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Natural Remedies for
Pest, Disease and
Weed Control
Edited by
CHUKWUEBUKA EGBUNA, BSc, MSc BIOCHEMISTRY
Research Biochemist
Department of Biochemistry
Faculty of Natural Sciences
Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University
Nigeria
BARBARA SAWICKA, PHD

Full professor
Department of Plant Production Technology and Commodities Science
Faculty of Agrobioengineering
University of Life Sciences
Poland
]
Natural Remedies for Pest, Disease and Weed Control ISBN: 978-0-12-819304-4
Copyright Ó 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the
Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance
Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other
than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and
using any information, methods, compounds or experiments described herein. Because of rapid advances
in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be
made. To the fullest extent of the law, no responsibility is assumed by Elsevier, authors, editors or con-
tributors for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or
otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the
material herein.
Publisher: Charlotte Cockle

Acquisition Editor: Charlotte Cockle
Editorial Project Manager: Laura Okidi
Production Project Manager: Kiruthika Govindaraju
Cover Designer: Alan Studholme
List of Contributors
Yusuf Abubakar _
Imran Aslan, Assoc. Prof.
Department of Biochemistry Bingöl University
Natural Product Research Laboratory Health Sciences Faculty
Bauchi State University Occupational Health and Safety Department
Gadau, Bauchi State, Nigeria Turkey
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, PhD Temitope Banjo, PhD

Applied Microbiology Department of Biological Sciences
Biotechnology and Nanotechnology Laboratory Crawford University
Department of Microbiology Igbesa, Ogun State, Nigeria
Edo University Iyamho Department of Biological Sciences
Auchi, Edo State, Nigeria Covenant University
Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
Dickson Adom, PhD Institute for Human Resources Development
Department of Educational Innovations in Science and Federal University of Agriculture
Technology Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology Madhvi Chawan, MSc
Kumasi, Ashanti, Ghana Assistant Professor
Haffkines Biopharmaceuticals
Amrish Agarwal Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Formulation Division
Institute of Pesticide Formulation Technology (IPFT) Intan Soraya Che Sulaiman, BSc, MSc, PhD
Gurugram, Haryana, India National Defence University of Malaysia
Centre of Research & Innovation Management
Muhammad Akram, PhD Kem Sungai Besi
Department of Eastern Medicine Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Directorate of Medical Sciences
Government College University Faisalabad Muhammad Daniyal
Faisalabad, Punjab, Pakistan TCM and Ethnomedicine Innovation & Development
International Laboratory
Hakiye Aslan, PhD Innovative Materia Medica Research Institute
Bingöl University School of Pharmacy
Engineering Faculty Hunan University of Chinese Medicine
Food Engineering Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
Turkey
v
vi LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Dominika Skiba, PhD Jonathan C. Ifemeje, PhD

Department of Plant Production Technology and Department of Biochemistry
Commodities Science Faculty of Natural Sciences
University of Life Science in Lublin Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University
Lublin, Poland Uli, Anambra State, Nigeria
Chukwuebuka Egbuna, BSc, MSc Agnieszka Jamio1kowska, PhD

Research Biochemist Professor
Department of Biochemistry Department of Plant Protection
Faculty of Natural Sciences Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture
Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University University of Life Sciences in Lublin
Uli, Anambra State, Nigeria Lublin, Poland
Nutritional Biochemistry and Toxicology Unit
World Bank Africa Centre of Excellence Jaison Jeevanandam, PhD
Centre for Public Health and Toxicological Research Department of Chemical Engineering
(PUTOR) Curtin University Malaysia
University of Port-Harcourt Sarawak, Malaysia
Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria
Smriti Kala, PhD
Ayten Ekinci, PhD Formulation Division
Cumhuriyet University Institute of Pesticide Formulation Technology (IPFT)
Gemerek Vocational High School Gurugram, Haryana, India
Chemistry and Chemical Processing Technologies Center for Rural Development Technology (CRDT)
Department Indian Institute of Technology (IIT)
Sivas, Turkey Delhi, India
Shahira M. Ezzat, PhD Marek Kopacki, PhD

Professor Habilitated Doctor
Department of Pharmacognosy Department of Plant Protection
Faculty of Pharmacy Faculty of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture
Cairo University University of Life Sciences in Lublin
Cairo, Egypt Lublin, Poland
Department of Pharmacognosy
Faculty of Pharmacy Toskë L. Kryeziu
October University for Modern Sciences and Arts Department of Pharmacy
(MSA) Faculty of Medicine
Cairo, Egypt University Hasan Prishtina
Pristina, Kosovo
Ajay Kumar Gautam, PhD
Department of Plant Sciences Jitendra Kumar
Central University of Punjab Formulation Division
Bathinda, Punjab, India Institute of Pesticide Formulation Technology (IPFT)
Gurugram, Haryana, India
Rohan Gavankar, MSc, BEd, PhD
Assistant Professor Shashank Kumar, PhD, MSc, BSc
Department of Botany Assistant Professor
VIVA College School of Basic and Applied Sciences
Virar, Maharashtra, India Department of Biochemistry and Microbial Sciences
Central University of Punjab
S. Zafar Haider, PhD Bathinda, Punjab, India
Centre for Aromatic Plants (CAP)
Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS vii
Colin B. Lukong, PhD Onyeka Kingsley Nwosu, BSc, MSc, PGDE

