to the volume can lead to incomplete combustion and higher fuel
consumption.
2.Emissions:
1. The design of the Wankel engine can result in higher emissions,
particularly of unburned hydrocarbons. This makes it more challenging to
meet stringent environmental regulations.
3.Apex Seal Wear:
1. The apex seals, which are critical for maintaining compression in the
engine, are subject to significant wear and can fail, leading to reduced
engine performance and the need for frequent maintenance or
replacement.
4.Cooling Requirements:
1. The engine requires effective cooling solutions due to the high
temperatures generated during operation, which can complicate the
engine design and integration.
5.Torque Characteristics:
1. The Wankel engine typically produces lower torque at low RPMs
compared to piston engines, which can affect performance in certain
applications where low-end torque is important.
Overall, while the Wankel engine offers unique advantages in terms of compactness,
smoothness, and power-to-weight ratio, its drawbacks in fuel efficiency, emissions, and
durability have limited its widespread adoption. However, it remains a fascinating and
innovative engineering solution, particularly appreciated in niche applications like the
Mazda RX series sports cars and some light aircraft.

40
 Reciprocating Engines
Classification – Cylinder Arrangement

Wankel Type
Pros Cons
Compact size and lightweight Lower fuel efficiency
Smooth operation Higher emissions
High power-to-weight ratio Apex seal wear
Fewer moving parts Higher cooling requirements
Lower torque at low RPMs

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The Wankel engine, also known as the rotary engine, is a type of internal combustion
engine that uses a rotary design to convert pressure into rotating motion. Named after
its inventor, Felix Wankel, this engine operates on a unique principle different from
conventional piston engines.
How the Wankel Engine Works
The Wankel engine consists of a triangular rotor that orbits inside an epitrochoidal
(roughly oval) housing. The rotor’s three points stay in contact with the housing,
creating three separate volumes of gas. As the rotor moves, these volumes expand
and contract, enabling the four stages of the Otto cycle (intake, compression, power,
and exhaust) to occur in different chambers of the housing.
Advantages of the Wankel Engine
1.Compact Size and Lightweight:
1. The Wankel engine is more compact and lighter than a traditional piston
engine with equivalent power output. This makes it advantageous for
applications where space and weight are critical, such as in aircraft or
sports cars.
2.Smooth Operation:
1. The rotary design allows for smooth and continuous power delivery, as
there are no reciprocating parts (pistons moving back and forth). This
reduces vibration and mechanical stress.

41
3. High Power-to-Weight Ratio:
1. The engine can produce a high power output relative to its size and
weight. This makes it attractive for performance-oriented applications.
4.Fewer Moving Parts:
1. The Wankel engine has fewer moving parts compared to a piston engine,
which can result in lower mechanical complexity and potentially lower
maintenance costs.
Disadvantages of the Wankel Engine
1.Fuel Efficiency:
1. The Wankel engine is generally less fuel-efficient than conventional piston
engines. The combustion chamber shape and the large surface area
relative to the volume can lead to incomplete combustion and higher fuel
consumption.
2.Emissions:
1. The design of the Wankel engine can result in higher emissions,
particularly of unburned hydrocarbons. This makes it more challenging to
meet stringent environmental regulations.
3.Apex Seal Wear:
1. The apex seals, which are critical for maintaining compression in the
engine, are subject to significant wear and can fail, leading to reduced
engine performance and the need for frequent maintenance or
replacement.
4.Cooling Requirements:
1. The engine requires effective cooling solutions due to the high
temperatures generated during operation, which can complicate the
engine design and integration.
5.Torque Characteristics:
1. The Wankel engine typically produces lower torque at low RPMs
compared to piston engines, which can affect performance in certain
applications where low-end torque is important.
Overall, while the Wankel engine offers unique advantages in terms of compactness,
smoothness, and power-to-weight ratio, its drawbacks in fuel efficiency, emissions, and
durability have limited its widespread adoption. However, it remains a fascinating and
innovative engineering solution, particularly appreciated in niche applications like the
Mazda RX series sports cars and some light aircraft.

41
 Reciprocating Engines
Classification – Cylinder Arrangement

Configuration of Static-type
Single-row Radial Engine
5-9 Cylinders (odd numbers)

Multiple-row Radial Engine

14-18 Cylinders

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42
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Hydraulic Lock
• Radial engines are prone, during shutdown
• Abnormal amount of effort to rotate the propeller
• It is where oil or liquid fuel accumulates and pools in
the lower cylinders, or lower intake pipes

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 Reciprocating Engines
Classification – Cylinder Arrangement

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B25 For most engines: The normal direction of rotation is clockwise when viewed
from the cockpit (or from behind the engine). Therefore, to clear a hydraulic lock, you
would rotate the propeller counterclockwise.For some engines: The normal direction
of rotation may be counterclockwise (as viewed from the cockpit or from behind the
engine). In this case, you would rotate the propeller clockwise to clear the hydraulic
lock.

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 Reciprocating Engines
Classification – Cylinder Arrangement

In-line Engine
It generally has an even number of cylinders that are
aligned in a single row parallel with the crankshaft.
• Can be liquid-cooled or air-cooled

Advantage Disadvantage
• Small frontal area which allows for better • Low power-to-weight ratio
streamlining
• When inverted, (higher crankshaft) allows greater • Rearward cylinders of an air- cooled engine
propeller ground clearance for shorter landing receives very little cooling air
gear
• Commonly used in tailwheel aircraft • Limited to only 4-6 cylinders
• Most in-line engine designs were confined to low-
and medium horsepower engines used in light
aircraft.

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 Reciprocating Engines
Classification – Cylinder Arrangement

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 Reciprocating Engines
Classification – Cylinder Arrangement

V-Type Engines

• Arranged in two in-line banks that are 45, 60 to

90 degrees apart
• Has 8-12 Cylinders, Liquid-cooled or air-
cooled
• Capable of producing more horsepower than an
in-line engine

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47
 Reciprocating Engines
Classification – Cylinder Arrangement

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 Reciprocating Engines
Classification – Cylinder Arrangement

Horizontally Opposed Engines

• Most popular engine used in light aircrafts

• Always even number of cylinders
• Can produce 36-400 horsepower

Characteristics of an Opposed Engine:

• High power-to-weight ratio
• Small frontal area which minimizes aerodynamic drag
• Vibrate less than other engines (cancel impulses)
• Most efficient, dependable and economical type for light aircrafts

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 Reciprocating Engines
Classification – Cylinder Arrangement

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Reciprocating Engine Components

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Crankcase

Foundation

Housing

Attachment
Point
Cast Aluminum

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• Foundation of a reciprocating engine

• It houses the main bearings for the crankshaft,
supports the cylinders and provides mounting faces and
attachment points of the other main engine casings.
• Most are made of Cast Aluminum Alloy Types of Engine

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Crankcase

Opposed-type Engines

• Tranverse Webs – support crankshaft and

bearing. It adds strength to the case

• It forms a sealed chamber for the lubricating

oil.
• A vent to the atmosphere is normally provided
in order that gas pressure build-up is avoided.

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Crankcase

In Line and V type Engine Crankcase

The crankcase in an inline engine is typically a

long, narrow structure that houses the
crankshaft and provides support for the
engine's cylinders, which are arranged in a
single row.

The crankcase in a V-type engine is more

complex, with a V-shaped configuration to
accommodate the two banks of cylinders set at
an angle to each other.

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Crankcase

Radial Engines

Usually has four major sections:

• Front or Nose section
• Main or Power section
• Fuel induction and Distribution section
• Accessory section

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Crankcase

Crankcase Breather
It removes unwanted gases from the crankcase of
an internal combustion engine. The unwanted gases,
called "blow-by", are gases from the combustion
chamber which have leaked past the piston rings.

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Reciprocating Engine Components

Four Basic Power Delivering Parts

 Cylinder
 Piston
 Connecting Rod
 Crankshaft

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Crankshaft

• Backbone of a reciprocating engine

• It converts the reciprocating or linear motion of the pistons into rotary motion, and
transmits torque to the propeller, and provides the drive for accessories

• Generally forged from a strong alloys such as Chromium-Nickel Molybdenum Steel

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Crankshaft

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Crankshaft

• Main Bearing (Journal/Main Journal)

• Crankpin
• Crank cheek or crank arm
• Counterweights and Dampers

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Crankshaft

Main Bearing Journals

• Supports the crankshaft
• Transmit stress from crankshaft to
crankcase
• Nitrided to resist wear

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Crankshaft - Parts

Crankpins
• Attachment point of the piston
• Nitrided
• Offset from the crankshaft axis
• Usually hollow to reduce weight (oil
passage)
• Sludge chamber
• Usually 180 deg apart

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Crankshaft - Parts

Crankcheek/Crankarm
• Connects the crankpin to the crankshaft
• Extended to form counterweights for
balancing

Counterweights and Dampers

• Unbalance shaft causes extensive vibrations

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Crankshaft - Balance

The crankshaft is accurately balanced to

minimise vibration, however, when a shaft has
to transmit a torque or twisting moment it must
flex to some extent and spring back again when
released.

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Reciprocating Engine Components
Crankshaft - Balance

The shafts should be as short as possible and adequately

supported and counter-weighted to minimise these
torsional effects.

In any event, many engines have R.P.M. ranges which are

prohibited for prolonged use (Critical RPM) to prevent
unnecessary vibration. This is indicated by a Red Arc on
the RPM indicator.

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Crankshaft - Balance

Statically Balance
• Weight of an entire engine assembly is balance around its axis of rotation
• Out of Balance – when place at edge knife blocks, rotates to one position

Dynamically Balance
• Balancing the centrifugal forces created by a rotating crankshaft and the impact forces
created by an engine’s power impulses

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Crankshaft - Balance

Dynamic Dampers
A dynamic damper is a weight which is
fastened to a crankshaft's crank cheek
assembly in such a way that it is free to
move back and forth in a small arc.

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Crankshaft - Types

a) Single-Throw or 360 Degree

• Used on single-row radial engines
• Consists of a single crankpin with two main
journals that support the crankshaft in the
crankcase

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Crankshaft - Types

b) Two-Throw
• Set 180 degrees from each other
• Sometimes used on two cylinder opposed engines
• May consist of either one or three pieces

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Crankshaft - Types

c) Four-Throw
• Two throws are arranged 180 degrees apart
from the other two throws
• Used on 4 cylinder opposed and in-line
engines

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Crankshaft - Types

Crankshaft Types
d) Six-Throw
• Consists of 4 main bearings and six
throws which are 60 degrees apart
• Used by 6 cylinder opposed and in-line
engines or 12 cylinder V –type engines

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Crankshaft - Bearings

Bearings
• Supports crankshaft and reduces friction
• Main journals, crankpins, connecting rod
ends, accessory shaft
• Must withstand axial and radial loads

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Crankshaft - Bearings

Plain Bearings Ball Bearings Roller Bearings

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• Plain Bearings

• Typically subject to radial loads only

• Generally used for crankshaft main bearings, cam ring
and camshaft bearings, connecting rod end bearings,
and accessory drive shaft bearings.

