Thermal Process Modeling

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Thermal Process Modeling
Proceedings from the

5th International Conference on Thermal Process Modeling and Computer Simulation
June 16 – 18, 2014

Gaylord Palms Resort & Convention Center
Orlando, FL USA
Edited by:
B. Lynn Ferguson
Robert Goldstein
Scott MacKenzie
Rozalia Papp
Published by
ASM International
Materials Park, Ohio 44073-0002
www.asminternational.org
Copyright © 2014
by
ASM International®
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Printed in the United States of America

Preface
This collection of papers represents the heart of the 5th International Conference on Thermal Process Modeling and
Computer Simulation. Thermal processes are key manufacturing steps in producing durable and useful products,
with solidification, welding, heat treating, and surface engineering being primary steps. For this reason, the
International Federation for Heat Treatment and Surface Engineering (IFHTSE) and the Heat Treating Society of
ASM International assembled the listed Organizing Committees of experts in the field and solicited papers worthy
of presentation to practitioners, researchers and academia on this critical topic of thermal process modeling.
This Conference was a joint effort and we wish to especially thank the members of the HTS Board, the HTS
Technology and Programming Committee, the IFHTSE Secretariat and Board, and the Domestic and International
Organizing Committees for their guidance and efforts to identify, solicit, and encourage experts from both academia
and industry to share their knowledge and expertise to create this fine program. As individuals and as an industry,
we profit from the effort of these volunteers and the hours they devote to advancing the science of thermal
processing. The efforts of the authors and the reviewers of these papers are much appreciated, and we gratefully
thank them.
These papers represent the latest state-of-the-art in thermal process modeling. The breadth of topics covers the
depth of our industry and will be a valuable reference source for years to come. The opportunity to Co - Chair this
Conference as well as to bring you the 5th ICTPMCS Proceedings has truly been our pleasure and privilege. Thank
you for allowing us this opportunity.
Andrew Banka
Airflow Sciences Corporation
B. Lynn Ferguson
DANTE Solutions, Incorporated
Robert Goldstein
Fluxtrol Incorporated
Scott MacKenzie
Houghton International
Rozalia Papp
Air Liquide
iii
ICTPMCS 2014 Organizing Committee
Conference Co-Chairs
B. Lynn Ferguson Scott MacKenzie
DANTE Solutions, Incorporated Houghton International
Domestic Organizing Committee

Aquil Ahmad Zhichao Li
Eaton Corporation DANTE Solutions, Incorporated
Andy Banka Zi-Kui Liu

Airflow Sciences Corporation Pennsylvania State Univ
Andrew Freborg Gord Montgomery

DANTE Solutions, Incorporated W. G. Montgomery Ltd.
Robert Goldstein Rozalia Papp

Fluxtrol Incorporated Air Liquide
Bob Hill Rick Sisson

Solar Atmospheres Incorporated Worchester Polytechnic Institute
Gerry Ludtka Qigui Wang

Oak Ridge National Laboratory General Motors
Mei Li Dale Weires

Ford Motor Company Boeing
International Organizing Committee

Kyozo Arimoto Thomas Luebben
Arimotech Limited IWT Bremen
Lauralice Canale Michiharu Narazaki

University of Sao Paulo Utsunomiya University
Sabine Denis K. Narayan Prabhu

Universite de Lorraine National Institute of Technology Karnataka
Fabrizio Dughiero Volker Schulze

Univerity of Padua Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
Imre Felde Reinhold Schneider

University of Obuda Technische University Berlin
Kiyoshi Funatani Eva Troell

IMST Institute Swerea IVF
C. Hakan Gur Emilia Wolowiec

Middle East Technical University Technical University of Lodz
Bernardo Hernandez-Morales Robert Wood

Universidad Nacional Autonnoma de Mexico IFHTSE
Xu Kewei Hans-Werner Zoch

Xi'an Jiatong University IWT Bremen
Young-kook Lee
Yonsei University
iv
Contents
Scroll to the title and Click on it to link to the paper. After viewing the paper, use the
bookmarks to the left to return to the beginning of the Contents.
Distortion and Residual Stress I

Modeling Heat Treatment for Characterizing Distortion, Residual Stress, Loading
Response and Fracture in a Vacuum Carburized and Gas Quenched Steel Coupon ........ 1
A. Freborg, B. Ferguson, and Z. Li
DANTE Solutions Inc., Cleveland, OH, USA
Measurement and Prediction of Residual Stresses in Heat Treated Large Forgings ........ 9
X. Zhang, X. Song, L. Zhu, and M. V. Li
China First Heavy Industries, TEDA, Tianjin, China
Finite Element Modeling of Immersion Route Effect on Macroscopic Distortion

during Quenching of Long Steel Components.................................................................... 14
F.A. García-Pastor, R.D. López García, and M.J. Castro-Román
Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN Unidad Saltillo, Ramos Arizpe, Coah.,
Mexico
Metal Processing I
FE-σ—Introducing Microscale Effects into FEM Simulation of Cold Forming ................. 20
Jörn Lütjens and Martin Hunkel
Stiftung Institut für Werkstofftechnik, Bremen, Germany
Computer Simulation and Experimental Validation of Low

Pressure Sand Casting Process of Magnesium Alloy V6 Engine Block ........................... 26
Yingxin Wang2, Liming Peng1,2, Penghuai Fu2, and Wenjiang Ding1,2
(1) Key State Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composite, Shanghai, China
(2) Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
FEM Comparative Between Two Roller Sizes for Hot Shape Rolling of
Reinforcement Bars Fabrication ........................................................................................... 34
J.A. Ríos-González and F.A. García-Pastor
México
Thermo-mechanical Simulation of Laser Beam Assisted Clinching

for High-Strength Steel .......................................................................................................... 39
Michael Reich1, Julia Osten1, Nikolay Kozlov1, Olaf Kessler1, and Jan Kalich2
(1) University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
(2) Dresden University of Technology, Germany
v
Phase Transformation I
Modeling of Aging Hardening in Aluminum Alloys ............................................................. 46
Qigui Wang, General Motors Company, Pontiac, MI, USA
Modeling Heat Treatment of 7075 Aluminum Components................................................ 53

B. Lynn Ferguson, Zhichao Li, and Andrew Freborg
DANTE Solutions, Inc., Cleveland, OH, USA
Metal Processing II
Finite Element Analysis of the Tool Load during Manufacturing
of a Flange in a Semisolid State ........................................................................................... 59
Bernd-Arno Behrens and Thorsten Matthias
Leibniz Universität Hannover, Garbsen, Germany
Thermal Modeling and Simulation of a Pico-Satellite using Finite Element Method ....... 65
Sadanand Wachche, Aniket Marne, Sumit Singare, Pranjal Naik, Ojas Bhide,
Gitesh Chaudhari, Prathamesh Vartak, Saloni Pendse, and Chinmay Tadwalkar
College of Engineering Pune, Maharashtra, India
Induction
Modeling Induction Heat Distribution in Carbon Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastics ........ 75
Robert C. Goldstein, John K. Jackowski, and Valentin S. Nemkov
Fluxtrol, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI, USA
Modeling of Coil Design for Induction Hardening in an Automotive Spindle Axle .......... 84
Héctor Leobardo Torres Garcia1, Oscar Jesús Zapata Hernández2, and
Gina María Idárraga Ospina2
(1) Sistemas Automotrices de México, General Escobedo, Nuevo León, México
(2) Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Nuevo León, México
Stress Generation in an Axle Shaft during Induction Hardening ...................................... 89

Zhichao (Charlie) Li1, B. Lynn Ferguson1, Robert Goldstein2, John Jackowski2,
Valentin Nemkov2, and Greg Fett3
(1) DANTE Solutions, Inc., Cleveland, OH, USA
(2) Fluxtrol, Inc. Auburn Hills, MI, USA
(3) Dana Corporation, Maumee, OH, USA
Properties and Data

Structural Materials Data Demonstration Project—Resource for
Thermal Process Modeling ................................................................................................... 97
Scott Henry1, Larry Berardinis1, Carelyn Campbell2, Alden Dima2, Ursula Kattner2, Tom Searles3,
Laura Bartolo4, and Warren Hunt5
(1) ASM International, Materials Park, OH, USA
(2) National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, USA
(3) Materials Data Management, Inc., Carmel, IN, USA
(4) Kent State University Center for Materials Informatics, Kent, OH, USA
(5) Nexight Group, Silver Springs, MD, USA
vi
Computer Modeling of Mechanical Properties and Microstructure of Quenched
Steel Specimen .................................................................................................................... 104
Božo Smoljan and Dario Iljkić
University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
Modeling of Mechanical Properties in Castings................................................................ 113

David Weiss and Dan Hoefert
Eck Industries, Inc., Manitowoc, WI, USA
Integrating M2M Services for Data Base Capture and Modeling Into Your Process ...... 116
R. Scott Terdic, Air Liquide Industrial LLC, Countryside, IL, USA
Carburizing
Mathematical Modelling of the Vacuum Carburizing Process ......................................... 119
Emilia Wołowiec, Piotr Kula, Łukasz Kołodziejczyk, Konrad Dybowski1, and Maciej Korecki2
(1) Technical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
(2) Seco/Warwick S.A., Świebodzin, Poland
Understanding Atmosphere in Carburizing Applications Using Simulation and

Real-Time Carbon Diffusion ................................................................................................ 124
Jim Oakes, Super Systems, Inc., Cincinnati, OH, USA
Temperature-Related Advances in Liquid Nitrocarburizing Technology ....................... 126

Michael L. Wright1, Rajiv Ahuja1, and Shlok Sundaresh2
(1) HEF USA, Springfield, OH, USA
(2) The Ohio State University,Columbus, OH, USA
Improvement on Temperature Uniformity in an Industrial Tip-up Heat Treating

Furnace ................................................................................................................................. 134
Alberto Cantu-Perez, Nutec Bickley, Santa Catarina, Nuevo Leon, Mexico
Distortion and Residual Stress II

Finite Element Simulations of Geometric Distortions in Ferritic Nitrocarburized
SAE 1010 Plain Carbon Steel .............................................................................................. 139
Madhavan Manivannan, Vesselin Stoilov, and Derek O. Northwood
University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario, Canada
Simulation of Distortion during Quenching Process ........................................................ 145

L. A. Reyes, René Cerda, and Martha P. Guerrero-Mata
Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, N.L., México
Effect of Hardenability and Press Quenching on Distortion of Crown Wheels .............. 149
Albin Stormvinter1, Hans Kristoffersen1, Anders Olofsson2, Karin Biwersi2, and Sven Haglund3
(1) Swerea IVF AB, Mölndal, Sweden
(2) Scania CV AB, UTMN, Södertälje, Sweden
(3) Swerea KIMAB AB, Kista, Sweden
vii
Numerical Study of Residual Stresses and Distortion in Quenched Large
Complicated Thin-Wall A357 Aluminum Alloy Workpieces.............................................. 156
Xiawei Yang1,2, Wenya Li1, Jingchuan Zhu2, Zhonghong Lai2, and Zhisheng Nong2
(1) Northwestern Polytechnical University, , Xi’an, Shaanxi, PR China
(2) Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, PR China
Modeling Methods
An ABAQUS Implementation of Finite Element Analysis of
Steady State Manufacturing Process in an Eulerian Frame ............................................. 163
Xiaoliang Qin, Li Zhou, and Guomai Liu, Fujian University of Technology, Fuzhou, PR China
Cellular Automata Model Of Low Carbon Steel Recrystallization Using A Refined

Dislocation Density Calculation ......................................................................................... 172
V. Sánchez-Guzmán, L.G. Castruita-Ávila, F.A. García-Pastor
México
Phase Transformation II
Numerical Simulation of Phase Transformation during the
Hot Stamping Process ......................................................................................................... 180
Bernd-Arno Behrens and Jens Schrödter, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Garbsen, Germany
Residual Stresses in Martensite after Multiple Heating Events ....................................... 192

Johan Ahlström, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
Influence of the β → α+β Transformation on the Stresses and Strains Evolutions

during Quenching of the Ti17 Alloy from the β Phase Field ............................................ 199
J. Teixeira, B. Denand, E. Aeby-Gautier, and S. Denis, Université de Lorraine, France
Welding
ICME Application in Designing Welded Structures .......................................................... 210
Yu-Ping Yang and Jerry Gould, EWI, Columbus, OH, USA
Thermal Control of the Friction Stir Welding Process ...................................................... 218

Tom J. Stockman, Josef B. Cobb, Judy Schneider, and Bryant Walker
Mississippi State University, MS, USA
Computationally Efficient Models for the Forced Air Cooling of Turbine Disks ............ 223
Andreas Drexler1, Hans-Peter Gänser1, Werner Ecker1, Bernd Oberwinkler2,
Andreas Fischersworring-Bunk3
(1) Materials Center Leoben Forschung GmbH, Leoben, Austria
(2) MTU Aero Engines AG, Kapfenberg, Austria
(3) MTU Aero Engines AG, Munich, Germany
viii
Process Modeling
Constitutive Behavior and Modeling of Cast Aluminum Alloys during the
Quenching Process ............................................................................................................. 232
Qigui Wang, Bowang Xiao, General Motors Company, Pontiac, MI, USA
Reducing Gear Size for Compact Transmission Design by Selecting Steel Grade
and Heat Treatment Process with Computer Modeling .................................................... 239
Zhichao (Charlie) Li, B. Lynn Ferguson, and Andrew Freborg
DANTE Solutions, Inc., Cleveland, OH, USA
A Time-Compressed Numerical Approach for Thermal Analysis of Preheating

Process in Powder Metallurgy ............................................................................................ 246
S. Shlok1, R. Shivpuri1, and A. Ducato2
(1) The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
(2) University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
Quenching I
Progress on the Development of a Quench Boiling Model for CFD ................................ 256
William H. Newsome, Jeffrey D. Franklin, and Andrew L. Banka
Airflow Sciences Corporation, Livonia, MI, USA
Simulation of Shell Hardening of Unalloyed Steel Cylinders Due to High Speed

