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Infosys Science Foundation Series in Mathematical Sciences

Ramji Lal

Algebra 2
Linear Algebra, Galois Theory,
Representation Theory, Group
Extensions and Schur Multiplier
Infosys Science Foundation Series

Infosys Science Foundation Series in Mathematical

Sciences

Series editors
Gopal Prasad, University of Michigan, USA
Irene Fonseca, Mellon College of Science, USA

Editorial Board
Chandrasekhar Khare, University of California, USA
Mahan Mj, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, India
Manindra Agrawal, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, India
S.R.S. Varadhan, Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences, USA
Weinan E, Princeton University, USA
The Infosys Science Foundation Series in Mathematical Sciences is a sub-series of
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Ramji Lal

Algebra 2
Linear Algebra, Galois Theory,
Representation Theory, Group Extensions
and Schur Multiplier

123
Ramji Lal
Harish Chandra Research Institute (HRI)
Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh
India

ISSN 2363-6149 ISSN 2363-6157 (electronic)

Infosys Science Foundation Series
ISSN 2364-4036 ISSN 2364-4044 (electronic)
Infosys Science Foundation Series in Mathematical Sciences
ISBN 978-981-10-4255-3 ISBN 978-981-10-4256-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4256-0
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017935547

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017

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Dedicated to the memory of
my mother
(Late) Smt Murti Devi,
my father
(Late) Sri Sankatha Prasad Lal, and
my father like brother
(Late) Sri Gopal Lal
Preface

Algebra has played a central and decisive role in all branches of mathematics and,
in turn, in all branches of science and engineering. It is not possible for a lecturer to
cover, physically in a classroom, the amount of algebra which a graduate student
(irrespective of the branch of science, engineering, or mathematics in which he
prefers to specialize) needs to master. In addition, there are a variety of students in a
class. Some of them grasp the material very fast and do not need much of assis-
tance. At the same time, there are serious students who can do equally well by
putting a little more effort. They need some more illustrations and also more
exercises to develop their skill and confidence in the subject by solving problems on
their own. Again, it is not possible for a lecturer to do sufficiently many illustrations
and exercises in the classroom for the aforesaid purpose. This is one of the con-
siderations which prompted me to write a series of three volumes on the subject
starting from the undergraduate level to the advance postgraduate level. Each
volume is sufficiently rich with illustrations and examples together with numerous
exercises. These volumes also cater for the need of the talented students with
difficult, challenging, and motivating exercises which were responsible for the
further developments in mathematics. Occasionally, the exercises demonstrating the
applications in different disciplines are also included. The books may also act as a
guide to teachers giving the courses. The researchers working in the field may also
find it useful.
The first volume consists of 11 chapters, which starts with language of mathe-
matics (logic and set theory) and centers around the introduction to basic algebraic
structures, viz., groups, rings, polynomial rings, and fields together with funda-
mentals in arithmetic. This volume serves as a basic text for the first-year course in
algebra at the undergraduate level. Since this is the first introduction to the
abstract-algebraic structures, we proceed rather leisurely in this volume as com-
pared with the other volumes.
The present (second) volume contains 10 chapters which includes the funda-
mentals of linear algebra, structure theory of fields and the Galois theory, repre-
sentation theory of groups, and the theory of group extensions. It is needless to say
that linear algebra is the most applicable branch of mathematics, and it is essential

vii
viii Preface

for students of any discipline to develop expertise in the same. As such, linear
algebra is an integral part of the syllabus at the undergraduate level. Indeed, a very
significant and essential part (Chaps. 1–5) of linear algebra covered in this volume
does not require any background material from Volume 1 of the book except some
amount of set theory. General linear algebra over rings, Galois theory, represen-
tation theory of groups, and the theory of group extensions follow linear algebra,
and indeed these are parts of the syllabus for the second- and the third-year students
of most of the universities. As such, this volume together with the first volume may
serve as a basic text for the first-, second-, and third-year courses in algebra.
The third volume of the book contains 10 chapters, and it can act as a text for
graduate and advance graduate students specializing in mathematics. This includes
commutative algebra, basics in algebraic geometry, semi-simple Lie algebras,
advance representation theory, and Chevalley groups. The table of contents gives an
idea of the subject matter covered in the book.
There is no prerequisite essential for the book except, occasionally, in some
illustrations and exercises, some amount of calculus, geometry, or topology may be
needed. An attempt to follow the logical ordering has been made throughout
the book.
My teacher (Late) Prof. B.L. Sharma, my colleague at the University of
Allahabad, my friend Dr. H.S. Tripathi, my students Prof. R.P. Shukla, Prof.
Shivdatt, Dr. Brajesh Kumar Sharma, Mr. Swapnil Srivastava, Dr. Akhilesh Yadav,
Dr. Vivek Jain, Dr. Vipul Kakkar, and above all, the mathematics students of the
University of Allahabad had always been the motivating force for me to write a
book. Without their continuous insistence, it would have not come in the present
form. I wish to express my warmest thanks to all of them.
Harish-Chandra Research Institute (HRI), Allahabad, has always been a great
source for me to learn more and more mathematics. I wish to express my deep sense
of appreciation and thanks to HRI for providing me all infrastructural facilities to
write these volumes.
Last but not least, I wish to express my thanks to my wife Veena Srivastava who
had always been helpful in this endeavor.
In spite of all care, some mistakes and misprints might have crept in and escaped
my attention. I shall be grateful to any such attention. Criticisms and suggestions for
the improvement of the book will be appreciated and gratefully acknowledged.