Ball Bearings:
thrust loads
Have the least amount of rolling friction

• Provide greater contact area and corresponding

increase in rolling friction
Has two types:
Straight roller bearings
• which are subjected to radial loads only

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Tapered roller bearings
• which allows the bearing to withstand both radial and
thrust loads

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Reciprocating Engine Components
Connecting Rods

Transmits forces of combustion to the crankshaft

Convert linear movement to rotary movement

Durable steel alloy/Aluminum (Low LP)

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Connecting Rods - Parts

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Connecting Rods - Types

Plain Type Connecting Rod

• Used in opposed and in-line engines

• Connecting rods are designated to single cylinder

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Connecting Rods - Types

Master and Articulated

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• Used in radial engine

Master Rod
Knuckle Pins - pressed into the master rod so they do not rotate
in the flange holes.
Full Floating Knuckle Pins - have a loose fit that allows them to
rotate in both the flange holes and articulated rods

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Connecting Rods - Types

Master Rod – Full Circle Movement

Articulated Rods – Elliptical

Movement

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Connecting Rods - Types

In either type of installation, a lock plate

on each side retains the knuckle pins and
prevents lateral movement.

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Connecting Rods - Types

Fork -and-Blade rod assembly

• Used in V-type engines

• Forked rod is split at the crankpin end to allow

space for the blade rod to fit between the prongs.

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Piston

Draws fuel and air mixture and purges burnt exhaust gases

Transmits the forces of combustion to the crankshaft

• Mainly cast iron

• Aluminum Alloy AMS 4140 for forged pistons
• Alcoa 132 for cast pistons

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Piston temperature may exceed 4000°F

Pressures as high as 500 psi or up

Graphite Content: Cast iron contains graphite, which forms tiny flakes within the
metal. These graphite flakes act as a lubricant by reducing friction and wear between
the piston rings and the cylinder walls. The presence of graphite helps in maintaining
a smooth surface and reducing the metal-to-metal contact.
Wear Resistance: Cast iron is known for its hardness and wear resistance. This
makes it effective at maintaining its shape and functionality over time, even under the
high stresses and temperatures found in an engine.
Thermal Conductivity: Cast iron has good thermal conductivity, which helps in
evenly distributing heat away from the piston rings and maintaining a stable operating
temperature. This can reduce the likelihood of hot spots that could lead to increased
wear.

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Piston – Head Designs

Most modern aircraft

engines use flat-head
pistons

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Piston – Head Designs

Cam Ground Piston

• Piston machined with a slightly oval shape
to compensate thermal expansion
• The diameter of the piston parallel to the
piston boss is less than of perpendicular to
the piston boss

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Piston - Parts

1. Piston Head
Directly exposed to the combustion chamber

2. Ring Grooves
Cut into a piston’s outside surface to hold a set of piston
rings

3. Ring Land
Portion between the piston ring grooves

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Piston - Parts

4. Piston Pin Boss (Gudgeon Pin)

Provides additional bearing area for a piston pin to attach the
piston to the connecting rod (enlarge area)

5. Piston Skirt
guiding part / cooling purposes

Cooling fins are cast into the underside of the piston to

provide for greater heat transfer to the engine oil

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Reciprocating Engine Components
Piston - Parts

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Piston - Parts

Piston Ring
• Sealing the Combustion Chamber
• Regulating Oil Consumption
• Heat Transfer
• Supporting the Piston

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Piston - Parts

Compression Rings
• Prevent gas leakage into the crankcase.
They are fitted into grooves cut into the
upper portion of the piston.
• Most aircraft engines use 2 or 3 rings on
each piston

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Reciprocating Engine Components
Piston - Parts

Feature Wedge Piston Rings Tapered Piston Rings Linear Piston Rings
Tapered (thicker on
Cross-Section Shape Wedge-shaped Uniform throughout
one side)
Reduces oil
Better adaptability to Standard sealing and
Function consumption,
cylinder wall oil control
enhances sealing
Improved sealing
Enhanced oil Consistent contact
Performance with temperature
scraping and sealing pressure
changes
High-performance Top ring positions in General-purpose
Typical Use
applications performance engines applications

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Piston - Parts

Oil ring
Prevent excess oil passing into the combustion chamber and
spread the oil evenly around the cylinder bore.

Types of oil rings

Oil Control Ring – regulates the thickness of oil on the
cylinder
Oil Scraper Ring - prevents carbon build-up which resulted
to detonation, pre-ignition, excessive oil consumption.

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Reciprocating Engine Components
Piston - Parts

Piston Pin (Wrist Pin)

Joins the piston to the connecting rod.

Nickel Steel Alloy forging

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Cylinder

Houses the combustion chamber

Houses engine components

Cast Iron/Aluminum Alloy/Steel Alloy

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Piston temperature may exceed 4000°F

Pressures as high as 500 psi or up

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Cylinder

• The cylinder assembly is composed of cylinder

barrel, cylinder head, valve guides, valve rocker arm
supports, valve seats, spark plug bushings, cooling
fins.

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• Dissipates substantial amount of heat produced by the

combustion of fuel.
• The two parts are cylinder head and the cylinder barrel.

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Cylinder - Barrel

• Resists the pressure of combustion and

provides a working surface for the piston.
• Exterior consists of thin Cooling Fins

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Cylinder - Barrel

• Choke Bore Cylinder has the

diameter at the top portion of the
barrel smaller than the diameter
at the cylinder skirt

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Cylinder - Barrel

Nitriding and Chrome Plating Cylinder Bore

 Maximize barrel life
 Minimize wear

Nitriding – infusing metal with hardening agent (ammonia gas)

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Cylinder - Barrel

Nitrided Cylinders
• Band of blue paint around the cylinder base or cooling
fins to identify that the barrel is nitride

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Cylinder - Barrel

Chrome Plating
• Thin coating of chromium
• Band of orange paint to identify chrome plated barrels

Chrome Channeling
Reverse current causing microscopic cracks so that the
surface can hold lubricating oil

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Reciprocating Engine Components
Cylinder – Numbering

CONTINENTAL FOUR- LYCOMING FOUR-

CYLINDER ENGINE CYLINDER ENGINE

CONTINENTAL SIX- LYCOMING SIX-

CYLINDER ENGINE CYLINDER ENGINE

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Cylinder – Numbering

Radial single row cylinder numbering – top

then clockwise viewed from the rear end

Radial double row cylinder numbering – odd

numbered cylinders at the rear and even
numbered cylinders at the front

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Reciprocating Engine Components
Spark Plugs

It is an electrical device that fits into the

cylinder head and ignites air fuel mixtures.

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Reciprocating Engine Components
Spark Plugs

Fouled spark plug

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Reciprocating Engine Components
Spark Plugs

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Valves

• Regulate flow of gases into and out of a cylinder

• Each Cylinder have at least one Exhaust Valve and
one Intake Valve
• Intake Valves operate at lower temperatures than
exhaust valves and are typically made of Chrome,
Nickel, or Tungsten Steel

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Valves

• Most commonly used valve in aircraft engines

is the Poppet Valve ( popping action)

Inconel, Silicon-Chromium or Cobalt-Chromium Alloys

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Exhaust Valves are usually made of heat resistant metals such as

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Reciprocating Engine Components
Valves

Flat heat – intake only

Semi-tulip – for less heat expansion
Tulip – for lesser heat expansion
Mushroom – not found on aircraft engines

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Reciprocating Engine Components
Valves

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Reciprocating Engine Components
Valves - Parts

Valve Face
• Creates inlet and exhaust port
• 30 deg – 60 deg ground angle to form a seal
against the valve seat

Valve Stem
• Maintains valve alignment

Valve Neck
• Joining point of stem and face

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Reciprocating Engine Components
Valves - Parts

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Valves - Parts

• Exhaust valve stems are sometimes hollow and

partly filled with sodium to assist in cooling.
• Reduces temperature by 400 °F
• Stellite-cobalt-chromium alloy is welded to the
valve face which is designed for high wear
resistance and superior chemical and corrosion
performance

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Valves - Surge

• Occurs when the frequency of a valve spring begins

to vibrate at its resonant frequency. When this
occurs, the spring loses its ability to hold the valve
closed

• Employing two spring with different diameters

prevent valve surge

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Valve Clearance

• Valve Clearance – space between the valve tip and

rocker arm face. As the engine heats up, the small
gap allows the valve to expand at its own rate.

• Cold Clearance – set when engine is cold (solid

lifters)

• Hot Clearance – running clearance (solid lifters)

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Valves – Working Mechanism

1. Camshaft – pushes the lifter.

2. Lifter - actuates the rocker arm
3. Rocker Arm – depress and open the
valve

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Hydraulic valve tappets (or hydraulic lifters) automatically adjust to maintain the
correct valve clearance as the engine operates. This eliminates the need for frequent
manual adjustments and checks, ensuring that the valve clearances remain within
the proper range for optimal engine performance and efficiency. This feature helps
reduce maintenance requirements and improves engine reliability.

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Valves – Working Mechanism

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Hydraulic valve tappets (or hydraulic lifters) automatically adjust to maintain the
correct valve clearance as the engine operates. This eliminates the need for frequent
manual adjustments and checks, ensuring that the valve clearances remain within
the proper range for optimal engine performance and efficiency. This feature helps
reduce maintenance requirements and improves engine reliability.

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Camshaft

• A device used for actuating the valve lifting

mechanism
• Driven by a gear that mates with another gear
attached to the crankshaft.
• Control the opening of each valve
• The angular position of the lobes on the
camshaft of an aircraft engine is fixed.

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Reciprocating Engine Components
Camshaft

Camshaft Rotational Speed

1/2 of crankshaft rotational speed
E.G. 1/2 rev of crankshaft = 1/4 rev
of camshaft

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Reciprocating Engine Components
Camshaft

Radial Engine
• Uses a cam ring instead of cam shaft

• Cam roller instead of cam follower face

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Propeller Reduction Gear

• Fitted between the crankshaft and the

propeller
• Propellers operate most efficiently at speeds
much lower than the engine's optimal
operating speed.
• Directly connecting the crankshaft to the
propeller would result in the propeller
spinning too fast, leading to inefficiency and
potential structural issues.

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• Most propellers must be operated at a specific speed

for maximum efficiency
• The lower powered engines have the propeller
connected directly onto the crankshaft. These are called
'Direct Drive' engines.

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Propeller Reduction Gear - Spur

• Have their teeth cut straight across their circumference

and can be either external or internal
• If external, the gears moves in opposite direction while
internal the gears move in same direction
• As the propeller is offset, torsional loads are inflicted on
the crankcase

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Propeller Reduction Gear – Quill Shaft

• Hardened steel shaft that is splined on both ends and

installed between two gears, or shafts, to absorb
torsional vibration

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Propeller Reduction Gear – Planetary Gear

• Keeps the crankshaft and propeller perfectly aligned

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Propeller Shafts

Tapered Propeller Shaft

• Used on most of the early, low - powered engines
• The shaft tapers, or gets smaller in diameter, as you
move out toward the end of the shaft

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Propeller Shafts

Splined Propeller Shaft

• Used by most high powered radial engines
• A spline is a rectangular groove that is machined into
the propeller shaft

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Propeller Shafts

Flanged Propeller Shaft

• Used by most modern horizontally opposed aircraft
engines
• A flat flange is forged directly onto the end of a
crankshaft and a propeller is bolted to the flange

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Reciprocating Engine Components
Propeller

A propeller is an aerodynamically shaped blades

attached to a central hub that converts the
power delivered by an engine into propulsive
thrust in order to propel an aircraft.

