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An Introduction to

REAL
ANALYSIS
An Introduction to

REAL
ANALYSIS

Ravi P. Agarwal
Cristina Flaut
Donal O’Regan
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

Version Date: 20171215

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8153-9685-7 (Hardback)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable
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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and
are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
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and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
Dedicated to our mothers:

Godawari Agarwal†
Elena Paiu† and Maria Paiu
Eileen O’Regan†
Contents

Preface xi

1 Logic and Proof Techniques 1

2 Sets and Functions 11

3 Real Numbers 19

4 Open and Closed Sets 29

5 Cardinality 37

6 Real-Valued Functions 45

7 Real Sequences 53

8 Real Sequences (Contd.) 63

9 Infinite Series 73

10 Infinite Series (Contd.) 83

11 Limits of Functions 89

12 Continuous Functions 99

vii
viii Contents

13 Discontinuous Functions 111

14 Uniform and Absolute Continuities and Functions

of Bounded Variation 119

15 Differentiable Functions 129

16 Higher Order Differentiable Functions 141

17 Convex Functions 151

18 Indeterminate Forms 159

19 Riemann Integration 167

20 Properties of the Riemann Integral 177

21 Improper Integrals 189

22 Riemann-Lebesgue Theorem 197

23 Riemann-Stieltjes Integral 203

24 Sequences of Functions 211

25 Sequences of Functions (Contd.) 217

26 Series of Functions 229

27 Power and Taylor Series 237

 Contents ix

28 Power and Taylor Series (Contd.) 243

29 Metric Spaces 251

30 Metric Spaces (Contd.) 257

Bibliography 267

Index 269
Preface

Real analysis (traditionally, mathematical analysis, or the theory of functions

of real variables) is a branch of mathematics which deals with real numbers
and real-valued functions of a real variable. While engineers learn and use
calculus (which is mainly based on manipulations), real analysis is considered
a rigorous/precise version of calculus. Real analysis also involves several topics
which are of interest to only mathematicians.

Although several exceptional books on real analysis have been written,

the present rigorous and transparent introductory text can be used directly in
class for students of mathematics. In fact, we provide a compact, but thorough,
introduction to the subject in An Introduction to Real Analysis. This book is
intended for senior undergraduate and for beginning graduate one-semester
courses. Gifted high school students can also benefit from the style of the
serious mathematics discussed in this book.

The subject matter has been organized in the form of theorems and the
proofs, and the presentation is rather unconventional. It comprises of 30 class-
tested chapters that the authors have given mainly to math major students at
various institutions over a period of almost 40 years. It is our belief that the
content in a particular chapter, together with the problems therein, provides
fairly adequate coverage of the topic under study.

A brief description of the topics covered in this book follows. We begin

Chapter 1 with the definition of mathematical statements, and introduce
some logical connectives. We also discuss some commonly used methods to
prove mathematical results. In Chapter 2, we introduce elementary set the-
ory which is woven into the fabric of modern mathematics. In fact, the lan-
guage of set theory is used to precisely define nearly all mathematical objects.
In Chapter 3, we provide the structure of real numbers by means of certain
axioms which in turn are used to prove several interesting results. In particu-
lar, we show that between any two real numbers there are an infinite number
of rational and irrational numbers. The main purpose of Chapter 4 is to
define open and closed subsets of R, and prove the Bolzano-Weierstrass and
Heine-Borel theorems which are extremely important results in analysis. In
Chapter 5, we discuss sizes of finite as well as infinite sets. We show how
differently the elements of infinite sets are saturated, which, in particular,
show that there are many different sizes of infinite sets. In Chapter 6, we

xi
xii Preface

define the concept of a function, and introduce several special functions which
are of common use, and then define functions which have certain properties.
In Chapters 7 and 8, we introduce the convergence and divergence of real
sequences, prove several properties of convergent sequences, provide Cauchy’s
if and only if criterion for the convergence of a given sequence, show that it is
always possible to extract a convergent sequence from any bounded sequence,
thoroughly examine the convergence of monotone sequences, and prove the fa-
mous Cesaro-Stolz theorem. In Chapters 9 and 10, we provide several easily
verifiable tests (comparison test, limit comparison test, ratio test, root test,
Kummer’s test, Raabe-Duhamel’s test, and the logarithmic ratio test), which
guarantee the convergence or divergence of a given series. We also provide
some specific tests for the convergence of series in terms of arbitrary signs.
Some important results on the rearrangements of terms of such series are also
discussed.

In Chapter 11, the concept of a limit to real functions is introduced.

This is one of the most important concepts for the development of analy-
sis. In fact, without properly understanding the limit of a function at a point,
one cannot appreciate/understand the later chapters. Among several other re-
sults, here we show that one-sided limits always exist for monotone functions.
Chapter 12 begins with several equivalent definitions of continuity of a func-
tion at a point which are closely connected with the concept of limits. Then,
we show that continuous functions over closed and bounded intervals possess
several remarkable properties. In Chapter 13, we classify different types of
discontinuities (removable, first kind, second kind, mixed, and infinite) and
prove some interesting results. In real-world applications, discontinuous func-
tions are at least as important as continuous functions. In Chapter 14, we
introduce uniform and absolute continuities. Uniform continuity is stronger
than continuity, whereas absolute continuity is stronger than uniform conti-
nuity. Here we will also discuss functions of bounded variation and prove the
famous Jordan decomposition theorem. In Chapter 15, we address the differ-
entiability of functions, which is also a stronger concept than continuity. For
differentiable functions we prove some major results, such as Rolle’s theorem,
the mean-value theorem, Cauchy’s mean-value theorem, and the Darboux the-
orem. These results have a wide range of applications. In Chapter 16, we
introduce higher order differentiable functions, establish Taylor’s theorem and
use it to provide sufficient conditions for the existence of an extremum. Chap-
ter 17 deals with the convexity of a function at a point and in an interval, and
prove some fundamental properties of convex functions. Convexity of functions
plays an important role in a wide variety of applications, especially in proba-
bility theory and optimization theory. In Chapter 18, we discuss L’Hôpital’s
rule (originally due to John Bernoulli) which enables us to determine limits
of functions that are not only in an indeterminate form 0/0, but also ∞/∞,
and perhaps even ∞ − ∞, 0 · ∞, 00 , ∞0 and 1∞ .
 Preface xiii