Quenching ............................................................................................................................ 261
F. Frerichs and Th. Lübben, Stiftung Institut für Werkstofftechnik (IWT), Bremen, Germany
Parameters Effecting Submerged Plumes in Quench Systems ....................................... 270

Andrew L. Banka1 and D. Scott Mackenzie2
(1) Airflow Sciences Corporation, Livonia, MI, USA
(2) Houghton International, Inc., Valley Forge, PA, USA
Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Water Quench Cooling of Aluminum

Cylinder Heads ..................................................................................................................... 277
Aslihan Mulayim Kaynar1, Sinan Eroglu1, Ulrich Weiss2, Eben Prabhu3, James Jan3,
John Lasecki3, Rok Kopun4, and David Greif4
(1) Ford Otosan, Gebze,Turkey
(2) Ford Forschungszentrum Aachen GmbH, Aachen, Germany
(3) Ford Motor Company, Dearborn, MI, USA
(4) AVL-AST d.o.o., Maribor, Slovenia
Quenching II
Benchmarking of Mathematical Models for Quenching Operations—A Proposal ......... 286

B. Hernández-Morales1, J.S. Téllez-Martínez1, and T.S. Prasanna Kumar2
(1) Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México
(2) Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, Chennai, India
ix
Numerical and Experimental Study of Aluminum Casting during Water
Quenching ............................................................................................................................ 294
Ke Su1, Qigui Wang1, Jeff Schlautman1, David Greif2, Rok Kopun2, and Shanmugasundaram
Chandrakesan3
(1) GM Global Powertrain Engineering, Pontiac, MI, USA
(2) AVL-AST d.o.o., Maribor, Slovenia
(3) AVL Powertrain Engineering Inc., Plymouth, MI, USA
Improvements in Quench Tank Design Using CFD Analysis ........................................... 301

Tiffany Lee and Andrew Banka, Airflow Sciences Corporation, Livonia, MI, USA
Coatings
A Through-Process Model for Cold Sprayed Aluminum Alloys ...................................... 308
D. Belsito1, B. McNally1, L. Bassett1, R. Sisson, Jr. 1, and V. Champagne2
(1) Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, USA
(2) U.S. Army Research Laboratory, Aberdeen, MD, USA
Simulation of Anisotropic Thermal Conductivity of Bi4Ti3O12 .......................................... 315

Haiming Lu, Jianfeng Gu, Jun Xu, and Qingdong Liu, Jiaotong University, Shanghai, China
Optimization of Alloying of Heat Resistant Core Wires for ARC Spraying by

Neural Network Modeling .................................................................................................... 323
Yu. Korobov, S. Nevezhin, V. Verkhorubov, G. Rimer, and A. Zhilin
Ural Federal University, Yekaterinburg, Russia
Nitriding
Modeling Steel Surface Treating Processes—Nitridetool ................................................ 329
Mei Yang, Lei Zhang, Xiaoqing Cai, Anbo Wang, and Richard D. Sisson
Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, USA
Modeling Steel Surface Treating Processes—Carbonitridetool ...................................... 330

Lei Zhang, Anbo Wang, Xiaoqing Cai, Mei Yang, and Richard D. Sisson
Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, USA
Author Index ......................................................................................................................... 331
x
Thermal Process Modeling: Proceedings from the 5th International Conference on Copyright © 2014 ASM International®
Thermal Process Modeling and Computer Simulation All rights reserved
June 16–18, 2014, Gaylord Palms Resort & Convention Center, Orlando, FL, USA www.asminternational.org
B.L. Ferguson, R. Goldstein, and R. Papp, editors
Modeling Heat Treatment for Characterizing Distortion, Residual Stress, Loading

Response and Fracture in a Vacuum Carburized
and Gas Quenched Steel Coupon
A. Freborg, B. Ferguson and Z. Li
DANTE Solutions Inc., Cleveland, Ohio USA
Abstract steels. These steels are characterized by a combination of high

strength and high toughness, and are noted for their combined
Understanding development and response of residual stresses use of a carburized case and fine alloy carbide dispersions to
in steel parts during processing and subsequent loading achieve these properties. [1-3]
applications is a critical engineering requirement.
Carburization introduces an additional factor in terms of Carburizing steels with high alloy content are both an
hardening and a varied residual stress gradient from case to attractive and economically affordable alternative to
the core. Aerospace transmission components are typically addressing challenges related to the durability and power
manufactured from high strength, case carburized alloy steels density of components used in transmission gears. The
such as AMS 6308 (Pyrowear®53). The combination of carburized case provides high strength and wear resistance,
carburization and quench hardening of these steels produces while the non-carburized core maintains the strength and
residual compressive surface stresses and high surface hardenability achieved through alloying while offering a
hardness, for the specific purpose of enhancing fatigue combination of toughness, ductility during impact or impact
resistance and surface durability. Using an internal state resistance, and an overall high resistance to fatigue. All of this
variable (ISV) material model, the DANTE heat treatment is made possible due to the low carbon content in the matrix.
simulation software code has been successfully applied for The influence of a fine dispersion of alloy carbides helps in
carburized and heat treated gear steel applications. The model providing improved fatigue resistance by inhibiting the motion
provides critical engineering data for understanding of dislocations.
microstructural, residual stress and distortion response. This
paper describes the use of heat treatment simulation to Maximizing and characterizing fatigue strength of these
engineer residual stress and distortion response in a complex mechanical elements is therefore essential to increasing
shaped AMS 6308 alloy steel coupon, for subsequent cyclic transmission performance. Current efforts towards
load testing and evaluation of stress relaxation. The criticality maximizing high cycle fatigue (HCF) performance involve
for accurate use of process-descriptive boundary conditions is research into the effects of heat treatment residual stress, post
presented in the context of vacuum carburizing and gas heat treatment processes for increasing surface compressive
quenching. Model predicted residual stress and distortion stresses, and various means of enhancing gear surface finish.
response for a tapered, notched coupon are validated against However, a means of quantifying these improvements from
x-ray diffraction and dimensional physical testing. A loading the perspective of quantifiable design metrics has been
model is presented indicating stress concentration and difficult, specifically due to the need to address complex part
effective loading stress exceeding UTS in the tapered notch. geometries such as contour surfaces, edges, and root bottoms
The model is validated against a static loading test, showing of the gear teeth. Residual stress generated during heat
fracture initiating in the predicted location of stress treatment of these components is a critical element affecting
concentration potential fatigue life, as surface residual compression or
tension affects local loading stresses experienced in the gear
through the mechanism of superposition. [4] The magnitude
Introduction and location of such compressive stresses affect the dynamic
stresses experienced locally by the part during service.
Precision engineered gears are a critical component in Additionally, section size changes, gear root geometry, and
rotorcraft transmission systems. These gears provide transfer non-uniformities in heat treatment quenching operations may
of power from the horizontal drivetrain to vertically mounted also contribute to local part distortion and require subsequent
rotor shafts, enabling high speed and torque with non-parallel grinding or machining to eliminate.
input and output. The increasing performance requirements in
both military and commercial rotorcraft necessitate Quantifying and predicting these residual stress and distortion
improvement in transmission power density (horsepower/lb) responses remains a substantial challenge to the manufacturing
capabilities. This provided the incentive for steel engineer. Recent advancements in quantitative process
manufacturer’s to shift aerospace steel production and simulation (modeling) have made it possible to study in situ
processing towards use of specialized high strength alloy the combined effects of carbon mass diffusion, heat treatment
1
thermal strains, and strains produced from metallurgical phase cutting and plunge EDM. The coupons were then heat treated
changes. Developed in part by DCT Inc. in a US Dept. of using the process sequence outlined in Table 2.
Energy sponsored research project, DANTE® (Distortion
ANalysis for Thermal Engineering) is a finite element based Table 2 AMS 6308 steel heat treatment processing sequence
software tool that calculates the residual stress, dimensional
change, hardness and metallurgical phase volume fractions of Step 1 2 3 4 5 6
steel parts as a result of heat treatment. [5] The DANTE Vacuum Subcritical Austenitize Gas Deep Double
Carburize Anneal Quench Freeze Temper
database includes mechanical and thermal property data for 10 Bar
steel microstructural phases as functions of temperature and N2
rate, as well as the necessary phase transformation kinetics

parameters to address both heating and cooling
transformations. [6]
Aerospace transmission components are typically

manufactured from high strength, case carburized alloy steels
such as AMS 6308 (Pyrowear®53, X53). The objective for the
work presented here was the development of a simple, notched
four-point bending fatigue coupon which could be used to
characterize residual stresses, distortion, and surface effects in
the AMS 6308 carburizing steel for the US Navy and Army.
[7] Steel for physical experiments was acquired by DCT Inc
(Cleveland, Ohio, USA). The certified chemical composition
of the acquired steel is summarized in Table 1.
Table 1: AMS 6308 steel chemistry used for experiments

C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo Cu V
0.10 0.35 1.00 1.00 2.00 3.25 2.00 0.10
The notched coupon was designed specifically to maximize

resulting loading stress in the notch center by creating a plane
strain condition in the notch by use of a funneled taper in the
notch. Although the fatigue response of this coupon is not
discussed this paper, the geometry, directional carburization,
and quenching/tempering response (distortion and residual
stress) of this part are integral for subsequent fatigue studies,
and are the basis for the paper presented here. Static load
testing was conducted to validate the stress concentration
effect, and will be discussed in the final section of this paper.
Figure 1 shows a dimensional schematic and photograph
(inset) of the coupon and funnel notch geometry.
For the subsequent fatigue study, the AMS 6308 steel was
directionally carburized, gas quenched, cryogenically treated, Figure 1: Photograph of AMS 6308 funnel notched bend
and double tempered. This paper will discuss the use of heat coupon with dimensional schematic
treatment simulation to predict residual stress and distortion
response of this coupon to the ascribed heat treatment. The
criticality of accurate, process-descriptive boundary
Process Modeling of Heat Treatment
conditions, as presented in the context of vacuum carburizing
and gas quenching, will be shown, and predicted residual
The primary objective of this study was to develop a
stress and distortion response are validated against x-ray
quantitative prediction of residual stress and distortion for the
diffraction and dimensional measurement.
AMS 6308 coupon to facilitate further engineering analysis in
subsequent fatigue studies. Therefore accurate predictions of
cross sectional residual stresses in the coupon, as well as
Physical Heat Treatment and Heat Treatment coupon dimensional response in heat treating, were essential.
Process Modeling of the Steel Coupons As discussed in the introduction, a DANTE heat treatment
simulation for the vacuum carburizing, gas quenching and
Prior to heat treatment, a series of notched coupons were deep freeze processes was undertaken for this direct purpose.
fabricated from the certified AMS 6308 steel through saw
2
The heat treatment simulation model used a one-quarter Knoop microhardness indents in metallographic sections taken
symmetry section taken from the full bend coupon geometry, at these locations (ASTM E29).
as shown in Figure 2a.
Because the multiple boost and diffuse cycles in vacuum Carburization was modeled using a mass diffusion model with
carburizing introduce a multiple sequence of highly localized carbon diffusivity calibrated to the AMS6308 material. [5]
carbon gradients during the carburization cycle, and to The vacuum carburizing process consisted of a sequence of
accurately account for the final surface carbon gradient in the paired boost and diffuse cycles designed to successfully
coupon, a fine mesh is required on the top flat surfaces and in achieve 1.0mm effective case depth, as shown in Figures 3
the funneled notch, corresponding to surfaces receiving the and 4. The specific cycle pressures and times are proprietary
to the heat treater, and are not published here. However they
**
*
Locations
Figure 3: Model predicted microhardness and carbon profiles

compared with measured hardness for the coupon
a) Coupon Flat Surface b) Notch Root
Figure 4: Coupon metallography showing the carburized case