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Propeller

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 Hub – where the blades are connected

 Hub Bore - permits a propeller to be mounted on the
engine crankshaft or to a reduction gear assembly
 Blade Shank - the portion of a propeller blade that is
nearest the hub.
 Blade Tip - the portion furthest from the hub.

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Reciprocating Engine Components
Propeller Theory

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Propeller Theory

• Angle of attack of the propeller blades,

• The speed the blades move through the
air, and
• The shape of the airfoil.

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Propeller Theory

• The gradual decrease in blade angle from the hub to

the tip is called pitch distribution.
• This is what gives a propeller blade its twisted
appearance. Blade twist allows the propeller to provide
a fairly constant angle of attack along most of the
length of the blade.

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Reciprocating Engine Components
Propeller Theory

Rotational Velocity along a propeller blade segment

V (2r )(rpm)
Example: Determine the blade velocity at a point 18 inches from the hub that
is rotating at 1,800 rpm.

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Propeller Theory

Forces Acting on a Propeller

Centrifugal Force Thrust Bending Force Torque Bending Force

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causes the greatest stress. The force which tries to pull the
blades out of the hub

Thrust Bending Force attempts to

bend the propeller blades forward at
the tips.
 This occurs because propeller blades are typically
thinner near the tip and this allows the thrust produced
at the tip to flex the blade forward.

3. Torque bending forces occur as air resistance opposes the

rotational motion of the propeller blades.
• This force tends to bend the blades opposite the
direction of rotation.

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Propeller Theory

Forces Acting on a Propeller

Aerodynamic Twisting Centrifugal Twisting

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causes the greatest stress. The force which tries to pull the
blades out of the hub

Thrust Bending Force attempts to

bend the propeller blades forward at
the tips.
 This occurs because propeller blades are typically
thinner near the tip and this allows the thrust produced
at the tip to flex the blade forward.

3. Torque bending forces occur as air resistance opposes the

rotational motion of the propeller blades.
• This force tends to bend the blades opposite the
direction of rotation.

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Aerodynamic twisting force results from the fact that, when a
propeller blade produces thrust, the majority of the thrust
produced is exerted ahead of the blade's axis of rotation.
• Therefore, aerodynamic twisting force tends to increase a
propeller's blade angle.

Centrifugal twisting force opposes aerodynamic twisting force in

that it attempts to decrease a propeller's blade angle.
• When a propeller rotates, centrifugal force tries to align
the propeller's center of mass with its center of rotation.
In effect, it tries to decrease blade angle

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Propeller Theory

Propeller Pitch
Propeller Pitch is the theoretical distance a propeller advances
longitudinally in one revolution.

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Geometric pitch is defined as the distance, in inches, that a

propeller will move forward in one revolution if it were moving
through a solid medium and did not encounter any loss of
efficiency

Effective pitch is the actual amount a propeller moves forward

in one revolution. It varies from zero when the aircraft is
stationary
on the ground, to about 90 percent of the geometric pitch during
the most efficient flight conditions.

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Type of Propellers

Fixed Pitch Constant Speed

How A Constant Speed Propeller Works | Boldmethod

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are made with the angle (pitch) built into the propeller, it cannot
be changed. They are designed for optimum operation under
optimum conditions, meaning aircraft performance will be
affected under varying conditions. Fixed pitch propellers are often
seen on single-engine aircraft that fly at low speeds, with limited
range, or altitude.

Constant Speed Propellers (Controllable-Pitch Propeller), these

propellers are designed with a variable pitch (angle) which can be
altered in-flight while the propeller is rotating. This means the
propeller can be adjusted during flight to better suit the changing
conditions.

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Type of Propellers

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are made with the angle (pitch) built into the propeller, it cannot
be changed. They are designed for optimum operation under
optimum conditions, meaning aircraft performance will be
affected under varying conditions. Fixed pitch propellers are often
seen on single-engine aircraft that fly at low speeds, with limited
range, or altitude.

Constant Speed Propellers (Controllable-Pitch Propeller), these

propellers are designed with a variable pitch (angle) which can be
altered in-flight while the propeller is rotating. This means the
propeller can be adjusted during flight to better suit the changing
conditions.

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 Reciprocating Engine Components
Type of Propellers

Ground Adjustable

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Ground-Adjustable Propellers - As the name suggests these

propellers are able to be adjusted only while on the ground when
the propeller is not in use. The angle or pitch of the blade is
manually altered, these propellers are not often seen in today’s
modern aircraft.

136
 Reciprocating Engine Components
Type of Propellers

Propeller Range Positions

Takeoff - low-pitch, high-rpm setting

Cruise - high pitch, low-rpm setting
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137
Reciprocating Engine Components
Turbopropeller

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138
Reciprocating Engine Components
Turbopropeller

Propeller Range Positions

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139
 Reciprocating Engine Components
Propeller - Governor

Controls
Amount
Boost Oil of Oil
Pressure

Senses
Rotational
Speed

Governor

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A propeller governor is typically mounted either on the front of an

engine near the propeller shaft or on the engine accessory case.
The device that is responsible for regulating the flow of high
pressure oil to the propeller

140
 Reciprocating Engine Components
Propeller Efficiency

Alpha range – from feathered to flight fine pitch

Beta Range – from ground-fine pitch to reverse
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141
Reciprocating Engine Components
Engine Identification

O – Horizontally Opposed
S – Supercharged
Engine
Example:
R – Radial Engine G – Gear Nose Section O – 320 = opposed engine with
320 in3 displacement
1 – In-Line Engine L – Left-Hand Rotation LIO – 360 – C
Left hand rotation, fuel
V – V-Type Engine H – Horizontal Mounting injected, opposed engine, 360
in3 displacement, C – model
T – Turbo Charged V- Vertical Mounting

I – Fuel Injected AE – Modified for Aerobatics

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142
Reciprocating Engine Components
Engine Identification

ENGINE IDENTIFICATION
Texron Lycoming model AEIO 540

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143
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

1. The camshaft of a horizontally opposed four stroke engine

rotates at:
a) Twice engine speed.
b) Engine speed.
c) Twice magneto speed.
d) Half engine speed.

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144
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

2. A reduction gear is fitted:

a) Between the camshaft and the propeller.
b) Between the cylinder head and the valves.
c) Between the crankshaft and propeller.
d) Between the connecting rod and the crankshaft.

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145
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

3. Insufficient tappet clearance at the inlet valve would cause:

a) The valve to open early and close late.
b) The valve to open late and close early.
c) The mixture in that cylinder to be weak.
d) Misfiring.

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Insufficient tappet clearance at the inlet valve would cause:

a) The valve to open early and close late.
This occurs because with insufficient clearance, the valve lifter or tappet will start to
push the valve open sooner as the camshaft lobe comes around, and it will hold the
valve open longer as the lobe moves past. This results in the valve opening earlier and
closing later than it should, affecting the engine's performance and efficiency.

146
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

4. The purpose of a valve spring is to:

a) Close the valve.
b) Cause a snap opening of the valve.
c) Allow the valve timing to vary with changing R.P.M.
d) Maintain the valve clearance within tolerance.

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The purpose of a valve spring is to:

a) Close the valve.
The valve spring ensures that the valve returns to its closed position after being
opened by the camshaft. It keeps the valve seated tightly against the valve seat,
preventing the escape of combustion gases and maintaining proper engine
compression.

147
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

5. The purpose of a crankcase breather is to:

a) Maintain the oil tank pressure at
atmospheric.
b) Prevent distortion of the crankcase.
c) Allow the oil to breathe.
d) Prevent pressure building up inside the
crankcase.

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d) Prevent pressure building up inside the crankcase.

148
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

6. Piston rings are manufactured from cast

iron:
a) Because it has a negative coefficient of
expansion.
b) To take advantage of its extreme
malleability.
c) Because of its self lubricating qualities.
d) To take advantage of its brittleness

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c) Because of its self lubricating qualities.

Graphite Content:
•Cast iron contains small flakes or nodules of graphite within its microstructure.
Graphite is a form of carbon known for its lubricating properties. The presence of
graphite within the cast iron provides a natural lubricating effect, reducing friction
between the piston rings and the cylinder wall.
Oil Retention:
•The microstructure of cast iron, including its porosity and surface texture, allows it to
retain an oil film more effectively than many other metals. This oil film reduces direct
metal-to-metal contact, minimizing friction and wear.

149
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

7. The exhaust valves:

a) Are opened directly by the action of push rods which are in turn operated by cams
on the
crankshaft.
b) Are less affected by the heat of combustion than the inlet valves.
c) Are opened by the valve springs and closed by the rocker gear.
d) Sometimes have their stems partly filled with sodium to assist cooling.

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d) Sometimes have their stems partly filled with sodium to assist

cooling.

150
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

8. Hydraulic valve tappets are used on some engines to:

a) Eliminate valve bounce.
b) Eliminate constant valve adjustment and checks.
c) Give a more positive closing action.
d) Give a more positive opening action.

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Eliminate constant valve adjustment and checks.

Hydraulic valve tappets automatically adjust to maintain zero valve clearance, which
reduces the need for regular manual adjustments and helps maintain consistent
valve operation over time.

151
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

9. Which of the following is a characteristic of a thrust bearing

used in most radial engine?

a. Tapered Roller
b. Ball Roller
c. Double-row ball
d. Deep-groove ball

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The characteristic of a thrust bearing used in most radial engines is:

c. Double-row ball
Double-row ball bearings are commonly used in radial engines to handle the axial
loads generated by the propeller and other engine components. These bearings
provide good thrust capacity and are capable of handling both radial and axial loads
efficiently.

152
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

10. Some aircraft engine manufacturers equip their product with choked
or taper-ground cylinders in order to

a. provide a straight cylinder bore at operating temperatures

b. flex the rings slightly during operation and reduce the possibility if the rings sticking in
the grooves
c. increase the compression pressure for starting purposes
d. to prevent hydraulic lock during operation

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a. provide a straight cylinder bore at operating temperatures

153
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

11. Some cylinder barrels are hardened by

a. nitriding
b. shot peening
c. tempering
d. carburizing

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a. nitriding

154
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

12. The purpose of two or more valve springs in aircraft engines is to

a. equalize side pressure on the valve stems

b. eliminate valve spring surge
c. equalize valve face loading
d. prevent valves from falling to the combustion chamber

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b. eliminate valve spring surge

155
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

13. The aerodynamic force acting on a rotating propeller blade operating

at a normal pitch angle tends to

a. reduce the pitch angle

b. Increase the pitch angle
c. Bend the blades forward in the line of flight
d. Bend the blades rearward in the line of flight

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b. Increase the pitch angle

156
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

14. An aircraft’s propeller system beta range

a. Is used to produce zero or negative thrust

b. Is used to achieve maximum thrust during takeoff
c. Refers to the most fuel efficient pitch range use at a given RPM
d. Is used to achieve fuel efficiency at cruising speed

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a. Is used to produce zero or negative thrust

157
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

15. For takeoff, a constant-speed propeller is normally set in the

a. High Pitch, high RPM position

b. High Pitch, low RPM position
c. Low Pitch, high RPM position
d. Low Pitch, low RPM position

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c. Low Pitch, high RPM position

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 Engine Systems

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159
 Engine Cooling

Did you know?

The maximum average CHT piston engines is
around 400 to 450°F (204 to 232°C).

