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An Introduction to
REAL
ANALYSIS
An Introduction to
REAL
ANALYSIS
Ravi P. Agarwal
Cristina Flaut
Donal O’Regan
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable
efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot
assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and
publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication
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future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
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are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
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and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
Dedicated to our mothers:
Godawari Agarwal†
Elena Paiu† and Maria Paiu
Eileen O’Regan†
Contents
Preface xi
3 Real Numbers 19
5 Cardinality 37
6 Real-Valued Functions 45
7 Real Sequences 53
9 Infinite Series 73
11 Limits of Functions 89
12 Continuous Functions 99
vii
viii Contents
Bibliography 267
Index 269
Preface
The subject matter has been organized in the form of theorems and the
proofs, and the presentation is rather unconventional. It comprises of 30 class-
tested chapters that the authors have given mainly to math major students at
various institutions over a period of almost 40 years. It is our belief that the
content in a particular chapter, together with the problems therein, provides
fairly adequate coverage of the topic under study.
xi
xii Preface
define the concept of a function, and introduce several special functions which
are of common use, and then define functions which have certain properties.
In Chapters 7 and 8, we introduce the convergence and divergence of real
sequences, prove several properties of convergent sequences, provide Cauchy’s
if and only if criterion for the convergence of a given sequence, show that it is
always possible to extract a convergent sequence from any bounded sequence,
thoroughly examine the convergence of monotone sequences, and prove the fa-
mous Cesaro-Stolz theorem. In Chapters 9 and 10, we provide several easily
verifiable tests (comparison test, limit comparison test, ratio test, root test,
Kummer’s test, Raabe-Duhamel’s test, and the logarithmic ratio test), which
guarantee the convergence or divergence of a given series. We also provide
some specific tests for the convergence of series in terms of arbitrary signs.
Some important results on the rearrangements of terms of such series are also
discussed.
exactly the same as the given function. For this, we define analytic functions
and develop Taylor’s series and its particular case, Maclaurin’s series.
In this book, there are 122 examples which explain each concept and
demonstrate the importance of every result. Two types of the 289 problems
are also included, those that illustrate the general theory and others designed
to complete our text material. The problems form an integral part of the book,
and every reader is urged to attempt most, if not all of them. For the conve-
nience of the reader, we have provided answers or hints to all the problems.
Ravi P. Agarwal
Cristina Flaut
Donal O’Regan
Chapter 1
Logic and Proof Techniques
1
2 An Introduction to Real Analysis
Two statements p and q are said to be equivalent if one implies the other,
i.e., (p ⇒ q)∧(q ⇒ p), and we denote this as p ⇔ q. Propositions which involve
the phrases such as if and only if (iff), is equivalent to, or the necessary and
sufficient condition, are of the type p ⇔ q. For example, ABC is an equilateral
triangle ⇔ AB = BC = CA.
The following table gives the truth values of different compositions of state-
ments. Tables of this type are called truth tables.
T T F F T T T T
T F F T F F T F
F T T F T F T F
F F T T T F F T
Truth tables can be used to decide whether or not two compound state-
ments are logically equivalent. For example, it can easily be seen that p ⇒ q
is equivalent to ∼ q ⇒∼ p. The implication ∼ q ⇒∼ p is called contrapositive
of p ⇒ q.
(1). Direct proof. The most natural proof is the direct proof in which
the hypotheses H1 , H2 , · · · , Hn are shown to imply the conclusion C, i.e.,
H1 ∧ H2 ∧ · · · ∧ Hn ⇒ C. For example, consider the Pythagorean Theorem.
If a and b are the lengths of the two legs of a right triangle, and c is the
length of the hypothenuse, then a2 + b2 = c2 . The following direct proof was
discovered by U.S. Representative James A. Garfield (1831–1881), 5 years
before he became the 20th president of the United States. Figure 1.1 shows
three triangles forming half of a square with sides of length a + b. The angles
A, B, and D satisfy the relations
A + B = 90◦ and A + B + D = 180◦ .
b
A
b c
D c
a
B A
a b
Figure 1.1
4 An Introduction to Real Analysis
Thus, D = 90◦ , and hence all the three triangles are right triangles. The
area of the half square is
1 1
(a + b)2 = (a2 + 2ab + b2 ),
2 2
while the equivalent total area of the three triangles is
1 1 1
ab + c2 + ab.
2 2 2
Equating these two expressions, we get
a2 + 2ab + b2 = ab + c2 + ab or a2 + b2 = c2 .
find it. As an example of nonconstructive proofs, we shall show that there ex-
ist irrational numbers a and b such that ab is rational. Consider the irrational
√ b
√ √2
numbers a = b = 2. If the number a = 2 is rational, we are done. If
√ √2 √ √2 √
2 is irrational,
√
we consider the numbers a = 2 and b = 2 so that
( √ ) 2
b
√ 2 √ √2 √2 √ 2
a = 2 = 2 = 2 = 2 is rational. Note that in this proof we
could not find irrational numbers a and b such that ab is rational.
Problems
1.1. Use mathematical induction to prove that for all natural numbers n:
(i). n5 − n is a multiple of 5.
(ii). n7 − n is a multiple of 7.
1.5. Use mathematical induction to show that for all natural numbers n:
(1) n(n+1)
Sn = 1 + 2 + ··· + n = 2 .
(2) (1) (1) (1)
Sn = S1 + S2 + · · · + Sn = n(n+1)(n+2)
2·3 .
(3) (2) (2) (2) n(n+1)(n+2)(n+3)
Sn = S1 + S2 + · · · + Sn = 2·3·4 .