In Chapters 19 and 20, we provide a rigorous treatment of the Rie-

mann integration on bounded intervals. The main purpose of Chapter 19 is to
provide necessary and/or sufficient conditions for a function to be Riemann
integrable. We show that unbounded functions are not integrable, and also
not every bounded function is integrable. We also provide some easily ver-
ifiable conditions which ensure the existence of the Riemann integration of
functions. In Chapter 20, we study various (mainly algebraic) properties of
Riemann integrable functions. Here we prove the fundamental theorem of cal-
culus, the mean-value theorem of integral calculus, Weierstrass’s mean-value
theorem, and Bonnet’s mean-value theorem. We also establish formulas for
the chain rule, change of variables, and integration by parts. If we extend
the interval or the function is unbounded at a point(s), then the integral is
called improper. In Chapter 21, we define improper integrals as the limit of
Riemann integrals. Here we also discuss absolutely integrable and condition-
ally integrable functions on an infinite interval. This chapter concludes with
Riemann’s integral test for series and Cauchy’s principal value for improper
integrals. In Chapter 22, we prove the famous Riemann-Lebesgue theorem
which shows that a function f is Riemann integrable on [a, b] if and only if it is
almost everywhere continuous, that is, if and only if the set of discontinuities
of f on [a, b] has a measure of zero. In Chapter 23, we study the Riemann-
Stieltjes integral, which is a generalization of the Riemann integral. Instead
of dealing with just one function f (integrand), it deals with two functions
f (integrand) and g (integrator). The importance of the Riemann-Stieltjes
integral over the Riemann integral becomes obvious when the function g is
discontinuous. Here we also prove a result which relates the Riemann integral
with the Riemann-Stieltjes integral.

In Chapters 24 and 25, we study the convergence of sequences of func-

tions. We introduce pointwise and uniform convergences, and through several
examples show that pointwise convergence lacks several important properties,
provide some necessary and sufficient criteria for uniform convergence, and
prove that the deficiencies of pointwise convergence are regained by uniform
convergence. In Chapter 26, we define pointwise, uniform, and absolute con-
vergence of a series of functions in terms of the sequence of its partial sums.
We prove two important results known as term-by-term integration and term-
by-term differentiation. For the uniform convergence of a series, we provide
easily verifiable tests due to Weierstrass, Abel, and Dirichlet. In Chapters
27 and 28, we discuss a special type of series of functions known as the power
series, which can be considered as a polynomial of infinite degree. Because of
their simplicity in differentiation and integration, power series play a dominate
role in approximation theory, especially when finding the solutions of ordinary
differential equations. We provide criteria for the convergence and divergence
of a power series, and introduce the terms radius of convergence and interval
of convergence. Next, for a given function we find a power series whose sum is
xiv Preface

exactly the same as the given function. For this, we define analytic functions
and develop Taylor’s series and its particular case, Maclaurin’s series.

In Chapters 29 and 30, we extend some topological properties inherited

by the real line to a general setting. We begin with the definition of a metric
space, and show that several results established in previous chapters carry over
to an arbitrary metric space. As applications, we state the famous Weierstrass
approximation theorem, and prove one of the most widely used results known
as Banach’s contraction mapping principle. We conclude the book with an
application of this result to the solution of an initial value problem.

In this book, there are 122 examples which explain each concept and
demonstrate the importance of every result. Two types of the 289 problems
are also included, those that illustrate the general theory and others designed
to complete our text material. The problems form an integral part of the book,
and every reader is urged to attempt most, if not all of them. For the conve-
nience of the reader, we have provided answers or hints to all the problems.

In writing a book of this nature, no originality can be claimed, only a

humble attempt has been made to present the subject as simply, clearly, and
accurately as possible. The illustrative examples are usually very simple, keep-
ing the average student in mind.

It is earnestly hoped that An Introduction to Real Analysis will serve the

inquisitive reader as a starting point in this rich, vast, and ever-expanding
field of knowledge.

We would like to express our appreciation to Professors Bashir Ah-

mad (Saudi Arabia), Ferhan M. Atici (USA), Mircea Balaj (Romania),
Leonid Berezansky (Israel), Alberto Cabada (Spain), Claudio Cuevas (Brazil),
Manuel De la Sen (Spain), Alexander I. Domoshnitsky (Israel), Marléne
Frigon (Canada), Erdal Karapinar (Turkey), Anthony T. Lau (Canada), Car-
los Lizama (Chile), Giuseppe Marino (Italy), Gradimir V. Milovanovic (Ser-
bia), M. Mursaleen (India), Juan Jose Nieto (Spain), Sotiris Ntouyas (Greece),
Hemant Pathak (India), Adrian Petrusel (Romania), Bessem Samet (Saudi
Arabia), Jozsef Sandor (Romania), Sin E. Takahasi (Japan), Patricia Wong
(Singapore), and Alexander Zaslavski (Israel) for their suggestions and criti-
cisms. We also thank Aastha Sharma at CRC Press/Taylor & Francis, Delhi
Office, for her support and cooperation.