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Effects of High Temperatures

• Structural failure of the engine components.

• Over temperature of the oil, could result in breakdown
of its lubricating properties.
• Pre-ignition and Detonation which result loss of power

160
 Engine Cooling
Temperature Measurement

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161
 Engine Cooling
Temperature Effects

• Structural failure of the engine • Low thermal efficiency

components. • Low temperatures increase the
• Over temperature of the oil, internal friction of lubricants (
could result in breakdown of its high viscosity )
lubricating properties. • The ability of the liquid fuel to
• Pre-ignition and Detonation change its state to a gas is
which result loss of power reduced

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162
 Engine Cooling
Types of Cooling

Air Cooling Liquid Cooling

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The air-cooled engine uses the cooling air from the Propeller
Slipstream and the Aircraft's Forward Speed to transfer the heat
generated in the engine directly to the air. The engine is Cowled to
reduce drag and control the flow of air around the engine to
ensure equal cooling and so prevent overcooling at the front of
the engine.

dissipates the heat from the engine by pumping a mixture of

Ethylene Glycol (anti-freeze) through passages built into the
cylinder's and cylinder
An engine driven pump circulates the liquid through the engine,
and temperature is controlled by a thermostat
The liquid is then passed through an air cooled radiator mounted
in slip stream of the propeller
liquid cooling is more efficient than air cooled engine

163
 Engine Cooling
Air Cooling

• Thin metal fins project from the outer surface of the walls and heads of
the engine cylinders (cooling fins).
• Deflector baffles are also used which are fastened around the cylinders
to direct the flow of air to obtain maximum cooling.

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164
 Engine Cooling
Liquid Cooling

Liquid Cooling

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165
 Engine Cooling
Liquid Cooling

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166
 Engine Cooling
Liquid Cooling

• Dissipates heat from the engine using a mixture of ethylene glycol

(anti-freeze) circulating through passages in the cylinders.
• An engine-driven pump circulates the liquid through the engine, with
temperature controlled by a thermostat.
• The liquid is passed through an air-cooled radiator mounted in the
slipstream of the propeller.
• Liquid cooling is more efficient than air cooling for engines.

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167
Engine Lubrication

Main Purpose:
Reduce friction and wear by preventing the
moving surfaces coming into contact

Other Purpose :
The flow of oil through the engine helps to
dissipate the heat away from the internal
components of the engine.

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168
 Engine Lubrication
Lubricating System

Cleansing

Corrosion Lubricating
Dampening
LUBRICATION SYSTEM
Prevention System

Indicating

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• As the oil flows through the engine it also carries away

the by-products of the combustion process and cleans
the engine.
• The internal metal components are protected against
corrosion by the oil
• Acts a hydraulic medium reducing the shock loads
between crankshaft and bearing and so reducing
vibration.
• Can be used as an indicating medium that can give an
early warning of mechanical failure or loss of power.

169
 Engine Lubrication
Wet Sump

Wet Sump System - the oil is stored in the bottom or sump of the engine.

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170
 Engine Lubrication
Dry Sump

Dry Sump System – stored the oil in a remotely mounted tank

It is common in high powered, more advanced aircraft

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Oil Pressure Pump - circulates the oil through the engine, and so
lubricates the moving parts

Scavenge Pump – (dry sump system) then return the oil to the
tank to prevent the engine sumps flooding (Greater size than
pressure pump)

Oil Tank - is placed wherever possible at a higher level than the

engine to give a gravity feed to the pressure pump

Hot Pot - forms a separate compartment within the tank. Its

purpose is to reduce the time taken to raise the temperature of
the oil when starting the engine from cold by restricting the
quantity of oil in circulation when the oil is cold and viscous.

Suction Filter – designed to remove large solid particles from the

171
oil before it enters the pressure pump and so prevent damage

Pressure Pump - Oil is carried either side of the casing in the

space between the gear teeth, and is made to flow.

Pressure Relief Valve – When the pressure reaches predetermined

figure, the valve opens and sufficient oil is returned to the inlet side
of the pump to limit the maximum oil pressure

Check Valve - consists of a lightly sprung loaded valve which will

hold back the oil until the engine is started

Pressure Filter - designed to remove very small solid particles

before the oil passes to the bearing surfaces. A spring loaded relief
valve is fitted to by-pass the filter element when the oil is cold

Oil Cooler - consists of a matrix or tube block, which spreads the

oil in a thin film and subjects it to cooling air.

Anti-surge Valve - fitted to by-pass the matrix when the oil is cold

171
 Engine Lubrication
Dry Sump

Pressure Pump - Oil is carried either side of the

casing in the space between the gear teeth, and is
made to flow.

Pressure Relief Valve – When the pressure

reaches predetermined figure, the valve opens
and sufficient oil is returned to the inlet side of the
pump to limit the maximum oil pressure

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The pressure relief valve spring in an engine controls the maximum pressure of the oil
in the lubrication system. If this spring is broken or weakened, it may not maintain a
consistent pressure, leading to fluctuations in the oil pressure gauge readings. This is
because the valve might open too early or too late, allowing the oil pressure to vary
significantly.

172
 Engine Lubrication
Monitoring Instruments

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Explanation:
•Broken or weak pressure relief valve spring: The pressure relief valve controls the
maximum oil pressure in the engine. If the spring in this valve is broken or weak, it can
cause the valve to open and close erratically, leading to significant fluctuations in oil
pressure readings.
•Low oil pressure: While low oil pressure can cause the gauge to read low, it usually
results in consistently low readings rather than wide fluctuations between zero and
normal operating pressure.
•Air lock in the scavenge pump intake: This issue can affect oil flow and pressure,
but it typically causes more consistent problems with oil pressure rather than wide
fluctuations

173
 Engine Lubrication
Useful Terms

Viscosity- defined as the measure of a fluids internal friction, or

its resistance to flow. An increase in oil temperature will reduce
viscosity and visa versa.

Viscosity Index – indicates the temperature range a certain oil

normally operates
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174
 Engine Lubrication
Useful Standards

Standards to Indicate Viscosity

1. Society of Automotive Engineers
2. Saybolt Universal

The lower the viscosity number, the thinner the oil.

Lighter loaded engines use a 'Low Viscosity' or thin oil, whereas higher powered engines
with higher loading would require a High Viscosity' or thick oil.
Multi -Grade Oils - give the characteristics of low viscosity at low temperatures, and high
viscosity at higher temperatures.
Ex. SAE 15W – 50.

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175
 Engine Lubrication
Oil Types

Straight Oil – no additives; straight oil is only used when running in new engines
Compound Oil – with additives to meet certain requirement of engine operation,
these take the form of anti-oxidants, detergents and oiliness agents.

Ex. AD80 or W80

• AD stands for Ashless Dispersant which signify oil with specific qualities for
cleaning
• W stands for winter/low temperature

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176
 Engine Lubrication
Operational Considerations

Hydraulic Lock – (on radial and inverted cylinders) oil accumulates in the lower
cylinders between piston and cylinder head. As oil is incompressible damage to
the engine could occur as the piston moves on the compression stroke.

If the engine is started from cold, the oil pressure could be excessively high. This
is normal.

Low pressure at normal temperature would indicate imminent engine failure.

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177
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

1. Where is the oil of a dry sump reciprocating engine exposed to the

temperature control valve sensing unit?

a. Oil cooler inlet

b. Engine outlet
c. Engine inlet
d. Oil tank

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a. Oil cooler inlet

178
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

2. In which of the following situations will the oil cooler automatic bypass valve
be open the greatest amount?

a. Engine oil above normal operating temperature

b. Engine stopped with no oil flowing after pump
c. Engine oil pressure is above the normal
d. Engine oil below normal operating temperature

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d. Engine oil below normal operating temperature

179
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

3. The pumping capacity of the scavenger pump in a dry sump aircraft engine’s lubrication
system _________

a. is greater than the capacity of the oil supply pump

b. is less than the capacity of the oil supply sump
c. is usually equal to the capacity of the oil supply pump in order to maintain constant
oiling conditions
d. is usually equal to the capacity of the oil supply pump to prevent any pressure
difference

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a. is greater than the capacity of the oil supply pump

180
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

4. Engine oil pressure is:

a. Low at idle RPM and high at high RPM

b. Controlled by the oil cooler
c. Substantially decreased when the oil pressure relief valve opens
d. Relatively unaffected by engine speed

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a. Low at idle RPM and high at high RPM

Engine oil pressure varies with engine speed, being lower at idle RPM and higher at
higher RPMs due to the increased operation of the oil pump.

181
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

5. In a “wet sump” oil system, the oil is contained in the:

a. Engine and tank
b. Tank and oil cooler
c. Sump and tank
d. Engine and sump

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d. Engine and sump

182
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

6. The oil used in reciprocating engines has a relatively high viscosity due to

a. The reduced ability of thin oils to maintain adequate film strength at altitude
(reduced atmospheric pressure)
B. The relatively high rotational speeds
C. Contaminants and pressure buildup in the oil pump
D. Large clearances and high operating temperatures

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D. Large clearances and high operating temperatures

183
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

7. What is the source of most of the heat that is absorbed by the

lubricating oil in a reciprocating engine?

a. Crankshaft main bearings

b. Pistons and cylinder walls
c. Exhaust valves
d. Cylinder head

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b. Pistons and cylinder walls

184
Engine Induction System

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185
 Engine Induction System
Carburetor Type

Carburetor system
• Cheapest and simplest arrangement
but is prone to carburetor icing and
affected by flight maneuvers

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186
Engine Induction System
Carburetor Type

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187
Engine Induction System
Carburetor Type

Atmospheric conditions, particularly of high humidity

(more than 50% Relative Humidity (R.H.) and
temperatures ranging from -7°C (20°F) to as high as +33 °
C (90°F), may cause icing in the induction system of all
types of piston engine.

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188
Engine Induction System
Carburetor Type

Relative Humidity Absolute Humidity

It's how full the air is It's the actual amount of
with water vapor water vapor in the air,
compared to the usually measured in
maximum it can hold at a grams of water per cubic
certain temperature. meter of air.

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189
Engine Induction System
Carburetor Type

Dewpoint: The temperature at which air becomes saturated with

water vapor and water starts to condense into dew.

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190
Engine Induction System
Carburetor Type

METAR RPVM 291300Z 30004KT 9999 FEW020

BKN100 28/24 Q1011 NOSIG RMK A2985

Current Temperature Dewpoint Temperature

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191
Engine Induction System
Carburetor Type

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192
 Engine Induction System
Carburetor System

Pressure Balance Duct Diffuser Well Mixture Control

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Modifications to the Simple Carburetor

1. The Pressure Balance Duct - Connects the float chamber
directly to the air intake to equalize pressure and maintain
consistent fuel discharge through the main jet.

2. The Diffuser – As engine speed increases, the dropping fuel

level in the diffuser well uncovers more air holes. This allows
more air into the discharge tube, reducing pressure differential
and preventing mixture enrichment. It also helps vaporize the fuel
more readily, especially at low speeds.

3. Mixture Control - A cockpit lever controls a needle valve in the

float chamber. As altitude increases and air density decreases,
the lever adjusts the needle to vary fuel flow through an orifice,
maintaining the correct air-fuel mixture.