Figure 2: Illustration of ¼ symmetry solid model approach and Knoop microhardness indents at the a) Flat surface; and
and finite element mesh used for heat treatment simulation b) Notch root
carburizing treatment. The finite element mesh consisted of were shared with the authors for use in the carburizing model
39,078 nodes and 35,350 hexahedral elements. The model for this study. The predicted carbon profiles in the gear root
mesh is shown in Figure 2b. and flat surfaces, as calculated from the DANTE carburization
model, are also plotted and shown in Figure 3 relative to the
Carburization Process associated microhardness profiles. The model shows the
Specification called for an effective carburized case depth of internal carbon gradient extending from the surface, with
1.0mm (0.0394”), defined as HRC 50. The coupon is predicted carbon of 0.002 wt. pct. at 1.00mm with an
carburized only on the top face, including the notch (see associated HRC 50. This conforms well with reported
Figure 2a). Side and bottom faces are masked. Figure 3 shows literature data. [8]
the achieved case hardness profile as measured in the notched
root corner and on one of the flat carburized surfaces. The plot The DANTE heat treatment model also enables visualization
also shows the DANTE model predicted carbon and hardness of the internal carbon gradient at cross sectional locations of
profiles at these locations, with the addition of the predicted interest. Specifically, localized carbon build-up or dispersion
profile at the notch center. Figure 4 shows the associated at corners and radii are readily visualized. For the notched
coupon, Figure 5 shows the internal carbon profiles in both the
3
notch and flat areas. A slight dispersion in the carbon and bottom surfaces. Model thermal response for the fit data is
distribution in the notch can be seen visually, which conforms plotted against the measured thermocouple data in Figure 7.
with the slight notch microhardness drop witnessed in the
Figure 3 microhardness profile at 0.20mm depth. The data showed a 15 second thermal response time at the
beginning of the gas quench as the chamber is pressurized.
Gas Quenching Thermal Boundary Conditions for the The data indicated a difference in thermal response between
Heat Treatment Simulation the coupon top and its sides/bottom. Average heat transfer
The carburized notched coupons were hardened by gas coefficients (htc) for each location were determined, and fit to
quenching in a vacuum chamber pressurized to 10 bar with the thermocouple test block data as shown in Figure 7. The
nitrogen quench gas. Prior experience in both plant trials and average gas quench convection heat transfer coefficients for
the two locations are given in Table 3.
Carbon Fraction
a) Exterior surfaces and

center cross section
Figure 6: Layout of the funnel notch coupons for gas
quenching, also showing the thermocoupled test block
(photograph courtesy Solar Atmospheres)
b) Interior cross section
Figure 5: DANTE mass diffusion carburization model

prediction of carbon profiles on a) Outer surfaces and b)
Inner cross section of the heat treated AMS 6308 coupon Figure 7: DANTE thermal model coupon surface temperature
fit to gas quench thermocouple data
simulation of gas quenching commercial parts has shown a
high degree of localized cooling sensitivity for convection Table 3: Calculated convection heat transfer coefficients for
cooling in gas quenching. [9] Consequently, for these coupon surfaces in 10 bar nitrogen gas quench as fitted from
simulations it was necessary to fit local convection cooling the thermocoupled block in Figure 6
heat transfer coefficients for the coupon surfaces by Location on Coupon Heat Transfer Coefficient
employing cooling curve data provided by the gas quench heat (W/m2 K) during Quench
treater – Solar Atmospheres. Solar provided cooling data from Period (see Fig. 7)
a thermocoupled test block placed in the array of the parts Top 140.0
during processing. A photograph of this arrangement is shown Sides / Bottom 100.0
in Figure 6.
Application of the gas quench heat transfer coefficients was
The test block consisted of a hollow, square tube of 304 made assuming a constant value over the variable temperature
stainless steel, with wall thickness of 3.175mm. Three range of the convective nitrogen media. Prior investigations
thermocouples were inserted, measuring inside wall have shown that the temperature dependent gas properties (i.e.
temperature of the top, side and bottom faces. These data were kinematic viscosity, thermal conductivity) have only second
used in conjunction with a simple finite element thermal order influence on htc, and a constant htc can be assumed. [10,
model to determine heat transfer coefficients of the top, side 11]
4
Physical Results and Simulation Validation Microstructural examination of both the carburized case and
low carbon core after deep freezing shows the predominant
The end use of the heat treated Pyrowear53 coupons as martensitic structure in each, with associated fine alloy carbide
bending fatigue test samples necessitated physical dispersions. Metallography taken from a heat treated coupon is
characterization of heat treatment residual stress and shown in Figure 10.
distortion. Residual stresses were physically characterized at
five (5) locations on the coupon (see Figure 8), and distortion
was measured both in axial and transverse directions, as the
coupon exhibited both bowing in the axial direction and
bulging (crowning) in the transverse direction on the
carburized surface.
a) AMS 6308 microstructure in the coupon core
Figure 8: X-ray residual stress measurement locations for

surface (1-5) and depth (5) profiles
Physical test results and corresponding, validated heat

treatment simulation predictions will be discussed in terms of
metallurgical phase volume fraction, axial residual stresses,
and dimensional change.
Metallurgical Phase
As a through hardening grade, AMS 6308 transforms
completely to martensite in the non-carburized condition. The
high carbon case requires cryogenic treatment to eliminate the
approximately 20% retained austenite remaining after
quenching to room temperature. Verified in prior experimental
works, the DANTE model also shows retained austenite
remaining at room temperature of as-quenched condition
(Figure 9a), and after the deep freeze (Figure 9b). b) AMS 6308 microstructure in the coupon carburized
case
Figure 10: Martensite structure seen in the a) Core; and b)
Martensite Vol. Case – with fine alloy carbide dispersions. Etched with 2%
Fraction nital reagent.
a) After quenching to room

temperature, 22% retained
austenite in case Residual Stress
Coupon residual stress in the axial direction after heat
treatment was measured using x-ray diffraction at the five (5)
locations shown in Figure 8. Additionally, an etching method
was used to obtain axial residual stress measurements in the
notch center (position #5) as a function of depth.
b) After deep freeze, 3% Figure 11 shows the predicted axial residual stress from the
retained austenite in case DANTE model as a contour map of the quarter coupon
Figure 9: Model predicted martensite volume fraction shown section. The plot is annotated showing x-ray surface
in coupon cross section a) After gas quench (room temp); and measurements obtained at noted locations.
b) After deep freeze
5
Axial Stress, MPa The utility of the model is that it permits an in situ
examination of the timing of these transformations relative to
the instantaneous quenching intensity and general thermal
Surface Stress: X-ray -413.7 MPa boundary conditions. .
DANTE -455 MPa
Final distortion of the coupon was characterized normal to the
Notch Surface Stress:
carburized surface (Y-direction) axially direction along the top
X-ray -386.1 MPa
carburized surface. The plot in Figure 13 compares predicted
DANTE -440 MPa
to measured Y direction distortion (bowing) in the axial
direction. The data agree in direction of bowing to within +0.1
mm.
Notch Funnel Surface Stress:

X-ray -530.9 MPa
DANTE -521 MPa
a) Exterior with center b) Interior and center
cross section cross section
Figure 11: Axial residual stress (MPa) predicted by DANTE,

showing a) Exterior; and b) Interior cross section
The predicted compressive stresses were higher than the x-ray Figure 13: DANTE model predicted versus measured Y-
measurements at the notch-center and top surface, but lower displacement (see inset) “bowing” of the coupon as a function
on the funnel surface. However, the predictions were within of axial distance.
the reasonable range relative to the x-ray, and reflect the same
trend – specifically that the funnel surface showed greater Further accuracy in distortion prediction may be achievable
compression than the notch in both cases. with more detailed gas quench thermal boundary conditions,
specifically relating to both individual coupon surfaces, and
Figure12 shows a plot comparing the measured and simulated variation in gas temperature.
axial residual stress as a function of depth at location #5
(notch – see Figure 8). The data show sound correlation, and Loading Response
also compare accurately with respect to the depth at which To validate the effectiveness of the predicted stress
surface compressive stress shifts to internal tension: ~1.0mm. concentration, several coupons were fractured under static
loading, reaching a maximum of 15,500 – 15,700N (3485 –
3530 lbs.). Importing the predicted residual heat treating stress
Direction for stress depth results as reported in Figure 11, a static loading model was
measurement (see Fig. 11b)
conducted to determine the effective stress (including the
residual stress) under a 15,700 N load. Figure 14 shows the
results of the loading model, illustrating the stress
concentration in the center plateau of the funnel notch. The
stress under the load is predicted at 1710 MPa (248ksi), taking
into account the incoming residual compression. The ultimate
tensile strength for carburized and tempered AMS 6308 is
reported as 1650 - 1730 MPa (239 – 251 ksi). [5]
The results of the static loading validation test can be seen in

Figures 15 and 16. Figure 15 shows a photograph of a
fractured, carburized heat treated and isotropically
Figure 12 Comparison of x-ray versus model predicted axial superfinished AMS 6308 coupon to 15,700N. Fracture under
stress profiles in the specimen notch (Fig. 8, location 5) at this load occurred transverse through the center of the
funnel notch, passing through the bottom of the root in the flat
Distortion (Dimensional Change) central notch plateau. An associated SEM micrograph of the
Dimensional change in the coupon is governed by the fracture surface from this coupon is presented in Figure 16,
competing expansion and contraction of the carburized case and shows the fracture origin at the location of predicted stress
and core as they are subjected to thermal shrinkage of cooling, concentration as predicted in the loading FEM model.
and volumetric expansion as each transforms to martensite.
6
Conclusions
have successfully achieved this objective. Predicted residual
The use of process simulation has been shown to be an stresses on the coupon surface at key locations, the stress
effective means for test coupon design. The method was profile in the coupon notch, and the predicted distortion of the
employed in this work to promote concentration of effective part along the axial direction all compared favorably to
bending stresses in the notch center, of a carburized aerospace physical measurements. A loading model, including the
bend coupon, maximizing, tensile stress in the center and residual stress from heat treating, indicated a predicted
minimizing those developed at the funnel edges during effective loading stress of 1710 MPa at the center plateau of
loading. The tapered funnel design and applied heat treatment the funnel notch using an applied load of 15,700N. Physical
loading of the part to 15,700 N produced a fracture initiating
Axial Stress, MPa Unloaded w/ Residual Stress at this came location. This work indicates quantitative residual
stress and distortion models are an effective means for
bending fatigue coupon design and analysis, particularly for
complex steel alloys where residual stresses play a key role in
affecting part eventual part loading stresses.
Stress concentration
~1710MPa Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the US
Navy NAVAIR for their support of this work under contract
N68335-11-C-00420. The authors also wish to acknowledge
Solar Atmospheres for their technical assistance with gas
quenching the AMS 6308 coupons and gas quenching heat
transfer characterization. Finally, Proto Mfg. Ltd. is
Figure 14: Predicted loading response of the heat treated acknowledged for their assistance with x-ray diffraction and
AMS 6308 coupon with 15686 N load, showing stress residual stress measurements.
concentration in the funnel notch.
References
Area of SEM examination [1] Direction of R&D and Current Status of Understanding
in shown in Figure 15 of Advanced Gear Steels, AMMRC Report AD-P005-
061, 1986.
[2] G.A. Cingara, Materials Science and Engineering A,
Vol. 516, 2009, pp. 7-15.
[3] D.K. Matlock and G. Krauss, Materials Science and
Engineering A, Vol. 1265, 1995, pp. 1-8.
[4] D. Lohe, K.H. Lang and O. Vohringer, Residual Stresses
and Fatigue Behavior, Handbook of Residual Stress and
Figure 15: Photograph of fractured AMS 6308 heat treated Deformation of Steel, ASM International, 2002, pp. 27-
coupon loaded at 15,700N. 53.
[5] B.L. Ferguson and A.M. Freborg, Software to Predict
Distortion of Heat Treated Components, USA AMCOM
Report TR 02-D-46, 2002.
Fracture Origin [6] Pyrowear 53: Dilatometry to Determine Phase
Transformation Kinetics, MPLUS MC-01-010, ORNL,
2001.
[7] Modeling to Quantify Improved Durability of
Superfinish Gear Processing, US Navy Contract
N68335-11-C-0420, 2011.
[8] M. Atkins ed., Atlas of Continuous Cooling
Transformation Diagrams for Engineering Steels,
American Society for Metals, 1980.
[9] Deformation Control Technology, Inc., Proprietary
internal commercial research, 2003-Present.
[10] T. Luebben, F. Hoffmann, P. Mayr and C. Laumen, Gas
Figure 16: SEM micrograph of fracture. Origin at notch Quenching Influence of Diameter and Heat Transfer
center and propagation direction are clearly evident. Coefficient on Hardness for Different Steel Grades,
7
Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on
Quenching and Control of Distortion, ASM
International, 1999, pp. 83-92.
[11] R. Hellman and W.R. Zenker, The Heat Treating
Machine for Advanced Vacuum Heat Treating
Requirements, Proceedings of the Quenching and
Control of Distortion Conference, ASM International,
1992, pp. 311-318.
8
Measurement and Prediction of Residual Stresses

in Heat Treated Large Forgings
X. Zhang, X. Song, L. Zhu and M. V. Li
China First Heavy Industries, Materials Research Institute for Energy Equipments
21 Hong Da Street Suite 9, TEDA, Tianjin, China 300457
Abstract directions inside cylinders with axisymmetric stress

distribution. It is a destructive technique. Material is removed
This study is directed towards establishing a benchmark for layer by layer from the bore of a cylinder. As each layer of
the prediction of residual stresses in large forgings by blending the material is removed, the force exerted by the stressed
finite element analysis and experimental measurement. Two material on the remainder of the cylinder is removed, thus
cylinders of 600 mm in diameter and 1800 mm in length are disturbing the equilibrium in the cylinder. Elastic deformation
heated and subsequently quenched in oil, and then tempered. occurs throughout the cylinder to reestablish equilibrium. The
One cylinder is embedded with thermocouples to record accompany changes in length and diameter are measured in
temperature changes. The other one is used for the time of Sachs to determine residual stress distribution in
experimentally measurement of residual stresses utilizing the the cylinder. Today strain gages are used instead. Residual
Sachs’ method. Coupled thermo-metallo-mechanical analyses stresses which were present in the cylinder prior to boring are
based on commercial FEA package DEFORM are conducted obtained by making use of the elastic relationship between the
to simulate the evolution of temperature, microstructure and exterior surface deformations and the stress existing in the
residual stresses in the cylinders during the heat treating removed material.
process. Experimentally measured and numerically predicted
residual stresses are found in good agreement. The modeling Computational modeling and analyses offer an alternative
procedure along with the properties and boundary conditions approach and provide a proven powerful tool to predict the
can be readily applied for the prediction of residual stresses development of residual stresses induced by manufacturing
induced by quench and tempering in large forgings of the processes.[6-7] Heat transfer, microstructure evolution and
same material. mechanical stresses are the essential and interactive processes
occurred in the workpiece during heat treatments, thus coupled
thermo-metallo-mechanical analyses are required for the
accurate prediction of residual stress development.[8]
Introduction Transformation kinetics models and transformation plasticity
models have presented in the open literature and integrated in
Backup rolls in steel mills with diameters greater than 1 meter some commercial software for heat treatment simulations such
represent a group of large forgings made by China First Heavy as HEARTS, DEFORM-HT, SYSWELD and COSMAP.
Industries. Manufacturing processes of backup rolls induce
high residual stresses into forgings which may cause This study attempts to establish a benchmark for the coupled
premature failures. Experimental determination of residual thermo-metallo-mechanical analyses of residual stresses in
stresses in such large forgings of complex configurations is heat treated large cylindrical forgings utilizing experimentally
extremely difficult and infeasible, if not impossible.[1,2] measured residual stresses by the Sachs method.
Computational modeling and simulation based on finite
element method enables the prediction of residual stress Materials and Experiment
development induced by manufacturing processes,[3] however,
the analysis procedures, material properties as well as
boundary conditions in the models need to be validated to be A scraped backup roll of 45Cr4NiMoV steel was forged into
readily applicable to account for changes in materials and two identical cylinders. They were annealed normalized, then
process parameters. machined to the dimensions of 600 mm in diameter and
1800 mm in length. Composition of the material is shown in
Experimental measurement of residual stresses in such large Table 1.
forgings as backup rolls with diameters greater than 1 meter is
beyond the capabilities of today’s experimental mechanics.[1] Table 1: Composition of 45Cr4NiMoV steel forgings (wt%).
Sachs boring method[4,5] was reported as the first for the C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo V
determination of residual stresses in all three principal 0.48 0.68 0.57 3.68 0.41 0.42 0.08
9
Thermocouples are embedded in one cylinder to record 5. The distribution and residual stresses in the test cylinder
temperature changes during the heat treatment. The were calculated from the strain readings.
configuration of the test cylinder and the layout of
thermocouple locations are shown in Fig. 1. A section of
about 200 mm on the left end is machined off for
microstructure examination and property tests. The remainder
(Φ600×1800 mm) goes through the process of heat treatment
and stress measurement.
Figure 2: Illustration of the Sachs boring method
Figure 1: Forged cylinder with thermocouple locations.
The second cylinder was solid without holes and