Allahabad, India Ramji Lal

April 2017
Contents

1 Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Concept of a Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Concept of a Vector Space (Linear Space) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Subspaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Basis and Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5 Direct Sum of Vector Spaces, Quotient of a Vector Space . . . . 23
2 Matrices and Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.1 Matrices and Their Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2 Types of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3 System of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.4 Gauss Elimination, Elementary Operations, Rank,
and Nullity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.5 LU Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.6 Equivalence of Matrices, Normal Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.7 Congruent Reduction of Symmetric Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3 Linear Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.1 Definition and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.2 Isomorphism Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.3 Space of Linear Transformations, Dual Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.4 Rank and Nullity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.5 Matrix Representations of Linear Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.6 Effect of Change of Bases on Matrix Representation . . . . . . . . . 88
4 Inner Product Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.1 Definition, Examples, and Basic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.2 Gram–Schmidt Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.3 Orthogonal Projection, Shortest Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.4 Isometries and Rigid Motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

ix
x Contents

5 Determinants and Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

5.1 Determinant of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.2 Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.3 Alternating Forms, Determinant of an Endomorphism . . . . . . . . 139
5.4 Invariant Subspaces, Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.5 Spectral Theorem, and Orthogonal Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.6 Bilinear and Quadratic Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6 Canonical Forms, Jordan and Rational Forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
6.1 Concept of a Module over a Ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
6.2 Modules over P.I.D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
6.3 Rational and Jordan Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
7 General Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
7.1 Noetherian Rings and Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
7.2 Free, Projective, and Injective Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
7.3 Tensor Product and Exterior Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
7.4 Lower K-theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
8 Field Theory, Galois Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
8.1 Field Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
8.2 Galois Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
8.3 Splitting Field, Normal Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
8.4 Separable Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
8.5 Fundamental Theorem of Galois Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
8.6 Cyclotomic Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
8.7 Geometric Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
8.8 Galois Theory of Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
9 Representation Theory of Finite Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
9.1 Semi-simple Rings and Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
9.2 Representations and Group Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
9.3 Characters, Orthogonality Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
9.4 Induced Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
10 Group Extensions and Schur Multiplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
10.1 Schreier Group Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
10.2 Obstructions and Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
10.3 Central Extensions, Schur Multiplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
10.4 Lower K-Theory Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
About the Author

Ramji Lal is Adjunct Professor at the Harish-Chandra Research Institute (HRI),

Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh. He started his research career at the Tata Institute of
Fundamental Research (TIFR), Mumbai, and served at the University of Allahabad
in different capacities for over 43 years: as a Professor, Head of the Department, and
the Coordinator of the DSA Program. He was associated with HRI, where he
initiated a postgraduate (PG) program in mathematics and coordinated the Nurture
Program of National Board for Higher Mathematics (NBHM) from 1996 to 2000.
After his retirement from the University of Allahabad, he was Advisor cum Adjunct
Professor at the Indian Institute of Information Technology (IIIT), Allahabad, for
over 3 years. His areas of interest include group theory, algebraic K-theory, and
representation theory.

xi
Notations from Algebra 1

h ai Cyclic subgroup generated by a, p. 122

a/b a divides b, p. 57
a*b a is an associate of b, p. 57
At The transpose of a matrix A, p. 200
AH The hermitian conjugate of a matrix A, p. 215
Aut(G) The automorphism group of G, p. 105
An The alternating group of degree n, p. 175
Bðn; RÞ Borel subgroup, p. 187
CG ðH Þ The centralizer of H in G, p. 159
C The field of complex numbers, p. 78
Dn The dihedral group of order 2n, p. 90
det Determinant map, p. 191
End(G) Semigroup of endomorphisms of G, p. 105
f(A) Image of A under the map f, p. 34
f −1(B) Inverse image of B under the map f, p. 34
f |Y Restriction of the map f to Y, p. 30
Eij‚ Transvections, p. 200
Fit(G) Fitting subgroup, p. 353
g.c.d. Greatest common divisor, p. 58
g.l.b. Greatest lower bound, or inf, p. 40
G=l HðG=r HÞ The set of left(right) cosets of G mod H, p. 135
G/H The quotient group of G modulo H, p. 151
½G : H  The index of H in G, p. 135
jGj Order of G, p. 331
G0 ¼ ½G; G Commutator subgroup of G, p. 403
Gn nth term of the derived series of G, p. 345
GLðn; RÞ General linear group, p. 186
IX Identity map on X, p. 30
iY Inclusion map from Y, p. 30
Inn(G) The group of inner automorphisms, p. 407

xiii
xiv Notations from Algebra 1

ker f The kernel of the map f, p. 35

Ln ðGÞ nth term of the lower central series of G, p. 281
l.c.m. Least common multiple, p. 58
l.u.b. Least upper bound, or sup, p. 40
Mn(R) The ring of n  n matrices with entries in R, p. 350
N Natural number system, p. 21
NG ðH Þ Normalizer of H in G, p. 159
O(n) Orthogonal group, p. 197
O(1, n) Lorentz orthogonal group, p. 201
PSO(1, n) Positive special Lorentz orthogonal group, p. 201
Q The field of rational numbers, p. 74
Q8 The quaternion group, p. 88
R The field of real numbers, p. 75
R(G) Radical of G, p. 346
Sn Symmetric group of degree n, p. 88
Sym(X) Symmetric group on X, p. 88
S3 The group of unit quaternions, p. 92
h Si Subgroup generated by a subset S, p. 116
SLðn; RÞ Special linear group, p. 196
SO(n) Special orthogonal group, p. 197
SO(1, n) Special Lorentz orthogonal group, p. 201
SPð2n; RÞ Symplectic group, p. 202
SU(n) Special unitary group, p. 202
U(n) Unitary group, p. 202
Um Group of prime residue classes modulo m, p. 100
V4 Kleins four group, p. 102
X/R The quotient set of X modulo R, p. 36
Rx Equivalence class modulo R determined by x, p. 27
X+ Successor of X, p. 20
XY The set of maps from Y to X, p. 34
 Proper subset, p. 14
}ðXÞ
Qn Power set of X, p. 19
k¼1 Gk Direct product of groups Gk ; 1  k  n, p. 142
/ Normal subgroup, p. 147
// Subnormal subgroup, p. 332
Z(G) Center of G, p. 108
Zm The ring of residue classes modulo m, p. 256
p(n) The number of partition of n, p. 172
HK Semidirect product of H with K, p. 204
pffiffiffi
A Radical of an ideal A, p. 286
R(G) Semigroup ring of a ring R over a semigroup G, p. 238
R[X] Polynomial ring over the ring R in one variable, p. 240
R½X1 ; X2 ;    ; Xn  Polynomial ring in several variables, p. 247
„ The Mobius function, p. 256
Notations from Algebra 1 xv