193
Engine Induction System
Carburetor System

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194
 Engine Induction System
Carburetor System

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Modifications to the Simple Carburetor

1. The Pressure Balance Duct - Connects the float chamber
directly to the air intake to equalize pressure and maintain
consistent fuel discharge through the main jet.

2. The Diffuser – As engine speed increases, the dropping fuel

level in the diffuser well uncovers more air holes. This allows
more air into the discharge tube, reducing pressure differential
and preventing mixture enrichment. It also helps vaporize the fuel
more readily, especially at low speeds.

3. Mixture Control - A cockpit lever controls a needle valve in the

float chamber. As altitude increases and air density decreases,
the lever adjusts the needle to vary fuel flow through an orifice,
maintaining the correct air-fuel mixture.

195
 Engine Induction System
Priming

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Normally a priming pump would supply fuel to the induction manifold, close to the
inlet valve.

The engine-driven fuel pump typically supplies:

More fuel than is required by the engine, the excess being used as priming fuel.
Fuel pumps are designed to deliver a surplus of fuel to ensure that there is always
enough fuel available under varying operating conditions. The excess fuel helps in
priming the system and ensures consistent fuel delivery to the engine.

196
Engine Induction System
Priming

Priming– Delivers fuel to the induction

manifold near the inlet valve.

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197
Engine Induction System
Carburetor System

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198
Engine Induction System
Intake Manifold

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199
Engine Induction System
Carburetor System

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200
 Engine Induction System
Intake Manifold

Intake Manifold
Engine suction provides a flow of air from the air
intake through a Venturi in the carburetor to the
intake manifold. The intake manifold provides the
connecting point of all the individual pipes that
deliver fuel/air mixture to the cylinders.

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201
 Engine Induction System
Fuel Injection

Fuel is sprayed continuously into the

induction pipe.

Low operating pressure, good fuel

distribution, no icing problems, and a pump
not timed to the operating cycle.

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202
Engine Induction System
Fuel Injection

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203
Engine Induction System
Fuel Injection

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204
Engine Induction System
Fuel Injection

Fuel – Air Control Unit

This unit is mounted on the intake manifold
contains three control elements, (a) the air
throttle assembly (throttle valve), (b) the
throttle metering valve (metering fuel
valve) and (c) the mixture control valve.

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205
 Engine Induction System
Fuel Injection

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The fuel manifold valve is a crucial component in the fuel system of a reciprocating
engine, especially in single-engine aircraft. It plays a key role in distributing fuel from
the fuel pump to the individual cylinders or fuel injectors.
Here’s a quick rundown of its function:
1.Fuel Distribution: It ensures that fuel is evenly distributed to the various cylinders
or injectors. This helps in maintaining balanced engine performance and efficiency.
2.Pressure Regulation: It often includes mechanisms to regulate fuel pressure,
ensuring that each cylinder receives the correct amount of fuel for optimal
combustion.

206
Engine Induction System
Fuel Injection

Discharge Nozzle - is located in each

cylinder head, with its outlet directed into
the inlet port. Nozzles are calibrated in
several ranges, and are fitted to individual
engines as a set, each nozzle in a set
having the same calibration.

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207
Engine Induction System
Fuel Injection

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208
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

1. The pressure in the induction manifold of a normally aspirated

engine:
a. Remains constant as the throttle is opened
b. Decreases as the throttle is opened
c. Initially increases as the throttle is opened but decreases after
approximately the half
open position
d. Increases as the throttle is opened

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d. Increases as the throttle is opened

In a normally aspirated engine, opening the throttle allows more air to enter the
induction manifold, resulting in an increase in manifold pressure. This is because
there is less restriction to airflow when the throttle is opened, allowing the pressure in
the manifold to rise closer to atmospheric pressure.

209
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

2. The primary function of a diffuser in a carburetor is to:

a. Control the mixture strength over part of the engine speed range
b. Vent air from the float chamber
c. Emulsify the fuel during engine acceleration
d. Enable adjustment of the engine slow running speed

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The primary function of a diffuser in a carburetor is to:

a. Control the mixture strength over part of the engine speed range
The diffuser helps in controlling the air-fuel mixture by creating a pressure drop that
causes the fuel to be drawn into the airstream. This process is crucial for maintaining
the correct mixture strength at various engine speeds.

210
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

3. The Venturi in the carburetor choke tube creates:

a. A positive pressure over the discharge nozzle
b. A depression over the fuel discharge nozzle
c. A positive pressure at the throttle valve
d. A decrease in the velocity of the air entering the engine

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The Venturi in the carburetor choke tube creates:

b. A depression over the fuel discharge nozzle
The Venturi effect causes a decrease in pressure and an increase in air velocity as the
air flows through the constricted section of the Venturi. This pressure drop creates a
depression that helps draw fuel through the discharge nozzle, mixing it with the air
and enabling proper fuel atomization for combustion.

211
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

4. The presence of an engine driven fuel pump on an engine fitted with

a carburettor:
a) Dispenses with the need for a carburettor float chamber.
b) Ensures a positive flow of fuel to the discharge nozzles.
c) Ensures a positive flow of fuel to the carburettor float chamber.
d) Dispenses with the need for a fuel priming system.

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4. The presence of an engine driven fuel pump on an engine fitted

with a carburettor:
a) Dispenses with the need for a carburettor float chamber.
b) Ensures a positive flow of fuel to the discharge nozzles.
c) Ensures a positive flow of fuel to the carburettor float chamber.
d) Dispenses with the need for a fuel priming system.

212
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

5. The mixture supplied by the carburetor to the engine is said to be

weak when:
a. The proportion of air in the mixture is insufficient to allow full
combustion of the fuel
b. The proportion of air in the mixture is greater than that needed for
full combustion of the fuel.
c. A grade of fuel lower than that specified for the engine is used.
d. There is insufficient power in the engine for take off

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213
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

6. The engine driven fuel pump supplies:

a. The exact amount of fuel required for all running conditions
b. The exact amount of fuel required for all running conditions
c. The exact amount of fuel required for all running and starting
conditions
d. More fuel than is required by the engine, the excess being used as
priming fuel.

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The engine-driven fuel pump typically supplies:

More fuel than is required by the engine, the excess being used as priming fuel.
Fuel pumps are designed to deliver a surplus of fuel to ensure that there is always
enough fuel available under varying operating conditions. The excess fuel helps in
priming the system and ensures consistent fuel delivery to the engine.

214
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

7. The mixture control on an engine fitted with fuel injection

is:
a. Automatic
b. Operated by a pneumatic plunger system
c. Hydro-pneumatically operated.
d. Necessary.

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7. The mixture control on an engine fitted with fuel injection is:

a. Automatic
b. Operated by a pneumatic plunger system
c. Hydro-pneumatically operated.
d. Necessary.

215
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

8. The discharge nozzle injects fuel:

a. Continuously into the inlet manifold as close to the inlet valve as possible.
b. Into the inlet manifold when the inlet valve opens.
c. Into the combustion chamber during the compression stroke.
d. Continuously into the combustion chamber during the induction stroke.

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a. Continuously into the inlet manifold as close to the

inlet valve as possible.
b. Into the inlet manifold when the inlet valve opens.
c. Into the combustion chamber during the compression
stroke.
d. Continuously into the combustion chamber during the
induction stroke

216
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

9. The Fuel Control Unit meters fuel to the discharge nozzles in

proportion to:
a. The position of the throttle valve only.
b. The position of the mixture control lever only
c. The positions of both the throttle lever and the mixture control lever.
d. The positions of both the throttle lever and the mixture control lever.

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9. The Fuel Control Unit meters fuel to the discharge nozzles in

proportion to:
a. The position of the throttle valve only.
b. The position of the mixture control lever only
c. The positions of both the throttle lever and the mixture
control lever.
d. The positions of both the throttle lever and the mixture
control lever.

217
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

10. The Fuel Manifold Valve:

a. Meters the amount of fuel delivered to the engine in proportion to
the amount of air
b. Distributes fuel to each cylinder in the correct firing order.
c. Distributes fuel continuously to all of the cylinders continuously.
d. Is kept entirely separate from the priming system.

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10. The Fuel Manifold Valve:

a. Meters the amount of fuel delivered to the engine in
proportion to the amount of air
b. Distributes fuel to each cylinder in the correct firing
order.
c. Distributes fuel continuously to all of the cylinders
continuously.
d. Is kept entirely separate from the priming system.

218
 Engine Ignition System
Ignition System

Dual Ignition System

• All aero piston engines are fitted with dual ignition. Each engine cylinder has
two sparking plugs fed by two separate magnetos.

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Magnetos - self-contained engine-driven electrical generators.

They produce a series of extra high tension (EHT) electrical
sparks at the sparking plugs

Capacitor (Condenser) - prevent burning or arcing across the

contact breaker points, and to assist in creating the extra high
voltage in the secondary coil by causing a rapid change of flux
(magnetic field) in the primary coil.

Ignition Switch – provides complete control of the engine's

magneto circuit, the magneto being made inoperative by earthing
the primary circuit

219
 Engine Ignition System
Ignition System

Magnetos are self-contained engine-driven electrical

generators. They produce a series of extra high
tension (EHT) electrical sparks at the sparking plugs,
in the correct firing sequence, for ignition of the
petrol and air mixture.

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Magnetos - self-contained engine-driven electrical generators.

They produce a series of extra high tension (EHT) electrical
sparks at the sparking plugs

Capacitor (Condenser) - prevent burning or arcing across the

contact breaker points, and to assist in creating the extra high
voltage in the secondary coil by causing a rapid change of flux
(magnetic field) in the primary coil.

Ignition Switch – provides complete control of the engine's

magneto circuit, the magneto being made inoperative by earthing
the primary circuit

220
 Engine Ignition System
Ignition System

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Magnetos - self-contained engine-driven electrical generators.

They produce a series of extra high tension (EHT) electrical
sparks at the sparking plugs

Capacitor (Condenser) - prevent burning or arcing across the

contact breaker points, and to assist in creating the extra high
voltage in the secondary coil by causing a rapid change of flux
(magnetic field) in the primary coil.

Ignition Switch – provides complete control of the engine's

magneto circuit, the magneto being made inoperative by earthing
the primary circuit

221
 Engine Ignition System
Ignition System

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Magnetos - self-contained engine-driven electrical generators.

They produce a series of extra high tension (EHT) electrical
sparks at the sparking plugs

Capacitor (Condenser) - prevent burning or arcing across the

contact breaker points, and to assist in creating the extra high
voltage in the secondary coil by causing a rapid change of flux
(magnetic field) in the primary coil.

Ignition Switch – provides complete control of the engine's

magneto circuit, the magneto being made inoperative by earthing
the primary circuit

222
 Engine Induction System
Ignition System – Magneto Check

Dead Cut Check - Carried out at slow running. This check ensures that the pilot has
control of the ignition before carrying out further ignition checks at higher engine
speeds. RPM must drop but engine must not stop while switching one magneto off
at a time.

Magneto rpm Drop Check - carried out at approximately 75% of the maximum
engine speed. This checks that the magneto and sparking plugs are correctly

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223
Engine Fuel System

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224
Engine Fuel System

Fuel - is a blend of Hydrogen and Carbon.

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225
 Engine Fuel System
Fuel Characteristics

Calorific Value - measure of the amount of heat that will be released during
combustion, and is measured in British Thermal Units (B.T.U.) per pound. The
higher the specific gravity the higher the calorific value

Volatility – capability of changing readily from the liquid to the vapour state. Fuel
is added to the air at the carburettor, the efficiency with which the fuel mixes
with the air is largely determined by the volatility of the fuel.