thermocouples. It was subjected to identical heat treatment
and was designated for residual stress measurement. Figure 3: Experimental setup of residual stress measurement
Temperatures were monitored by a paperless recorder system
linked to the thermocouples during the heat treatment Computational Models
procedure. Three stages heat treatment were carried out. Two
，
cylinders were stepwise heated up 990°C then set down to Temperature, microstructure and stress changes are the
essential physical processes occurring during the heat
950°C for a few hours. The heating process was terminated
when the thermocouple in the center of the cylinder reached treatment of steel forgings. These physical processes interact
，
the Ac1 temperature 782°C cylinders were transferred into with each other. In this study, coupled thermo-metallo-
mechanical analyses were conducted using FEA package
quenching oil. Once the center temperature dropped to 300°C,
DEFORM to simulate the heat transfer, microstructure
cylinders were taken out of oil tank and placed into furnace for
evolution and residual stress development in the test cylinder.
tempering.
Because the geometry and loading conditions are essentially
The Sachs boring method was employed to measure residual
axisymmetric, an axisymmetric model was developed to
stresses in the test cylinder and is illustrated in Fig. 2. The
simulation the heat transfer, microstructure and residual stress
experimental setup is shown in Fig. 2. The experimental
development in the test cylinder.
procedures follow the five steps:
1. A through-hole of 25mm diameter was bored in the
Experimentally measured thermo-physical properties of steel
center of the test cylinder. Removal of material may
45Cr4NiMoV of different microstructure are compared
cause redistribution of residual stresses. However, it can
against calculated values using software JMatPro.®
be neglected because the outer diameter of the cylinder is
Consistent property values are used in the analyses.
large enough comparing to the material removed.
2. The strain rosettes with angles of 0°, 45° and 90° were
Heat transfer coefficient considering the effect of both
positioned on the external surface lined along two
convection and radiation is used to model the thermal
symmetric bus bars of the cylinder. Each strain rosette is
boundary condition of the cylinders inside furnace.
clearly marked for identification.
3. The cylinder was centered on the boring head and
clamped firmly. A radial thickness of material of 10 mm 2.56 .
was removed in each increment. After each incremental
boring, the cylinder was given 12 hours to settle stress where and are convective and radiative heat
redistribution before strain readings were taken. transfer coefficients at the cylinder surface in W/m2/K; and
4. Different boring lathes were used as the diameter are the furnace temperature and surface temperature
increased until the ratio of outer diameter to internal respectively; 5.68 10 W/m2/K4 is the Stefan-
diameter was reduced to 1.2. Boltzmann constant; is the effective emissivity.
10
DEFORM-HT implements the Johnson-Mehl-Avrami cylinder has lower value of or view factor and effective
equation for the prediction of diffusional transformations and emissivity.
Koistinen-Marburger for Martensite transformation.
Experimentally determined TTT or CCT diagrams were
required as the input for the microstructural analysis. Volume
change and the Koistinen-Marburger parameter were
experimentally determined using the dilation data of this steel
under different cooling rates in the test.
Results and Discussion
Experimentally measured temperature data are presented in

Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 along with the predicted temperature results.
They are in good agreement.
Figure 6: Macrostructure and hardness profile
Predicted final microstructure is shown in Fig. 7. There is a

good correlation between the volume fraction of Martensite
and hardness profile. The visible borderline in the
macrostructure and rapid hardness drop matches well with the
rapid change of microstructure.
Figure 4: Computed and measured temperature on heating
Figure 7: Predicted Microstructure
Experimentally measured residual stresses using the Sachs

method is presented in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 along with the
predicted results. The predicted residual stress distribution
Figure 5: Computed and measured temperature on quenching appears to be consistent with reported profiles in the open
literature of smaller cylinders of quench and tempered steel.[2]
Cross-sectional macrostructure and hardness profile are shown There are some discrepancies between the measured and
in Fig. 6. There is a clear border that separates the cross predicted residual stress results. Possible causes of the
section into two distinctive portions by their shades. The two discrepancy are under close investigations:
portions are not concentric, suggesting that temperature 1. The assumption of axisymmetric boundary conditions
distribution inside the cylinder was a little off the center, thus and temperature distributions may have contributed to
not axisymmetric. There is a good correspondence between the discrepancy, but is believed not a major factor.
the shade and hardness profile. Close examination reveals that 2. The Sachs boring method involves substantial amount of
the top section is heated more than the bottom section when mechanical removal of materials, yet its effect on the
placed in the furnace. This is caused bottom of the furnace accuracy of residual stress measurement can’t be counted
has less reflectivity than the walls, thus the bottom side of the for.[9]
11
3. 45Cr4NiMoV is an alloyed tool steel and is considered a
hypereutectoid steel with appreciable amount of
precipitation of such carbides as M7C3, M23C6 and others.
The precipitation rate and distribution characteristics of
carbides have substantial effects on the mechanical
properties of the material, which are important for the
computation of residual stress development but are
unfortunately not readily accounted for due to the lack of
both model and data.
4. Current model for the microstructural and property
changes, and stress relaxation during tempering is not
perhaps oversimplified, not ready for account for these
complex processes.
(a) As Quenched
(a) As Quenched
(b) Quench and Tempered

Figure 9: Predicted and measured hoop stresses
Conclusions
This study attempts to establish a benchmark for the coupled

thermo-metallo-mechanical analysis of large forgings based
on finite element analysis package DEFORM-HT by
instrumenting experimental testing and validation. Two
cylinders of 45Cr4NiMoV of 600 mm in diameter and
1800 mm in length are subjected to quench and tempering.
One cylinder was instrumented for temperature measurement
and macro/micro-structural examinations. The other one was
used for residual stress measurement using the Sachs boring
(b) Quench and Tempered method. This study reaches the following conclusions:
Figure 8: Predicted and measured axial stresses 1. The predicted temperature agrees well with the
experimentally measured temperature. The thermo-
physical properties and thermal boundary conditions in
the finite element model are valid.
2. Predicted microstructure is in good agreement with the
results of metallographic examination; however, the
predicted microstructure lacks details on the types and
distribution characterization of the precipitates, which
are essential for the mechanical properties of the
material.
12
3. The Sachs boring method for the determination of large [5] Sachs, G. et al., “Practical Metallurgy Applied Physical
cylinders is tedious and time consuming. Yet it cannot Metallurgy and the Industrial Processing of Ferrous and
account for the plastic deformation resulted from the Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, ASM, 1940.
boring operation. [6] Inoue, T. et al., “Elastic-plastic Stress Analysis of
4. The predicted residual stress profile in the test cylinder Quenching When Considering A Transformation,” Int. J.
appears reasonable and is in good agreement with those Mech. Sci., vol. 17, 1975, pp. 361-367.
for smaller cylinders of quench and tempered steel [7] Denis, S., “Prediction of the Residual Stresses Induced by
published in open literature. Heat Treatment and Thermo-mechanical Surface
Treatments,” Rev. Metall./Cah. Inf. Tech., vol. 94, 1997,
References pp. 1203-1212.
[8] Ali, S. K. et al., “An Efficient Numerical Algorithm for
[1] Hetenyi, M. Handbook of Experimental Stress Analysis, the Prediction of Thermal and Microstructure Fields
John Wiley & Sons (New York, 1950). during Quenching of Steel Rods,” J. ASTM International,
[2] Totten, G. E., Handbook of Residual Stress and vol. 5(10), 2008, pp. 1-18.
Deformation of Steel, ASM International, 2002. [9] Swardt, R. R., “Finite element Simulation of the Sachs
[3] Pacheco, P. M. C. L. et al., “Modeling of Quenching Boring Method of Measuring Residual Stresses in Thick-
Process in Steel Cylinders,” Mech. Solids. Brazil, 2007, Walled Cylinders,” Trans. ASME, vol. 125, 2003, pp.
pp. 445-458. 274-276
[4] Sachs, G., “Der Nachweis Inner Spannungen in Stangen
und Rohren,” Z. Metallkd., vol. 19, 1927, pp. 352-357.
13
Finite Element Modeling of Immersion Route Effect on Macroscopic Distortion

during Quenching of Long Steel Components
1
F.A. García-Pastor , R.D. López García, M.J. Castro-Román
Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN Unidad Saltillo.
Av. Industria Metalúrgica 1062, Parque Industrial Saltillo-Ramos Arizpe, C.P. 25900, Ramos Arizpe, Coah., México.
1
Corresponding author, email: [email protected]
Abstract distortion [12-17]. In recent years, finite element modeling

(FEM) has been used to improve the understanding of the
During quenching, long steel components (such as leaf- complex parameters relationship during quenching and their
springs) are more prone to macroscopic distortion, due to a effect in distortion [2-5, 18-22]. These studies have used both
combination of thermal and transformations stresses operating time-temperature-transformation (TTT) and continuous
through a relatively thin cross-section. In the present study, a cooling transformation (CCT) data for the transformation
comparison between two different immersion routes (from the kinetics and stresses modeling. Determining the heat transfer
distal ends and from the long edge) is analyzed. Several key coefficient (HTC) at the component-quenching media
parameters such as initial temperatures for both the component interface has proven difficult, since it is function of the
and the quenching medium, as well as boundary conditions component and quenching media temperatures, as well as the
such as the heat transfer coefficient, were calculated from media agitation and component geometry [18,23-26]. The
experiments. Transformation kinetics for three different effect of the component orientation, geometry and heat
austenitic grain sizes were simulated using JMatPro and transfer coefficient on the macroscopic distortion and residuals
validated using quench dilatometry. A three-dimensional, stresses have been studied and it has been found that all these
fully-coupled finite element modelling of quenching was parameters affect the final component geometry. Distortion
developed in Deform 3D. The results between the two may be exacerbated in components with “long” geometries, in
immersion routes are discussed in terms of macroscopic which the length is more than 7 times the width and thickness
distortion and transformed martensite volume fractions. The [27-31]. Leaf spring are an ideal of example of such
results show that quenching from the side of long components components, since they are manufactured from steel strips
greatly reduces the martensite volume fraction scatter through with lengths far larger than the transverse measurements.
the component volume, thus limiting the macroscopic
distortion, regardless of the austenite grain size. This work shows the results of a numerical and experimental
investigation, in which the effect of both the austenite grain
size (AGS) and immersion route on the distortion during oil
Introduction quenching of a long component of SAE 5160 steel was
assessed. The results were analyzed both in terms of
Quenching is one of the most important thermal treatments in macroscopic distortion and martensite volume fraction scatter
steel. It is widely used to improve mechanical properties such during several quenching times. In order to obtain adequate
as hardness and strength through the martensitic boundary conditions, the heat transfer coefficient was
transformation. There are several published papers in which calculated from experimental data. Transformation kinetics
mathematical models have been used to further the were calculated using JMatPro and validated by quench
understanding of the complex parameters interactions during dilatometry. A three-dimensional finite element model was
this process [1-7]. During quenching, steel is rapidly cooled developed in Deform 3D using the transformation kinetics and
from the austenite phase field by using cooling media such as boundary conditions previously calculated. This model was
air, water, brine or oil. The critical cooling rate required to then validated using thermocouple data and microstructural
suppress the formation of ferrite, pearlite and bainite is mainly observations.
a function of alloy chemistry and austenite grain size (AGS)
[8-9]. In most quenching processes, the formation of bainite is Experimental
undesirable, since the occurrence of this phase will be
detrimental of hardness and affect subsequent tempering
processes [9-10]. In this research, a SAE 5160 steel was used, with a chemical
composition shown in table 1. This type of steel is widely used
Distortion during quenching is a major problem during steel in the automotive industry for leaf springs. The component
thermal processing, especially in automotive components, analyzed had a geometry resembling one of such leaf springs,
which are subject to strict dimensional requirements. It is with 1500 mm long, 60 mm wide and 10 mm thick. This
known that the combined effect of thermal and martensite component is shown in figure 1. In order to analyze the
transformation stresses is responsible for the occurrence of macroscopic distortion and calculate the heat transfer
14
coefficient, two different sets of experiments were carried out. FEM Model
One was performed at our industrial partner plant, where
components were oil quenched from the austenite phase field Deform 3D (Scientific Forming Technology Corporation,
and the final phase volume fraction and macroscopic Columbus, Ohio, USA), is a fully coupled FEM system. It
distortion were determined from these specimens. It is discretizes the heat transfer equation, strain tensor and
important to highlight that in the industrial practice, the transformation equations, allowing a simultaneous solution
quenching oil was agitated. In the second one, a section of and including the complex interaction between the phenomena
SAE 5160 steel strip was instrumented with K-type described by them. Macroscopic distortion was calculated
thermocouples. The information obtained from these through the strain calculation defined by:
thermocouples was used to estimate the interfacial heat
transfer coefficient. In both sets of experiments, the initial ௘ ௣ ௧ ௧௥ ௧௣
steel temperature was 920 °C (after a soaking time of 540 s) ݀ߝ௜௝ = ݀ߝ௜௝ + ݀ߝ௜௝ + ݀ߝ௜௝ + ݀ߝ௜௝ + ݀ߝ௜௝ (1)
and the quenching media was oil with was kept at 60°C. The
total quenching time was 90 s. Final volume phase fraction where e, p, t, tr, and tp represent the strain contributions from
was determined by Vickers micro-hardness (200 gr. load) elastic, plastic, thermal, transformation and transformation
measurements and common metallographic techniques. The plasticity strain, respectively [32].
initial AGS was obtained by chemical etching using a
saturated picric acid solution. If the calculation of the macroscopic distortion is going to
properly represent the physical phenomena, accurate
Table 1. Chemical composition of SAE 5160 steel (wt%) transformation kinetics, material properties and boundary
Fe C Mn Cr Si Cu Ni conditions will be needed. Material properties of the SAE
96.96 0.6 0.87 0.96 0.25 0.22 0.14 5160 steel were obtained from the extensive Deform 3D
materials library. However, transformation kinetics are
strongly dependent on the AGS. Furthermore, given the shape
of the TTT diagram for this type of steel, it is likely that
bainite would form for relatively small AGS and slow cooling
rates. As described in the previous section, transformation
kinetics were calculated using JMatPro and validated using
quench dilatometry. The well known Johnson-Mehl-Avrami
model [33,34] was used to take into account the diffusion-
controlled Austenite-bainite transformation while the
Koistinen-Marburguer equation was used to simulate the
diffusionless austenite-martensite transformation [35].
Finally, the heat transfer coefficient at the interface between