···
(k) (k−1) (k−1) (k−1) n(n+1)···(n+k)
Sn = S1 + S2 + · · · + Sn = 2·3···(k+1) .
1.6. For all real numbers x, y and natural number n, prove the binomial
theorem
∑n ( ) ( )
n n n−r r n n!
(x + y) = x y where = .
r=0
r r r!(n − r)!
Answers or Hints
1.1. (i). Let p(n) be the statement “n5 − n is a multiple of 5.” Clearly,
p(1) is true since 15 − 1 = 0 = 5 × 0. Assume p(n) is true for a given natural
number n, i.e., n5 − n = 5k for some integer k. Then, (n + 1)5 − (n + 1) =
(n5 − n) + 5(n4 + 2n3 + 2n2 + n) = 5(k + n4 + 2n3 + 2n2 + n). Hence, p(n) is
true for all n ≥ 1.
(ii). Similar to (i).
1.3. (i). Let p(n) : 2n > n2 . Then, p(5) is true. Suppose p(k) is true for
some k ≥ 5. Then, 2k+1 = 2k · 2 > 2k 2 > (k + 1)2 since k ≥ 5. Thus, p(k + 1)
is true.
(ii). Let p(n) : 2n > n3 . Then, p(10) is true. Suppose( p(k) is true) for some
k ≥ 10. Then, 2k+1 = 2k + 2k > k 3 + k 3 ≥ k 3 + k 2 3 + k3 + k12 because
3 + k3 + k12 < k. This implies 2k+1 > k 3 + 3k 2 + 3k + 1 = (k + 1)3 .
(iii). Similar to (i).
(iv). Let p(n) : 1·21
+ · · · + n(n+1)
1 n
= n+1 . Then, p(1) is true. Suppose p(k)
holds, then 1·2 + · · · + k(k+1) + (k+1)(k+2) = k+1
1 1 1 k 1
+ (k+1)(k+2) = k+1
k+2 .
(v). We shall use 1 + 2 + · · · + n = n(n + 1)/2. Let p(n) : 1 + · · · + n3 =
3
1.8. The inequality is obvious for x = −1. For x > −1, let p(n) be
(1 + x)n ≥ 1 + nx. Clearly, p(1) is true. Suppose p(k) is true for some k ≥ 1,
then (1 + x)k+1 ≥ (1 + kx)(1 + x) ≥ 1 + (k + 1)x. If n > 1 and x ̸= 0 the strict
inequality, i.e., (1 + x)n > 1 + nx holds.
(i). Take x = −1/n(
2
, )n (> 1. ) ( )
n n
(ii). From (i), 1 + n1 1 − n1 > 1 − n1 , n > 1.
In this chapter we will introduce elementary set theory. Although, this the-
ory as an independent branch of mathematics was founded by the German
mathematician George Cantor (1845–1918) in the second half of the 19th cen-
tury, it turned out to be the unifying foundation to almost all branches of
mathematics.
N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R.
11
12 An Introduction to Real Analysis
The set [a, b] is called a closed interval, the set (a, b) is called an open interval,
and the sets [a, b) and (a, b] are called half-open or half-closed intervals. We
will also use the term interval for some unbounded subsets of R :
[a, ∞) = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x}, (a, ∞) = {x ∈ R : a < x}
(−∞, b] = {x ∈ R : x ≤ b}, (−∞, b) = {x ∈ R : x < b}.
Using this notation, we can write R = (−∞, ∞). Although, R has no endpoint,
by convention it is accepted as both open and closed. The intervals [a, ∞) and
(−∞, b] have only one endpoint and therefore are accepted as closed.
The union of two sets A and B denoted as A ∪ B is the set of all elements
which belong to A or B (or both), i.e.,
A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.
The intersection of two sets A and B denoted as A∩B is the set of all elements
which belong to A and B, i.e.,
A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
The complement of a set B with respect to a set A denoted as A\B is the set
of elements which belong to A but not to B, i.e.,
The following simple laws for sets can be proved rather easily.
1. Idempotent laws:
(i). A ∪ A = A, (ii). A ∩ A = A.
2. Commutative laws:
(i). A ∪ B = B ∪ A, (ii). A ∩ B = B ∩ A.
Sets and Functions 13
3. Associative laws:
(i). (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C), (ii). (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C).
4. Distributive laws:
(i). A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C), (ii). A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).
5. Identity laws:
(i). A ∪ ∅ = A, A ∪ U = U, (ii). A ∩ ∅ = ∅, A ∩ U = A.
6. Complement laws:
(i). A ∪ Ac = U, (Ac )c = A, (ii). A ∩ Ac = ∅, U c = ∅.
7. De Morgan laws:
(i). (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c , (ii). (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c .
Now let A and B be sets, and suppose that with each element a of A there
is associated a subset of B which we denote by Ca . The set whose elements
are the sets Ca is denoted by {Ca } and is called a family of sets. The union
and intersection of these sets Ca is defined by
S = ∪ {Ca : a ∈ A} = {x : x ∈ Ca for some a ∈ A}
and
P = ∩ {Ca : a ∈ A} = {x : x ∈ Ca for all a ∈ A}.
If A = {1, 2, · · · , n}, then we write
S = ∪nm=1 Cm and P = ∩nm=1 Cm ,
and if A = N , the usual notation is
S = ∪∞
m=1 Cm and P = ∩∞
m=1 Cm .
De Morgan laws hold for arbitrary unions and intersections also, i.e.,
(∪{Ca : a ∈ A})c = ∩ {Ca : a ∈ A}c (2.1)
and
(∩{Ca : a ∈ A})c = ∪ {Ca : a ∈ A}c . (2.2)
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