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An Overview of the Public
Relations Function
An Overview of the Public
Relations Function
Second Edition

Shannon A. Bowen, PhD

University of South Carolina

Brad Rawlins, PhD

Arkansas State University

Thomas Martin
College of Charleston
An Overview of the Public Relations Function, Second Edition
Copyright © Business Expert Press, LLC, 2019.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—
electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any other except for
brief quotations, not to exceed 250 words, without the prior permission
of the publisher.

First published in 2019 by

Business Expert Press, LLC
222 East 46th Street, New York, NY 10017
www.businessexpertpress.com

ISBN-13: 978-1-94944-366-0 (paperback)

ISBN-13: 978-1-94944-367-7 (e-book)

Business Expert Press Public Relations Collection

Collection ISSN: 2157-345X (print)

Collection ISSN: 2157-3476 (electronic)

Cover and interior design by S4Carlisle Publishing Services Private Ltd.,

Chennai, India

First edition: 2010

Second edition: 2019

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Printed in the United States of America.

 Abstract
This book provides an executive review of the field of public relations with
a focus on what managers need to know in order to master the function.
Throughout the text, we integrate the academic with the professional
by asking, “How can an executive use this knowledge to make the most
of the public relations function to help the whole organization be more
­effective and successful?”
Part I of the book acquaints the busy manager with the lexicon of the
public relations field and provides research on the theory of public rela-
tions, its subfunctions, such as research or public affairs, and the ethical
guideline CERT formula: Credibility, Ethics, Relationships, Trust. Part
II examines the role of the CCO and dominant coalition, organizational
culture, structure, effectiveness, managing stakeholders and publics, using
research to create strategy, and the four-step process of public relations
management (“RACE”). Part III discusses the advanced management
concepts of issues management, specialization in the sectors of public re-
lations (corporate, agency, government, and nonprofit), managing values,
deontological ethics, conducting moral analyses, and counseling manage-
ment or leadership. We review what research found regarding the most
excellent ways to manage public relations, both beginning and ending
with ethics.
We examine current thought to help managers and students master
the most important concepts of management in the field quickly, acces-
sibly, and with an eye toward helping an organization or client achieve
the most effective results through cutting-edge, research-based strategic
public relations management.

Keywords
strategy; public relations management; ethics; trust; issues management;
corporate communication; excellence; relationship management
 Contents
List of Figures.........................................................................................ix
List of Tables...........................................................................................xi
Preface.................................................................................................xiii
Acknowledgments.................................................................................xvii
Part 1 Mastering the Principles.................................................. 1
Chapter 1 Why Do Public Relations?.................................................3
Chapter 2 What Is Public Relations?...................................................9
Chapter 3 Models of Public Relations and Its Subfunctions..............15
Chapter 4 The Management Function of Public Relations................27
Part 2 Organizations and Processes.......................................... 39
Chapter 5 Organizational Factors, Culture, Character, and
Structure..........................................................................41
Chapter 6 How Public Relations Contributes to Organizational
Effectiveness.....................................................................51
Chapter 7 Managing Stakeholders and Publics.................................61
Chapter 8 Public Relations Research.................................................73
Chapter 9 The Public Relations Process—“RACE”...........................87
Part 3 Advanced Practices in Public Relations Management......99
Chapter 10 Issues Management and Sectors of the Public
Relations Industry..........................................................101
Chapter 11 Ethics, Counseling Roles, Leadership, and Moral
Analyses.........................................................................119
Chapter 12 Organizational Effectiveness: Excellence in Public
Relations Management...................................................137
Notes..................................................................................................153
References............................................................................................159
About the Authors................................................................................169
Index..................................................................................................171
 List of Figures
Figure 3.1 Dimensions of public relations (purpose by direction).....18
Figure 5.1 Vertical organizational structure versus horizontal
organizational structure....................................................46
Figure 5.2 Organizational structure with a production
(manufacturing) component............................................47
Figure 5.3 Decentralized MNC structure with communication
coordinated by a HQ.......................................................48
Figure 5.4 Public relations agency structure......................................49
Figure 6.1 Six steps in the process of stakeholder management..........57
Figure 6.2 The components of OPR theory that can result in
positive relationships with stakeholders and publics.........60
Figure 7.1 Stakeholder typology........................................................64
Figure 7.2 Grunig’s situational theory of publics...............................67
Figure 7.3 Stakeholder by communication strategy...........................69
Figure 9.1 SWOT analysis................................................................90
Figure 9.2 Sample Gantt chart (numbers within bars are days to
accomplish task)...............................................................95
Figure 11.1 The organizational subsystems within systems theory.....122
Figure 11.2 Home Depot’s value wheel.............................................133
Figure 11.3 Home Depot’s inverted pyramid....................................133
 List of Tables
Table 8.1 Methods of quantitative data collection............................78
Table 8.2 Methods of qualitative data collection..............................80
Table 10.1 The steps of issues management.....................................105
Table 11.1 Utilitarian analysis, maximizing public interest and
greater good consequences.............................................128
Table 11.2 Deontology’s three decision tests of the categorical
imperative, obligating all people equally.........................130
Table 12.1 The 10 generic principles of excellence in public
relations that are stable across organizations, cultures,
and varying situations....................................................138
 Preface
Our purpose in this volume is to introduce you to the management of
public relations. We use knowledge of management, strategy, public
relations theory, research, and professional practice to explain the dis-
cipline of public relations. Our text is based on current research and
scholarly knowledge, as well as on years of experience in professional
practice.
We value every moment that you spend with this book. Therefore, we
have eliminated much of the academic jargon found in other books and
used concise writing. We aimed to make the chapters short and manage-
able, but packed with information. We hope that our direct to-the-point
approach will help your study move quickly and smoothly. We use a few
original public relations case studies that we have researched and written
about to illustrate the concepts we discuss. We hope that instructors will
elucidate many of the concepts in this book and offer discussions of the
cases—for brevity of reading, we leave that to users.
This book is divided into three sections:

• Part I: Mastering the Principles. Chapters 1 through 4 focus on the

theoretical foundations of the profession, its taxonomy, the role of
the chief communication officer (CCO), and the function as a part
of management.
• Part II: Organizations and Processes. Chapters 5 through 9 offer
a look at organization, its structure, effectiveness, and how the
public relations process is managed—through relationships with
publics and stakeholders, conducting research, and the process
of strategically managing public relations, using the “RACE”
acronym. A strong focus on research methods is found throughout
this section.
• Part III: Advanced Practices in Public Relations Management.
Chapters 10 through 12 provide an advanced discussion of public
xiv PREFACE

relations: issue management or advanced problem solving, and the

sectors of public relations. We offer an analytical framework for
analyzing ethical dilemmas, perhaps the most difficult situations
faced in public relations. We reveal what research and practice
show on how to best contribute to organizational effectiveness.