the component surface and the quenching oil was fitted
following a successive approximation method using the
thermocouple date described in the previous section. Although
this heat transfer coefficient can be found in the literature as
function of temperature, it has been suggested that it needs to
be calculated for each quenching condition, taking into
Figure 1. Meshed geometry used in the calculations account quenching media temperature and agitation. The
results from this research further suggest that this is the case,
Transformation kinetics and volumetric changes due to the since the values of heat transfer coefficient as a function of
martensite transformation were obtained using JMatPro and temperature differ from the ones found in the literature.
validated using a quench dilatometer (L78 Rita from Linseis).
In this technique a small cylindrical specimen (10 mm long The geometry of the simulated leaf spring has already been
and 3 mm in diameter) was instrumented with a welded K- shown in figure 1. The computational mesh had 100,000
type thermocouple and heated using a inductive coil, while elements and a Newton-Raphson iteration method was used.
kept in a helium atmosphere. The temperature was computer In order to assess the effect of immersion route in macroscopic
controlled with a resolution of 1000 data points per second. distortion, a quenching volume was defined and moved
Several cooling routes were used in the dilatometry setup, against the component in two different ways: edge first, along
including isothermal holding in order to validate the TTT the component width, (Y direction in figure 1) and distal ends
diagrams calculated by JMatPro. Through several soaking first, as it is common in industrial practice (Z direction in
times, three different AGS were analyzed: 8, 9 and 10 ASTM. figure 2). Additional details on the numerical simulation can
be found in table 2.
15
Table 2. Simulation parameters
Simulation parameters Values
Poisson’s ratio 0.3
Iteration method Newton-Raphson
Thermal conductivity k(determined for each
Heat transfer coefficient phase)
Number of simulation steps f(T), shown in figure 3
Number of elements 900
Initial temperature (°C) 100000
Environment temperature (°C) 920
50
Quenching oil temperature 60
(°C)
Immersion rate (mm/s) 40
Dipping direction Z, Y
Austenite grain sizes (ASTM) 8, 9, 10
Results and discussion

Figure 3. Heat transfer coefficient as a function of time (t) and
temperature (T)
Heat transfer coefficient calculations
Figure 2 shows the fitting between measured and calculated Austenite grain size effect in transformation kinetics
surface temperature. The average error throughout the
The initial AGS has a significant influence in the bainite
quenching time was approximately 3.57%. It can be clearly
transformation kinetics, thus directly affecting the critical
seen that through a fine adjustment of the heat transfer
cooling rate needed to form a martensitic microstructure.
coefficient, a proper representation of temperature evolution
Figure 4 shows time-temperature-transformation (TTT)
during quenching can be achieved. Figure 3 shows the
diagrams for 3 different AGS (namely 8, 9 and 10 ASTM). An
calculated heat transfer coefficient, plotted against both
increasing AGS results in an increase on the initial time for
surface temperature and time. In the particular quenching bath
bainite to start transforming from austenite. The results shown
configuration found in-plant, there was a significant decrease
in figure 5 were calculated using JMatPro.
in HTC at about 60 s (400°C). This can be related to an
agitation dead zone in the quenching tank or the start of the
martensite transformation.
Figure 4. Effect of austenite grain size on the transformation

kinetics for SAE 5160
Figure 2. Calculated and recorded temperature plots showing In order to determine the effect of AGS in both the martensite
the excellent agreement between the model and thermocouple start temperature (Ms) and volumetric expansion as well as
readings. validate the TTT diagrams shown in figure 4, several quench
dilatometry experiments were carried out. Figure 5 shows a
typical result of one of such experiments, plotting both
temperature gradient and linear expansion. During cooling at a
constant rate of 30˚C/s, it can be seen that there is a very slight
16
change in the linear expansion slope, approximately at 500˚C. located at 90 cm from the distal ends and represented by a
This change can be seen more clearly in the temperature dashed line.
gradient plot and it is related to the start of bainite It can be seen that the immersion route has an important effect
transformation (Bs). The second slope change, which is more in the component distortion. While the sample which followed
evident in both temperature gradient and linear expansion the vertical immersion route has a maximum displacement of
plots, corresponds to the start of the martensite transformation approximately 2 mm for an AGS of 8, the sample dipped in
Ms. Finally, the linear expansion resulting from the martensite the horizontal direction displays less than 1 mm displacement
transformation shown in figure 5 was found to be of for the same AGS. This is believed to be related to the vertical
approximately 25%. route martensite transformation fronts, both starting from the
distal ends, meeting at the central part of the component. Such
meeting of transformation fronts would have an important
effect in the component distortion.
It is important to highlight that for and AGS of 10, the

horizontal route appears to yield a more distorted component.
This is probably related to bainite formation related to the
smaller AGS. However, at the present time this remains an
open question which is currently being investigated by the
research group.
Figure 5. Dilatometric curve of continuous cooling at 30˚C/s,

showing martensite and bainite transformation
Ms was found to have an inverse relationship with AGS for a

fixed cooling rate. This has been previously reported to be
related to carbon enrichment of austenite due to the formation
of bainite [1,2,36,37]. Table 3 shows Ms determined for
different AGS at two different cooling rates of 15 and 30˚C/s.
Table 3. Martensite start temperature as a function of AGS and

cooling rate.
TGA (ASTM) Ms
15°C/s 30°C/s
8 274 276
9 272 274
10 269 270
Immersion route effect on distortion
A comparison between two different immersion routes was

carried out in Deform 3D. Immersion along the Y axis (see
Figure 1), was termed as horizontal route while immersion
along the Z axis was defined as vertical route. Three different
AGS were used in the simulation (8,9 and 10 ASTM; 22, 16 Figure 6. Total displacement along the component for (a)
and 11 micrometers respectively). The heat transfer coefficient vertical immersion and (b) horizontal immersion for 3
was defined as a function of surface temperature (as seen in different austenite grain sizes
figure 2).
Figure 6 shows total displacement for three different austenite Conclusions
grain sizes. Displacement for the vertical immersion route is
presented in figure 6a, while the horizontal immersion route is
depicted in figure 6b. In both cases, the component center is A three-dimensional fully coupled FEM model of a long steel
component being quenched was developed in DEFORM 3D.
In order to have a proper representation of heat transfer in the
17
quenchant-component interface, a heat transfer coefficient as a [10] J. Barford, W.S. Owen, The effect of austenite grain size
function of surface temperature was fitted from experimental and temperature on the rate of bainita transformation, Metal
data. The results greatly improve the calculation from previous Science and Heat Treatment, Volume 4 (1962) 359-360.
simulation efforts, which only consider a constant coefficient [11] A. Matsuzaki, H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia, Effect of austenite
throughout the process. grain size and bainita morphology on overall kinetics of
bainita transformation in steels, Materials Science and
The numerical model was capable of simulating the distortion Technology, Vol. 15 (1999) 518-522.
found in the process as well as the effect of both austenite [12] S.M.C. Van Bohemen, Modeling start curves of bainite
grain size and immersion route. It can be seen that for long formation, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A Vol. 41
components, quenching from the distal ends increases the (2010) 285-294.
macroscopic distortion. For this kind of components an [13] S.Denis, S.Sjöström, A. Simon, Coupled temperature,
immersion route which dips the specimen along one of the stress, phase transformation calculation model numerical
shortest dimensions is more likely to reduce distortion. illustration of the internal stresses evolution during cooling of
a eutectoid carbon steel cylinder, Metalluergical Transactions
Acknowledgments A, Volume 18A (1987) 1203-1212.
[14] J. Huang, X. Ye, J. Gu, X. Chen, Z. Xu, Enhanced
We gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by mechanical properties of type AISI 301 LN austenitic stainless
Conacyt for Mr. López García PhD thesis. We also steel through advanced thermo mechanical process, Materials
acknowledge the help of our industrial partner for several Science and Engineering A 532 (2012) 190-195.
experiments carried out in plant. [15] S. Denis, E. Gautier, A. Simon, G. Beck, Stress-phase-
transformation interactions-basic principles, modelling, and
calculation of internal stresses, Materials Science and
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[16] T. Inoue, D-Y.Ju, K. Arimoto, Metallo-Thermo-
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18
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Kapuakahi kuaana aua
Kane,
Wahine a Iwikauikaua i
noho
Loaa hoi o
Kaneikauaiwilani.
Na nalu haki kakala
Haki kualua; 105
I halehale i popoi i na hua
alii,
I na hua haki lumilumi i
ka hohonu,
Lumilumi ka a Liloa,
I ke Kaailani: [17]
O Liloa ka ike lani i
Pakaalana. 110
Ka oha lani o Hakau
Ka puakea i waho
O ka pa kani nana i ka
wai a Umi,
He keha ia no Umi, i ka
lohelohe lani,
Ka lohelohe makomako o
Mako, 115
O Makakaualii alii lani;
O Kamawaelualani,
O Kauinakea, o
Kapaikauanalulu,
O Kaalawai, o
Hinakuluina,
O ka olikoliko muo lau o
Kalani 120
Loaa mai Kuauwa ka au
alii,
Kamehameha, ku kohai i
Kawaluna.
Kaniope, Kaniopinana i
Hakawili,
I luluu kaumaha i ke
kapu.
Kahoukapu o Maheha,
125
Na Nukuilimahi i Hakau i
haka i luna o Hawaii.
These lines seem to explain how these islands were sprung from Ma keia mele e
Wakea and Papa, according to the knowledge or belief held by Pakui, hoomaopopo ai i ka laha
the composer of these songs. He was a priest and a historian ana o keia mau aina e
belonging to the board of historians and genealogist of the order of the Wakea laua me Papa, e
priesthood. But in looking at Chapter I of this story the ideas of the like me ka ike a Pakui ka
historian are very similar in regard to the birth or appearance of these mea nana i haku i keia
islands. Also in the song composed by Pakui in his capacity as a mele, he kahuna ia, he
prophet and historian, as seen in this chapter, but it will be well to note kakaolelo no loko mai o
the setting of the genealogy from the time of Wakea, as shown in the ka papa mookuauhau o
following chapter. na kahuna nui o ka
oihanakahuna. Aka ma
ka nana ana i ka Mokuna
I o keia moolelo, ua
aneane like ka manao o
na kakaolelo ma ka loaa
ana o keia mau aina. A
ma ke mele i hakuia e
Pakui ma kona ano kaula
a kakaolelo hoi e like me
ka hoike ana ma keia
mokuna o keia moolelo;
aka e pono e nana i ka
hoonoho ana o ka
mookuauhau mai a
Wakea mai e like me ka
hoike ana ma ka mokuna
malalo iho.
CHAPTER IV. MOKUNA IV.
The Setting of the Genealogy of the Islands of Ka Hoonoho ana

Hawaii nei from the Time of Wakea. o ka Mookuauhau
o ka aina ana ma
Hawaii nei mai a
Wakea mai.
In this chapter it seems it was the heavens that was first created and Ma keia mokuna, ua
the earth afterwards, and thus read the lines of the song composed by manaoia ma ka
Pakui in Chapter III: hoomaopopo ana, mehe
mea la o ka lewa ka mua,
o ka lani, alaila o ka
honua mai, a penei ka
heluhelu ana i na lalani
mua o ke mele i hakuia e
Pakui ma ka Mokuna III.
“Wakea was the old one of Luamea, and Papa giving birth to islands “O Wakea Kahiko
was the wife. Luamea, o Papa hanau
Tahiti-ku of the rising sun and Tahiti-moe of the setting sun was born, moku ka wahine.
The foundation stones were born Hanau Tahiti-ku, Tahiti-
And also the stones of heaven.” 45 moe,
Hanau Keapapanui.
Hanau Keapapalani.”
Therefore these were the first products of the union of Wakea and A nolaila o na mea mua
Papa; Hawaii was born afterwards, as told here below: keia i loaa i loko o ko
Wakea mau la laua o
Papa, a mahope o Hawaii
ka hanau ana e like me
malalo iho.
“Wakea lived with Papa and five children were born to them: “O Wakea ka i noho aku
First, Tahiti-ku (standing or rising Tahiti); ia Papa hanau elima
Second, Tahiti-moe (setting or lying down Tahiti); keiki:
Third, the foundation stones; O Tahiti-ku, Tahiti-moe,
Fourth, the stones of heaven; Keapapanui,
Fifth, Hawaii. [18] Keapapalani,
Wakea was the husband, Papa the wife, } Hawaii. [19]
Kane was the husband, Walinuu the wife, } of Maui. O Wakea ke kane a Papa
Wakea lived with Papa; offsprings were Kane and Kanaloa.” (w) }
O Kane ke kane a
Walinuu (w) } o Maui.
O Wakea kai noho ia
Papa; hanau o Kane, o
Kanaloa.”
After the birth of these different children Papa went back to Tahiti and Mahope iho o ko Papa
Wakea lived wifeless. Therefore Wakea took unto himself Kaulawahine hanau ana i keia mau
who as a result gave birth to Lanai Kaula. Lanai was afterwards keiki, hoi aku la o Papa i
adopted. And thus runs the genealogy: Tahiti, noho wahine ole o
Wakea. Nolaila, lawe ae
Husband. Wife. Child. o Wakea ia Kaulawahine,
Wakea the husband of Kaulawahine, Lanai was the child. hanau o Lanai Kaula, a
Wakea the husband of Hina, Molokai was the child. mahope laweia ua o
Lanai i keiki hookama. A
penei ka hoonohonoho
ana o ka mookuauhau.
Kane. Wahine. Keiki.