 Sum of divisor function, p. 256
a Legendre symbol, p. 280
p
Stab(G, X) Stabilizer of an action of G on X, p. 295
Gx Isotropy subgroup of an action of G at x, p. 295
XG Fixed point set of an action of G on X, p. 296
Zn(G) nth term of the upper central series of G, p. 351
ΦðGÞ The Frattini subgroup of G, p. 355
Notations from Algebra 2

B2 ðK; HÞ Group of 2 co-boundaries with given , p. 385

C(A) Column space of A, p. 42
Ch(G, K) Set of characters from G to K, p. 278
Ch(G) Character ring of G, p. 350
dim(V) Dimension of V, p. 18
EXT Category of Schreier group extensions, p. 368
E(H, K) The set of equivalence classes of extensions of H by K, p. 376
E1 ] E2 Baer sum of extensions, p. 388
EXT ˆ ðH; KÞ Set of equivalence classes of extensions associated to abstract
kernel ˆ, p. 384
E(V) Exterior algebra of V, p. 257
FACS Category of factor systems, p. 375
F(X) The fixed field of a set of automorphism of a field, p. 275
G(L/K) The Galois group of the field extension L of K, p. 275
G^G Non-abelian exterior square of a group G, p. 413

K Algebraic closure of K, p. 289
H2 ðK; HÞ Second cohomology with given , p. 385
K0 ð RÞ Grothendieck group of the ring R, p. 257
K1 ð RÞ Whitehead group of the ring R, p. 260
KSL Separable closure of K in L, p. 295
L/K Field extension L of K, p. 262
mT ð X Þ Minimum polynomial of linear transformation T, p. 212
minK ðfi ÞðXÞ Minimum polynomial of fi over the field K, p. 265
M(V) Group of rigid motion on V, p. 122
M R N Tensor product of R-modules M and N, p. 250
NL=K Norm map from L to K, p. 279
N(A) Null space of A, p. 41
ObsðˆÞ Obstruction of the abstract kernel ˆ, p. 393
R(A) Row space of A, p. 42
St(R) Steinberg group, p. 422

xvii
xviii Notations from Algebra 2

Symr ðVÞ rth symmetric power of V, p. 345

T L=K Trace map from L to K, p. 314
T(V) Tensor algebra of V, p. 257
TS Semi-simple part of T, p. 219
Tn Nilpotent part of T, p. 220
Z 2 ðK; HÞ Group of 2 co-cycles with given , p. 385
Vr
V rth exterior power of V, p. 255
ΨE Abstract kernel associated to the extension E, p. 377
‰ · Direct sum of representations ‰ and ·, p. 345
‰· Tensor product of representations ‰ and ·, p. 345
Symr ‰ rth symmetric power of the representation ‰, p. 345
SF(L/K)
Vr Set of all intermediary fields of L/K, p. 275
‰ rth exterior power of the representation ‰, p. 345
´‰ Character afforded by the representation ‰, p. 350
`n ðXÞ nth cyclotomic polynomial, p. 311
`A ðXÞ Characteristic polynomial of A, p. 149
Chapter 1
Vector Spaces

This chapter is devoted to the structure theory of vector spaces over arbitrary fields.
In essence, a vector space is a structure in which we can perform all basic operations
of vector algebra, can talk of lines, planes, and linear equations. The basic motivating
examples on which we shall dwell are the Euclidean 3-space R3 over R in which
we live, the Minkowski Space R4 of events (in which the first three coordinates
represent the place and the fourth coordinate represents the time of the occurrence
of the event), and also the space of matrices.

1.1 Concept of a Field

Rings and fields have been introduced and studied in Algebra 1. However, to make the
linear algebra part (Chaps. 1–5) of this volume independent of Algebra 1, we recall,
quickly, the concept of a field and its basic properties. Field is an algebraic structure
in which we can perform all arithmetical operations, viz., addition, subtraction, mul-
tiplication, and division by nonzero members. The basic motivating examples are the
structure Q of rational numbers, the structure R of real numbers, and the structure
C of complex numbers with usual operations. The precise definition of a field is as
follows:
Definition 1.1.1 A Field is a triple (F, +, ·), where F is a set, + and · are two
internal binary operations, called the addition and the multiplication on F, such that
the following hold:
1. (F, +) is an abelian Group in the following sense:
(i) The operation + is associative in the sense that
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) for all a, b, c ∈ F.
(ii) The operation + is commutative in the sense that
(a + b) = (b + a) for all a, b ∈ F.

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017 1

R. Lal, Algebra 2, Infosys Science Foundation Series in Mathematical Sciences,
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4256-0_1
2 1 Vector Spaces

(iii) There is a unique element 0 ∈ F, called the zero of F, such that

a + 0 = a = 0 + a for all a ∈ F.
(iv) For all a ∈ F, there is a unique element −a ∈ F, called the negative of a,
such that
a + (−a) = 0 = −a + a.
2. (i) The operation · is associative in the sense that
(a · b) · c = a · (b · c) for all a, b, c ∈ F.
(ii) The operation · is commutative in the sense that
(a · b) = (b · a) for all a, b ∈ F.
3. The operation · distributes over + in the sense that
(i) a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c, and
(ii) (a + b) · c = a · c + b · c for all a, b, c ∈ F.
4. (i) There is a unique element 1 ∈ F − {0}, called the one of F, such that
1 · a = a = a · 1 for all a ∈ F.
(ii) For all a ∈ F − {0}, there is a unique element a−1 ∈ F, called the multiplicative
inverse of a, such that
a · a−1 = 1 = a−1 · a.
Before having some examples, let us observe some simple facts:
Proposition 1.1.2 Let (F, +, ·) be a field.
(i) The cancellation law holds for the addition + in F in the sense that (a + b =
a + c) implies b = c. In turn, (b + a = c + a) implies b = c.
(ii) a · 0 = 0 = 0 · a for all a ∈ F.
(iii) a · (−b) = −(a · b) = (−a) · b for all a, b ∈ F.
(iv) The restricted cancellation for the multiplication in F holds in the sense that
(a = 0 and a · b = a · c) implies b = c. In turn, (a = 0 and b · a = c ·
a) implies b = c.
(v) (a · b = 0) implies that (a = 0 or b = 0).