Please be aware! A catch-22 exists in this book: We would have

liked to put the ethical analyses guidelines (in Chapter 11) earlier in this
book—preferably page 1! However, the complex understanding of the
field needed to engage in robust ethical analyses requires a great deal of
prior knowledge that is presented in Chapters 1 to 10. Ethics is so im-
portant that we also developed a formula incorporating these concepts
early on, so that they can be discussed until gaining the knowledge and
terminology needed to conduct a deontological analysis (the most com-
mon and powerful type among public relations managers, but requiring
some study). The CERT formula—Credibility, Ethics, Relationships, and
Trust—should guide you until the advanced and detailed ethics discus-
sions in both Chapters 11 and 12. Although you may skip ahead for
assistance, we generally recommend reading the chapters in order to
build upon the logical flow of terminology, processes, and management
knowledge.
For Instructors: You will find both original research and solid theory
throughout this book. We have designed it to fit a standard 15-week se-
mester, leaving time for activities and exams, at a pace of one chapter per
week. For reading brevity, we will count on you to elaborate, offer ex-
amples, ask questions, and ask students to identify the principles evident
in our cases. Chapters 1 and 2 are shorter than most, so you may wish to
assign those together, depending on other activities and the pace of your
term. The price of our text is exceptionally competitive. Thank you for
using our work.
For Students: This text is loaded with terminology but eschews jar-
gon. We often draw your attention to terms in bold or italics and they
build upon one another throughout chapters. Our book is purposefully
concise and avoids repetition, so that each chapter is loaded with new in-
formation. Research shows that this knowledge can advance your career
and earnings faster than among those without such study.
 PREFACE xv

Here is a brief overview of what is ahead:

Chapter 1: A vivid case illustrates when public relations made a critical

difference to an organization, both to customers and employees.
Chapter 2: Defining public relations; terminology of the profession
and the concepts prevalent in the strategic management of rela-
tionships with publics and stakeholders.
Chapter 3: Introduces models and dimensions of public relations that
provide a taxonomy for communications efforts; a brief history,
and the subfunctions or specialties within the profession.
Chapter 4: Inclusion of public relations as a management function,
roles and access to the CEO; decision making; core competencies
for working in business, including strategy and profit.
Chapter 5: Organizational theory, culture, structure, and ethical val-
ues as applied to the communication discipline.
Chapter 6: Theory from business management applied to the com-
munication discipline; how organizations define success.
Chapter 7: The stakeholder management approach to identifying is-
sues, stakeholders and publics, and prioritizing them for strategic
communication.
Chapter 8: Data collection and research methods; the importance of
research in strategy and strategic management.
Chapter 9: The four-step process of public relations management, ab-
breviated as RACE: Research; Analyses and strategic action plan-
ning; Communication; Evaluation research.
Chapter 10: Issues management, the most advanced problem-solving
function of the discipline; four sectors of the industry—corporate,
agency, government, nonprofit.
Chapter 11: Moral and ethical guidelines for practicing principled
public relations; managing organizational values; counseling on
ethics; leadership; utilitarianism and the powerful analytical frame-
work deontology.
Chapter 12: Ethics as the beginning and end of excellent public rela-
tions; what principles lead to excellent public relations; relationship
management and OPR variables; ethics as the basis of long-term
trusting relationships that allow an organization to flourish.
xvi PREFACE

Each of the authors has been teaching with the first edition of this
book for years, so we incorporated student and instructor feedback. We
retained and updated the UPS, Entergy, and wild horse cases that were
popular in the first edition. We strived to make this edition even more
concise, hard-hitting, direct, and to the point: exactly what you need to
know to know public relations—and to be excellent at it.
Thank you for your confidence in us to guide your study of the field.
We will not let you down!

Sincerely,
Dr. Shannon A. Bowen
December 28, 2018
From coastal South Carolina, U.S.A.
 Acknowledgments
Thanks are due to Stephen Holmes and the Home Depot Corporation;
Linda Rutherford and Southwest Airlines; United Parcel Service; ­Entergy
Corporation; The Cloud Foundation and Ginger Kathrens, Lisa Friday,
and Linda Hanick; our editor Don W. Stacks; Rob Zwettler, Chithra
Amaravel, and Rene Caroline Balan of Business Expert Press; James and
Larissa Grunig; our s­tudents, readers, and instructors; our many col-
leagues, families, and friends who supported us in this work; highest
thanks to dearest Kauai and to Dr. Bowen’s parents who have become
outstanding proofreaders.
 PART 1

Mastering the Principles

 CHAPTER 1

Why Do Public Relations?

Southwest Airlines Case: Flight 1380

Tuesday, April 17, 2018, began like most other busy travel days for
Southwest Airlines. The airline would carry 400,000+ passengers that
day, on nearly 4,000 flights. In 2017, Southwest safely flew more than
120 million passengers on its fleet of 700+ airplanes. But on this Tuesday,
Southwest’s sterling safety record of never having had an in-flight fatality
would sadly be broken.
Flight 1380, a Boeing 737-700, departed from New York’s La Guardia
Airport at 10:43 a.m. on a flight to Dallas. On board were 144 passengers
and a crew of 5. At 11:03 a.m., 20 minutes into the flight, the left engine
experienced a catastrophic failure, sending shrapnel flying, piercing the
aircraft fuselage, and shattering a passenger window. The blast severely
injured a passenger, Jennifer Riordan, who was seated next to the shattered
window. She was partially sucked out of the plane as fellow passengers
frantically struggled to keep her inside, despite depressurization and flying
objects.
The cabin experienced sudden depressurization and oxygen masks
were deployed, and many passengers assumed the flight was doomed.
A few made desperate video recordings on their phones, thinking these were
the last messages they would leave their families. Despite the significant
damage, Captain Tammie Jo Shults and First Officer Darren Ellisor made
an emergency landing at Philadelphia International Airport at 11:20 a.m.,
just 17 minutes after the engine had exploded. Emergency crews met the
plane and quickly removed the unconscious Riordan and transported her
to a local hospital, where she was pronounced dead. Other passengers
4 AN OVERVIEW OF THE PUBLIC RELATIONS FUNCTION

who received injuries were treated and released. Understandably, every-

one on the flight was badly shaken by the ordeal.