Kane. Wahine. Keiki.
O
Wakea
Kaulawahine, o Lanai.
ke
kane o
O
Wakea o
Hina,
ke Molokai.
kane o
Thus Wakea had two island children with his new wives. On Papa’s Alua mau keiki moku a
return from Tahiti she heard of Wakea’s escapades with the new wives Wakea me na wahine
and got jealous of them and was also angry at her husband, Wakea. hou. Hoi mai o Papa mai
Therefore Papa took Lua for a husband and they had for a child Oahu, Tahiti mai, lohe ua lilo o
known as Oahualua. Papa went back to her first husband Wakea, and Wakea ia Kaulawahine
gave birth to Kamawaelualanimoku, Niihau, Kaula, and also Lehua. laua me Hina; a nolaila
They had four children after their reconciliation, and the genealogy huhu o Papa i na
reads as follows, according to Pakui’s chant, Chapter III: punalua, a huhu pu no
hoi i kana kane ia Wakea.
Nolaila, lawe ae o Papa
ia Lua i kane nana, loaa
ka laua keiki o Oahu
(Oahualua). Hoi hou aku
o Papa me kane mua me
Wakea, hanau o
Kamawaelualanimoku, o
Niihau, o Kaula, o Lehua.
Aha mau keiki a laua ma
ko laua manawa i hoi hou
ae ai. A penei hoi e
heluhelu ai i ka moolelo
ma ke mele i hakuia e
Pakui i hoikeia ma ka
Mokuna III.
“Papa left and went back to Tahiti, “Haalele o Papa hoi i

Went back to Tahiti at Kapakapakaua. Tahiti,
Wakea then slept with Kaulawahine, Hoi a Kahiki
Lanaiakaula was born, Kapakapakaua
A first-born child of that wife. Moe Wakea moe ia
Wakea then turned around and found Hina, Kaulawahine,
Molokai an island was born, Hanau Lanai a Kaula,
Hina’s Molokai is an island child, He makahiapo na ia
The plover Laukaula told the tale wahine.
That Wakea had slept with a woman, Hoi ae o Wakea loaa o
Fierce and fiery was the anger of Papa. Hina,
Papa came back from within Tahiti; Hanau Molokai he moku,
Was angry and jealous of her rivals;
Was wild and displeased towards her husband, Wakea, O Molokai a Hina he keiki
And slept with Lua for a new husband. moku,
Oahualua was born, an island, Haina e ke kolea
A child of Lua’s leaf-opening days. Laukaula
Papa then went back and lived with Wakea, Ua moe Wakea i ka
Papa was restless with child sickness, wahine,
Papa conceived the island of Kauai, Ena ka lani, ku kahaulili o
And gave birth to Kamawaelualanimoku. Papa.
Niihau was only the droppings, Hoi mai o Papa mai loko
Lehua was a border, o Tahiti;
And Kaula the closing one.” Inaina lili i ka punalua;
Hai manawa ino i ke
kane, o Wakea,
Moe ia Lua he kane hou
ia,
Hanau Oahualua, he
moku ia,
He keiki makanalau na
Lua.
Hoi hou aku no noho me
Wakea,
Naku Papa i ka iloli,
Hoohapuu Papa i ka
moku o Kauai
Hanau
Kamawaelualanimoku.
He eweewe Niihau,
He palena o Lehua,
He panina o Kaula.”
And this is the way the genealogy should be set of the children Papa A penei hoi ka
had with Wakea after the reconciliation: Wakea lived again with Papa, hoonohonoho ana o ka
and was born to them Kauai, Kamawaelualanimoku, Niihau, Lehua, moolelo o ka hanau ana
and Kaula. With these children Papa ceased giving birth to islands o Papa i na keiki muli ia
according to the previous historian; but according to the accounts of laua i hoi ae ai me
Kamahualele, another great prophet and historian, he gives the Wakea. Noho hou o
following version: Moikeha left Tahiti and came here on account of Wakea ia Papa, o Kauai,
Luukia, his concubine, [20]becoming crazy on account of Mua’s false Kamawaelualanimoku,
tale of Moikeha’s unfaithfulness. When Moikeha heard that wrong had Niihau, Lehua, Kaula. O
been done him he left Tahiti and sailed to Hawaii, and as his canoes keia mau keiki a Papa,
approached the beach at Hilo Kamahualele stood up on the cross- pau kana hanau moku
boards of the canoe and chanted the following mele in honor of his ana. Aka hoi ma ka ike o
chief: kekahi kaula nui, he
kakaolelo, o Kamahualele
kona inoa: I ka manawa i
holo mai ai o Moikeha
mai Tahiti mai, mamuli o
ka hoaaia i kana wahine
[21]manuahi ia Luukia, no
ko Mua olelo hoopunipuni
ana ia Luukia no ka hewa
i hana oleia e Moikeha,
aka ma kela lohe ana o
Moikeha ua hana pono
ole ia oia, nolaila, haalele
oia ia Tahiti, holo mai oia i
Hawaii nei, a i ka
hookokoke ana mai o na
waa e pae i Hilo, ia
manawa, ku mai o
Kamahualele i luna o ka
pola o na waa, a kahea
mai:
Here is Hawaii, an island, a man, Eia Hawaii, he moku, he

Hawaii is a man, kanaka,
A man is Hawaii, He Kanaka Hawaii-e.
A child of Tahiti, He Kanaka Hawaii,
A royal flower from Kapaahu. He Kama na Tahiti,
From Moaulanuiakea Kanaloa, He Pua Alii mai Kapaahu.
A grandchild of Kahiko and Kapulanakehau. Mai Moaulanuiakea
It was Papa who begat him, Kanaloa,
The daughter of Kukalauiehu and Kahakauakoko. He Moopuna na Kahiko
The scattered islands are in a row; laua o Kapulanakehau.
Placed evenly from east to west; Na Papa i hanau,
Spread evenly is the land in a row, Na ke Kama wahine a
And joined on to Holani. Kukalaniehu laua me
Kaialea the seer went round the land, Kahakauakoko.
Separated Nuuhiwa, 46 landed on Polapola. 47 Na pulapula aina i
Kahiko is the root of the land paekahi,
Who divided and separated the islands. I nonoho like i ka hikina,
Broken is the fish-line of Kahai, komohana,
That was cut by Kukanaloa. Pae like ka moku i lalani,
Broken into pieces were the lands, the islands, I hui aku hui mai me
Cut by the sacred knife of Kanaloa Holani.
Of Haumea, bird of Kahikele. Puni ka moku o Kaialea
Moikeha is the chief who is to reside; ke kilo,
My chief will reside on Hawaii. Naha Nuuhiwa lele i
Life, life, O buoyant life! Polapola:
The chief and the priest shall live; O Kahiko ke kumu aina,
Dwell on Hawaii and be at rest, Nana i mahele kaawale
And attain to old age on Kauai. na moku,
Kauai is the island, Moku ke aho lawaia a
Moikeha is the chief. Kahai,
I okia e Kukanaloa,
Pauku na aina, na moku,
Moku i ka ohe kapu a
Kanaloa.
O Haumea manu
kahikele,
O Moikeha ka lani nana e
noho.
Noho kuu lani ia Hawaii -
a-
Ola! Ola! O Kalanaola.
Ola ke alii, ke kahuna.
Ola ke kilo, ke kauwa;
Noho ia Hawaii a lulana,
A kani moopuna i Kauai.
O Kauai ka moku -a-
Moikeha ke alii.”
According to this chant of Kamahualele, Wakea and his wife were not Aia i loko o keia mele a
the original progenitors of Hawaii nei, and here is this also: it seems Kamahualele, aole o
from this account that the people came from Tahiti to people these Wakea a me kana wahine
islands as stated in the mele chanted by Kamahualele from the cross- na kumu mua o Hawaii
board of the canoe recited above. nei. A eia kekahi; ma ka
nana ana a me ka
hoomaopopo ana, no
Tahiti mai na kanaka i
laha ai keia mau moku, e
like me ke mele a
Kamahualele i hea mai ai
i luna o ka pola o na waa,
e like me ke mele maluna
ae.
CHAPTER V. MOKUNA V.
The Story of Opuukahonua. Ka Moolelo o