Proof (i) Suppose that a + b = a + c. Then b = 0 + b = (−a + a) + b =

−a + (a + b) = −a + (a + c) = (−a + a) + c = 0 + c = c.
(ii) 0 + a · 0 = a · 0 = a · (0 + 0) = a · 0 + a · 0. Using the cancellation for +,
we get that 0 = a · 0. Similarly, 0 = 0 · a.
(iii) 0 = a · 0 = a · (b + (−b)) = a · b + a · (−b). It follows that a · (−b) =
−(a · b). Similarly, the other part follows.
(iv) Suppose that a = 0 and a · b = a · c. Then b = 1 · b = (a−1 · a) · b =
a−1 · (a · b) = a−1 · (a · c) = (a−1 · a) · c = 1 · c = c. Similarly, the other part
follows.
(v) Suppose that (a · b = 0). If a = 0, there is nothing to do. Suppose that a = 0.
Then a · b = 0 = a · 0. From (iv), it follows that b = 0. 

Integral Multiples and the Integral Powers of Elements of a Field

Let a ∈ F. For each natural number n, we define the multiple na inductively as fol-
lows: Define 1a = a. Assuming that na is defined, define (n + 1)a = na + a.
1.1 Concept of a Field 3

Thus, for a natural number n, na = a + a +· · · + a. We define 0a = 0. Further,

ntimes
if m = −n is a negative integer, then we define ma = n(−a). Thus, for a negative
integer m = −n, ma = −a + (−a) + · · · + (−a). This defines the integral multi-
  
ntimes
ple na for each integer n. Similarly, we define all integral powers of a nonzero element
a of F as follows: Define a1 = a. Assuming that an has already been defined, define
an+1 = an · a. This defines all positive integral powers of a. Define a0 = 1, and
for negative integer n = −m, define an = (a−1 )m . The following law of exponents
follow immediately by the induction.
(i) (n + m)a = na + ma for all n, m ∈ Z.
(ii) (nm)a = n(ma) for all n, m ∈ Z.
(iii) an+m = an · am for all a ∈ F − {0}, and n, m ∈ Z.
(iv) anm = (an )m for all a ∈ F − {0}, and n, m ∈ Z.
Examples of Fields
Example 1.1.3 The rational number system Q, the real number system R, and the
complex number system C with usual addition and multiplications are basic examples
of a field.
√ √
Example 1.1.4 Consider F = Q( 2) = {a + b 2 | a, b ∈ Q}. √ The addition and
multiplication
√ in R induce the corresponding operations in Q( 2). We claim that
Q( 2) is a field with respect to the induced operations. All the defining properties of
a field are consequences of the corresponding√properties in R except, perhaps, 4(ii)
which we verify. Let a, b ∈ Q such that a + b 2 = 0. We claim that a2 − 2b2 = 0.
Suppose not. Then a2 − 2b2 = 0. In turn,√b = 0 (and so also a = 0), otherwise,
( ab )2 = 2, a contradiction to the fact that 2 is not a rational number. Thus, then
√
−b
√ √
a+b 2
1√
= a 2 −2b2 = a2 −2b2 + a2 −2b2
a−b 2 a
2 is in Q( 2).

Remark 1.1.5 There is nothing special about 2 in the above example, indeed, we can
take any prime, or for that matter any rational number in place of 2 which is not a
square of a rational number.

So far all the examples of fields are infinite. Now, we give an example of a finite
field.
Let p be a positive prime integer. Consider the set Zp = {1, 2, . . . , p − 1} of
residue classes modulo a prime p. Clearly, a = r, where r is the remainder obtained
when a is divided by p. The usual addition ⊕ modulo p, and the multiplication 
modulo p are given by
i ⊕ j = i + j, i, j ∈ Z,

and
i  j = i · j, i, j ∈ Z
4 1 Vector Spaces

For example, in Z11 , 6 ⊕ 7 = 13 = 2. Similarly, the product 6  7 = 42 = 9.

We have the following proposition.
Proposition 1.1.6 For any prime p, the triple (Zp , ⊕, ) introduced above is a field
containing p elements.

Proof Clearly, 1 is the identity with respect to . We verify only the postulate 4(ii)
in the definition of a field. The rest of the postulates are almost evident, and can be
verified easily. In fact, we give an algorithm (using Euclidean Algorithm) to find the
multiplicative inverse of a nonzero element i ∈ Zp . Let i ∈ Zp − {0}. Then p does
not divide i. Since p is prime, the greatest common divisor of i and p is 1. Using the
Euclidean algorithm, we can find integers b and c such that

1 = i · b + p · c.

Thus, 1 = i · b = i  b. It follows that b is the inverse of i with respect to . 

The above proof is algorithmic and gives an algorithm to find the multiplicative
inverse of nonzero elements in Zp .
Definition 1.1.7 Let (F, +, ·) be a field. A subset L of F is called a subfield of F
if the following hold:
(i) 0 ∈ L.
(ii) If a, b ∈ L, then a + b ∈ L and a · b ∈ L.
(iii) 1 ∈ L.
(iv) For all a ∈ L, −a ∈ L.
(v) For all a ∈ L − {0}, a−1 ∈ L.
Thus, a subfield L of a field F is also a field at its own right with respect to the
induced operations. The field F is a subfield of itself. This subfield is called the
improper subfield of F. Other √ subfields are called proper subfields. The set Q of
rational numbers, the set Q( 2) described in Example 1.1.4, are proper subfields of
the field R of real numbers. The field R of real numbers is a subfield of the field C
of complex numbers.
Proposition 1.1.8 The field Q of rational numbers, and the field Zp have no proper
subfields.

