ACADEMIC WRITING

Eng 314

Mustafa Daw.
Academic writing
What is academic writing?

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 Academic writing: is writing which communicates ideas,
information and research to the wider academic community, attempts
to be accurate and objective.
#1- The writing process
The purpose of academic writing:
 to be able to communicate effectively in written English, as well
as orally.
 to question and evaluate everything you read, asking whether it
is reliable or relevant.
 to refer carefully to the sources of all your ideas, using a
standard system of referencing.
 to report on a piece of research the writer has conducted
 to answer a question, the writer has been given or chosen
 to discuss a subject of common interest and give the writer’s
view.
 to synthesise research done by others on a topic.
Common types of academic writing:
 Notes: a written record of the main points of a text or
lecture, for a student’s personal use.
 Report: a description of something a student has done
e.g. conducting a survey.
 Project: a piece of research, either individual or group
work, with the topic chosen by the student(s).
 Essay: the most common type of written work,
 with the title given by the teacher, normally
1000–5000 words.
 Dissertation/Thesis: the longest piece of writing normally done
by a student (20,000+ words) often for a higher
degree, on a topic chosen by the student.
 Paper: a general term for any academic essay, report,
presentation or article.
The format of long and short writing tasks:
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Short essays (including exam answers) generally have this pattern:
 Introduction
 Main body
 Conclusion
Longer essays may include:
 Introduction
 Main body
 Literature review
 Case study
 Discussion
 Conclusion
 References
 Appendices
The features of academic writing:
 Sentence
 Heading
 sub-title
 title phrase
 paragraph
Some other common text features:
a) Reference to sources using citation:
b) The use of abbreviations to save space
c) Italics: used to show words from other languages
d) Brackets

Simple and complex sentences:

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  Simple sentences are easier to write and read.
 Complex sentences contain conjunctions, relative pronouns
or punctuation, which link the clauses.
Writing in paragraphs
1-What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a group of sentences which deal with a single topic.
2-Why are texts divided into paragraphs?
to improve readability so that the reader can pick up the important
stuff and read it.
3-What is the normal length of a paragraph?
The length of paragraphs varies significantly according to text type,
but should be no less than four or five sentences.
4- Is there a standard structure for paragraphs?
Normally (but not always) the first sentence introduces the topic.
Other sentences may give definitions, examples, information, reasons,
restatements and summaries.
5- How is a paragraph linked together?
The parts of the paragraph are linked together by the phrases and
conjunctions shown in bold in the table. They guide the reader
through the arguments presented.

#2-Finding suitable sources

Academic Texts
The Structure of Academic Texts Structure is an important feature of
academic writing. In academic writing a clear structure and a logical
flow are urgent to a solid text.

Types of text

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 Text type Advantage Disadvantage
Textbook Written for students May be out of date
Website Usually up-to-date Possibly unreliable
Journal article Often focuses on a May be too specialised or
special area complex
Official report Contains a lot of May not be objective
(from detail
government)
Newspaper or up-to-date May not be objective and
magazine not give sources
article
e-books up-to-date Easily Must be read on screen
accessible

Using reading lists

Your teacher may give you a printed reading list, or it may be
available online through the library website. The list will usually
include textbooks, journal articles and websites.

Using library catalogues

University and college libraries usually have online catalogues.
These allow students to search for the materials they want in various
ways.

Using library websites to search electronic resources

they can be accessed by computer, saving the need to visit the library
and find a text. Most library websites have a separate portal or
gateway for searching electronic resources.

Reading methods
the texts often contain new vocabulary and phrases, and may
be written in a rather formal style. This means that distinct methods
have to be adopted to cope with the volume of reading required,
which is especially important when you are reading in another
language.

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Titles, sub-titles and text features
Many books and articles have both a title and a sub-title. The title is
usually shorter; the sub-title often gives more information about the
focus.

Reading abstracts
They are normally found in peer-reviewed journal articles, where they
act as a kind of summary to enable researchers to decide if it is worth
reading the full article.

Fact and opinion

When reading, it is important to distinguish between facts and
opinions:
Smoking can be dangerous to health. Fact
Smoking is addictive. Opinion

Avoiding plagiarism
What is plagiarism?
plagiarism means taking ideas or words from a source without
giving credit (acknowledgement) to the author.

Acknowledging sources:
If you borrow from or refer to the work of another person, you must
show that you have done this by providing the correct
acknowledgement.

Degrees of plagiarism:
Varies ….

Avoiding plagiarism by summarising and paraphrasing:

 Paraphrasing involves re-writing a text so that the language is
substantially different while the content stays the same.