Opuukahonua.
It is told in the genealogy of Opuukahonua that they were the royal Ua oleloia ma ka moolelo
parents or ancestors of these islands, and that there were ninety-five o Opuukahonua o laua
generations from him to Kamehameha the Great. And they were found na kupuna alii o keia mau
or obtained by the fishing of Kapuheeuanui, and thus runs the tale: aina, he
When Kapuheeuanui let down his fishing line into the sea from kanaiwakumamaiwa
Kapaahu his line caught something that he thought was a fish and hanauna mai laila mai a
drew the line onto the canoe when, behold, it was a piece of coral. The hiki ia Kamehameha. A o
priest Laulialamakua came along as Kapuheeuanui was disentangling ka loaa ana o keia mau
his line from the coral and preparing to throw it away. Then the priest aina, i lawaia ia e
spoke to him, “Eh! Don’t throw away that piece of coral, for that is a Kapuheeuanui. A penei
chief, a foreteller of events. Go thou and look for a pig and appease the ke kaao ana: I ka wa i
god, and after prayer call its name Hawaiiloa, then throw it back into kuu aku ai o
the sea, and it will grow up into an island.” Kapuheeuanui obeyed the Kapuheeuanui i kana aho
instructions of the priest. The next day Kapuheeuanui went fishing i loko o ke kai mai
again and his line was again caught by a coral. This time he bethought Kapaahu mai, ia
himself of what the priest had said and took the coral to him, and the manawa, mau ana kana
priest said to him, “That is a man, a chief; call his name Mauiloa.” He aho lawaia, a manao ae
did so and then threw the coral back into the sea. On the third day of la oia he ia keia mea e
Kapuheeuanui’s fishing [22]his line was again entangled on a coral, mau nei, alaila, huki ae la
making the third piece of coral brought to the surface by his line, and, oia i kana aho, a i ke kau
as he had done before after freeing it from his line, took it to the priest. ana ae i ka waa, eia ka
The latter on beholding this coral exclaimed, “That is a man, a wohi, a he akoakoa. Ia manawa
chief from the sacred air; call his name Oahunuialaa.” 48 Kapuheeuanui hele mai ke kahuna o
continued fishing and always took to the priest the corals he caught on Laulialaamakua, e
his line, who named them and ordered him to go through the same hoomakaukau ana o
process of deifying them, or rather offering sacrifices to them, until all Kapuheeuanui e wehe ae
the islands now comprising the group were successively raised as i ke akoakoa a kiola aku,
corals. And thus, according to this tale, the islands of this group grew ia manawa, olelo aku ke
up from pieces of coral. But then, this is only a tale, and this is how one kahuna. “E! Mai kiola oe i
can ascertain the truth that these islands of Hawaii nei really did grow na akoakoa, he alii na, he
from corals. hai kanaka, hulia i puaa,
a hoomalielie i ke akua,
alaila pule a pau, alaila
kapa aku oe i kona inoa o
Hawaiiloa, alaila kiola aku
oe i loko o ke kai, e ulu
mai auanei na he moku.”
Alaila, hoolohe aku la o
Kapuheeuanui e like me
ka olelo a ke kahuna. I
kekahi la ae lawaia hou
no o Kapuheeuanui, hei
hou no ke akoakoa,
[23]alaila hoomanao ua
lawaia nei i ke kahuna,
lawe hou aku no i ke
akoakoa, i mai ke
kahuna, “He kanaka, he
alii, e kapa aku oe i ka
inoa o Mauiloa,” alaila
kiola aku la ua lawaia nei
i ka moana. I ka ekolu o
ka la lawaia o
Kapuheeuanui, hei hou
no he akoakoa, o ke kolu
ia o ka akoakoa; e like
me ka hana mau a ua
lawaia nei, a pela no oia i
hana aku ai. A ike mai la
ke hahuna i keia koa: “He
kanaka keia he wohi, he
alii no ka ea kapu, e kapa
aku i kona inoa o
Oahunuialaa.” Pela mau
ka hana mau a ua o
Kapuheeuanui, a pela no
hoi ka ke kahuna olelo i
ua lawaia nei. Ua kapaia
na inoa o keia mau aina
mamuli o ka olelo a ke
kahuna. A ma keia kaao
no Hawaii nei, he
akoakoa keia mau
mokupuni, ua ulu mai
loko ae o ke kai; aka, he
kaao wale no ia. A penei
hoi ka hoomaopopo ana i
ka oiaio ana, he akoakoa
io o Hawaii nei.
This is how the song runs that Makuakaumana 49 chanted at Tahiti, Penei ke mele a
when he and Paao went to get a new chief for Hawaii nei, because all Makuakaumana i oli aku
the old chiefs of Hawaii had sinned, Kapawa 50 being the king of Hawaii ai i Tahiti, ia laua me
at that time, he being of the fortieth generation from the time of Paao i holo ai i alii hou no
Opuukahonua. When Makuakaumana and company were nearing the Hawaii, no ka mea, ua
beach in the harbor of Moaulanuiakea 51 then Makuakaumana chanted pau na alii mua o Hawaii
to Lonokaeho, the priest of that place: nei i ka hewa, o Kapawa
ke alii o Hawaii nei ia
manawa, i ke kanaha o
na hanauna alii mai a
Opuukahonua mai a ia
Kapawa. A ia
Makuakaumana ma i
aneane aku ai e kau i ke
awa o Moaulanuiakea ia
manawa i oli aku ai o
Makuakaumana ia
Lonokaeho ke kahuna:
O Lono, O Lono, listen, O Lonokaeho! E Lono, e Lono - e-! E
Lonokulani, 52 chief of Kauluonana, 53 Lonokaeho!
Here are the canoes, get on board, Lonokulani alii o
Come along and dwell in Hawaii-with-the-green-back, 54 Kauluonana.
A land that was found in the ocean, Eia na waa kau mai,
That was thrown up from the sea, E hoi e noho ia
From the very depths of Kanaloa, Hawaiikuauli,
The white coral in the watery caves He aina loaa i ka moana,
That was caught on the hook of the fisherman; I hoea mai loko o ka ale;
The great fisherman of Kapaahu, I ka halehale poi pu a
The great fisherman Kapuheeuanui. Kanaloa;
The canoes touch the shore, come on board, He koakea i halelo i ka
Sail to Hawaii, an island, wai,
An island is Hawaii; I lou i ka makau a ka
An island is Hawaii for Lonokaeho to dwell on. lawaia,
A ka lawaia nui o
Kapaahu
A ka lawaia nui o
Kapuheeuanui - la
A pae na waa, kau mai,
E holo ai i Hawaii, he
moku;
He moku Hawaii,
He moku Hawaii na
Lonokaeho e noho.
When the canoes were beached, Paao told Lonokaeho he was wanted A pae na waa i uka, olelo
to go to Hawaii to be its ruler. When Lonokaeho heard this from Paao aku o Paao ia Lonokaeho
he said to him, “I will not go there, but I will send Pili and he shall eat of e hoi i alii no Hawaii. A
Hawaii. He shall be the chief to go together with you, and you must be lohe o Lonokaeho i keia
the priest.” And that is how Pili came to come here. It is so told in the olelo a Paao, alaila, olelo
history of Paao. But we must also examine the genealogy of chiefs aku la o Lonokaeho ia
from Opuukahonua to Wakea as is set forth in Chapter VI. Paao, “Aole wau e holo,
aka, e hoouna aku wau ia
Pili nana e ai o Hawaii,
oia ke alii e holo pu me
olua; a o oe no ke
kahuna.” A nolaila oia ka
hiki o Pili ia Hawaii nei.
(Pela i oleloia ma ka
moolelo o Paao). Aka, e
pono ke nana i ka
hoonohonoho ana o ka
mookuauhau alii mai a
Opuukahonua mai a hiki
ia Wakea, e like me ka
hoonohonoho ana ma
kela aoao Mokuna VI.
CHAPTER VI. MOKUNA VI.
In the genealogical tree of Opuukahonua it is not stated who his Ma ka hoonohonoho ana
parents were, but, it is stated in the genealogy of Kualii, that i ka mookuauhau mai a
Opuukahonua came from Tahiti to live in Hawaii when these islands Opuukahonua mai, aole i
were inhabited by human beings. Opuukahonua came with his two ikeia ko Opuukahonua
younger brothers Lolomu and Mihi and one woman, Lana, and they mau makua, aka, o ka
became the progenitors of the people of Hawaii nei, and this is how mea i oleloia i loko o ka
they increased: [24] moolelo o Kualii, mai
Tahiti mai o
The Genealogy of Opuukahonua. Opuukahonua o ka hele
ana mai a noho i Hawaii
HUSBAND. KANE. WIFE. WAHINE. CHILD. KEIKI. nei, i ka manawa, aole he
Opuukahonua. Kanananuikumamao (k). kanaka ma keia mau
aina. Holo mai o
Lolomu. Lana. Ohikimakaloa (w). Opuukahonua me kona
mau kaikaina elua, o
Mihi. Hekilikaaka (k).
Lolomu a me Mihi,
Nakolowailani (k).
hookahi wahine o Lana, a
Hekilikaaka. Ohikimakaloa. o lakou na kupuna mua o
Ahulukaaala (w). Hawaii nei. A penei ka
laha ana: [27]
Mihi. Ahulukaaala. Kapuaululana.
Kapuaululana. Holani. Kekamaluahaku.
Kekamaluahaku. Laamea. Lanipipili.
Laakeakapu. Lanioaka.
Lanipipili.
Hinaimanau. Laakealaakona.
Laakealaakona. Kamaleilani. Haulanuiakea.

Haulanuiakea. Manau. Kahaloalena.
Kahaloalena. Laumaewa. Kahaloalenaula.
Laakealaakona. Laumaewa. Kamaiolena.
Kanehoalani. Kaiwilaniolua.
Kahalolenaula. Hinakului. Kapumaweolani.
Kaihikapualamea. Kukonalaa.
Kaiwilaniolua. Kanehoalani. Kalaniwahine.

HUSBAND. KANE. WIFE. WAHINE. CHILD. KEIKI.
Kapumaweolani. Haweaoku. Manuiakane.
Kukonalaa. Kaenakulani. Kalanipaumako.
Pili. Kamakahiwa.
Kalaniwahine. Makakaile.
Malela.
Makakailenuiaola.
Kamakahiwa. Loe. Kikenuiaewa.

Makakaile. Paweo. Kalanimanuia.
Makakailenuiaola. Kahiko.
Kikenuiaewa. Kupulanakehau (w).

Ewa.
Kalanimanuia. Kukalaniehu.
Kahakauakoko.
Kahiko. Kapulanakehau. Wakea.

Kukalaniehu. Kahakauakoko. Papa (w).
Papa. Hoohokukalani.
Wakea.
Hoohokukalani. Haloa.
Haloa. Hinamanouluae. Waia.

Waia. Huhune. Hinanalo.
Hinanalo. Haumu. Nanakehili.
Nanakehili. Haulani. Wailoa.
Wailoa. Hikawaopuaianea. Kio.
Kio. Kamole. Ole.
Ole. Hai. Pupue.
Pupue. Kamahele. Manaku.
Manaku. Hikohaale. Kahiko.
Kahiko. Kaae. Luanui.
Luanui. Kawaamaukele. Kii.
Ulu.
Kii. Hinakoula.
Nanaulu.
Nanaulu. Ulukou. Nanamea.
Nana.
Ulu. Kapunui. Kapulani.
Nanaiea.
Nanaiea. Kahaumokuleia. Nanailani.

Nanailani. Hinakinau. Waikulani.
Waikulani. Kekauilani. Kuheleimoana.
Kuheleimoana. Mapunaiaala. Konohiki.
Konohiki. Hikaululena. Wawena.
Wawena. Hinamahuia. Akalana.
Mauimua.
Mauihope.
Akalana. Hinakawea.
Mauikiikii.
Mauiakalana.
Mauiakalana. Hinakealohaila. Nanamaoa.

Nanamaoa. Hinaikapaekua. Nanakulei.
Nanakulei. Kahaukuhonua. Nanakaoko.
Nanakaoko. Kohikohiokalani. Heleipawa.[25]
Heleipawa. Kookookumaikalani. Hulumalailani.
Hulumalailani. Hinamaikalani. Aikane.
Puna.
Aikane. Hinahanaiakamalama.
Hema.
Puna. Hainalau. Ua.

Hema. Ulamahahoa. Kahai.
Kahai. Hinauluohia. Wahieloa.
Wahieloa. Koolaukahili. Laka.
Laka. Hikawaolena. Luanuu.
Luanuu. Kapokulaiula. Kamea.
Kamea. Popomaili. Pohukaina.
Pohukaina. Huahuakapalei. Hua.
Hua. Hikimolulolea. Pau.
Pau. Kapohaakia. Huanuiikalalailai.
Kapoea. Paumakua.
Huanuiikalalailai.
Molehai. Kuhelani.
Paumakua. Manokalililani. Haho.

Haho. Kauilaianapa. Palena.
Hanalaanui.
Palena. Hikawainui.
Hanalaaiki.
Hanalaanui. Mahuia. Lanaakawai.

Lanaakawai. Kalohialiiokawai. Laau.
Laau. Kukamolimolialoha. Pili.
Pili. Hinaauaku. Koa.
Koa. Hinaaumai. Ole.
Ole. Hinamailelii. Kukohu.
Kukohu. Hinakeuki. Kaniuhi.
Kaniuhi. Hiliamakani. Kanipahu.
Hualani. Kalahumoku.
Kanipahu.
Alaikaaukoko. Kalapana.
Kalapana. Makeamalamaihanae. Kahiamoeleaikaaikupou.

Kahiamoeleaikaaikupou. Kapohakauluhailaa. Kalaunuiohua.
Kalaunuiohua. Kaheka. Kuaiwa.
Kahoukapu.
Kuaiwa. Kumuleilani. Hukulani.
Manauea.
Kahoukapu. Laakapu. Kauholanuimahu.

Kauholanuimahu. Neula. Kiha.
Kiha. Waoilea. Liloa.
Pinea. Hakau.
Liloa.
Akahiakuleana. Umi.
Kulamea. Kapunanahuanuiaumi.
Makaalua. Nohowaaumi.
Kealiiokalaloa.
Kapulani.
Kapukini.
Umi. Keawenuiaumi.
Aihakoko.
Piikea.
Kumalae.
Kealiiokalaloa. Makuahineopalaka. Kukailani.
Kaikilani.
Kukailani. Kaohukiokalani.
Makakaualii.
Makakaualii. Kapukamola. Iwikauikaua.

Keawenuiaumi. Koihalawai. Kanaloakuaana.
Kanaloakuaana. Kaikilani. Kealiiokalani.
Keakealanikane.
Kalanioumi.
Keakealanikane. Keliiokalani. Keakamahana.

Iwikauikaua. Keakamahana. Keakealani.
Kanaloakapulehu. Keakealani. Keawe.
Kaneikauaiwilani. Keakealani. Kalanikauleleiaiwi.
Keeumoku.
Keawe. Kalanikauleleiaiwi.
Kekela.
Keeumoku. Kamakaimoku. Kalanikupuapaikalaninui.

Kekela. Haae. Kekuapoiwa.
Kalanikupuapaikalaninui. Kekuapoiwa. Kamehameha.
[26]
According to the genealogical table or tree from the time of Ma ka papa kuauhau i
Opuukahonua to Kamehameha there are ninety-nine generations, and hoonohonohoia mai a
that is the royal line of this race. But there were many chiefly branches Opuukahonua mai a hiki
from this royal line and many descendants, but no attention can now ia Kamehameha, he
be paid to them in a genealogical order. kanaiwakumamaiwa
hanauna ka nui, o lakou
ka hanauna alii o keia
lahui. Aka, ua puka mai
he mau lala ohana alii ma
keia mookuauhau, a ua
ulu a lehulehu lakou, aka,
aole e hiki ke
hoomaopopo i ka
hoonohonoho ana o na
lala ohana alii e ae, ma
na lalani like e like me ka
hoonohonoho ana i
hoikeia ma ka papa
kuauhau mai a
Opuukahonua mai.
according to time or epochs. no na wa.
It is well to divide those times into periods from the time of He mea pono ke
Opuukahonua until the reign of Kamehameha, and to credit each reign maheleia i mau wa mai a
with the works or happenings during its time as the story associates Opuukahonua a hiki ia
each king or chief with them. Kamehameha e like me
ka noho aupuni ana, a e
hoakaka pololei ia ka
hana i loko o na wa a me
na hana ano nui a keia
alii keia alii i loko o ko
lakou kaao ana.
The Earliest Times. From Opuukahonua to Kukonalaa, elder brother of Wa Mua. Mai a
Kapawa, was sixteen generations. That was when Pili arrived from Opuukahonua a hiki ia
Tahiti and Kapawa was the reigning sovereign, and there were several Kukonalaa ko Kapawa
battles as a consequence. kaikuaana, he
umikumamaono ia
hanauna, ia manawa hiki
mai o Pili mai Tahiti mai,
oia ke alii o Hawaii nei ia
manawa, aka, he mau
hoouka kaua ma ia
manawa.
Second Epoch. From Pili’s time to Kahiko there were eight Wa Elua. Mai ia Pili a hiki
generations, and there were several great undertakings during that ia Kahiko, ewalu ia
period, and Pili’s was a time of peace and prosperity, for he was wise. hanauna, he wa maikai
ia, a he mau hana
naauao no ka Pili ia
manawa.
Third Epoch. From Wakea to Waia there were four generations. There Wa Ekolu. Mai ia Wakea
were also several important works during that time. a hiki ia Waia, eha ia
hanauna, he mau hana
nui i loko oia manawa.
Fourth Epoch. From Waia to Liloa were fifty-seven generations. There Wa Eha. Mai a Waia a
were several happenings during this interval and many wars. hiki ia Liloa he
kanalimakumamahiku
hanauna, he nui na ano
oia wa, a me na hoouka
kaua ia wa.
Fifth Epoch. From Liloa to Kamehameha were fourteen generations. Wa Elima. Mai ia Liloa a
These divisions of time are not supposed to be strictly correct as there hiki ia Kamehameha, he
had been no one to definitely define the limits of each epoch. But it is umikumamaha hanauna.
settled on in this manner. These several divisions of time were known Ma keia mahele ana i na
to later generations by the legends and tales referring to them, and wa, aole ma ka pololei
made plainer by the prayer of Kukailani, a great priest who lived and maoli, aole no he mea
was of the seventy-ninth generation from the time of Opuukahonua. nana i hoomaopopo mai
ka mahele ana i na wa.
Aka, penei nae: Aia iloko
o keia mau wa i
maheleia, ua akaka ma
ko lakou kaao ana, a ua
akaka ma ka pule ana a
kekahi kahuna, o
Kukailani kona inoa, oia
paha ke
kanahikukumamaiwa o
ka hanauna mai a
Opuukahonua mai.
On the day when Iwikauikaua was taken by Kanaloapulehu to be No ka mea, i ka wa i kiiia