Southwest’s Immediate Response

Meanwhile, in Dallas—where Southwest Airlines is based—a group of
leaders were off-site for a workshop, when everyone’s cell phone began
buzzing at once. Linda Rutherford,1 the chief communications officer
(CCO), was part of the team that got the initial call. Quickly, the deci-
sion was made to return to headquarters, open the Headquarters Emer-
gency Command Center, and activate the crisis plan. Rutherford and her
team had less than 15 minutes to gather the facts, establish priorities, and
begin communicating with key stakeholders and publics, including the
family members of those on the flight, other customers, employees, and
the news media. Her first action was to get on a Potential Operational
Problem (POP) call to ascertain the facts; her second was to mobilize the
Headquarters Emergency Command Center and begin working with the
team to activate the crisis plan. The first media calls came in at 11:20 a.m.
(all times are Dallas time from this point on), just minutes after the emer-
gency was declared and as Flight 1380 was landing in Philadelphia.
By noon, Southwest issued the first media advisory, simply stating the
facts as they knew them:

We are aware that Southwest flight #1380 from New York

La ­Guardia to Dallas Love Field has diverted to Philadelphia
­International Airport . . . We are in the process of gathering
more information. Safety is always our top priority at Southwest
­Airlines, and we are working diligently to support our Customers
and Crews at this time.2

Flight 1380 was the top news story of the day, with passengers and
crew describing the disaster on board across media outlets. The media call
center that the communications team operated took more than 100 calls
that first day. More statements would follow, but Southwest was aware that
the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) had to lead the way in
discussing anything relating to the cause of the accident. Nevertheless,
 Why Do Public Relations? 5

Southwest also had a responsibility to reassure their customers that flying

on its other planes was still safe.
By 3:00 p.m., the company was able to acknowledge its first in-flight
fatality. Southwest posted an update that included this statement:

We are deeply saddened to confirm that there is one fatality resulting

from this accident. The entire Southwest Airlines Family is devas-
tated and extends its deepest, heartfelt sympathy to the Customers,
employees, family members and loved ones affected by this tragic
event. We have activated our emergency response team and are de-
ploying every resource to support those affected by this tragedy.

As Rutherford, her team, and dozens of other Southwest employees

began mobilizing to deal with the unprecedented situation, they had nu-
merous stakeholders and publics to consider. First and foremost were the
victim’s family members. Riordan was survived by her husband, Michael,
and two children. The family had to be notified appropriately and of-
fered resources as they coped with their staggering loss. In addition, other
passengers on Flight 1380 had experienced a life-threatening emergency,
sustained minor injuries, and/or witnessed the tragic death of a fellow
passenger. They needed to be consoled and also offered compassionate
assistance by the airline.
Gary Kelly, Southwest’s chairman and chief executive officer (CEO),
had a visible role from the first few hours of the crisis. He was notified
within minutes of the incident and kept updated throughout the day.
Kelly’s first video statement was issued at 3:30 p.m. and posted both in-
ternally and externally and on social media channels. He conducted a
press conference for the media at 5:20 p.m., which was later posted on
social media. Kelly also had a special message of gratitude to all first re-
sponders and Southwest employees later that evening.
Southwest immediately activated its Care Team to provide support
staff for the Riordan family and others on the flight. The Care Team
would do everything possible to assist the family as they made plans for
Jennifer Riordan’s funeral and a public memorial service. They offered
travel support (on Southwest and other airlines) to family members trav-
eling to the service, and they remained on call to fulfill other needs.
6 AN OVERVIEW OF THE PUBLIC RELATIONS FUNCTION

Southwest’s Continued Response

Within hours of the accident, the airline began reaching out to offer as-
sistance to the other 143 passengers, as well as the 5 Southwest flight
crew members on the flight. Southwest had used Care Teams in the past
to assist passengers in extraordinary circumstances, but this event was
unprecedented and required a comprehensive approach. A Care Team
call center was activated the day after the accident to coordinate all the
elements of support. Special toll-free numbers were established, and all
the affected passengers were sent e-mails providing instructions on how
they could access support. A “go plane” of Southwest employees was dis-
patched to Philadelphia to support local employees and to assist with
the NTSB’s investigation of the accident. A special relief flight was also
dispatched to Philadelphia to accommodate those passengers who still
wished to continue on to Dallas later that day. The following day, as a
proactive measure, Southwest sent each passenger a FedEx package with
travel vouchers and a check for $5,000, no questions asked. In addition,
Southwest offered to compensate them for travel expenses, lodging, and
other expenses incurred as a result of the incident. The crew was hosted
in Dallas the following week for a meeting with Gary Kelly; they were
offered support and time to heal from the traumatic event. The crew was
interviewed on ABC’s 20/20 program, and the communications team
helped prepare them to answer questions.
Throughout the crisis and recovery, social media played a key role and
was managed carefully. Within minutes of the emergency, details of Flight
1380’s situation could be found on Twitter, Facebook, and other social
media channels. Southwest routinely monitors social media channels;
as activity increased concerning Flight 1380, so did monitoring efforts.
Southwest posted its first items on Facebook and Twitter just an hour
after the plane had landed in Philadelphia. The first YouTube video, fea-
turing a message from Kelly, was posted before 3:00 p.m., just hours after
the accident, and a second update was posted less than an hour later. The
day after the accident, Facebook and Twitter were used to convey state-
ments from both the captain and the first officer of the flight. The team
handled media inquiries, taking top-tier media into account for priority
handling. They used e-mail statements, phone question/answer sessions,
 Why Do Public Relations? 7

and the company’s media website to manage high call volume and pro-
vide timely updates. During the first 7 days, the team handled more than
1,200 media inquiries.
Rutherford and her team’s primary objective was to make sure that the
needs of the passengers, crew, and family members of the victim were met
in a timely and compassionate way. Yet everyone responsible for manag-
ing the crisis also had to continue to serve the millions of other customers
who depended on the company for safe, reliable transportation. Now,
the pressing issue was how the company would respond to the questions
raised by the engine failure. Following the accident, Southwest began in-
spections (later mandated by the Federal Aviation Administration [FAA]
for the worldwide fleet) of all 737 CFM-56-7 engines, totaling more than
700 planes. The airline did everything possible to minimize system dis-
ruptions, but, finally, a total of 500 flights had to be canceled on because
of the inspections.

The strength of our culture got us through it.

All of Southwest’s efforts in the first few weeks following the accident were
focused on comforting the families, caring for the affected passengers and
crew, and reassuring customers and employees of the airline’s safety. In
an effort to convey the seriousness of the situation, Southwest replaced
its colorful brand identity on all of its digital sites with monochromatic
imagery by 2:00 p.m. on April 17. Advertising was suspended to show
respect for all who were touched by the tragedy. Now the company faced
a dilemma. Southwest was known for humorous in-flight commentary
from the flight crew, and the playful tone of its corporate culture. How
could Southwest remain true to its culture while also showing empathy
and respect for Flight 1380?
In the end, the company was guided by dialogue with the greater
Southwest family of stakeholders. A few months later, customers and
employees began asking via social channels when it was okay to return
to Southwest’s roots . . . when was it okay to laugh again? According to
Rutherford, the answer rested with the frontline employees: “We pro-
vided guidance early on to be sensitive to the use of humor, but ulti-
mately, we felt it was important to empower our flight attendants and
8 AN OVERVIEW OF THE PUBLIC RELATIONS FUNCTION

pilots to make their own decisions about when to resume humor aboard
flights,” she said.
They were in the best position to determine the mood in the cabin
and what was appropriate on any given flight. To laugh again isn’t to
minimize what happened on April 17; it was devastating to everyone in
the company. In many ways, it was the strength of our culture that got
us through it. And an important part of that culture is our ability to use
humor in appropriate ways to cope with life’s many challenges.
Rutherford acknowledged,

It was heartbreaking to deliver the news of our first in-flight fatal-

ity. The media were generally thoughtful and kind as they knew
how much we were hurting from what had happened—that is
the power of developing relationships with key stakeholders. You
don’t know when you will need them as much as they need you.