Ravi P. Agarwal
Cristina Flaut
Donal O’Regan
Chapter 1
Logic and Proof Techniques

We begin this chapter with the definition of mathematical statements, and

introduce some logical connectives that we will use frequently in this book.
We will also discuss some commonly used methods to prove mathematical
results.

By a mathematical statement or proposition, we mean an unambiguous

composition of words that is true or false. For example, two plus two is four
is a true statement, and two plus three is seven is a false statement. However,
x − y = y − x is not a proposition, because the symbols are not defined. If
x − y = y − x for all x, y real numbers, then this is a false proposition; if
x − y = y − x for some real numbers, then this is a true proposition. Help
me please, and your place or mine—are also not statements. A single letter is
always used to denote a statement. For example, the letter p may be used for
the statement eleven is an even number. Thus, p : 11 is an even number. A
statement is said to have truth value T or F according as the statement is true
or false. For example, the truth value of p : 1 + 2 + · · · + 10 = 55 is T, whereas
for p : 12 + 22 + 32 = 15 is F. The knowledge of truth value of a statement
enables us to replace it by some other “equivalent” statement. From given
statements, new statements can be produced by using the following standard
logical connectives:
1. Negation, ∼ : If p is a statement, then its negation ∼ p is the statement
not p. The truth value of ∼ p is F or T according as the truth value of p is
T or F. Thus, if p : seven is even number, then ∼ p : seven is not an even
number, or seven is an odd number.
2. Implication, ⇒ : If from a statement p another statement q follows, we
say p implies q and write p ⇒ q. The truth value of p ⇒ q is F only when p
has truth value T and q has the truth value F. For example, x = 7 ⇒ x2 = 49.
If n is an even integer, then n + 1 is an odd integer.
3. Conjuction, ∧ : The statement p and q is denoted as p ∧ q and is called
the conjunction of the statements p and q. The truth value of p ∧ q is T only
when both p and q are true. For example, the statement 4 is positive and −7
is negative can be viewed as a conjuction of two statements p : 4 is positive
and q : −7 is negative.

1
2 An Introduction to Real Analysis

4. Disjunction, ∨ : The statement p or q is denoted as p ∨ q and is called

the disjunction of the statements p and q. The truth value of p ∨ q is F only
when both p and q are false. For example, if p : Scott is a member of the
financial committee, and q : Scott is a member of the executive committee,
then p ∨ q : Scott is a member of the financial committee or of the executive
committee.

Two statements p and q are said to be equivalent if one implies the other,
i.e., (p ⇒ q)∧(q ⇒ p), and we denote this as p ⇔ q. Propositions which involve
the phrases such as if and only if (iff), is equivalent to, or the necessary and
sufficient condition, are of the type p ⇔ q. For example, ABC is an equilateral
triangle ⇔ AB = BC = CA.

The following table gives the truth values of different compositions of state-
ments. Tables of this type are called truth tables.

p q ∼p ∼q p⇒q p∧q p∨q p⇔q

T T F F T T T T
T F F T F F T F
F T T F T F T F
F F T T T F F T

Truth tables can be used to decide whether or not two compound state-
ments are logically equivalent. For example, it can easily be seen that p ⇒ q
is equivalent to ∼ q ⇒∼ p. The implication ∼ q ⇒∼ p is called contrapositive
of p ⇒ q.

Some statements involve a variable such as x, or n. These statements are

usually written as p(x), or p(n). For example, p(x) : x2 − 3x + 2 = 0 is a
statement for every specific real value of x. In fact, the truth value of p(1)
and p(2) is T, whereas for each real x ̸= 1, 2 the truth value of p(x) is F.
As an another example, p(n) : 1 + 2 + · · · + n = n(n + 1)/2 is a statement
for every positive integer (natural number) n, and its truth value is T. Often,
for the phrases like for all· · · , for each· · · , for every· · · , we use the universal
quantifier ∀. Thus, the statement for every real x, x2 − 3x + 2 = 0, which is
false, in symbols can be written as ∀ real x, p(x). Similarly, the statement for
every natural number n, 1 + 2 + · · · + n = n(n + 1)/2 can be written as ∀
natural number n, p(n). For the phrases such as there exists· · · , there is at
least one· · · , we use the existential quantifier ∃. The symbol ∋ is often used
in mathematics for the phrase such that. Thus, the statement there exists a
real x such that x2 − 3x + 2 = 0, which is true, in symbols can be written as
∃ real x ∋ p(x).
 Logic and Proof Techniques 3

Basic statements which do not contradict themselves to the best of human

knowledge are called axioms, or postulates. Axioms are accepted and used
without a doubt. Obvious or self-evident axioms are preferred. A mathematical
theory is based on axioms. For example, the axiom of Archimedes states that
for any given real number x there exists an integer n such that n is greater
than x.