Proof We first show that Q has no proper subfields. Let L be a subfield of Q. Then
by the Definition 1.1.7(iii), 1 ∈ L. Again, by (ii), n = 1 + 1 +· · · + 1 belongs to
n
L for all natural numbers n. Thus, by (iv), all integers are in L. By (v), n1 ∈ L for
all nonzero integers n. By (ii), mn ∈ L for all integers m, n; n = 0. This shows that
L = Q.
1.1 Concept of a Field 5

Next, let L be a subfield of Zp . Then by the Definition 1.1.7(iii), 1 ∈ L. By (ii),

i = 1 ⊕ 1 ⊕  · · · ⊕ 1 belongs to L for all i ∈ Zp . This shows that L = Zp . 
i

We shall see that, essentially, these are the only fields which have no proper
subfields. Such fields are called prime fields.
Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms Between Fields
Definition 1.1.9 Let F1 and F2 be fields. A map f from F1 to F2 is called a
fieldhomomorphism if the following conditions hold:
(i) f (a + b) = f (a) + f (b) for all a, b ∈ F1 (note that + in the LHS is the
addition of F1 , and that in RHS is the addition of F2 ).
(ii) f (a · b) = f (a) · f (b) for all a, b ∈ F1 (again · in the LHS is the multiplication
of F1 , and that in RHS is the multiplication of F2 ).
(iii) f (1) = 1, where 1 in the LHS denotes the multiplicative identity of F1 , and 1
in RHS denotes the multiplicative identity of F2 .
A bijective homomorphism is called an isomorphism. A field F1 is said to be
isomorphic a field F2 if there is an isomorphism from F1 to F2 .
We do not distinguish isomorphic fields.
Proposition 1.1.10 Let f be a homomorphism from a field F1 to a field F2 . Then,
the following hold.
(i) f (0) = 0, where 0 in the LHS is the zero of F1 , and 0 in the RHS is the zero of
F2 .
(ii) f (−a) = −f (a) for all a ∈ F1 .
(iii) f (na) = nf (a) for all a ∈ F1 , and for all integer n.
(iv) f (an ) = (f (a))n for all a ∈ F1 − {0}, and for all integer n.
(v) f is injective, and the image of F1 under f is a subfield of F2 which is isomorphic
to F1 .

Proof (i) 0 + f (0) = f (0) = f (0 + 0) = f (0) + f (0). Using cancellation law

for addition in F2 , we get that f (0) = 0.
(ii) 0 = f (0) = f (a + (−a)) = f (a) + f (−a). This shows that f (−a) = −f (a).
(iii) Suppose that n = 0. Then 0f (a) = 0 = f (0) = f (0a). Clearly, f (1a) =
f (a) = 1f (a). Assume that f (na) = nf (a) for a natural number n. Then f (n +
1)a = f (na + a) = f (na) + f (a) = nf (a) + f (a) = (n + 1)f (a). By induction,
it follows that f (na) = nf (a) for all a ∈ F1 , and for all natural number n. Suppose
that n = −m is a negative integer. Then, f (na) = f ((−m)a) = f (−(ma)) =
−f (ma) = −(mf (a)) = −(m)f (a) = nf (a).
(iv) Replacing na by an , imitate the proof of (iii).
(v) Suppose that a = b. Then (a − b) = 0. Now, 1 = f (1) = f ((a − b)(a −
b)−1 ) = f (a − b)f ((a − b)−1 ). Since 1 = 0, it follows that (f (a) − f (b)) =
f (a − b) = 0. This shows that f (a) = f (b). Thus, f is injective, and it can be real-
ized as a bijective map from F1 to f (F1 ). It is sufficient, therefore, to show that
f (F1 ) is a subfield of F2 . Clearly, 0 = f (0), and 1 = f (1) belong to f (F1 ). Let
6 1 Vector Spaces

f (a), f (b) ∈ f (F1 ), where a, b ∈ F1 . Then (f (a) + f (b)) = f (a + b) ∈ f (F1 ),