Tuesday, April 17, 2018, will always be remembered within South-

west as a day of loss: one that tested the company at its core. Yet the
company can also remember the heroic efforts of its flight crew and many
passengers aboard the flight, the compassion of dozens of Southwest em-
ployees in helping those affected, and the resilience that is based on a
strong culture. This case provides an excellent example of how one orga-
nization matched a stated set of values with its actual behavior when it
mattered most.
Case Questions:

• After learning of the accident, what were Linda Rutherford and her
team’s most essential priorities?
• What was the role of Southwest’s corporate culture in managing
this crisis?
• What can be learned for the future: prevention, response, and so on?
 CHAPTER 2

What Is Public Relations?

Public relations is a management pursuit. It is an identifier and a man-

ager of problems, a facilitator of conflict resolution, a values manager
and an ethical advisor, and a manager of communication, both inside
and outside an organization. Public relations conducts research, defines
problems, and creates meaning by communicating among many groups,
stakeholders, publics, audiences, and organizations, for understanding
and social betterment.
Public relations is a strategic conversation. As a wide-ranging field,
it is often misperceived as media relations, but it is far, far more, such as
public affairs or labor relations. The public relations function is preva-
lent and growing, and jobs in the field are booming. The dispersion and
growth of multiple message sources means that public relations is on the
ascent, while traditional forms of mass communication (such as newspa-
pers, magazines, and nightly newscasts) are on the decline.
You can find public relations in virtually every industry, government,
and nonprofit organization. The broad scope of the industry makes it im-
possible to understand without considering the taxonomy of this diverse,
dynamic profession. Learning the lexicon of public relations will help
master the discipline and facilitate further reading on the subject.
Corporate and agency public relations differ from each other and are
discussed in greater detail in a later chapter, along with nonprofit public
relations and government relations or public affairs. For the purpose of
this overview, we can define corporate public relations as an in-house
public relations department within a for-profit organization of any size
or type. On the other hand, public relations agencies are hired con-
sultants that normally work on an hourly basis for specific campaigns or
goals of the organization that hires them. It is not uncommon for a large
10 AN OVERVIEW OF THE PUBLIC RELATIONS FUNCTION

corporation to have both an in-house corporate public relations depart-

ment and an external public relations agency that consults on specific ini-
tiatives. Nonprofit public relations refers to not-for-profit organizations,
foundations, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs, sometimes also
called 501c3s) that advocate policy, and other issue- or cause-related ac-
tivist groups. Government relations or public affairs, lobbying, or pub-
lic information specializes in managing relationships with governmental
officials, bureaus, and regulatory agencies along with their constituents.

Defining Public Relations

Among the many competing definitions of public relations, J. Grunig
and Hunt’s is the most widely cited: Public relations is “the manage-
ment of communication between an organization and its publics.”1
One reason why this definition is so successful is its parsimony, or, the
use of few words to convey much information. It also places the founda-
tion of the profession squarely within management, as opposed to the
competing approaches of journalism or the promotion-based approach of
marketing or advertising that focuses primarily on consumers. The com-
ponents of Grunig and Hunt’s definition are:

• Management: The body of knowledge on how best to coordinate

the activities of an enterprise.
• Communication: The conduit through which we manage not
only sending a message to a receiver (one-way) but also under-
standing the messages of others through listening, research, and
dialogue (two-way).
• Organization: Any group organized with a common purpose; in
most cases, it is a business, a corporation, a governmental agency,
or a nonprofit group.
• Publics: A group(s) of people held together by a common interest.
They differ from audiences in that they often self-organize and de-
termine which messages are relevant to their interests. Stakeholders
are tied to an organization by proximity, investment, employment,
supply chain, regulation, or some such connection. Publics differ
from stakeholders in that they do not necessarily have a financial
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 CHAPTER III.