A theorem consists of some propositions H1 , H2 , · · · , Hn called hypotheses,

and a proposition C called its conclusion. A theorem is true provided H1 ∧
H2 ∧ · · · ∧ Hn ⇒ C. A formal proof of a theorem consists of a sequence of
propositions, ending with the conclusion C, that are regarded valid. To be valid
a proposition may be one of the hypotheses, may be derived or inferred from
the earlier propositions. A formal proof with a valid sequence or propositions
is called a valid proof. Even if one of the propositions is invalid, then the
argument is called a fallacy. A lemma is a simple theorem which is used to
prove the main theorem. Often, complicated proofs are easier to understand
when they are established using a series of lemmas. A corollary is a proposition
that can be established directly from a theorem that has been proved.

We will now discuss some commonly used methods to prove mathematical

results.

(1). Direct proof. The most natural proof is the direct proof in which
the hypotheses H1 , H2 , · · · , Hn are shown to imply the conclusion C, i.e.,
H1 ∧ H2 ∧ · · · ∧ Hn ⇒ C. For example, consider the Pythagorean Theorem.
If a and b are the lengths of the two legs of a right triangle, and c is the
length of the hypothenuse, then a2 + b2 = c2 . The following direct proof was
discovered by U.S. Representative James A. Garfield (1831–1881), 5 years
before he became the 20th president of the United States. Figure 1.1 shows
three triangles forming half of a square with sides of length a + b. The angles
A, B, and D satisfy the relations
A + B = 90◦ and A + B + D = 180◦ .

b
A
b c

D c
a
B A
a b
Figure 1.1
4 An Introduction to Real Analysis

Thus, D = 90◦ , and hence all the three triangles are right triangles. The
area of the half square is
1 1
(a + b)2 = (a2 + 2ab + b2 ),
2 2
while the equivalent total area of the three triangles is
1 1 1
ab + c2 + ab.
2 2 2
Equating these two expressions, we get

a2 + 2ab + b2 = ab + c2 + ab or a2 + b2 = c2 .

Sometimes it is convenient to convert the proposition H1 ∨H2 ∨· · ·∨Hn ⇒

C to its equivalent form (H1 ⇒ C) ∧ (H2 ⇒ C) ∧ · · · ∧ (Hn ⇒ C). Thus, a
result can be proved by considering several cases. For example, we shall show
that for every natural number n, n3 + n is even. For this we consider the
following two cases:

(i). Suppose n is even. Then, n = 2k for some natural number k, and so

n3 + n = 8k 3 + 2k = 2(4k 3 + k), which is even.
(ii). Suppose n is odd. Then, n = 2k + 1 for some natural number k, and
so n3 + n = (8k 3 + 12k 2 + 6k + 1) + (2k + 1) = 2(4k 3 + 6k 2 + 4k + 1), which
is even.

However, the following direct proof is more elegant. Clearly, n3 + n =

n(n2 + 1). If n is even, then n(n2 + 1) is even. If n is odd, then n2 is odd, and
hence n2 + 1 is even, and so n(n2 + 1) is even.

(2). Indirect proof. In this type of proof an equivalent statement is used to

arrive at the result. Indirect proofs are of two different types. In the first type
we use the contrapositive statement ∼ C ⇒∼ (H1 ∧ H2 ∧ · · · ∧ Hn ), whereas
the second type is a proof by contradiction, i.e., ∼ C ∧ H1 ∧ H2 ∧ · · · ∧ Hn ⇒
a contradiction.

As an example of the first type of proof, we shall show that if n + m ≥ 53,

then n ≥ 27 or m ≥ 27. For this the contrapositive statement is not(n ≥ 27 or
m ≥ 27) implies not(n+m ≥ 53). Since not(n ≥ 27 or m ≥ 27) is equivalent to
not(n ≥ 27) and not(m ≥ 27), i.e., (n ≤ 26) and (m ≤ 26), the contrapositive
statement is the same as if n ≤ 26 and m ≤ 26, then n + m ≤ 52. But this
statement immediately follows from the general property of inequalities: for
all real numbers a, b, c, d if a ≤ c and b ≤ d, then a + b ≤ c + d.

To illustrate the method of proof by contradiction first we shall show that

if n2 is even for some integer n, then n itself is even. Suppose for contradiction
that n is odd. Then, n = 2m + 1 for some integer m. But, then n2 = 4m2 +
 Logic and Proof Techniques 5
√
4m + 1 is odd, which contradicts that n2 is even.
√ Now we shall show√that 2
is irrational. Suppose for contradiction that 2 is rational. Then, 2 = p/q
where p and q are natural numbers. By reducing the fraction if necessary we
can assume that p and q have no common factors. In particular, p and q are not
both even. Since 2 = p2 /q 2 we have p2 = 2q 2 and so p2 is even. This implies
that p is even. Hence, p = 2k, where k is some integer. But then, (2k)2 = 2q 2
and therefore q 2 = 2k 2 . Thus, q 2 and hence q is also even. This implies that
both
√ p and q are both even, which contradicts our earlier statement. Hence,
2 is irrational.