and also (f (a)f (b)) = f (ab) ∈ f (F1 ). Finally, if f (a) = 0, then a ∈ F1 − {0}. But,
then (f (a))−1 = f (a−1 ) ∈ F1 . 
Characteristic of a Field
Let F be a field. Consider the multiplicative identity 1 of F. There are two cases:
(i) Distinct integral multiples of 1 are distinct, or equivalently, n1 = m1 implies that
n = m. This is equivalent to say that n1 = 0 if and only if n = 0. In this case we
say that F is of characteristic 0. Thus, for example, the field R of real numbers,
the field Q of rational numbers, and the field C of complex numbers are the fields
of characteristic 0.
(ii) Not all integral multiples of 1 are distinct. In this case there exists a pair n, m of
distinct integers such that n1 = m1. But, then, (n − m)1 = 0 = (m − n)1.
In turn, there is a natural number l such that l1 = 0. In this case, the smallest
natural number l such that l1 = 0 is called the characteristic of F. Thus, the
characteristic of Zp is p.
Proposition 1.1.11 The characteristic of a field is either 0 or a prime number p.
A field of characteristic 0 contains a subfield isomorphic to the field Q of rational
numbers, and a field of characteristic p contains a subfield isomorphic to the field
Zp .
Proof Suppose that F is a field of characteristic 0. Then n1 = m1 implies that n = m.
Also (m1 = 0) if and only if (m = 0). Suppose that ( mn = rs ). Then (m1)(s1) =
ms1 = nr1 = (n1)(r1). In turn, ((m1)(n1)−1 = (r1)(s1)−1 ). Thus, we have a map
f from Q to F given by f ( mn ) = (m1)(n1)−1 . Next, suppose that ((m1)(n1)−1 =
(r1)(s1)−1 ). Then ms1 = (m1)(s1) = (n1)(r1) = nr1. This means that ms = nr,
or equivalently, ( mn = rs ). This shows that f is an injective map. It is also straight
forward to verify that f is a field homomorphism. Thus, L = {(m1)(n1)−1 | m ∈
Z, n ∈ Z − {0}} is a subfield of F which is isomorphic to Q.
Next, suppose that the characteristic of F is l = 0. Then l is the smallest natural
number such that l1 = 0. We show that l is a prime p. Suppose not. Then l =
l1 l2 , 1 < l1 < l, 1 < l2 < l. But, then 0 = l1 = (l1 l2 )1 = (l1 1)(l2 1). In turn,
l1 1 = 0 or l2 1 = 0. This is a contradiction to the choice of l. Thus, the characteristic
of F is a prime p. Suppose that i = j. Then p divides i − j. In turn, (i − j)1 = 0,
and so i1 = j1. Thus, we have a map f from Zp to F defined by f (i) = i1. Clearly,
this is an injective field homomorphism. 
Exercises
1.1.1 Show that Q(ω) = {a + bω | a, b ∈ Q}, where ω a primitive cube root of
1, is a subfield of the field C of complex numbers.
√ √
1.1.2 Show that 2 is not a member of Q( 2). Use the method
 of Example 1.1.4
√ √ √ √ √
to show that Q( 2)( 2) = {a + b 2 + (c + d 2)( 2) | a, b, c, d ∈ Q}
is a field with respect to the addition and multiplication induced by those in R.
Generalize the assertion.
1.1 Concept of a Field 7
√ √ √ √ √
1.1.3 Show that Q( 2)( 3) = {a + b 2 + (c + d 2)( 3) | a, b, c, d ∈ Q}
is a field with respect to the addition and multiplication induced by those in R.
1 1 2
1.1.4 Show that Q(2 3 ) = {a + b2 3 + c2 3 | a, b, c ∈ Q} is also a field with
respect to the addition and multiplication induced by those in R. Express 1 1 as
1+2 3
1 2
a + b2 3 + c2 3 , a, b, c ∈ Q.

1.1.5 Show that F = {0, 1, α, α2 } is a field of characteristic 2 with respect to the

addition + and multiplication · given by the following tables:

+ 0 1 α α2
0 0 1 α α2
1 1 0 α2 α
α α α2 0 1
α2 α2 α 1 0

· 0 1 α α2
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 α α2
α 0 α α2 1
α2 0 α2 1 α

1.1.6 Find the multiplicative inverse of 20 in Z257 , and also find the solution of
10x ⊕ 2 = 3.

1.1.7 Write a program in C++ language to check if a natural number n is prime, and
if so to find the multiplicative inverse of a nonzero element m in Zn . Find the output
4
with n = 22 + 1, and m = 641.

1.2 Concept of a Vector Space (Linear Space)

Consider the space (called the Euclidean 3-space) in which we live. If we fix a point
(place) in the three space as origin together with three mutually perpendicular lines
(directions) passing through the origin as the axes of reference, and also a segment of
line as a unit of length, then any point in the 3-space determines, and it is determined
uniquely by an ordered triple (α, β, γ) of real numbers.
8 1 Vector Spaces

P (α, β, γ)

O
Y

X
Thus, with the given choice of the origin and the axes as above, the space in which
we live can be represented faithfully by

R3 = {x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) | x1 , x2 , x3 ∈ R},

and it is called the Euclidean 3-space. The members of R3 are called the usual 3-
vectors. It is also evident that the physical quantities which have magnitudes as well
as directions (e.g., force, velocity, or displacement) can be represented by vectors.
More generally, for a fixed natural number n,

Rn = {x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) | x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ∈ R}

is called the Euclidean n-space, and the members of the Euclidean n-space are called
the Euclidean n-vectors. We term x1 , x2 , . . . , xn as components, or coordinates of
the vector x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ). Thus, R2 represents the Euclidean plane, and R4
represents the Minkowski space of events in which the first three coordinates rep-
resent the place, and the fourth coordinate represents the time of the occurrence of
the event. R1 is identified with R. By convention, R0 = {0} is a single point. We have
the addition + in Rn , called the addition of vectors, and it is defined by

x + y = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn ),

where x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) and y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ). We have also the external

multiplication · by the members of R, called the multiplication by scalars, and it is
given by
α · x = (αx1 , αx2 , . . . , αxn ), α ∈ R.
1.2 Concept of a Vector Space (Linear Space) 9

Remark 1.2.1 The addition + of vectors in 3-space R3 is the usual addition of vectors,
which obeys the parallelogram law of addition.

The Euclidean 3-space (R3 , +, ·) introduced above is a Vector Space in the

sense of the following definition:
Definition 1.2.2 A Vector Space (also called a Linear Space) over a field F (called
the field of Scalars) is a triple (V, +, ·), where V is a set, + is an internal binary
operation on V , called the addition of vectors, and · : F × V → V is an external
multiplication, called the multiplication by scalars, such that the following hold:
A. (V, +) is an abelian group in the sense that:
1. + is associative, i.e.,
(x + y) + z = x + (y + z)

for all x, y, z in V .
2. + is commutative, i.e.,
x+y = y+x

for all x, y in V .
3. We have a unique vector 0 in V , called the null vector, and it is such that

x+0 = x = 0+x

for all x in V .
4. For each x in V , we have a unique vector −x in V , called the negative of x, and
it is such that
x + (−x) = 0 = (−x) + x.

B. The external multiplication · by scalars satisfies the following conditions:

1. It distributes over the vector addition + in the sense that

α · (x + y) = α · x + α · y

for all α ∈ F and x, y in V .

2. It distributes over the addition of scalars also in the sense that

(α + β) · x = α · x + β · x

for all α, β ∈ F and x in V .