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 Summarising means reducing the length of a text but retaining the
main points.
Avoiding plagiarism by developing good study habits:
Some students develop poor study habits that result in the risk of
plagiarism.
Research:
Does your college or university have a policy on plagiarism? Look on
the website to find out. It may raise some issues that you want to
discuss with colleagues or your teachers.
From understanding titles to planning
Essay planning is necessary in all academic situations, but clearly
there are important differences between planning in exams, when time
is short, and for coursework, when preparatory reading is required.
However, the process of planning should include these steps in both
cases:
(a) Analyse the title wording and decide what is required.
(b) Brainstorm the topic to focus your ideas.
(c) Prepare an outline using your preferred method.
Finding key points and note-making
Why make notes?
(a) to prepare for essay writing
(b) to avoid plagiarism
(c) to keep a record of reading/lectures
(d) to revise for exams
(e) to help remember main points

Paraphrasing

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Paraphrasing means changing the wording of a text so that it is
significantly different from the original source, without changing
the meaning.
Summarising
it is a vital skill, allowing the writer to condense lengthy sources into
a concise form.
References and quotations
Academic writing depends on the research and ideas of others,
so it is vital to show which sources you have used in your work,
in an acceptable manner.
Reference systems: Harvard system -Vancouver system – Jasanoff
Using quotations
Using a quotation means bringing the original words of a writer into
your work. All quotations should be introduced by a phrase that
shows the source, and also explains how this quotation fits into your
argument.
Combining sources
is an academic writing skill of combining two or more sources into
your academic writing in a meaningful and analytical way, In the
early stages of an essay it is common to mention the contributions
of other writers to the subject, to show that you are familiar with their
work.
Organising paragraphs
Well-structured paragraphs help the reader understand the topic
more easily by dividing up the argument into convenient sections.
See (Writing in paragraphs) section mentioned earlier.
Introductions and conclusions

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Introductions: are usually no more than about 10 per cent of the total
length of the assignment.
Conclusions: tend to be shorter and more diverse than introductions.
Some articles may have a ‘summary’ or ‘concluding remarks’.

#3-Elements of writing
ARGUMENT AND DISCUSSION
In academic writing, arguing and discussing is often part of a
larger piece of writing. In arguing and discussing, you are expected
to present two or more points of view and discuss the positive and
negative aspects of each case. On the basis of your discussion, you
can then choose one point of view and persuade your readers that you
are correct.
Discussion vocabulary:
Essay titles commonly ask students to ‘discuss’ a topic.
This requires an evaluation of both the benefits and disadvantages of
the topic, with a section of the essay, sometimes headed ‘Discussion’,
in which a summary of these is made
Organisation:
The discussion section can be organised in two ways; either by
grouping the benefits and disadvantages together, or by examining the
subject from different viewpoints.
Language of discussion:
Avoid personal phrases such as in my opinion or personally, I think . .
Counter-arguments:
In a discussion you must show that you are familiar with both sides of
the argument, and provide reasons to support your position.
Providing evidence:

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Useful discussion is based on evidence that you have studied the
relevant sources on a topic.
Cause and effect
a cause, such as a price rise, and an effect, such as a fall in
demand.
The language of cause and effect:
A writer may choose to put the emphasis on either the cause or the
effect. In both cases, either a verb or a conjunction can be used to
show the link.

Cohesion ‫تماسك‬
Cohesion means joining a text together with reference words
(e.g. he, theirs, the former) and conjunctions (e.g. but, then) so
that the whole text is clear and readable.
Comparisons
It is often necessary to make comparisons in academic writing.
The comparison might be the subject of the essay, or might
provide evidence for the argument. In all cases it is important
to explain clearly what is being compared and to make the
comparison as accurate as possible.
It involves taking two or more subjects and analysing the differences
and similarities between them.
Definitions
Definitions are usually found in introductions, they are not needed in
every case, but if the title includes an unfamiliar phrase, or if the
writer wants to use a term in a special way, it is worth making clear to
the reader exactly what is meant in this context.

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Simple definitions:
Basic definitions are formed by giving a category and the application
Complex definitions:
Academic writing addresses complex issues that require higher-order
thinking skills applied to understanding the research problem [e.g.,
critical, reflective, logical, and creative thinking as opposed to, for
example, descriptive or prescriptive thinking].
Examples
Examples are used in academic writing for support and
illustration. Suitable examples can strengthen the argument, and
they can also help the reader to understand a point.
Generalisations
Generalisations are commonly used to introduce a topic.
The majority of smokers in Britain are women.
and
Of all smokers in the UK, 56.2 per cent are women and
43.8 per cent are men.
Numbers
In introductions numbers are often used to give an accurate account of
a situation.
The language of numbers:
Approximately 1800 children between the ages of five and 12
years were randomly selected . . .
Percentages:
Since 2008, the number of prisoners has risen by 22 per cent.