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226
 Engine Fuel System
Fuel Characteristics

Low Pressure Boiling - as the atmospheric pressure reduces with

altitude, the fuel vaporizes at a lower temperature

Stability – with the application of oxidation inhibitors, the it prevents

oxidation of potentially unstable hydrocarbons that form heavy resinous
gummy compounds and corrosive bodies

Sulphur Content – sulphur is extremely corrosive to exhaust system. In

aviation gasoline the maximum amount of sulphur permitted is 0.001%

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227
Engine Control System
Main Controls

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228
Engine Control System
Carburetor Heat

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229
Engine Control System

• Miscellaneous Engine
Controls – includes cowl
flaps, oil coolers,
superchargers etc.

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230
Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies

• Top Dead Center (TDC) – the position of the

piston inside the cylinder when it reaches the
top most of its travel.

• Bottom Dead Center (BDC) – the position of

the piston inside the cylinder when it
reaches the bottom most of its travel.

• Stroke (S) – the total distance that the

piston travels from the top dead center to the
bottom dead center.

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231
Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Valve Timing

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232
 Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies

• Valve Lead - is when the valve opens before the

theoretical opening time

• Valve Lag - is when the valve remains open after the

theoretical closing time.

• Valve Overlap - Number of degrees that both the

intake and exhaust valves are unseated

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Proper timing is ensured during installation

Explanation:
•Valve Clearance: Valve clearance is the small gap between the valve stem and the
rocker arm or camshaft lobe when the valve is closed. This clearance is necessary to
account for the expansion of the valve and other engine components as they heat up
during operation.
•Hot vs. Cold Clearance: "Hot clearance" is the clearance specified for the valves
when the engine is at its normal operating temperature. "Cold clearance" is specified
for when the engine is cold.
Setting the valves using hot clearance when the engine is cold means that the initial
clearance will be too small. As the engine heats up, the components will expand, but
because the initial clearance was too small, the valves will effectively have little to no
clearance as the engine reaches operating temperature. This causes:
•Valves Opening Early: The valves will start to open sooner than intended because
the lack of proper clearance means the camshaft will engage the valves earlier in its
rotation.
•Valves Closing Late: The valves will also close later than intended because the
reduced clearance allows the camshaft to keep the valves open for a longer duration.

233
 Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies

Timing Disk: A timing disk is attached to the front of

the crankshaft or flywheel and has degree markings
on it. It allows for precise measurement of
crankshaft rotation in degrees, which is essential for
setting valve timing and other engine adjustments.

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Proper timing is ensured during installation

Explanation:
•Valve Clearance: Valve clearance is the small gap between the valve stem and the
rocker arm or camshaft lobe when the valve is closed. This clearance is necessary to
account for the expansion of the valve and other engine components as they heat up
during operation.
•Hot vs. Cold Clearance: "Hot clearance" is the clearance specified for the valves
when the engine is at its normal operating temperature. "Cold clearance" is specified
for when the engine is cold.
Setting the valves using hot clearance when the engine is cold means that the initial
clearance will be too small. As the engine heats up, the components will expand, but
because the initial clearance was too small, the valves will effectively have little to no
clearance as the engine reaches operating temperature. This causes:
•Valves Opening Early: The valves will start to open sooner than intended because
the lack of proper clearance means the camshaft will engage the valves earlier in its
rotation.
•Valves Closing Late: The valves will also close later than intended because the
reduced clearance allows the camshaft to keep the valves open for a longer duration.

234
Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies

• Bore – the inside diameter of the cylinder

• Piston displacement (VD) - the volume

being travelled by the piston as it moves
from the TDC to the BDC. The product of
the area of the piston, length of the
stroke, and the number of cylinders.

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235
Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies

PISTON DISPLACEMENT
Piston Displacement = A x L
Total Piston Displacement = A x L x N

A = Area of Piston
L = Length of Stroke
N = Number of Cylinders

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236
Supplemental Information

What is the total piston displacement of a four cylinder aircraft engine

which has a bore of 4 inches and a length of stroke of 6 inches?

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237
Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies

Other Geometric Formulas

stroke
Crank radius/throw R=
2

Length of connecting Rod L = 4R

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238
 Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies

Engine Geometry Terminologies

 Clearance volume (Vc) – the
volume within the cylinder when the
piston is at the TDC.

 Total volume (VT) – the over all or

total volume within the cylinder.

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239
Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies

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240
Supplemental Information
Firing Order

Opposed Engines
4 Cylinder Lycoming and Continental
 1-3-2-4
6 Cylinder Lycoming
 1-4-5-2-3-6
6 Cylinder Continental
 1-6-3-2-5-4

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241
Supplemental Information
Firing Order

Radial Engines
Single-row Double-row
 7 Cylinders
1-3-5-7-2-4-6
 14 Cylinders (+9 , -5)
 9 Cylinders 1-10-5-14-9-4-13-8-3-12-7-2-11-6
1-3-5-7-9-2-4-6-8  18 Cylinders (+11 , -7)
1-12-5-16-9-2-13-6-17-10-3-14-7-
18-11-4-15-8

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242
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

9. If the oil pressure gauge fluctuates over a wide range from zero to
normal operating pressure, the most likely cause is
a) broken or weak pressure relief valve spring
b) low oil pressure
c) Air lock in the scavenge pump intake

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If the oil pressure gauge fluctuates over a wide range from zero to normal operating
pressure, the most likely cause is:
a) broken or weak pressure relief valve spring
A malfunctioning pressure relief valve can cause erratic oil pressure readings as it
fails to regulate the oil pressure properly.

243
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

10. If the hot clearance is used to set the valves when the engine is
cold, what will occur during operation of the engine?
a) The valves will open early and close early
b) The valves will open late and close early
c) The valves will open early and close late

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If the hot clearance is used to set the valves when the engine is cold, during operation
of the engine:
b) The valves will open late and close early
This happens because the engine components expand as they heat up. If you set the
valve clearances based on the hot clearance when the engine is cold, the clearances
will be too tight when the engine is hot, causing the valves to open later and close
earlier than intended.

244
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

11. If air is heard coming from the crankcase breather or oil filler
during a differential compression check, what is this an indication
of?
a) Exhaust valve leakage
b) Intake valve leakage
c) Piston ring leakage

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If air is heard coming from the crankcase breather or oil filler during a differential
compression check, this is an indication of:
c) Piston ring leakage
Air escaping from the crankcase breather or oil filler suggests that the compression is
not being properly sealed by the piston rings, allowing air to bypass into the
crankcase.

245
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

12. Using the following information, determine how many degrees the crankshaft will
rotate with both the intake and exhaust valves seated.
Intake opens 15 deg: BTDC
Exhaust opens 70 deg: BBDC
Intake Closes 45 deg: ABDC
Exhaust Closes 10 deg: ATDC
a) 290 deg
b) 373 deg
c) 245 deg

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c) 245 deg

246
 ATTITUDE. SKILLS. KNOWLEDGE. facebook.com/everythingaviation.1Aero

c) 245 deg

247
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

13. Which of the following will be caused by excessive valve

clearance of a cylinder on a reciprocating aircraft engine?
a) Reduced valve overlap period
b) Intake and exhaust valves will open and close late
c) A power increase by shortening the exhaust event

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b) Intake and exhaust valves will open and close late

248
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

14. What tool is generally used to measure the crankshaft rotation in

degrees?
a) Dial Indicator
b) Timing Disk
c) Prop Protractor

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249
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

15. Which statement is correct regarding engine crankshafts?

a) Moveable counterweights serve to reduce the dynamic vibrations in an aircraft

reciprocating engine
b) Moveable counterweights serve to reduce the torsional vibrations in an aircraft
reciprocating engine
c) Moveable counterweights are designed to resonate at the natural frequency of the
crankshaft

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a) Moveable counterweights serve to reduce the dynamic

vibrations in an aircraft reciprocating engine

250
Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Power

Engine Power

Work – work is defined as the Power – Rate at which work is

process of transferring energy to done or energy is transferred
an object via a force that causes over time.
the object to move.

W = Force x Distance Power(P)=Time(t)Work(W)

Unit: lbf – ft ; N-m (joules) Unit: (lbf – ft)/s ; (N-m)/s ; (joules/s) ;

HP ; Watt

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251
Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Power

Conversion to Remember

1 lbf = 4.448 N
1 hp = 746 W (J/s)
1 hp = 550 lb-ft/s
1 hp = 33000 lb-ft/min
1 BTU = 778 lb-ft

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252
Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Power

Indicated Horsepower

Indicated Horsepower
Total power actually developed in an engine’s cylinder
without reference to friction losses within the engine

Indicated Mean Effective Pressure

Average pressure of all the measured pressure within
each cylinder used in producing indicated horsepower

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253
 Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Power

Mean Effective Pressure

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Engine Power Output: MEP is used to estimate the power output of an engine. It
helps compare the performance of different engines or the same engine under
various operating conditions. Higher MEP generally indicates better engine
performance

254
 Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Power

W = PdV

MEP is used to estimate the power output of an

engine. It helps compare the performance of
different engines or the same engine under various
operating conditions. Higher MEP generally indicates
better engine performance

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Engine Power Output: MEP is used to estimate the power output of an engine. It
helps compare the performance of different engines or the same engine under
various operating conditions. Higher MEP generally indicates better engine
performance

255
 Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Power

• Indicated Horsepower (IHP) - Is the theoretical power produced by an engine, calculated from
the pressure inside the engine's cylinders before accounting for any mechanical losses.
• Friction Horsepower (FHP) - Represents the power required to overcome the internal friction of
the engine components.
• Brake Horsepower (BHP) - Represents actual power output of the engine measured at the
crankshaft or output shaft,

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Indicated Horsepower (IHP) is a measure of the power produced by an engine as

calculated from the pressure inside the engine's cylinders, before accounting for any
losses due to friction, heat dissipation, or other factors.

256
 Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Power

Indicated Horsepower
PLANK
IHP= ; IHP = FHP + BHP
33000
P = indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP)
L = stroke length
A = Area of piston head
N = power strokes per minute (divide 2 if 4 stroke)
K = number of cylinders

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Indicated Horsepower (IHP) is a measure of the power produced by an engine as

calculated from the pressure inside the engine's cylinders, before accounting for any
losses due to friction, heat dissipation, or other factors.

257
Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Power

 psi  ft   in2   rpm  k 

IHP=
lb-ft
33000
min

 psf  ft   ft 2   rev/s  k 
IHP=
lb-ft
550
s
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258
Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Power

Example
Compute the indicated horsepower for a six-cylinder
engine that has a bore of five inches, a stroke of five inches, and is
turning at 2,750 rpm with a measured IMEP of 125 psi per cylinder

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259
 ATTITUDE. SKILLS. KNOWLEDGE. facebook.com/everythingaviation.1Aero

c) 245 deg

260
 Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Power

Friction Horsepower - Power required to

overcome the friction and energy losses

Brake Horsepower
• Actual amount of power delivered to the
propeller shaft
• 85-90% of the IHP
• IHP-FHP

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261
 Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Power

Torque measuring Devices

• Torquemeter
• Dynamometer - As the propeller shaft rotates, it
tries to spin the brake which, in turn, applies
force to a scale

2π  Torque  rpm 
BHP =
33000

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262
Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Power

Mean Effective Pressure

• An average pressure inside the cylinders of an internal combustion engine based on some calculated or measured horsepower.
• It increases as manifold pressure increases.