VARIOUS MATERIALS USED IN COACH-

BUILDING.
The materials employed in coach-building number a great many:
various kinds of wood—ash, beech, elm, oak, mahogany, cedar,
deal, pine, &c.; hides, skins, hair, wool, silk, glue, whalebone, ivory,
&c.; iron, steel, copper, brass, lead, tin, glass, &c.
The timber principally used in the construction of carriages is the
ash. This is not an elastic, but rather a tough and fibrous wood,
capable of altering its form by the application of pressure, and
therefore when not in large masses requires iron plates to secure it.
By boiling it becomes very pliable, and may be formed into almost
any shape, provided that it is not too thick. For this purpose it is
better to use steam than boiling water, as the latter is likely to
dissolve and carry off the gluten which unites the fibres, thus
rendering the timber useless. Some ash timber is white at heart, and
some red; the white is usually the strongest and best. Some trees
which have been grown on hillsides much exposed to constant winds
present a remarkably wrinkled appearance through their whole
length, and it is scarcely possible to plane their timber smooth; this is
the toughest of all ash timber. Parts of ash-trees are sometimes
found of a yellowish-brown colour, accompanied by a fetid acid
smell. This is sometimes attributed to the effect of lightning, but more
probably it is a putrid fermentation of the sap, owing to imperfect
drying. All other circumstances being equal, the timber is best which
is cut down when the circulation of the sap is slowest, as the pores
are then open. In the process of drying or seasoning the bulk
diminishes considerably. One of the qualities which render ash
peculiarly fit for carriage construction is the absence of elasticity, and
consequent indisposition to alter its form by warping or twisting. It is
not well adapted for boards or planks in which much width is
required, as in drying it cracks a great deal. The diameter of ash-
trees used by carriage-builders varies from 1 foot to 3 feet 6 inches.
It should be borne in mind in cutting ash, that the interior and the
outer casing under the bark are rather softer and less durable than
the parts between them.
Beech is sometimes used by carriage-builders and by
wheelwrights, on account of its cheapness; but it is very liable to
warp and rot, and consequently unworthy of the attention of the
conscientious manufacturer.
Elm is largely used for planking where strength is required. The
grain is wavy, hard to work, brittle, and apt to split without care. It is
not a good surface to paint on, as the grain shows through several
coats of colour. It is also used for the naves or stocks of wheels.
Oak is used for the spokes of wheels. The best kinds are made
from the timbers of saplings, which are not sawn but cleft, in order
that the grain may be not cut across and render the spoke unfit to
resist the strains it will be subject to. Spokes are also made from the
limbs of large trees.
Mahogany is largely used for panels, as when painted it shows a
very even surface. There are two kinds, the “Spanish” and the
“Honduras.” The former is unfit for the purposes of the carriage-
builder. It is heavy and very difficult to work, requiring special tools
for this purpose, as the edges of ordinary tools are rapidly destroyed
by it. The Honduras is very much lighter and cheaper than Spanish,
and the grain and colour more even. It takes the sweeps and curves
required for body-work very easily. It can be procured up to 4 feet in
width, straight-grained, and free from knots and blemishes.
A coarse-grained species of cedar is brought from the same
district as Honduras mahogany, and is sometimes used for panels
which have to be covered with leather, &c. Its extreme porosity
renders it unfit for the application of paint.
 Deal is largely used for the flooring of carriages, and for covered
panels, and for any rough work that is not exposed to great wear and
tear.
The wide American pine is chiefly used in very thin boards to form
the covered panels and roofing of carriages.
Lancewood is a straight-grained, elastic wood, but very brittle
when its limit of elasticity is reached. It comes from the West Indies
in taper poles about 20 feet long and 6 or 8 inches diameter at the
largest end. It was formerly much used for shafts, but since curved
forms have been fashionable it has fallen into disuse. It can be bent
by boiling, but is a very unsafe material to trust to such an important
office as the shafts.
American birch is a very valuable wood for flat boarding, as it can
be procured up to 3 feet in width. It is of a perfectly homogeneous
substance, free from rents, and with scarcely a perceptible pore. It
works easily with the plane and yields a very smooth surface, and
the grain does not show through the most delicate coat of paint. Its
chief disadvantage is its brittleness, which will not permit of its being
used for any but plane surfaces, and some care is required in nailing
and screwing it.
Hides are used chiefly for coverings, but also in some parts strips
are used for the purposes of suspension. The hides are those of
horses and neat cattle. For covering they are converted into leather
by the action of oak and other bark. They are afterwards smoothed
and levelled by the currier, and sometimes split into two equal
thicknesses by machinery. They are then rendered pliable by the
action of oil and tallow, and finished to a clear black or brown colour
as may be required. This is called dressed leather. For some
purposes the hides are merely levelled, put on wet to the object they
are intended to cover, and left to shrink and dry. Others are covered
with a coat of elastic japan, which gives them a highly glazed
surface, impermeable to water; in this state they are called patent
leather. In a more perfectly elastic mode of japanning, which will
permit folding without cracking the surface, they are called
enamelled leather. They are generally black, but any colour desired
may be given to them. All this japanned leather has the japan
annealed, somewhat in the same mode as glass. The hides are laid
between blankets, and are subjected to the heat of an oven raised to
the proper temperature during several hours.
The skins used are those of the sheep and goat. The former are
converted into leather by the action of oak bark. In one form of
dressing them they are known as basil leather, which is of a light
brown colour and very soft. Sometimes they are blacked, and
occasionally japanned like the hides. In all these forms sheep skins
are only used for inferior purposes, as mere coverings, where no
strength is required.
Goat skins are used in the preparation of the leather known as
“Spanish” and “Morocco.” They are not tanned in oak bark like other
leather, but very slightly in the bark of the sumach-tree. They pass
through many processes previous to that of dyeing, for which
purpose they are sewn up with the grain outwards and blown out like
a bladder. This is to prevent the dye from getting access to the flesh
side. This beautiful leather was originally manufactured by the
Moors, who afterwards introduced the process into Spain, by which
means it came to be known under two names. The English have
greatly improved on the manufacture, so much so that few others
can vie with it. These skins are used for the inside linings of
carriages.
Hair is used as an article of stuffing. To give it the peculiar curl
which renders it elastic, it is forcibly twisted up in small locks, and in
that state baked in an oven to fix it. Horse-hair is the best, being the
strongest and longest; but various other kinds are used. Sometimes
it is adulterated with fibres of whalebone. Doe-hair is also much used
as an article for stuffing, but as it is very short it cannot be curled,
and there is not much elasticity in it.
Wool in its natural state is not used for carriage purposes. In the
form of “flocks,” which are the short combings and fibres produced in
the process of manufacturing it, it is very largely used for stuffing. In
its manufactured state wool is used in great quantities, as cloth, lace,
fringe, carpeting, &c.
 The iron used is that known as wrought iron. To judge of its quality
break a piece over the anvil; if it breaks off brittle it is of no use for
the purposes it is required for. If it is good wrought iron the fracture
will present a bluish, fibrous, silky texture, without any crystalline
portions. Inferior iron will either appear bright and glistening (when it
partakes of the properties of cast iron) or dull and greyish in tone at
the fracture.
It may also be tested by bringing it to a red heat and bending it,
when any flaws, &c., will at once become apparent.
Cast iron is also used in the shape of axle-boxes.
Great quantities of wrought iron are used in the construction of
modern carriages. One of the best qualities is that known as the
“King and Queen,” so called from its brand. This iron is
manufactured from pieces of old iron, called scrap iron, which are
placed in furnaces and welded under a heavy tilt-hammer, after
which it is passed between rollers and converted into bars.
Steel also enters largely into carriage construction in the shape of
springs, &c. Axles are made of Bessemer steel, and are found to
wear very well. Steel consists of iron in which is combined a large
proportion of carbon; the more carbon the higher the elasticity of the
steel. If steel is over-heated, it gives up a portion of its carbon and
approaches once again its original form of iron.
 CHAPTER IV.

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE

COMMENCING THE CONSTRUCTION OF A
CARRIAGE.—COMPONENT PARTS OF THE
BODY.—SMITH’S WORK.—GLUE.
As previously remarked the vehicle is divided into two parts—the
carriage and the body. After the drawing or draught is carefully
worked out to full-size on the black-board in the shop, with all the
curves and sweeps developed, and shown in elevation and plan,
patterns or templates are made from the draught, and from these the
construction of the body proceeds.
In commencing the construction of a vehicle there are several
things to be borne in mind; such as the purpose to which the vehicle
is to be applied, the size of horses to draw it, and other
considerations arising from these two. It is popularly believed that
the shorter the carriage the lighter it will run; in ascending an incline
this may be true, but on ordinary level ground a long carriage and
short one must be alike in friction, provided the total amount of
weight and other circumstances be equally balanced.
Another consideration is the height of the wheels. On level ground,
draught is easiest when the centre of the wheel is a little lower than
the point of draught, viz. the point where the traces are affixed to the
collar; but this in practice would be found rather inconvenient, as
very high wheels would be required, and consequently the height of
the whole vehicle would have to be increased, causing great trouble
and annoyance in getting in and out of the vehicle, and the driver’s
seat would have to be raised to a corresponding height. Under equal
circumstances a high wheel is more efficient than a low one, and
requires less power to draw it; though it may be mentioned that a low
wheel on a good and level road will do its work far better than a very
much higher wheel on a rougher road. The sizes of the wheels of
two-wheeled vehicles vary from 3 feet to 4 feet 6 inches.
It would be a very good thing if four-wheeled vehicles were to have
the wheels of equal size, in order that the friction and power might be
equal. But with the present mode of construction this is an
impossibility, as we have only one mode of making the lock or turn.
Therefore the height of the fore wheels must be regulated by the
height at which the body hangs, so that the wheels may pass
beneath it without striking, when the springs play. In practice this
height varies from 2 feet to 3 feet 8 inches, according to the kind of
carriage the wheels are intended for. The hind wheels vary from 3
feet to 4 feet 8 inches.
The next point is the dishing of the wheel, which is necessary for
strength to take the strain off the nuts, to throw off the mud and
prevent it clogging either the wheel or the body, and to give greater
room for the body between the wheels without increasing the track
on the ground. Whatever be the amount of dishing or coning, which
varies from 1½ to 2½ inches, one rule should always be observed,
viz. so to form the wheel that when running the lower spokes should
maintain a true vertical position both in the fore and hind wheels.
This is mainly accomplished by the dip of the axle, but if the fore and
hind wheels have the same dish, they will take the same track along
the ground. The dish of a wheel will be understood by referring to
Fig. 10, in which it will be seen that the extremities of the spokes are
not in the same plane, thus forming a dish or hollow in the surface of
the wheel.
Some ingenious persons have deduced from the foregoing that a
wheel runs best on an axle having a conical arm (the arm is the
extremity of the axle which fits into an axle-box in the nave or stock
of the wheel), in which case the axle would not dip, but the wheel
would be put on to a perfectly horizontal axle. The motion of a wheel
thus placed would be anything but artistic, though there would not be
so much friction on an arm of this sort as on an arm of the dipped
axle. Dipping the axle is shown at Fig. 10. It merely consists in
bending it so far out of the horizontal as to give the lower spokes a
vertical position. But in practice this theory of the conical arm will not
answer, inasmuch as curving the arm will reduce the front bearing
surface so much that the oil would be squeezed out, and it would run
dry, and the total amount of friction would be greatly increased. Long
practice has shown that a cylindrical or slightly conical arm is the
best that can be used.