sacrificed on the altar of the temple, because Iwikauikaua had done mai ai o Iwikauikaua e
wrong in promoting rebellion amongst the subordinate chiefs under him Kanaloapulehu e kau i ka
to rebel against Kanaloakuaana, a king of Maui, then when Iwikauikaua lele, no ka hewa ana o
stood on the steps of the altar he looked to the priest, Kukailani and Iwikauikaua no ke kipi
appealed to him: “O prayer of the priest, stand thou before the deity ana i na ’lii malalo ona, a
that he may look towards me, if thou art indeed my priest.” When kipi aku ia
Kukailani heard this call he answered: “Yes, I will stand and pray, but if Kanaloakuaana kekahi
my prayer is not propitious you will die; but if my prayer is uninterrupted alii o Maui, a nolaila, ia
to the Amen you will not die today.” Iwikauikaua i ku ai iluna o
ka anuu, nana ae la o
Iwikauikaua i ke kahuna
ia Kukailani, a kahea aku
la: “E, ka pule a ke
kahuna, kulia i mua o ke
akua, na na mai ia’u ina
he kahuna oe na’u.” A
lohe o Kukailani i keia
mea: “Ae, e ku wau i kuu
pule a i ino kuu pule
make oe, aka i hololea
kuu pule a hiki i ka
amama ana; aole oe e
kau i ka lele i keia la.” A
penei ka pule ana:
O thou Ku, and Uli, and Kama, it is flown. 1 E Ku, e Uli, e Kama, lele
Kalani the languishing chief of Kaiwa. wale. 1
Iwikauikaua in straight line from the depths; O Kalani ke ’lii kaahea o
From the Tahitian stem of the earth’s foundation, Kaiwa.
Whose royal lineage is so old and well established Iwikauikaua haulili mai
From the sacred ancestry of Kukonalaa. lalo;
The kapu was put on Makalii. Mai kumu kahiki ka
This is the first prayer; it is flown. honua ua kele,
The kapu of the island has flown. 2 Ua nao ua pela i ke kapu
The kapus of the islands are in a row; alii
The kapus of the islands are enjoined, I ka pela alii kapu o
The kapu of the island has come forth, Kukonalaa.
It has rested on the sacredness of the island, Ua kau ke kapu i Makalii.
Pili was the one that enjoyed that sanctity; Akahi -a- aha; lele wale.
The island of Hawaii-of-the-green-back. Lele mai ke kapu o ka
This is the second prayer. It has flown; moku. 2
The kapu has flown backwards to Wakea. [28] Lalani ke kapu o ka
Wakea was the priest, the chief 3 moku;
Who was born loaded and covered deep with kapu; Kui mai ke kapu o ka
It was Wakea who broke the kapu of the island. moku,
The kapu was divided to surround the islands, Pii mai ke kapu o ka
The kapu flew backwards to Waia 55 the king. moku,
This is the fourth, the fourth resting of the kapu; 56 Ili aku, kau aku ke kapu o
It was Liloa who enjoyed that kapu. ka moku,
The island is kapued for Liloa, 4 Na Pili e noho ia kapu,
The kapu had grown and flourished in Tahiti, Ka moku i Hawaiikuauli.
By Liloa of Umi was the kapu broken, Alua-a aha, lele wale;
The powers of the kapu were divided; Lele aku ke kapu ia
It is Iwiaulana Iwikauikaua. Wakea. [29]
A kamahele branch that is inclining downwards, 57 O Wakea ke kahuna, ke
That is weighed down by the kapus of Iwikauikaua. alii, 3
Let the bones pay 58 for the kapus of the island; Ke alii i kumu, i nua, i
Iwikauikaua was the wrong one; makolu i ke kapu;
The one who sulked in the waters of Haunaka. Ia Wakea naha ke kapu o
ka moku,
Mahae ke kapu i kiope na
moku,
Lele aku ke kapu o Waia
ke alii.
Aha -aha- ka ilina o ke
kapu,
Na Liloa e noho ia kapu.
Ua kapu ka moku ia
Liloa, 4
Ua kapu kawao i Tahiti,
Liloa o Umi ke kapu i
nahae,
Nahae na mana o ke
kapu,
O Iwiaulana Iwikauikaua.
Lola kamahele i kikiwi,
I pipio i ke kapu o
Iwikauikaua.
Na ka iwi e pani ke kapu
o ka moku;
Iwikauikaua ke kalohe;
Ka hoololohe wai i
Haunaka.
This is the prayer that is referred to in the genealogy of Kamalalawalu. O keia ka pule i oleloia i
And it is shown by the construction of this poetical prayer that time loko o ka molelo o
should be divided into epochs. Because it is only on the reigning kings Kamalalawalu. A ma keia
that the kapu of the islands are conferred, and it would seem time and mele pule i maopopo ai
epochs were divided as shown by the division of the chant referred to he pono ke mahele i mau
above. wa. No ka mea, aia wale
no ma na ’lii aimoku e ili
ai ke kapu moku. A mehe
mea la, ua
hoomaopopoia na wa ma
ia mau ano e like me na
pauku mele pule maluna
ae.
CHAPTER VII. MOKUNA VII.
An Account of the First Sight of Foreigners. No ka Ike Mua ana

i na Haole.
It is told in the history of Hawaii that was printed at Lahainaluna, and Ua oleloia ma ka moolelo
also in the history revised by Pogue of Lahainaluna, that a vessel of o Hawaii nei, i paiia ma
some kind had arrived at Hawaii long ago, and that was the first Lahainaluna, a me ka
knowledge the people of this race had of foreigners; but in the history moolelo i hooponopono
of Kualii, one of the former kings of Hawaii nei and a famous one for hou ia e Mr. Pokuea o
his strength and valor in battle, it is said that he was the first one to visit Lahainaluna, ua ku mua
Tahiti, and that he was the one that first knew or met foreigners in the mai kekahi moku ma
olden times. This is how that is recognized by his prayer in the middle Hawaii nei i ka wa kahiko,
of his history as recited below: a oia ka hoomaka mua
ana o keia lahui e ike i na
haole. Aka hoi, ma ka
moolelo o Kualii kekahi
alii kahiko o Hawaii nei,
ke alii kaulana no ka
ikaika i ke kaua; ua
oleloia, nana i ike mua o
Tahiti, a oia ka mea i ike
mua i na haole i ka wa
kahiko, a penei ka
hoomaopopo ana ma
kona pule, ma ka hapa
waena o kona moolelo e
like me malalo iho:
O Hawaii of the lofty mountains; O Hawaii mauna kiekie;

Pointed to heaven is Kauwiki; Hoho i ka lani Kauwiki;
Below is the cluster of islands floating on the sea; I lalo ka hono o na moku,
Clasping Kauwiki the trembling mountain; i ke kai e hopu ana;
Hewing Kauwiki till it fell. Kauwiki i ka mauna i ke
And now Kauai, Kauai great and peaceful, opaipai;
That is under the lee of Waianae. E kalai a hina Kauwiki-e.
Kaena is a cape, Kahuku is a pandanus. O Kauai, O Kauai nui
Kaala is a mountain ridge covered with dew, kuapapa,
And Waialua is situated below, O Waialua. Noho i ka lulu o Waianae.
Mokuleia is the calabash, the helo, He lae Kaena, he hala
The eight-finned shark; 59 Kahuku.
The tail of the white shark is Kaena, He kuamauna hono i ke
The shark stretching away toward Kauai. hau Kaala,
Below is Kauai, my land, Noho mai ana Waialua i
O great Kauai, island (filled) with lehua, 60 lalo e, O Waialua.
Island stretching out towards Tahiti. O Mokuleia ka ipu, ka
Away down is Tahiti. helo
Wakea controlled the sun creeping along; Ka ia mano lala walu,
Arising from beneath Kumuhonua; Hiu lala kea o Kaena,
Shaking is the foundations of broad Hawaii, Mano hele lalo o Kauai.
Pointing to the rising rays of the sun. O lalo o Kauai, kuu aina,
Kona stands forth to sight; O Kauai nui mokulehua,
The sun stands over Kona, Kohala is in darkness. [30] Moku panee lua ana
O Tahiti, land of the far-reaching ocean, Tahiti.
Land where Olopana dwelt. I lalo Tahiti.
Within is the land, outside is the sun; Ia Wakea ka la kolohia;
Indistinct is the land when approaching. Hooulu i lalo o
Perhaps you have seen it? Kumuhonua;
I have surely seen Tahiti, Nakeke ka papa i
A land with a strange language is Tahiti. Hawaiiakea,
The people of this place ascended up O Kuhia i ka muo o ka la.
To the very backbone of heaven; Kau mai ana Kona i ka
They trampled and looked down below. maka;
Kanakas (men of our race) are not in Tahiti. Ke kau la Kona, ke moe
One kind of men is in Tahiti—the haole; 61 la Kohala. [31]
He is like a god, O Tahiti, moku kai a loa.
I am like a man, Aina a Olopana i noho ai.
Ku is a god. I loko ka moku, I waho ka
la;
Ke aloalo o ka la ke hiki
mai.
Ane ua ike oe?
Ua ike hoi wau ia Tahiti,

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Full download test bank at ebook textbookfull.

Thermal process modeling

Business Process Modeling, Simulation and Design Manuel

Business process modeling, simulation and design Third

Thermal safety of chemical processes risk assessment

Modeling and Simulation of Thermal Power Plants with

Hybrid Modeling in Process Industries First Edition

Embedded Computer Systems Architectures Modeling and

Thermal Safety of Chemical Processes Risk Assessment

Thermal Safety of Chemical Processes Risk Assessment

Proceedings from the

June 16 – 18, 2014

First printing, June 2014

Printed in the United States of America

Domestic Organizing Committee

Andy Banka Zi-Kui Liu

Andrew Freborg Gord Montgomery

Robert Goldstein Rozalia Papp

Bob Hill Rick Sisson

Gerry Ludtka Qigui Wang

Mei Li Dale Weires

International Organizing Committee

Lauralice Canale Michiharu Narazaki

Sabine Denis K. Narayan Prabhu

Fabrizio Dughiero Volker Schulze

Imre Felde Reinhold Schneider

Kiyoshi Funatani Eva Troell

C. Hakan Gur Emilia Wolowiec

Bernardo Hernandez-Morales Robert Wood

Xu Kewei Hans-Werner Zoch

Distortion and Residual Stress I

Finite Element Modeling of Immersion Route Effect on Macroscopic Distortion

Computer Simulation and Experimental Validation of Low

Thermo-mechanical Simulation of Laser Beam Assisted Clinching

Modeling Heat Treatment of 7075 Aluminum Components................................................ 53

Stress Generation in an Axle Shaft during Induction Hardening ...................................... 89

Properties and Data

Modeling of Mechanical Properties in Castings................................................................ 113

Understanding Atmosphere in Carburizing Applications Using Simulation and

Temperature-Related Advances in Liquid Nitrocarburizing Technology ....................... 126

Improvement on Temperature Uniformity in an Industrial Tip-up Heat Treating

Distortion and Residual Stress II

Simulation of Distortion during Quenching Process ........................................................ 145

Cellular Automata Model Of Low Carbon Steel Recrystallization Using A Refined

Residual Stresses in Martensite after Multiple Heating Events ....................................... 192

Influence of the β → α+β Transformation on the Stresses and Strains Evolutions

Thermal Control of the Friction Stir Welding Process ...................................................... 218

A Time-Compressed Numerical Approach for Thermal Analysis of Preheating

Simulation of Shell Hardening of Unalloyed Steel Cylinders Due to High Speed

Parameters Effecting Submerged Plumes in Quench Systems ....................................... 270

Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Water Quench Cooling of Aluminum

Benchmarking of Mathematical Models for Quenching Operations—A Proposal ......... 286

Improvements in Quench Tank Design Using CFD Analysis ........................................... 301

Simulation of Anisotropic Thermal Conductivity of Bi4Ti3O12 .......................................... 315

Optimization of Alloying of Heat Resistant Core Wires for ARC Spraying by

Modeling Steel Surface Treating Processes—Carbonitridetool ...................................... 330

Author Index ......................................................................................................................... 331

Modeling Heat Treatment for Characterizing Distortion, Residual Stress, Loading

Abstract steels. These steels are characterized by a combination of high