Department of Biochemistry National Biosafety Management Agency
Faculty of Natural Sciences Abuja, FCT, Nigeria
Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University
Uli, Anambra State, Nigeria Alloysius Chibuike Ogodo, BSc, MSc, PhD
Department of Microbiology
Mohammad Mehdizadeh, PhD Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences
Weed Science Federal University Wukari
Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding Wukari, Taraba State, Nigeria
University of Mohaghegh Ardabili
Ardabil, Iran Valentina V. Onipko, Doctor of Sc.
Professor
Rana M. Merghany Poltava National Pedagogical University named after
Department of Pharmacognosy V.G. Korolenko
National Research Centre Poltava, Ukraine
Giza, Egypt
Olumayowa Vincent Oriyomi, Msc
Azham Mohamad, BSc, MS Institute of Ecology and Environmental Studies
Lecturer Obafemi Awolowo University
Centre of Foundation Studies for Agricultural Science Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria
Universiti Putra Malaysia
UPM Serdang Chandan Kumar Panda, PhD
Selangor, Malaysia Assistant Professor-cum-Junior Scientist
Department of Extension Education
Waseem Mushtaq, PhD Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour
Allelopathy Laboratory Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
Department of Botany
Aligarh Muslim University Sunil Pareek, PhD
Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India Department of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences
National Institute of Food Technology
S.N. Naik Entrepreneurship and Management
Center for Rural Development Technology (CRDT) Sonepat, Haryana, India
Indian Institute of Technology (IIT)
Delhi, India P.K. Patanjali
Formulation Division
Keshavi Nalla Institute of Pesticide Formulation Technology (IPFT)
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Gurugram, Haryana, India
Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh, India
Kingsley C. Patrick-Iwuanyanwu, PhD
Ashish Kumar Nayak, PhD Department of Biochemistry (Toxicology unit)
Department of Microbial Genomics and Diagnostic University of Port Harcourt
Laboratory Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria
Regional Plant Resource Centre Nutritional Biochemistry and Toxicology Unit
Bhubaneshwar, Odisha, India World Bank Africa Centre of Excellence
Centre for Public Health and Toxicological Research
Jaweria Nisar (PUTOR)
Department of Eastern Medicine University of Port-Harcourt
Directorate of Medical Sciences Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria
Government College University Faisalabad
Faisalabad, Punjab, Pakistan
viii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Sergey V. Pospelov, PhD Nisha Sogan, PhD

Professor National Institute of Malaria Research (NIMR)
Chair Agriculture & Agrochemistry Delhi, India
Poltava State Agrarian Academy
Poltava, Ukraine Laith Khalil Tawfeeq Al-Ani
School of Biology Science
Anna D. Pospelova, PhD Universiti Sains Malaysia
Associated Professor Minden, Malaysia
Chair Plant Protection
Poltava State Agrarian Academy Nikhil Teli, MSc, PhD
Poltava, Ukraine Department of Botany
VIVA College
Seshu Vardhan Pothabathula, PhD Virar, Maharashtra, India
Assistant Professor
School of Basic and Applied Sciences Habibu Tijjani, PhD
Department of Biochemistry and Microbial Sciences Department of Biochemistry
Central University of Punjab Natural Product Research Laboratory
Bathinda, Punjab, India Bauchi State University
Gadau, Bauchi State, Nigeria
Narashans Alok Sagar, PhD
Department of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences Kingsley Ikechukwu Ubaoji, PhD
National Institute of Food Technology Department of Applied Biochemistry
Entrepreneurship and Management Nnamdi Azikiwe University
Sonepat, Haryana, India Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria
Arvind Saroj, PhD Krishnan Umachandran, BE, MS, MBA, PhD

Department of Plant Pathology General Manager
Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Organization Development
Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India Nelcast Ltd.
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Barbara Sawicka, PhD
Full Professor Deepa Verma, MSc, BEd, M.A, M.PhiL, MBA,
Department of Plant Production Technology and PhD
Commodities Science Head of Department
Faculty of Agrobioengeenering Assistant Professor
University of Life Sciences Department of Botany
Lublin, Poland VIVA College
Virar, Maharashtra, India
Maxim V. Semenko
Bachelor of Biology Parisa Ziarati, PhD
Poltava National Pedagogical University named after Assistant Prof. of Chemistry
V.G. Korolenko Nutrition & Food Sciences Research Center
Poltava, Ukraine Tehran Medical Sciences
Islamic Azad University
Aamir Sharif Tehran, Iran
Department of Pathology
University of Sargodha
Sargodha, Punjab, Pakistan
PART I GREEN APPROACH TO PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL
CHAPTER 1
Pests of Agricultural Crops and Control