Brake Mean Effective Pressure

• That portion of IMEP that produces brake horsepower is called brake mean effective pressure (BMEP)
• Derived from indicated horsepower

BMEP
IMEP=
mechanical efficiency

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263
Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Power

Brake Mean Effective Pressure

3 3,0 0 0
BM EP  bhp 
LANK
7 9 2,0 0 0  bhp 
BMEP   
d i s p la c e m e n t  r p m 

L = stroke (ft)
A = area of bore (sq. in)
N = no. of working stroke (divide 2 if 4-stroke)
K = number of cylinders

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Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Power

Brake Mean Effective Pressure

If an R 1830 engine is turning at 2750 rpm and developing 1100 hp,
what is the bmep?

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 ATTITUDE. SKILLS. KNOWLEDGE. facebook.com/everythingaviation.1Aero

c) 245 deg

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Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Efficiency

Efficiency

The ratio of the input energy to the output energy,

or the energy supplied to produce work and the
actual energy being converted into work.

𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑡
𝑒=
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡

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Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Efficiency

Thermal Efficiency

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Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Efficiency

Thermal Efficiency

Thermal Efficiency =
HP  33,000
weight of fuel burned/min x heat value x 778

Note: Heat Value in (BTU) = 1 pound of avgas contains 20,000 BTUs

If brake horsepower is used, the result is brake thermal efficiency (BTE), and if
indicated horsepower is used, you get indicated thermal efficiency (ITE)

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 Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Efficiency

Thermal Efficiency

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An engine delivers 85 bhp for a period of 1 hour and during that time consume 50 lb of
fuel. Assuming the fuel has a heat content of 18,800 BTU per pound, find the thermal
efficiency.

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 Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Efficiency

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An engine delivers 85 bhp for a period of 1 hour and during that time consume 50 lb of
fuel. Assuming the fuel has a heat content of 18,800 BTU per pound, find the thermal
efficiency.

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Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Efficiency

Volumetric Efficiency
Is the ratio of the volume of fuel and air an engine takes into its
cylinders to the total piston displacement

volume of charge at atmospheric pressure

Vol. Eff. =
piston displacement

Note: Anything that decreases the density, or volume of air entering a

cylinder decreases volumetric efficiency

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Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Efficiency

Volumetric Efficiency
• The volumetric efficiency of most normally aspirated engines is less than 100 percent.
The reason for this is because bends, surface roughness, and obstructions inside the
induction system slow the flow of air which, in turn, reduces the air pressure within
the manifold.

• On the other hand, turbocharged engines compress the air before it enters the
cylinders, and often have volumetric efficiencies greater than 100 percent.

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Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Efficiency

Volumetric Efficiency
Factors Affecting Volumetric
• Part Throttle Operation
• Long, small diameter, intake pipes
• Induction systems with sharp bends
• High carburator air temperatures
• High cylinder head temperatures
• Incomplete Scavenging
• Improper Valve timing
• Increases in altitude

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Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Efficiency

Mechanical Efficiency
• is the ratio of brake horsepower to indicated horsepower and
represents the percentage of power developed in the cylinders
that reaches the propeller shaft.

output BHP
Mech. Eff. = =
input IHP

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 Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Efficiency

Design Efficiency Factors

• If the cylinder Bore is too large fuel will be wasted and the intensity of the heat
and the restricted flow of the heat may be so great that the cylinder may not be
cooled properly

• If the Stroke is too large, Excessive dynamic stresses and too much angularity
of the connecting rods will be the consequences.

• Square Engine - the Bore and Stroke are equal It provides the best and efficient
engine performance

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 Supplemental Information
Useful Terminologies - Efficiency

Factors Affecting Power

• Manifold Pressure
• Detonation and Pre-ignition
• Compression Ratio
• Ignition Timing
• Engine Speed
• Specific Fuel Consumption
• Altitude
• Fuel/Air ratio

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 Supplemental Information
Manifold Pressure

Manifold Pressure
• The pressure of the fuel/air mixture in the intake manifold between
the carburator or internal supercharger and the intake valve.

• Changes in manifold air pressure affect the amount of power an

engine can produce for a given rpm.

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 Supplemental Information
Detonation

• It is the uncontrolled, explosive ignition of the

fuel/air mixture in the cylinder
• Detonation causes high cylinder temperatures and
pressures which lead to a rough running engine,
overheating, and power loss.
• If detonation occurs in an engine, damage or even
failure of pistons, cylinders, or valves can happen.

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 Supplemental Information
Detonation

Causes of Detonation

• Using a fuel grade lower than recommended

• Allowing the engine to overheat.
• Wrong ignition timing
• Fuel/air mixture too lean,
• Compression ratios of 12:1 or higher

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ENGINE MAINTENANCE
Engine Instruments

Backfiring – When an excessively lean fuel/air mixture passes into a

cylinder, the mixture may not burn at all or will burn so slowly that
combustion continues through the power and exhaust strokes.
• Detected by cold cylinder check

Causes of Backfiring
1. Incorrect valve clearance
2. Defective fuel nozzles
3. Conditions resulting to lean mixtures

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ENGINE MAINTENANCE
Engine Instruments

Afterfiring – called afterburning

• Too rich mixture also burn slowly due to lack of oxygen
• As the unburned fuel is exhausted to the exhaust stacks, air will react
with the gases causing explosion on the exhaust system

Cause:
1. Cylinders not firing
2. Defective fuel nozzles
3. Incorrect valve clearance

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 Supplemental Information
Pre-Ignition

Pre-Ignition
• It takes place when the fuel/air mixture ignites too soon.
• It is caused by hot spots in a cylinder that ignite the fuel/air mixture before the
spark plugs fire.
• A hot spot can be caused by something as simple as a carbon particle,
overheated
• Valve edges, silica deposits on a spark plug, or a red-hot spark plug electrode

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 Supplemental Information
Factors Affecting Engine Power

Compression Ratio
• An engine's compression ratio is defined as the ratio of cylinder volume with the
piston at the bottom of its stroke to the volume with the piston at the top of its
stroke.
• The higher the compression ratio the higher the efficiency
• If compression ratio is increased beyond the critical pressure of the fuel,
detonation will occur
• Turbocharging increases temperature of mixture thus increasing possibility of
detonation

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Supplemental Information
Factors Affecting Engine Power - Compression Ratio

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Supplemental Information
Factors Affecting Engine Power - Compression Ratio

• Compression ratios can be increased or decreased by altering an engine's

design.
• Another way to increase compression ratios without changing the piston
stroke length include installing domed pistons
• The characteristics of available fuels
• The degree of turbocharging

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Supplemental Information
Factors Affecting Engine Power - Compression Ratio

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 Supplemental Information
Factors Affecting Engine Power - Ignition Timing

• When the ignition event is properly timed, complete combustion and maximum pressure
occur just after the piston passes top dead center at the beginning of the power stroke.

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 Supplemental Information
Factors Affecting Engine Power - Ignition Timing

Ignition Event Occurring too Early

Force of the expanding gas opposes rotational inertia which decreases engine power

Ignition Event Occurring too Late

Causes a loss of power, since cylinder volume is increasing at the same time the gases are expanding
Does not allow enough time for complete combustion before the exhaust valve opens. Burning gases then
engulf the valve, increase its temperature, and often lead to detonation or engine damage due to
overheating.

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Supplemental Information
Factors Affecting Engine Power - Engine Speed

The amount of power an aircraft engine produces is

determined by cylinder pressure, piston area, the distance a
piston moves on each stroke, and the number of times this
movement occurs in one minute.
• The faster an engine runs, the more power it produces

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Supplemental Information
Factors Affecting Engine Power - Engine Speed

Limiting Factors on the Maximum Rotational Speed of the Engine

• Ignition timing,
• Valve timing,
• The inertia of rapidly moving pistons
• Propeller tip speed

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Supplemental Information
Factors Affecting Engine Power - Altitude

• As an aircraft climbs, ambient air

pressure drops and air density decreases.
Whenever less air is available for
combustion, engine power output
decreases.
• One way to overcome the problems
associated with high density altitudes is
by turbocharging an engine

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Supplemental Information
Factors Affecting Engine Power - Turbocharger

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Supplemental Information
Factors Affecting Engine Power - Turbocharger

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 Supplemental Information
Turbocharger vs Supercharger

Feature Supercharger Turbocharger

Power Source Driven by the engine's crankshaft Driven by exhaust gases

Boost Delivery Provides immediate boost Boost delivery can be delayed (lag)

Complexity Simpler installation and setup More complex installation and setup

Generally more efficient (utilizes

Efficiency Less efficient due to parasitic drag
waste energy)
Can generate significant heat in the
Heat Generation Generates additional heat in the engine bay
exhaust system
May reduce fuel economy due to engine Can improve fuel economy with
Fuel Economy
load proper tuning
Lag Minimal or no lag Potential for turbo lag
Requires more maintenance (e.g.,
Maintenance Generally lower maintenance
turbo bearings)

Cost Typically lower cost Often higher cost due to complexity

Installation Easier to install in many cases Installation may require modifications

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Supplemental Information
Specific Fuel Consumption

• An engine's specific fuel consumption is the number of pounds of

fuel burned per hour to produce one horsepower.
• Most modern aircraft reciprocating engines have a brake specific
fuel consumption (bsfc) that is between .4 and .5 pounds per
horsepower hour
• Specific fuel consumption is useful for comparing engine
efficiencies.

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Supplemental Information
Specific Fuel Consumption

Factors that Affect the Variation of Specific Fuel Consumption

• Engine speed,
• Engine design,
• Volumetric efficiency, and
• Friction losses.

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Supplemental Information
Stoichiometric Ratio

• Mixture controls allow adjustment of the fuel/air ratio from idle cut-off to full rich
conditions.
• Leaning raises engine operating temperatures while enriching provides a cooling
effect.
• Leaning becomes necessary as altitude increases, because air density drops, causing
the fuel/air ratio to gradually become richer.

15:1

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Supplemental Information
Stoichiometric Ratio

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Supplemental Information
Stoichiometric Ratio

Fuel Mixture - Specific leaning procedures should be in accordance with the respective
Pilot/Owner's Handbook.