(3). Mathematical induction. To establish the truth of an infinite list of

propositions the principle of mathematical induction is frequently used. This
method can be described as follows: All the propositions p(m), p(m + 1), · · · ,
where m ≥ 0 is an integer, are true provided (a) p(m) is true, and (b) p(n)
implies p(n+1) for all n ≥ m. The first step (a) is called the basis of induction,
whereas the second step (b) is called the inductive step. To illustrate this
method, we will show that for all integers n ≥ 3 the following inequality
holds: ( )n
1
n > 1+ . (1.1)
n
n
Let p(n) : n > (1 + 1/n) , n ≥ 3. Clearly, p(3) is true. Now suppose that
p(n) is true for a given natural number n ≥ 3. Then, from (1.1), we have
( )n ( )n
1 1
n+1 > 1+ +1 > 1+ +1 (1.2)
n n+1
and ( )n
1
n+1 > n > 1+ ,
n+1
which implies ( )n
1 1
1 > 1+ . (1.3)
n+1 n+1
Combining (1.2) and (1.3), we get
( )n ( )n ( )n+1
1 1 1 1
n+1 > 1+ + 1+ = 1+ .
n+1 n+1 n+1 n+1
Hence, p(n + 1) holds whenever p(n) holds. By the principle of mathematical
induction, we conclude that p(n) is true for all n ≥ 3.

In mathematical analysis we also mention constructive proofs and noncon-

structive proofs. A constructive proof either specifies the solution or indicates
how it can be determined by some algorithm. As an example of constructive
proofs, we shall show that there is a positive integer that can be written as the
sum of cubes of positive integers in two different ways. Indeed after consider-
able computation we find that 1729 = 103 + 93 = 123 + 13 . A nonconstructive
proof establishes the existence of a solution, but gives no indication how to
6 An Introduction to Real Analysis

find it. As an example of nonconstructive proofs, we shall show that there ex-
ist irrational numbers a and b such that ab is rational. Consider the irrational
√ b
√ √2
numbers a = b = 2. If the number a = 2 is rational, we are done. If
√ √2 √ √2 √
2 is irrational,
√
we consider the numbers a = 2 and b = 2 so that
( √ ) 2
b
√ 2 √ √2 √2 √ 2
a = 2 = 2 = 2 = 2 is rational. Note that in this proof we
could not find irrational numbers a and b such that ab is rational.

An unproved statement based on guess or opinion, preferably based on

some experience or other source of wisdom is called a conjecture. Once a
conjecture is proved it becomes a theorem. Among all the known conjectures
the most famous is the Goldbach conjecture: Every even integer greater than 2
is the sum of two prime numbers. For example, 30 = 7+23 = 11+19 = 13+17.
This conjecture was made in the year 1742. Although it has been verified for
all even numbers up to 1014 , for every even integer it remains to be proved.
Now consider the function f (n) = n2 − 79n + 1601 for all natural numbers
n. If we compute f (n) for various values of n, we always seem to get a prime
number, e.g., f (1) = 1523, f (2) = 1447, f (39) = f (40) = 41. Thus, based on
this experience we might make the conjecture that for each natural number
n, p(n) : n2 − 79n + 1601 is a prime number. However, this statement cannot
be proved because it happens to be false. In fact, while it is true for n =
1, 2, · · · , 79 for n = 80, p(80) = 802 −79×80+1601 = 1681 = 412 . An example
of this type which shows that the statement is false is called a counterexample.
Thus, to disprove a statement only one counterexample is sufficient.

Problems

1.1. Use mathematical induction to prove that for all natural numbers n:
(i). n5 − n is a multiple of 5.
(ii). n7 − n is a multiple of 7.

1.2. For all natural numbers n is 32n − 8n + 1 divisible by 64?

1.3. Prove the following by induction.

(i). 2n > n2 for all integers n ≥ 5.
(ii). 2n ≥ n3 for all integers n ≥ 10.
(iii). (4/3)n > n for all integers n ≥ 7.
1
(iv). 1·2 1
+ 2·3 + · · · + n(n+1)
1 n
= n+1 for all natural numbers n.
(v). 13 + 23 + · · · + n3 = (1 + 2 + · · · + n)2 for all natural numbers n.
(vi). 1 + r + r2 + · · · + rn = (1 − rn+1 )/(1 − r), r ̸= 1 for all natural
numbers n.
 Logic and Proof Techniques 7

1.4. The Fibonacci numbers Fn are recursively defined as follows:

F1 = F2 = 1, Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2 for n ≥ 3.
Use induction to prove that for all natural numbers n:
(i). Fm+n = Fm−1 Fn + Fm Fn+1 for all m ≥ 2.
(ii). F1 + F2 + · · · + Fn = Fn+2 − 1.
(iii). F1 + 2F2 + · · · + nFn = (n + 1)Fn+2 − Fn+4 + 2.

1.5. Use mathematical induction to show that for all natural numbers n:
(1) n(n+1)
Sn = 1 + 2 + ··· + n = 2 .
(2) (1) (1) (1)
Sn = S1 + S2 + · · · + Sn = n(n+1)(n+2)
2·3 .
(3) (2) (2) (2) n(n+1)(n+2)(n+3)
Sn = S1 + S2 + · · · + Sn = 2·3·4 .
···
(k) (k−1) (k−1) (k−1) n(n+1)···(n+k)
Sn = S1 + S2 + · · · + Sn = 2·3···(k+1) .

1.6. For all real numbers x, y and natural number n, prove the binomial
theorem
∑n ( ) ( )
n n n−r r n n!
(x + y) = x y where = .
r=0
r r r!(n − r)!

1.7. Let a1 , a2 , · · · , an be positive numbers strictly less than 1. Show that

for integers n ≥ 2,
(1 − a1 )(1 − a2 ) · · · (1 − an ) > 1 − (a1 + a2 + · · · + an ).