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Simplification:
If the actual number is not important, words such as various, dozens
or scores may be used instead:
The snowstorm closed 47 schools.
The snowstorm closed dozens of schools.
Problems and solutions
See chapter 2.9 for practice.
Style
The style of academic writing is a little different to most other types
of writing. It should be formal yet not over-complicated, convincing
yet balanced and objective.
In general, it should attempt to be accurate, impersonal and objective.
For example, personal pronouns like ‘I’ and idioms (i.e. informal
language) are used less often than in other writing.
Components of academic style:
focuses on and is informed by research and reasoning rather than
personal feelings and opinions.
Guidelines:
(a) Do not use idiomatic or colloquial vocabulary: kids, boss. Instead
use standard English: children, manager.
(b) Use vocabulary accurately. There is a difference between rule and
law, or weather and climate, which you are expected to know if you
study these subjects.
(c) Be as precise as possible when dealing with facts or figures. Avoid
phrases such as about a hundred or hundreds of years ago. If it is
necessary to estimate numbers use approximately rather than about.

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(d) Conclusions should use tentative language. Avoid absolute
statements such as unemployment causes crime. Instead use cautious
phrases: unemployment may cause crime or tends to cause crime.
(e) Avoid adverbs that show your personal attitude: luckily,
remarkably, surprisingly.
(f) Do not contract verb forms: don’t, can’t. Use the full form: Do
not, cannot.
(g) Although academic English tends to use the passive more than
standard English, it should not be over-used.
Avoiding repetition and redundancy
Repetition means repeating a word instead of using a synonym to
provide variety, which makes the text more interesting. So instead of:
Most family businesses employ less than ten people. These
businesses . . .
Use:
Most family businesses employ less than ten people. These
firms . . .
#4-Accuracy in writing
Academic vocabulary (see chapter 3.2 for practice)
Articles
Use of articles:
Unless they are uncountable, all nouns need an article when used in
the singular. The article can be either a/an or the. Compare:
(a) Research is an important activity in universities.
(b) The research begun by Dr Mathews was continued by
Professor Brankovic.

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Caution
The use of caution:
A cautious style is necessary in many areas of academic writing to
avoid making statements that can be contradicted:
 Primary products usually have low supply and demand
elasticities.
 Most students find writing exam essays difficult.
Wages tend to rise in line with inflation.
Areas where caution is particularly important include:
(a) outlining a hypothesis that needs to be tested (e.g. in an
introduction)
(b) discussing the results of a study, which may not be conclusive
(c) commenting on the work of other writers
(d) making predictions (normally with may or might)
Conjunctions (Linkers)
Conjunctions are words or phrases which join parts of a sentence
together, or link a sentence to the next one.
Types of conjunctions:
Conjunctions are linking words like and, or, but, then and because.
The two main types of conjunctions are coordinating (words such as
and & but) and subordinating. Subordinating conjunctions (e.g.
because, if, when, in order to) link a subordinate clause to a main
clause.
Conjunctions of opinion:
but/ yet/ although/ while/ in spite of/ despite/ however/ nevertheless

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Nouns and adjectives
Using nouns and adjectives:
The efficiency of the machine depends on the precision of its
construction.
Precise construction results in an efficient machine.
The first sentence uses the nouns ‘efficiency’ and ‘precision’. The
second uses adjectives: ‘precise’ and ‘efficient’. Although the
meaning is similar the first sentence is more formal. Effective
academic writing requires accurate use of both nouns and adjectives.

Prefixes and Suffixes

Prefixes change or give the meaning.
(a) Negative prefixes: UN-, IN-, MIS- and DIS- often give adjectives
and verbs a negative meaning: unclear, incapable, mishear, disagree
(b) A wide variety of prefixes define meaning e.g. PRE- usually
means ‘before’, hence prefer, prehistory and, of course, prefix.
Suffixes show the meaning or the word class (e.g. noun, verb).
(a) Some suffixes like –ION, -IVE or –LY help the reader find the
word class e.g. noun, verb or adjective.
(b) Other suffixes add to meaning, e.g. –FUL or –LESS after an
adjective have a positive or negative effect (thoughtful/ careless).
Prepositions are generally short words such as ‘by’ or ‘at’ which
are often linked to nouns, verbs and adjectives.
Punctuation
Capitals: they should be used in the following cases:
(a) The first word in a sentence In the beginning . . .
(b) Names of organisations Sheffield Hallam University