Fig. 10.
We have now to settle the form, combination, and proportion of the
springs. Springs which are laid on the axle at right angles have to
carry the whole of the weight of the carriage, save only the wheels
and axles. Where other springs are used in addition it is not
necessary that the axle-springs should have much play. It will be
sufficient to give them just so much play as will intercept the
concussion caused by moving over a road. The strength of the
springs must of course be adjusted to the weight they have to carry,
for it is evident that if they be made sufficiently elastic to carry the
weight of six persons, they will be found hard if only three enter the
carriage. This is a disadvantage all carriages must labour under, for
it is ridiculous to suppose that if a carriage is constructed to hold six
that number will always want to use it at the same time. There would
seem to be room for some improvement in the way of introducing
springs adjustable to any weight, though, to give spring-makers their
due, they do turn out really a first-class article in this respect; this is
more noticeable because it is so recent. Light carriages are never so
easy to ride as heavy ones, even when the springs are well adjusted,
because on meeting with an obstacle there is not a sufficient
resistance to the bound or jerk upwards of the spring, which makes
riding in a light carriage over a rough road rather unpleasant.
The position of the front wheels next demands attention. As these
have to turn under the body it requires some skill to fix them, and the
play of the springs, the height of the axletree, and the height of the
arch (the portion of the body under which they turn) have all to be
considered. This will be more particularly described when dealing
with wheel-plates.
The rule for the height of the splinter-bar, to which the traces or
shafts are fixed, is that it should fall on a line drawn from the horse’s
shoulder to the centre of the hind wheel. This, however, is not always
convenient in practice, as the fore wheels regulate the height of the
framing of the under carriage, to which the splinter-bar is fixed. The
distance of the splinter-bar from the central pin, on which the wheel-
plate and fore carriage turn, is regulated by the size of the wheels
and the projection of the driving seat footboard.
All the above particulars are considered when setting out the full-
sized draught, and all points capable of delineation are put on the
board in some convenient part. In Fig. 9 the outline is simply given,
as to show everything would only confuse the reader. Such other
details as are required are filled in after the draught has reached the
stage shown in the figure.
It is most necessary for the safe conduct of a coach and carriage
builder’s business that there should be a goodly stack of well-
seasoned timber of the various kinds required, otherwise great
trouble and vexation will arise in the course of business from a good
piece of timber being perhaps spoilt in working, and there not being
another piece in the factory to replace it.
Where there is sufficient accommodation it is usual for makers to
season their own timber in specially constructed sheds, which are
kept from bad weather, but at the same time thoroughly well
ventilated. In these the timber is stacked, with small fillets between
each plank or board, to insure a free current of air circulating all
round. One year should be allowed for seasoning for every inch of
thickness in the timber, and none should be used in which this rule
has not been observed.
Thin portions of timber, such as panel stuff and the like, should be
treated in the same way, and in addition the ends should be secured
to prevent splitting. The panel stuff undergoes another process of
seasoning after it is planed up; in fact, all the thin timber required for
roofs, sides, &c., does. And about the first thing done in commencing
to build a carriage is for the body-maker to get his thin stuff ready, as
far as planing it up goes, and then to put it aside in some moderately
dry place, with slips of wood between each board to allow a
circulation of air round them. The other stuff that is likely to be
required should also be selected and put aside. If all these things be
strictly attended to, there is not likely to be much trouble about bad
joints; and it will be to the employer’s interest to look after such
workmen who have not enough scientific knowledge to see the
reason of things themselves, and put them in the right direction. But
an intelligent workman will soon appreciate the advantage of getting
his stuff ready at the commencement, instead of waiting till he wants
to use it.
The parts composing the body may be thus enumerated:—
The frame or case.
The doors.
The glasses, which are fixed in thin frames of wainscot, covered
with cloth or velvet. It is a very good thing to have india-rubber for
these to fall on, and little india-rubber buffers would prevent them
from rattling.
The blinds, which are sometimes panel, but more generally
Venetian, so adjusted with springs that the bars may stand open at
any required angle.
The curtains, of silk, which slide up and down on spring rollers.
The lining and cushions, of cloth, silk, or morocco, as the case
may be, ornamented with lace, &c. The cushions are sometimes
made elastic with small spiral springs.
The steps, which are made to fold up and fit into recesses in the
doors, or in the bottom, when they are not in use.
The lamps, which are fixed to the fore part of the body by means
of iron stays.
The boot, on which is carried the coachman’s seat.
In carriages suspended from C springs we have in addition:—
The check-brace rings, to which are attached leather braces from
the spring heads, to prevent the body from swinging too much
backwards and forwards.
The collar-brace rings, to which are attached leather braces from
the perch, to prevent the body swinging too much upwards or
sideways.
The curve or rounding given to the side of the body from end to
end is called the side-cant, and the rounding from the top to the
bottom the turn-under. Some makers arrive at this curve by framing
the skeleton of the body together with square timber, and then round
these off to the required curve after they are put together. It must be
evident to any one that this proceeding will greatly strain the joints,
and under any circumstances will never give thorough satisfaction or
good results, and the waste of time and material must be very
considerable.
The proper way is to set the curve out beforehand on a board
called the “cant” board, and the method of doing this is as follows:—
Take a clean pine board, plane it up to a smooth surface. Shoot
one edge perfectly true with a trying-plane. This straight edge may
be taken to represent the side of the carriage if it were a straight line.
Apply this edge to the full-sized draught, and mark along it the
various parts of the body (see Fig. 8, in which the numbered points
are those required to form the side-cant). By means of these points
the required sweep can be set up or drawn, as shown by the dotted
line C in the figure. Now, if you choose, you can cut away the portion
between A and B, and a template will be formed to which the
constructional timbers can be cut; and it possesses the advantage of
being easily applied to the carriage as it proceeds, to see that the
curve is true and uniform. As this template forms the pattern to which
the timber, &c., is cut, great care is requisite in forming it, so that it
shall be perfectly true.
In order to get the turn-under, the same process is gone through
on another board. This gives what is called the “standing” pillar
pattern, the standing pillar being the upright timber to which the door
is hinged.
There is no rule in particular for determining the amount of side-
cant or turn-under to be given to a vehicle, 2½ or 3 inches on each
side making the outside width of the body; 5 or 6 inches less at the
bottom than at the elbow line is a usual allowance, but this is entirely
dependent on the will or taste of the workman.
The cant-board described above is one having a “concave”
surface; but it quite as often has a convex surface, and it is just as
well to have one of each, and use the convex for cutting the timbers
to, and the concave for trying them when in place, though, if this be
done, it is imperative that the curves on the two boards should be
one and the same. The same remarks apply to the standing pillar
pattern.
The body is a species of box, fitted with doors and windows, and
lined and wadded for the purpose of comfort. As the greatest amount
of strain is put upon the bottom part, and the forces acting on the
other parts are transmitted to the bottom, it is necessary that it
should be very strongly put together. The two side bottom timbers
are bonded, or tied together, by two cross timbers called bottom
bars, which are firmly framed into them. To give depth to the floor,