1.8. If x ≥ −1 and n is a natural number, prove Bernoulli’s inequality

(1 + x)n ≥ 1 + nx.
When does the strict inequality hold? Deduce for n > 1 that
( )n
(i). 1 − n12 > 1 − n1 .
( )n ( n )n−1
(ii). n+1
n > n−1 .

1.9. Prove by induction

n(n−1) 2
(i). (1 + x)n ≥ 1 + nx + 2 x if x ≥ 0.
n(n−1) 2
(ii). (1 + x)n ≥ 1 − nx + 2 x if 0 ≤ x < 1.

1.10. For the given positive numbers a1 , a2 , · · · , an the arithmetic mean

(A.M.), and the geometric mean (G.M.), respectively, are defined as A.M.=
√
(a1 + a2 + · · · + an )/n and G.M.= n a1 a2 · · · an . Show that G.M.≤ A.M., i.e.,
√ a1 + a2 + · · · + an
n
a1 a2 · · · an ≤ .
n
8 An Introduction to Real Analysis

Answers or Hints

1.1. (i). Let p(n) be the statement “n5 − n is a multiple of 5.” Clearly,
p(1) is true since 15 − 1 = 0 = 5 × 0. Assume p(n) is true for a given natural
number n, i.e., n5 − n = 5k for some integer k. Then, (n + 1)5 − (n + 1) =
(n5 − n) + 5(n4 + 2n3 + 2n2 + n) = 5(k + n4 + 2n3 + 2n2 + n). Hence, p(n) is
true for all n ≥ 1.
(ii). Similar to (i).

1.2. Let p(n) = 32n − 8n + 1, then p(n + 1) − p(n) = 64(9n−1 + 9n−2 +

· · · + 9 + 1). Thus, p(n + 1) is divisible by 64 implies p(n) is divisible by 64.
However, p(2) = 66.

1.3. (i). Let p(n) : 2n > n2 . Then, p(5) is true. Suppose p(k) is true for
some k ≥ 5. Then, 2k+1 = 2k · 2 > 2k 2 > (k + 1)2 since k ≥ 5. Thus, p(k + 1)
is true.
(ii). Let p(n) : 2n > n3 . Then, p(10) is true. Suppose( p(k) is true) for some
k ≥ 10. Then, 2k+1 = 2k + 2k > k 3 + k 3 ≥ k 3 + k 2 3 + k3 + k12 because
3 + k3 + k12 < k. This implies 2k+1 > k 3 + 3k 2 + 3k + 1 = (k + 1)3 .
(iii). Similar to (i).
(iv). Let p(n) : 1·21
+ · · · + n(n+1)
1 n
= n+1 . Then, p(1) is true. Suppose p(k)
holds, then 1·2 + · · · + k(k+1) + (k+1)(k+2) = k+1
1 1 1 k 1
+ (k+1)(k+2) = k+1
k+2 .
(v). We shall use 1 + 2 + · · · + n = n(n + 1)/2. Let p(n) : 1 + · · · + n3 =
3

(1 + · · · + n)2 . Clearly, p(1) is true. Suppose p(k) is true, then 13 + · · · + k 3 +

(k + 1)3 = (1 + · · · + k)2 + (k + 1)3 = (1 + · · · + k)2 + (k + 1)2 + k(k + 1)(k + 1) =
(1 + · · · + k)2 + (k + 1)2 + 2(k + 1)(1 + · · · + k) = (1 + · · · + (k + 1))2 .
(vi). Let p(n) : 1 + r + · · · + rn = (1 − rn+1 )/(1 − r). Clearly, p(1) is true.
k+1 k+2
Suppose p(k) is true, then 1 + r + · · · + rk + rk+1 = 1−r 1−r + r
k+1
= 1−r
1−r .

1.4. (i). For a fixed integer m ≥ 2, we shall use induction on n. For

n = 1, Fm+1 = Fm−1 + Fm . Asuume that Fm+n = Fm−1 Fn + Fm Fn+1 for
1 ≤ n ≤ k. Then, Fm+k+1 = Fm+k + Fm+(k−1) = (Fm−1 Fk + Fm Fk+1 ) +
(Fm−1 Fk−1 + Fm Fk ) = Fm−1 (Fk + Fk−1 ) + Fm (Fk+1 + Fk ) = Fm−1 Fk+1 +
Fm Fk+2 .
(ii). F1 = F3 − 1. Assume F1 + · · · + Fk = Fk+2 − 1, then F1 + · · · + Fk +
Fk+1 = Fk+1 + Fk+2 − 1 = Fk+3 − 1.
(iii). F1 = 2F3 − F5 + 2 = 2 × 2 − 5 + 2 = 1. Assume F1 + 2F2 + · · · + kFk =
(k+1)Fk+2 −Fk+4 +2, then F1 +2F2 +· · ·+kFk +(k+1)Fk+1 = (k+1){Fk+1 +
Fk+2 } − Fk+4 + 2 = (k + 1)Fk+3 − (Fk+5 − Fk+3 ) + 2 = (k + 2)Fk+3 − Fk+5 + 2.

1.5. Use induction.

( ) ( n ) (n+1)
1.6. Use nr + r−1 = r .

1.7. Let p(n) : (1 − a1 ) · · · (1 − an ) > 1 − (a1 + · · · + an ). When n = 2,

 Logic and Proof Techniques 9

(1 − a1 )(1 − a2 ) = 1 − (a1 + a2 ) + a1 a2 > 1 − (a1 + a2 ). Hence, p(2) is true.