Start: Mixture full rich

Take-off: Leaned (to reach max power)
Cruise: Leaned futher (engine's best economy)

• Temperature of cylinder varies directly with mixture

• Too rich mixture provides cooling effect

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Supplemental Information
Stoichiometric Ratio

• Best power mixture develops maximum power at a particular rpm and is

typically used during takeoff.
• Best economy mixture provides the best specific fuel consumption which
results in an aircraft's maximum range and optimum fuel economy

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Supplemental Information
Stoichiometric Ratio

Aspect Stoichiometric Mixture (~14.7:1) Lean Mixture (e.g., 16:1) Rich Mixture (e.g., 12:1)
Balanced power, efficiency, and Slightly reduced power, higher Increased power, cooler combustion
Performance
emissions combustion temperatures temperatures
Power Optimal for most driving conditions Reduced due to less fuel Increased due to more fuel
Higher combustion temperatures,
Heat Normal operating temperatures Cooler combustion temperatures
risk of knocking
Less responsive due to lower fuel More responsive due to higher fuel
Throttle Response Responsive
availability availability
High fuel efficiency due to complete Improved fuel efficiency, higher Lower fuel efficiency, higher fuel
Efficiency
combustion thermal efficiency consumption
Fuel Efficiency Optimal Improved Reduced
Thermal Efficiency Balanced Higher Lower
Lower CO and HC, potential increase
Emissions Balanced emissions Higher CO and HC, lower NOx
in NOx
Lower than rich mixtures, higher Lower CO and HC, higher NOx due
Pollutants Higher CO and HC, lower NOx
than lean in some conditions to high temps
Maintains good engine health, Increased risk of overheating and Potential for soot and carbon
Engine Health
minimal deposits and wear potential damage deposits, better cooling
Heat Stress Normal Higher risk Lower risk
Longevity Generally good Reduced if too lean Can reduce due to soot and deposits

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 Supplemental Information
Engine Instruments

Engine Instruments
Engine instrument range markings are based on limits found in the engine's Type
Certificate Data Sheet

Green arcs are the most widely used of all the instrument markings and usually indicate a
safe or normal range of operation
Blue arcs are used to indicate an allowable range of operations under a unique set of
circumstances
A yellow arc indicates a precautionary range of time limited operation permitted by the
manufacturer
A red line indicates a maximum or beyond it results in adverse operating conditions

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Supplemental Information
Engine Instruments

Engine Instruments

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Supplemental Information
Engine Instruments

Engine Instruments

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 Supplemental Information
Engine Instruments

Engine Instruments

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The blue scale indicates the maximum manifold pressure (MP) at a given altitude.
•from sea level (SL) to 16000 ft: the maximum MP is 40 inHg (inches of mercury).
•from 16000 ft to 30000 ft, the maximum MP goes down to 20 inHg.

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Supplemental Information
Manifold Pressure

Manifold Pressure (MAP)

• Used on all aircraft with constant speed propeller to indicate engine
power output.
• Helps pilot to avoid excessive manifold pressure on turbo-charged
engines

Before engine start: MAP = atmospheric

After engine started: MAP = 1/2 atmospheric
Full Power: will not exceed atmospheric
Full Power: (Turbocharged) : may exceed atmospheric

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Supplemental Information
Manifold Pressure

Constant Speed Propeller Aircraft

1. Throttle Control – manifold pressure gauge
2. Propeller Control – RPM

Power Setting Increase: RPM first , MAP second

Power Setting Decrease: MAP first, RPM second

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Supplemental Information
Manifold Pressure

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Supplemental Information
Operational Checks

Magneto Safety Check

• Ensure all ignition connections are secure
• Accomplished at idle RPM with propeller at High RPM, low pitch position
• Ground check conducted with aircraft facing the wind
• Cowl Flaps opened while on the ground

Power Check
• Measure engine’s performance in comparison with the standard
specifications
• Too rich mixture causes build-up and foul-out the spark plugs

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Supplemental Information
Operational Checks

Engine Performance - Compression Check

1. Piston ring in good condition
2. Tightly closed valves
3. Correct Valve Timing

If any one of these items is not correct, the cylinder will not seal and poor
compression will result. Anytime cylinder compression is low, engine
performance suffers.

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Supplemental Information
Operational Checks

Cold Cylinder Check

A cold cylinder check is a diagnostic procedure used
to identify cylinders in a reciprocating engine that
are not combusting properly. This can be
particularly useful during the engine start-up
phase.

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 Supplemental Information
Operational Checks - Cold Cylinder Check

Propeller Indicator Temperature

Observation
Setting Tool Check
High RPM, Low Blade Angle Check each cylinder Probe/Thermometer Reference temperature

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Procedure
1.Propeller Setting: During
starting, the propeller is set to high
RPM and a low blade angle. This
setting helps to unload the engine
by reducing the load on each
cylinder, making it easier to start
and run smoothly.

313
2. Observation: After the engine
has been started and run for a short
period, each cylinder's temperature
is checked.
3.Indicator Tool: A cold cylinder
indicator, which can be a
temperature-sensitive probe or
infrared thermometer, is touched to
each cylinder to measure its
temperature.
4.Temperature Check:
1. Normal Combustion:
Cylinders that are functioning
correctly will be warm or hot,
indicating that combustion is
occurring as expected.
2. Cold Cylinder: A cylinder that
is cold or only slightly warm

313
indicates a lack of
combustion. This could be
due to various issues such as:
1.Faulty spark plug
2.Fuel delivery problems
3.Compression issues
4.Ignition timing problems

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 Supplemental Information
Operational Checks

• Warm/Hot

Normal
• 150 to 200 deg C

• Below 150 deg C

Cold
• Faulty Spark Plug
• Fuel Delivery Problems
• Compression Issues
• Ignition Timing Problems

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Procedure
1.Propeller Setting: During
starting, the propeller is set to high
RPM and a low blade angle. This
setting helps to unload the engine
by reducing the load on each
cylinder, making it easier to start
and run smoothly.

314
2. Observation: After the engine
has been started and run for a short
period, each cylinder's temperature
is checked.
3.Indicator Tool: A cold cylinder
indicator, which can be a
temperature-sensitive probe or
infrared thermometer, is touched to
each cylinder to measure its
temperature.
4.Temperature Check:
1. Normal Combustion:
Cylinders that are functioning
correctly will be warm or hot,
indicating that combustion is
occurring as expected.
2. Cold Cylinder: A cylinder that
is cold or only slightly warm

314
indicates a lack of
combustion. This could be
due to various issues such as:
1.Faulty spark plug
2.Fuel delivery problems
3.Compression issues
4.Ignition timing problems

314
 Supplemental Information
Operational Checks

Compression Check
This test measures the pressure generated in each
cylinder during the compression stroke, providing
valuable insights into the condition of the engine's
internal components.

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Compression Testing
• Determine if the valves, piston rings and pistons
sufficiently seal during compression stroke
• Excessive Valve Clearance - valves do not open as
wide or remain as long as they should. This reduces
valve duration and valve overlap.
• 0.005 in valve clearance has definite effect on mixture
distribution
• Excessive Intake Clearance – valve opening late, closing
early, throttling effect. It cuts down power output at high
power setting
• Insufficient Intake Clearance – opens early, close late. It
can cause backfiring

• Excessive Exhaust Clearance – shortens exhaust event;

poor scavenging; cylinder overheating

315
• Insufficient Exhaust Clearance - shortening power event;
power loss
• Valve Stretching – indicated by decreased stem area

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Supplemental Information
Required Inspections

Inspections
1. 50-hr – It is not required by the Federal Aviation Regulations, it is
recommended by almost all engine manufacturers.
A typical 50-hour inspection requires you to conduct a runup and check all
of the engine's subsystems including the ignition, fuel, lubrication, exhaust,
cooling, and tur-bocharging systems.

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Supplemental Information
Required Inspections

• 100-hr - all general aviation aircraft that are operated for hire must be
inspected every 100 flight hours. This inspection covers the same items
as the annual inspection

Annual
• FAR Part 91 – all general aviation aircraft must go through an annual
inspection
• In the case of an annual inspection, the person conducting a 100-hour
inspection cannot delegate inspection duties
• Last day of the 12th month after the last annual inspection

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Supplemental Information
Required Inspections

• May be performed by an A&P technician with Inspection Authorization

• If a person performing annual inspection finds a discrepancy that

renders the aircraft unairworthy, aircraft owner must be provided with
written notice of defect

• Special flight permit must be provided if the aircraft is to be repaired at

another location

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Supplemental Information
Required Inspections

FAA Form 337 – major repair and alteration form

• If any major repairs were done, a 337 form must be completed and kept
in the engine logbook
• Once complete, the original 337 form is given to the aircraft owner while
a duplicate is sent to the regulation office within 48 hours of completing
the work.

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Supplemental Information
Maintenance Log

Log Entry/Maintenance
1. Date
2. Reference Data
3. Name of person who did the work
4. Signature (RTS)
5. Certificate Number
6. Ratings

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Supplemental Information
Maintenance Log

Inspection Log Entry

1. Date
2. Total Time in Service
3. Type of Inspection
4. Certification Statement
5. Signature
6. Certificate Number
7. Ratings

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322
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

1. The temperature of the gases within the cylinder of a four stroke

engine during the power stroke will

a) Be constant.
b) Decrease.
c) Increase.
d) Follow Charles's Law.

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323
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

2. The temperature of the gases within the cylinder of a four stroke

engine during the power stroke
Will

a) Be constant.
b) Decrease.
c) Increase.
d) Follow Charles's Law.

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324
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

3. To reduce the power output of an engine equipped with a constant-speed

propeller and operating near maximum BMEP, the

a) Manifold pressure is reduced with the throttle control before the RPM is reduced with the
propeller control
b) Manifold pressure is reduced with the propeller control before the RPM is reduced with the
throttle control
c) RPM is reduced with the propeller control before the manifold pressure is reduced with the
throttle control
d) RPM is reduced with the throttle control before the manifold pressure is reduced with the
propeller control

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325
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

4. Before attempting to start a radial engine that has been shut down for
more than 30 minutes
a) Turn the propeller by hand three or four revolutions in the opposite
direction of normal rotation to check for liquid
b) Turn the ignition switch on before energizing the starter
c) Turn the propeller by hand three to four revolutions in the normal
direction of rotation for liquid lock

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326
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

5. The inlet valve opens before T.D.C. in the exhaust stroke to:
a) Increase the pressure in the cylinder on completion of the induction
stroke.
b) Reduce engine vibration.
c) Allow the incoming mixture to mix with a certain proportion of the
exhaust gases.
d) Induce a greater amount of mixture into the cylinder.

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327
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

6. The correct working cycle of a four stroke engine is:

a) Exhaust, power, induction, compression.

b) Compression, power, exhaust, induction.
c) Induction, power, compression, exhaust.
d) Power, exhaust, compression, induction.

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328
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

7. Valve overlap is incorporated in the valve timing of a piston engine to:

a) Improve volumetric efficiency.

b) Reduce wear on the big end bearings.
c) Increase the engine's compression ratio.
d) Prevent a weak cut when the engine is accelerated rapidly.

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329
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

8. The term "Indicated Mean Effective Pressure" refers to:

a) The maximum working pressure in the engine cylinder.

b) The effective working pressure in the cylinder during the power stroke.
c) The pressure achieved during compression.
d) The minimum working pressure applied to the piston during the cycle.

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330
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

9. On a four cylinder engine with a total volume of 9600 cc bore area of

1OOcm2 and a crank throw of 10 cm. What would the Compression Ratio be?
a) 7:1
b) 8:1
c) 24:1
d) 6:1

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CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

10. From Top Dead Centre (TDC) to Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) on the
practical power stroke:
a) The temperature of the gases rises for a short time then decreases.
b) The pressure of the gases remains constant.
c) The temperature of the gases decreases from TDC to BDC.
d) The density of the gas remains constant.

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CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Questions

11. The power output of an internal combustion engine:

a) Is proportional to the volume of mixture induced into the cylinder.
b) Increases with increased humidity.
c) Falls as the charge temperature falls.
d) Is proportional to the weight of the mixture induced into the cylinder.

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 THANK YOU!
PRC AERONAUTICAL ENGINEER COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW

Engr. Ken Guanzon

Instructor

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