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(c) Days and months Friday 21 July
(d) Nationality words France and the French
(e) Names of people/ places Dr Martin Lee from Sydney
(f) Book titles (main words only) Power and the Stat
Apostrophes ( ’ )
Semi-colons ( ; )
Colons ( : )
Commas
Quotations marks/ inverted commas (“ ”/ ‘ ’)
Singular or plural?
Five areas of difficulty:
(a) Nouns should agree with verbs, and pronouns with nouns:
Those problems are unique.
There are many arguments in favour.
(b) Uncountable nouns and irregular plurals usually have no final ‘s’:
Most students receive free tuition.
The main export is tropical fruit.
(c) General statements normally use the plural:
State universities have lower fees.
(d) ‘Each/ every’ are followed by singular noun and verb forms:
Every student gets financial support.
(e) Two linked nouns should agree:
Both the similarities and differences are important.

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Synonyms
Synonyms are different words with a similar meaning.
See chapter 3.11 for practice.
Time words
Time words such as ‘during’ and ‘since’ are often used in
introductions or general statements.
See chapter 3.12 for practice.
Verbs – passives
The passive is used when the writer wants to focus on the result, not
on the cause:
The company was founded in 1925 by Walter Trimble
(passive)
Using adverbs:
An adverb can be inserted in a passive form to add information:
This process is commonly called ‘networking’.
Verbs of reference
Referring verbs are used to summarise another writer’s ideas:
Previn argued that global warming was mainly caused by the
solar cycle.
Verbs – tenses
The three tenses used the most often are the simple present, the
simple past, and the present perfect.

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#5-WRITING MODELS
Formal letters and emails
1- Letters
Note the following points:
(a) The example above is addressed to a known individual and the
ending is ‘Yours sincerely’. However, when writing to somebody
whose name you do not know, e.g. The Manager, use Dear Sir and
Yours faithfully.
(b) A formal letter generally uses the family name in the greeting
(Dear Ms Tan). Certain organisations may, however, use a first name
with a family name or even a first name alone (Dear Jane Tan, Dear
Jane).
(c) If the sender includes a reference it is helpful to quote it in your
reply.
2-Emails
Starting and finishing
The following forms are acceptable ways to begin an email if you
know the recipient:
Hi Sophie, Dear Sophie, Hello Sophie
If you have not met the recipient, it may be safer to use:
Dear Sophie Gratton, Dear Ms Gratton, Dear Dr Gratton
If you need to send an email to a large group (e.g. colleagues) you
may use:
Hi everyone, Hello all
In all cases to close the message you can use:
Regards, Best wishes, Best regards
You may also add a standard formula before this:
Look forward to meeting next week/ Let me know if you need
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further information.
Writing CVs
A CV (US resumé) is a summary of your education and work
experience used when applying for a job.
it should be as clear, accurate and well-presented as possible.
Note the following:
• There is no need to give your gender, date of birth or marital status.
• Two sides are the maximum that most employers want to read.
• Details should be relevant to the particular job you are applying for.
• Avoid clichéd claims such as ‘team worker’ or ‘self-starter’.
• Information such as education details is normally presented in
reverse
chronological order (i.e. the most recent comes first).
• Details of your early education or hobbies are probably irrelevant to
the post.
Reports, case studies and literature reviews
1- Writing reports
A report: is a description of a situation or something that has
happened.
In academic terms it might describe:
(a) an experiment you have conducted
(b) a survey you have carried out
(c) a comparison of alternative proposals to deal with a situation.
However, most reports should include the following features:
 Introduction
 Methods
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 Results
 Discussion
 Conclusion

2- Case studies
A case study: is a detailed example. It may be the main subject of an
essay, or part of a longer report. In either case it is intended to show
exactly what happened in a particular situation.
3-Literature reviews
In most papers a summary of relevant and recent authorities on the
subject is included in the introduction. In all cases it is usually
necessary to show that you are familiar with the main sources, so that
your writing can build on these.
A literature review is not simply a list of sources that you have
studied. It can be used to show that there is a gap in the research that
your work attempts to fil.
Designing and reporting surveys
1 Conducting surveys
the reasons for carrying out surveys:
 To replicate other research
 Get up-to-date data
 Collect information about the behaviour of a specific group, e.g.
clients of a firm
 Check/replicate other research
The rest of information on chapter: 4.4
Writing longer essays
Long essays of 2,500–5,000 words may be required as part of a
module assessment.
Planning your work:
a-students should have plenty of time to organise their writing.
eight-week schedule

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b-the important thing is to organise your time effectively. the sooner
you start the sooner you will be able to begin refining your ideas.

For practice see chapter: 4.5

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OQDjfHvTZ-
I&list=PLJC1jMuK3pMKu58SWEr10Rdm-hsJFBxBB

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