without destroying the symmetry of the side, deep pieces of elm
plank are fixed to the inside of the side bottom pieces, and to these
the flooring-boards are nailed, being additionally secured by iron
strap plates, nailed or screwed beneath them. In the central portion
of the bottom sides are framed the door-posts, called standing
pillars. At the angles of the bottom framework are scarfed the corner
pillars. The cross framing pieces, which connect the pillars, are
called rails. Two of these rails stretch across the body inside, on
which the seats are formed; these are called seat rails. The doors
are framed double, to contain a hollow space for the glasses and
blinds, and they are fastened by means of a wedge lock, forced into
a groove by a lever handle. There is a window in each door and one
in front of an ordinary carriage, say a brougham. The doors are
hinged with secret or flush hinges.
Before cutting the timber to the various sizes required, patterns or
templates of all the parts are made in thin wood from the full-sized
draught; also of the various curves likely to be given to the different
parts of the body.
Before a workman could be trusted with the making of a body, he
must of course have considerably advanced in the knowledge of his
craft beyond the mere use of his tools, because the success of a
carriage depends very largely upon the individual skill of the
workman, more so than perhaps in any other trade.
The stuff is marked out from the thin patterns before mentioned by
means of chalk, and in doing so care should be taken to lay the
patterns on the timber so that the grain may run as nearly as
possible in a line with it, and thus obtaining the greatest possible
strength in the wood, which lies in the direction of the grain. Thus if
the pattern be straight, lay it down on a piece of straight-grained
timber; if the pattern sweep round, then get a piece of timber the
grain of which will follow, or nearly follow, the line of pattern.
The strongest timber that can be obtained is necessary for the
construction of the hind and front bottom sides; for the weight is
directly transmitted to these, more particularly the hind bottom sides,
where the pump-handles are fixed.
The body-maker, having marked and cut out the various pieces of
timber he will require, planes a flat side to each of them, from which
all the other sides, whether plain or curved, are formed and finished.
They are then framed and scarfed together, after which the various
grooves are formed for the panels and rebates, for the floor-boards
to fit on to. Then, if there is to be any carved or beaded work, it is
performed by the carver. Previous to being fitted in, some of the
panels have strong canvas glued firmly on their backs, and when
fitted in blocks are glued round the internal angles to give greater
security to the joints, and to fix the panels firmly in their places.
Before the upper panels are put in, the roof is nailed on, and all the
joints stuck over with glued blocks inside. The upper panels are then
put on, united at the corners, and blocked inside.
If the foreman who superintends all this be a thoroughly skilful
artisan, and the men under him possess equal intelligence and skill,
the work might be distributed amongst almost as many men as there
are parts in the framework of the body. These parts will be worked
up, the mortises and tenons, the rabbets and tongues, being all cut
to specified gauges; and when they are all ready it will be found that
they go together like a Chinese puzzle.
The woodwork being completed, the currier now takes the body in
hand, and a hide of undressed leather, specially prepared for it, is
strained over the roof, the back, and the top quarters of the body
whilst in a soft pulpy state, and carefully sleeked or flattened down till
it is perfectly flat. This sleeking down is a rather tedious process, and
takes a long time and a great amount of care to bring it to a
successful issue; when it is flattened down satisfactorily, it is nailed
round the edges and left to dry, which will take several days.
Such panels as require bending may be brought to the required
sweep by wetting one side and subjecting the other to heat, as of a
small furnace.
The doors are now made and hinged, and the hollow spaces
intended to hold the glasses and blinds are covered in with thin
boards, to prevent any foreign matter from getting down into the
space, and being a source of trouble to dislodge.
In constructing the body the aid of the smith is called in. His
services are required to strengthen the parts subjected to great
strain, more particularly the timbers forming the construction of the
lower portion. All along each side of the body should be plated with
iron; this should be of the best brand and toughest quality. It is
several inches wide, and varies from ¼ to ¾ of an inch in thickness.
This is called the “edge plate,” and is really the backbone of the
body, for everything depends on its stability. It should run from one
extremity to the other, commencing at the hind bottom bar, on to
which it should be cranked, and ending at the front part of the front
boot, bottom side. This plate should take a perfectly flat bearing at
every point. Great care must be taken in fitting it, for although the
plate may be of the requisite strength the absence of this perfect
fitting will render it comparatively weak, the result of which will be
found, when the carriage is completed and mounted on the wheels,
by the springing of the sides, which will cause the pillars of the body
to press on the doors, and it will be a matter of great difficulty to
open them.
In the application of smith’s work to coach-building, it is often
necessary to fit the iron to intricate parts while it is red hot, and if due
precaution be not taken the wood becomes charred and useless,
and in cases where there are glued joints it may cause the loosening
or breaking of these joints and other material defects. It is an easy
matter to have the means at hand to get over the difficulty. All that is
necessary is to have handy some heat neutraliser. One of the
commonest things that can be used is chalk, and no smith’s shop
should ever be without it. If chalk is rubbed over the surface to which
the hot iron is to be applied it will not char or burn. Plaster of Paris is
a still more powerful heat neutraliser, and it is freer from grit. A small
quantity of the plaster mixed with water, and worked up to the proper
consistency, will be ready for use in about two hours. Many smiths
will say that they never have any accidents in applying heated iron,
but on inquiry the reason is apparent, for it will generally be found
that such men use chalk, in order to see that the iron plate takes its
proper bearings, thus inadvertently using a proper heat neutraliser. If
it were more generally known that the difficulty could be met by such
simple means, there would be less material spoilt in the smith’s
shop.
It has been very common of late years for body-makers to use
glue instead of screws and nails for panel work, &c.; but it requires a
great deal of experience for a man to use glue with successful
results. It is useless for the tyro to try it; he will only spoil the work.
So, unless the artisan be well experienced in the treatment and
application of glue, he had better leave it alone. To render the
operation successful two considerations must be taken into account.
First: To do good gluing requires that the timber should be well
seasoned and the work well fitted. Second: In preparing for gluing
use a scratch plane or rasp to form a rough surface of the pieces to
be joined together, for the same purpose that a plasterer scores over
his first coat of plaster-work, in order to give a key or hold. The shop
in which the gluing is done should be at a pretty good temperature,
and so should the material, so that the glue may flow freely. Having
the glue properly prepared, spread it upon the parts, so as to fill up
the pores and grain of the wood, and put the pieces together; then
keep the joints tight by means of iron cramps where it is possible,
and if this cannot be done the joints must be pushed tightly up, and
held till the glue is a little set and there is no fear of its giving way. All
superfluous glue will be forced out by this pressure and can be
cleaned off.
A great cause of bad gluing is using inferior glue and laying it on
too thick. Before using a new quality of glue, the body-maker should
always test it by taking, say a piece of poplar and a piece of ash, and
glue them together, and if when dry the joints give way under
leverage caused by the insertion of the chisel, the glue is not fit for
the purposes of carriage-building and should be rejected. With good
glue, like good cement, the material should rather give way than the
substance promoting adhesion. This is a very severe test, but in
putting it into practice you will be repaid by the stability of your work.