3. (αβ) · x = α · (β · x) for all α, β ∈ F and x in V .
4. 1 · x = x for all x in V .

Example 1.2.3 Let F be a field, and n be a natural number. Consider the set

V = F n = {x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) | x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ∈ F}
10 1 Vector Spaces

of row vectors with n columns, and with entries in F. We have the addition + in F n
defined by

x + y = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn ),

where x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) and y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ). We have also the external

multiplication · by the members of F defined by

α · x = (αx1 , αx2 , . . . , αxn ), α ∈ F.

The field properties of F ensures that the triple (F n , + ·) is a vector space over F.
The zero of the vector space is the zero row 0 = (0, 0, . . . , 0), and the negative of
x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) is −x = (−x1 , −x2 , . . . , −xn ). We can also treat the members
of F n as column vectors.

Example 1.2.4 Let L be a subfield of a field F. Consider (F, +, ·), where + is the
addition of the field F, and · is the restriction of the multiplication in F to L × F.
Then it is evident that (F, +, ·) is a vector space over L. Thus, every field can be
considered as vector spaces over its subfields.

Example 1.2.5 Let C[0, 1] denote the set of all real valued continuous functions on
the closed interval [0, 1]. Since sum of any two continuous functions is a continuous
function, we have an addition on C[0, 1] with respect to which it is an abelian group.
Define the external multiplication · by (a · f )(x) = a · f (x). Then C[0, 1] is a vector
space over the field R of reals. Note that the set D[0, 1] of differentiable functions is
also a vector space over the field R of reals with respect to the addition of functions,
and multiplication by scalars as defined above.

Example 1.2.6 Let Pn (F) denote the set of all polynomials of degree at most n over
a field F. Then Pn (F) is an abelian group with respect to the addition of polynomials.
Further, if a ∈ F and f (X) ∈ Pn (F), then af (X) ∈ Pn (F). Thus, Pn (F) is also a vector
space over F.

Proposition 1.2.7 Let V be a vector space over a field F. Then the following hold:
(i) The cancellation law holds in (V, +) in the sense that (x + y = x +
z) implies y = z (In turn, (y + x = z + x) implies y = z).
(ii) 0 · x = 0, where 0 in the left side is the 0 of F, 0 on right side is that of V , and
x ∈ V.
(iii) α · 0 = 0, where both 0 are that of V , and α ∈ F.
(iv) (−α) · x = −(α · x) for all α ∈ F, and x ∈ V . In particular, (−1) · x = −x.
(v) (α · x = 0) implies that (α = 0 or x = 0).

Proof (i) Suppose that (x + y = x + z). Then y = 0 + y = (−x + x) + y =

−x + (x + y) = −x + (x + z) = (−x + x) + z = 0 + z = z.
(ii) 0 + 0 · x = 0 · x = (0 + 0) · x = 0 · x + 0 · x. By the cancellation in (V, +),
1.2 Concept of a Vector Space (Linear Space) 11

0 = 0 · x.
(iii) 0 + α · 0 = α · 0 = α · (0 + 0) = α · 0 + α · 0. By the cancellation in
(V, +), 0 = α · 0.
(iv) 0 = 0 · x = (−α + α) · x = (−α) · x + α · x. This shows that (−α) · x =
−(α · x)
(v) Suppose that (α · x = 0), and α = 0. Then, x = 1 · x = (α−1 α) · x = α−1 ·
(α · x) = α−1 · 0 = 0. 

1.3 Subspaces

Definition 1.3.1 Let V be a vector space over a field F. A subset W of V is called

a subspace, or a linear subspace of V if
(i) 0 ∈ W .
(ii) x + y ∈ W for all x, y ∈ W .
(iii) α · x ∈ W for all α ∈ F and x ∈ W .

Thus, a subspace is also a vector space over the same field at its own right.
Proposition 1.3.2 Let V be a vector space over a field F. Then a nonempty subset
W of V is a subspace if and only if ax + by ∈ W for all a, b ∈ F, and x, y ∈ V .

Proof Suppose that W is a subspace of V . Let a, b ∈ F, and x, y ∈ V . From the Defi-

nition 1.3.1(i), ax, by ∈ W . In turn, by Definition 1.3.1(ii), ax + by ∈ W . Conversely,
suppose that W is a nonempty subset of V such that ax + by ∈ W for all a, b ∈ F,
and for all x, y ∈ W . Let x, y ∈ W . Then x + y = 1x + 1y belongs to W . Further,
since W is nonempty, there is an element x ∈ W , and then 0 = 0x + 0x belongs
to W . Also for x ∈ W , and a ∈ F, ax = ax + 0x ∈ W . This shows that W is a
subspace of V . 

Example 1.3.3 Let V be a vector space over a field F. Then V is clearly a subspace of
V , and it is called an improper subspace of V . The singleton {0} is also a subspace
of V , and it is called the trivial subspace of V . Other subspaces of V are called
Proper subspaces of V .

Example 1.3.4 (Subspaces of R2 over R) Let W be a nontrivial subspace of R2 .

Then there is a nonzero element (l, m) ∈ W . Since W is a subspace, α · (l, m) =
(αl, αm) ∈ W for all α ∈ R. Thus, Wlm = {(αl, αm) | α ∈ R} ⊆ W . Wlm is easily
seen to be a subspace of R2 . Indeed, Wlm is the line in the plane R2 passing through
origin and the point (l, m). Note that all lines in R2 are of this type. Suppose that
W = Wlm . Then there is a nonzero element (p, q) in W − Wlm . We claim that
ql − pm = 0. Suppose that ql − pm = 0. Since (l, m) = (0, 0), l = 0 or m = 0.
Suppose that l = 0. Then, (p, q) = ( pl l, pl m) turns out to be in Wlm , a contradiction
to the choice of (p, q). Similarly, if m = 0, then (p, q) = ( mq l, mq m), a contradiction.
Now, let (a, b) be an arbitrary member of R2 . Since ql − pm = 0, we can solve the
12 1 Vector Spaces

pair of equations αl + βp = a and αm + βq = b. In other words, (a, b) =

α(l, m) + β(p, q) belongs to W , and so W = R2 . This shows that only proper
subspaces of R2 are the lines passing through origin.