Suppose p(k) is true for some k ≥ 2. Then,
(1 − a1 ) · · · (1 − ak )(1 − ak+1 ) > [1 − (a1 + · · · + ak )](1 − ak+1 )
= 1 − (a1 + · · · + ak+1 ) + ak+1 (a1 + · · · + ak )
> 1 − (a1 + · · · + ak+1 ).

1.8. The inequality is obvious for x = −1. For x > −1, let p(n) be
(1 + x)n ≥ 1 + nx. Clearly, p(1) is true. Suppose p(k) is true for some k ≥ 1,
then (1 + x)k+1 ≥ (1 + kx)(1 + x) ≥ 1 + (k + 1)x. If n > 1 and x ̸= 0 the strict
inequality, i.e., (1 + x)n > 1 + nx holds.
(i). Take x = −1/n(
2
, )n (> 1. ) ( )
n n
(ii). From (i), 1 + n1 1 − n1 > 1 − n1 , n > 1.

1.9. Use induction.

√
1.10. Let p(n) : n a1 a2 · · · an ≤ (a1 +a2 +· · ·+an )/n. Clearly, p(1) is true.
Suppose p(k) holds, to show p(k + 1), if necessary, we arrange the numbers
a1 , a2 , · · · , ak+1 in increasing order, and let A = a1 +···+a
k+1
k+1
. Clearly, (ak+1 −
A)(A − a1 ) ≥ 0. Let R = a1 + ak+1 − A ≥ 0. Consider, a1 , a2 , · · · , ak−1 , R,
so that kA = a1 + a2 + ... + ak + ak+1 − A = a2 + ... + ak + R. Hence,
Ak+1 = Ak A ≥ a2 · · · ak RA. Finally, since RA − a1 ak+1 = (a1 + ak+1 − A)A −
a1 ak+1 = (A − a1 )(ak+1 − A) ≥ 0, it follows that RA ≥ a1 ak+1 . Thus, we
have Ak+1 ≥ a1 · · · ak+1 .
Chapter 2
Sets and Functions

In this chapter we will introduce elementary set theory. Although, this the-
ory as an independent branch of mathematics was founded by the German
mathematician George Cantor (1845–1918) in the second half of the 19th cen-
tury, it turned out to be the unifying foundation to almost all branches of
mathematics.

A set is a collection of objects distinct and distinguishably defined. Often,

aggregate, class, family or collection are also used for a set. The objects in
a set are called elements, points or members of the set. We denote sets by
capital letters like A, B, C, etc., and use lowercase letters a, b, c, etc., to
represent elements. If A is a set and a is an element of it, then it is customary
to write this fact in notation as a ∈ A. If a does not belong to the set A, then
we write it as a ̸∈ A. A set is defined by its elements, and hence, either it is
expressed by its elements or by assigning a certain property by which all the
members are known. It is often useful to denote a set by putting braces around
its elements. The elements within the braces can be written in any order. For
example, A = {a, b, c, d} denotes the set consisting four elements a, b, c, and d.
Clearly, b ∈ A whereas z ̸∈ A. In case a set S is defined by assigning a certain
property p(s) regarding its elements s, we write S = {s : p(s)}. The following
sets must be familiar to the reader:
N = {x : x = 1, 2, · · · }, the set of natural numbers,
Z = {x : x = · · · , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, · · · }, the set of all integers,
Q = {x : x = p/q, p, q ∈ Z and q ̸= 0}, the set of rational numbers,
R = {x : x is a real number}, the set of real numbers.

A set B is said to be a subset of a set A if every member of B is also a

member of A. In such a case we write B ⊆ A and say that B is contained
in A. If B ⊆ A and A ⊆ B, then we write A = B and say that two sets A
and B are equal. A proper subset of A is a subset B such that A ̸= B and we
designate this by B ⊂ A. Clearly,

N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R.

11
12 An Introduction to Real Analysis

For a, b ∈ R with a < b, the special subsets of R, called intervals are

defined as
[a, b] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}, (a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}
[a, b) = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x < b}, (a, b] = {x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b}.

The set [a, b] is called a closed interval, the set (a, b) is called an open interval,
and the sets [a, b) and (a, b] are called half-open or half-closed intervals. We
will also use the term interval for some unbounded subsets of R :
[a, ∞) = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x}, (a, ∞) = {x ∈ R : a < x}
(−∞, b] = {x ∈ R : x ≤ b}, (−∞, b) = {x ∈ R : x < b}.

Using this notation, we can write R = (−∞, ∞). Although, R has no endpoint,
by convention it is accepted as both open and closed. The intervals [a, ∞) and
(−∞, b] have only one endpoint and therefore are accepted as closed.

The union of two sets A and B denoted as A ∪ B is the set of all elements
which belong to A or B (or both), i.e.,

A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.

The intersection of two sets A and B denoted as A∩B is the set of all elements
which belong to A and B, i.e.,

A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.

The complement of a set B with respect to a set A denoted as A\B is the set
of elements which belong to A but not to B, i.e.,

A\B = {x : x ∈ A and x ̸∈ B}.

A set which has no elements is called an empty set and we denote it by ∅,

e.g., {x ∈ R : x2 + 1 = 0}. It is clear that the empty set is unique, and for any
given set A, ∅ ⊆ A. Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if they have no
common element, i.e., A ∩ B = ∅. The largest set which contains all elements
likely to be considered during some specified mathematical treatment is called
the universal set, and we denote it by U. Often, we write U \A as Ac , and call
it the complement of the set A.