Waterproof Glue.

It is often found that joints glued together will allow water to

dissolve the glue, and thereby destroy its adhesive power. It may
have been well painted and every care taken to make it impervious
to water, but owing to its exposed position water has managed to get
in. Often where screws are put in the glue around them will be
dissolved, caused by the screws sweating; and it is very often found,
where the screws are inserted in a panel, that the glue loses its
strength and allows the joint to open, and there is little or no
appearance of glue on the wood, which shows that it has been
absorbed by the moisture.
To render ordinary glue insoluble, the water with which it is mixed
should have a little bichromate of potash dissolved in it. Chromic
acid has the property of rendering glue or gelatine insoluble. And, as
the operation of heating the glue pot is conducted in the light, no
special exposure of the pieces joined is necessary.
Glue prepared in this manner is preferable in gluing the panels on
bodies, which are liable to the action of water or damp. The strength
of the glue is not affected by the addition of the potash.
In plugging screw holes glue the edge of the plug; put no glue into
the hole. By this means the surplus glue is left on the surface, and if
the plug does not hit the screw it will seldom show.
Where brads are used the heads should be well set in; then pass
a sponge well saturated with hot water over them, filling the holes
with water. This brings the wood more to its natural position, and it
closes by degrees over the brad heads. The brad must have a
chance to expand, when exposed to the heat of the sun, without
hitting the putty stopping; if it does it will force the putty out so as to
show, by disturbing the surface, after the work is finished.
 CHAPTER V.

PARTS COMPOSING THE UNDER-CARRIAGE.

—FRAMING THEM TOGETHER.—WROUGHT-
IRON PERCHES.—BRAKES.
We have now to consider the construction of the lower framework, or
carriage.
The following is a list of the chief parts of a coach, as generally
known:—
Wheels.
Axles.
Springs.
Beds, or cross framing timbers, which are technically termed the
fore axle bed, the hind axle bed, fore spring bed or transom,
hind spring bed, and horn bar.
Perch, or central longitudinal timber connecting the axletrees.
Wings, which are spreading sides, hooped to the perch and
framed to the hind beds.
Nunters, or small framing pieces, which help to bind the hind
beds together.
Hooping-piece. A piece of timber scarped and hooped to the
fore end of the perch to secure it to the
Wheel plate, which is the circular iron beneath which the fore
carriage turns.
 The fore carriage consists of the fore axle beds, into which are
framed the
Futchells (French, fourchil, a fork), which are the longitudinal
timbers supporting the
Splinter-bar and the
Pole, to which the horses are attached.
The hinder ends of the futchells support the
Sway-bar—a circular piece of timber working beneath the
wheel-plate.
A circular piece of timber of smaller size, supported on the fore
part of the futchells for a similar purpose, is called the
Felloe-piece (often made of iron).
On the splinter-bar are fixed the
Roller bolts, for fastening the traces.
On the pole is fixed the
Pole hook, to secure the harness.
The perch and beds are strengthened with iron plates, where
necessary, and the other ironwork consists of
Splinter-bar stays, to resist the action of the draught. Formerly
these were affixed to the ends of the axles and called
“wheel-irons.”
Tread-steps, for the coachman to mount by.
Footman’s step.
Spring-stays.
On the beds are placed
Blocks, to support the

C springs; to which are attached

Jacks, or small windlasses, and
 Leathern suspension braces.
These parts fitted together would form what is generally known as
a coach, or a vehicle, the body of which is large, and suspended by
leathern braces from the ends of C springs. They enter into the
formation of all vehicles more or less, but for the other kinds some
part or parts are omitted, as in a brougham hung on elliptic springs,
the C springs, perch, leather braces, &c., would be omitted, and, of
course, elliptic springs and a pump-handle would be added. All the
woodwork is lightened as much as possible by the introduction of
beading, carving, chamfering, &c.
In starting the carriage part the workman first takes the perch and
planes a flat side to it, and then works it taper from front to back. The
top and bottom curves are then worked up, or at least some portion
of them, and then the front and hind spring beds are framed on. A
pair of spreading wings are then fitted to the sides of the perch;
these are simply circular iron stays, swelled and moulded to take off
their plainness. A pair is fitted at each end of the perch. The hind
axletree bed is then scarfed upon the top of the perch and wings,
and is connected with the hind spring bed by two small framing
pieces called nunters. At the front end of the perch a cross bed
called a horn-bar is scarfed on the perch, at the same distance from
the fore spring bed as the hind axle bed is from the hind spring bed,
viz. the length of the bearing of the spring, or about 15 inches. The
horn-bar is connected with the fore spring bed by the two spring
blocks, which are either framed into them or scarfed down on them,
and also by the hooping-piece, which is scarfed on the top of the
perch. The perch is then planed up to the curve it is to have when
finished, and it is then taken to the smith, who fits and rivets on the
side plates, which have ears at the ends for the purpose of bolting
them to the beds. The carver then does his work by beading the
perch and beds, having due regard to the finish of the parts, rounds
and curves all the ends. On the under side of the perch is riveted an
iron plate, and on this plate is an iron hook for hanging the drag shoe
and chain (if such be used). The hind framing is now put together, all
connections being by means of mortises and tenons secured by