Example 1.3.5 (Subspaces of R3 over R) As in the above example, lines and planes
passing through origin are proper subspaces of R3 over R. Indeed, they are the only
proper subspaces.

Proposition 1.3.6 Intersection of a family of subspaces is a subspace.

Proof Let {Wα | α ∈ } be a family of subspaces of a vector space V over F. Then

0 ∈ Wα for all α, and so 0 belongs to the intersection of the family. Thus, the
intersection of the given family is nonempty. Let x, y ∈ α∈ Wα , and a, b ∈ F.
Then x, y ∈ Wα for all α. Since each Wα is a subspace, ax + by ∈ Wα for all α.
Hence ax + by belongs to the intersection. This shows that the intersection of the
family is a subspace. 

Proposition
 1.3.7 Union of subspaces need not be a subspace. Indeed, the union
W1 W2 of two subspaces is a subspace if and only if W1 ⊆ W2 or W2 ⊆ W1 .

Proof If W1 ⊆ W2 , then W1 W2 = W2 a subspace. Similarly,  if W2 ⊆ W1 , then
also the union is a subspace. Conversely, suppose that W1 W2 is a subspace and W1
is not a subset ofW2 . Then there is an element x ∈W1 which is not in W2 . Let y ∈ W2 .
Then, since W1 W2 is a subspace, x + y ∈ W1 W2 . Now x + y does not belong to
W2 , for otherwise x = (x + y) − y will be in W2 , a contradiction to the supposition.
Hence x + y ∈ W1 . Since x ∈ W1 and W1 is subspace, y = −x + (x + y) belongs
to W1 . This shows that W2 ⊆ W1 . 

Proposition 1.3.8 Let W1 and W2 be subspaces of a vector space V over a field F.

Then W1 + W2 = {x + y | x ∈ W1 , y ∈ W2 } is also a subspace
 (called the sum of
W1 and W2 ) which is the smallest subspace containing W1 W2 .

Proof Since 0 ∈ W2 , x ∈ W1 implies that x = x + 0 ∈ W1 + W2 . Thus,  W1 ⊆

W1 + W2 . Similarly, W2 ⊆ W1 + W2 . Also, if L is a subspace containing W1 W2 ,
then x + y ∈ L for all x ∈ W1 , and y ∈ W2 . Therefore, it is sufficient to show that
W1 + W2 is a subspace. Clearly, W1 + W2 = ∅. Let x + y and u + v belong to W1 +
W2 , where x, u ∈ W1 , and y, v ∈ W2 . Since W1 and W2 are subspaces, αx + βu ∈ W1 ,
and αy + βv ∈ W2 . But, then α(x + y) + β(u + v) = (αx + βu) + (αy + βv)
belongs to W1 + W2 . 

Definition 1.3.9 A family {Wα | α ∈ } of subspaces of a vector space V over a

field F is called a chain if for any given pair α, β ∈ , Wα ⊆ Wβ , or Wβ ⊆ Wα .

Proposition 1.3.10 Union of a chain of subspaces is a subspace.

Proof Let {Wα |α ∈ } be a chain ofsubspaces of a vector space V over a field
F. Clearly, 0 ∈ α∈ Wα . Let x, y ∈ α∈ Wα , and α, β ∈ F. Then x ∈ Wα , and
y ∈ Wβ for some α, β ∈ F. Since the family is a chain, Wα ⊆ Wβ , or Wβ ⊆ Wα .
1.3 Subspaces 13

This means that x, y ∈ Wα , or x, y ∈ Wβ . Since Wα and W

β are subspaces, αx + βy
belongs
 to W α or to W β . It follows that αx + βy ∈ α∈ Wα . This shows that
α∈ W α is a subspace. 
Subspace Generated (Spanned) by a Subset
Definition 1.3.11 A subset S of a vector space V over a field F need not be a
subspace, for example, it may not contain 0. The intersection of all subspaces of
V containing S is the smallest subspace of V containing S. This subspace is called
the subspace generated (spanned) by S, and it is denoted by < S >. If < S > = V ,
then we say that S generates V, or S is a set of generators of V . A vector space V
is said to be finitely generated if it has a finite set of generators.
Clearly, < ∅ > = {0}.
Remark 1.3.12 The subspace < S > of V generated by S is completely characterized
by the following 3 properties:
(i) < S > is a subspace.
(ii) < S > contains S.
(iii) If W is a subspace containing S, then < S >⊆ W .
Definition 1.3.13 Let S be a nonempty subset of a vector space V over a field F.
An element x ∈ V is called a linear combination of members of S if

x = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn

for some a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ F and x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ∈ V . We also say that x depends

linearly on S.
Remark 1.3.14 If S is a nonempty set, then 0 is always a linear combination of the
members of S, for 0 = 0x. All the members of S are linear combination of members
of S, for any x ∈ S is 1x. Further, if x is a linear combination of members of S, and
S ⊆ T , then x is also a linear combination of members of T . A Linear combination
of linear combinations of members of S is again a linear combination of members of
S.
Proposition 1.3.15 Let S be a nonempty subset of a vector space V over a field F.
Then < S > is the set of all linear combinations of members of S.
Proof Let W denote the set of all linear combinations of members of S. Since mem-
bers of S are also linear combinations of members of S, it follows that S ⊆ W . Thus, W
is nonempty set. Let x = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · an xn and y = b1 y1 + b2 y2 + · · · bm ym
be members of W , and a, b ∈ F. Then

ax + by = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · an xn + b1 y1 + b2 y2 + · · · bm ym ,

being a linear combination of members of S, is again a member of W , and so W is a

subspace of V . Let L be a subspace of V containing S. It follows, by induction on r,
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L. H. JENKINS
Richmond, Virginia
 Transcriber’s Notes
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