The following simple laws for sets can be proved rather easily.
1. Idempotent laws:
(i). A ∪ A = A, (ii). A ∩ A = A.
2. Commutative laws:
(i). A ∪ B = B ∪ A, (ii). A ∩ B = B ∩ A.
 Sets and Functions 13

3. Associative laws:
(i). (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C), (ii). (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C).
4. Distributive laws:
(i). A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C), (ii). A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).
5. Identity laws:
(i). A ∪ ∅ = A, A ∪ U = U, (ii). A ∩ ∅ = ∅, A ∩ U = A.
6. Complement laws:
(i). A ∪ Ac = U, (Ac )c = A, (ii). A ∩ Ac = ∅, U c = ∅.
7. De Morgan laws:
(i). (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c , (ii). (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c .

Now let A and B be sets, and suppose that with each element a of A there
is associated a subset of B which we denote by Ca . The set whose elements
are the sets Ca is denoted by {Ca } and is called a family of sets. The union
and intersection of these sets Ca is defined by
S = ∪ {Ca : a ∈ A} = {x : x ∈ Ca for some a ∈ A}
and
P = ∩ {Ca : a ∈ A} = {x : x ∈ Ca for all a ∈ A}.
If A = {1, 2, · · · , n}, then we write
S = ∪nm=1 Cm and P = ∩nm=1 Cm ,
and if A = N , the usual notation is
S = ∪∞
m=1 Cm and P = ∩∞
m=1 Cm .

De Morgan laws hold for arbitrary unions and intersections also, i.e.,
(∪{Ca : a ∈ A})c = ∩ {Ca : a ∈ A}c (2.1)

and
(∩{Ca : a ∈ A})c = ∪ {Ca : a ∈ A}c . (2.2)

The Cartesian product or cross product of two sets A and B denoted by

A × B is defined as the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) with a ∈ A and b ∈ B,
i.e.,
A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.
Two points (a, b), (c, d) ∈ A×B are said to be equal if a = c and b = d. Clearly,
the xy-plane can be considered as the Cartesian product R × R. Similarly, the
set of all ordered n elements (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) with x1 ∈ A1 , x2 ∈ A2 , · · · , xn ∈
An is called an ordered n-tuple and is written as A1 × A2 × · · · × An .

Let A and B be sets. A relation on A × B is any subset R of A × B. The

domain of R is the collection of a ∈ A such that (a, b) ∈ R. When (a, b) ∈ R
we usually write aRb. If B = A, then the relation R ⊆ A × A is called a
14 An Introduction to Real Analysis

relation on A. A relation R on a set A is called an equivalence relation if for

all a, b, c ∈ A the following properties hold:
1. aRa, reflexive property.
2. If aRb, then bRa symmetric property.
3. If aRb and bRc, then aRc transitive property.

Let A and B be sets. A function between A and B is a nonempty relation

f ⊆ A × B such that if (a, b) ∈ f and (a, b′ ) ∈ f, then b = b′ . Interchangeably
for function the words mapping, map, transformation, or correspondence are
also sometimes used. Sets of all first, and second elements of f are respectively
called domain and range of f, i.e.,
domain f = D(f ) = {a ∈ A : ∃ b ∈ B such that (a, b) ∈ f }
range f = R(f ) = {b ∈ B : ∃ a ∈ A such that (a, b) ∈ f }.
If the domain of f is equal to the set A, then we say f is a function from A
to B and write it as f : A → B. If (x, y) ∈ f, we say that f maps x onto
y or that y is the image of x under f, and write it as y = f (x). The set
{(x, f (x)) : x ∈ A} is called the graph of f. From the definition of equality of
ordered pairs it follows that two functions f and g are equal iff they have the
same domain and values, i.e., D(f ) = D(g) and f (x) = g(x) for all x ∈ D(f ).

A function f : A → B is called surjective or onto if B = R(f ). For

example, the function y = f (x) = x2 : [−1, 1] → [0, 1] is surjective, whereas
y = f (x) = x2 : [−1, 1] → [−1, 1] is not surjective.

A function f : A → B is called injective or one-to-one if for all x, x′ ∈

A, f (x) = f (x′ ) implies that x = x′ , i.e., if no two distinct elements in the
domain of f are assigned to the same element in the range. For example, the
function y = f (x) = x2 : [0, 1] → [0, 1] is injective, whereas y = f (x) = x2 :
[−1, 1] → [0, 1] is not injective because f (−1) = f (1) = 1.

A function f : A → B is called bijective or one-to-one correspondence if

it is both surjective and injective. For example, the function y = f (x) = x2 :
[0, 1] → [0, 1] is bijective.

Suppose f and g are two functions with respective domains A1 and A2 .

If A1 ⊂ A2 and f (x) = g(x), x ∈ A1 we say that g is an extension of
f to A2 , or that f is the restriction of g to A1 . For example, the function
y = g(x) = x2 , x ∈ [−1, 1] is an extension of y = f (x) = x2 , x ∈ [0, 1].

If f : A → B and g : B → C, then the composite function g ◦ f : A → C is

defined by g ◦ f (x) = g(f (x)), x ∈ A, i.e., the image of x under g ◦ f is defined
to be the image of f (x) under g. Thus, in terms of ordered pairs, we have

g ◦ f = {(a, c) ∈ A × C : ∃ b ∈ B such that (a, b) ∈ f and (b, c) ∈ g}.

For example, if f, g : R → R are defined by f (x) = x3 + 2, and g(x) = 5x + 1,

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