Measures
BARBARA SAWICKA, PHD • CHUKWUEBUKA EGBUNA, BSC, MSC
INTRODUCTION Kenya, maize losses due to insects reach up to 50%

A pest is any specie considered undesirable. The term [8,12]. According to the economic model of Compton
“pest” is very subjective. Each specie (individual) is et al. [13], every percent of insect invasion causes a
competing with people for food and shelter, carrying decrease in the value of maize by 0.6%e1%
pathogens, feeding on humans, or otherwise threat- [7,8,10,13]. According to Patol [5], pests are responsible
ening its health, well-being, and welfare (this definition for 80%e90% of stored seed loss. In Cameroon, losses
also includes weeds). One of the most important pest caused by insects feeding in corn seeds are estimated at
characteristics is the level to which their numbers are 12%e44% [14]. The mite is a very severe, though invis-
regulated by natural enemies. Pests are often species ible to the naked eye. Maize grain in storage depicts
that have become out of control of their natural en- various species of storage mites, including fine mites
emies (e.g., as a result of being moved to other regions and flour mites. Because of life processes carried out
of the world, or as a result of extirpation of these natural in humid places, the temperature and humidity of the
enemies by humans) [1e4]. Pests are organisms that stored raw material may gradually increase. As a result,
cause losses in agricultural, forestry, and storage activ- its slow deterioration takes place. The feeding mites
ities. It is estimated that losses caused by pests in arable alone mainly damage the embryos that are the most
crops account for about 10%e15% of the total yield moistened part of the kernel, and the microscopic size
value on a global scale [5,6]. of the damage later reduces the seed sowing value.
Pests also include animals damaging cultivated The mites not only damage and pollute the raw material
plants and crops of these plants stored in warehouses, that settles with their excrements, secretions, louts, and
granaries, or processing plants. Furthermore, these pests dead individuals. With a very large population, the
damage trees, shrubs, wood-based materials, food grain becomes unpleasant, which reduces the quality
products, etc. Pests include some species of nematodes, of the raw material [15,16].
snails, vines, mites, and insects (the most numerous The stored cereal grain can feed many other species
group) and mainly rodents from vertebrates. Pests of insects, both beetles and storage butterflies, such as
sometimes also transmit pathogensdharmful viruses, the giant hood, the hood of the grain, coffee cobbler,
bacteria, or fungi [5,6]. flour miller, short breader, half-wing, Carpophilus fla-
Among all the biotic factors, pests are considered the vipes, Carpophilus mutilatus, small flatten, scrubber, grain
most important and cause the largest losses in crops skins, Trogoderma variabile, Streptochaeta spicata, pungent
(30%e40%) [7e11]. Some of them result from trifle, sugar beetle, Typhaea stercorea, Moorish hide, corn
improper storage, and some are as a result of the settle- weevil, rice weevil, grain weevil, Sitophilus oryzae, bread
ment, development, and feeding of various storage crust, and even rodents. The butterflies are larger than
pests, including harmful mites and insects. These organ- mites, more mobile, and less sensitive to unfavorable
isms can be the cause of losses, both quantitative, result- environmental conditions. Grain spaces, especially in
ing from the loss of mass of raw material because of stored maize, allow the insects to freely penetrate the
feeding, as well as qualitative losses. For example, in entire profile of the grain heap. They gather more often
Natural Remedies for Pest, Disease and Weed Control. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819304-4.00001-4

Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1
2 PART I Green Approach to Pest and Disease Control
in more humid places, as well as in periods of unfavor- and stored grain (5). Among these families, 12 species
able temperature. Their presence in a given place and (21.8%) predominate in the genus: Curculionidae, fol-
ongoing life processes (mainly breathing) locally in- lowed by Chrysomelidae 10 (18.2%), Cerambycidae 9
crease the humidity and temperature of the raw mate- (16.3%), Scarabaeridae 6 (10.9%), Coccinellidae 3
rial. Insects, as well as mites, start feeding from (5.4%), Apionidae, Bostrychidae, Brachidae, Bupresti-
embryos, as well as seeds grown, broken, and those dae, and Scolytidae with two species (3.6%). Families
covered by the fruit and seed (shell) have been such as Dermestidae, Lamiidae, Meloidae, Melolonithi-
damaged [16e20]. Because of the intensive feeding of dae, and Tenebrionida e contribute to the feeding of
insects, large amounts of dust are generated, which falls one species (1.8%) [5,20,25,26].
clogging gradually into the spaces between the grains, as
a result of which the free flow of air through the grain Storage Pests
prism is limited. The processes of heating and humidi- Industrial production forces the need to store both raw
fying the grain in the occluded layer are then intensified. materials and finished products for a shorter or longer
The bacterial and fungal microflora grow intensively, period. The place that is used to store them and ensures
which in turn leads to spoilage of the raw material. the continuity of production is the warehouse. Among
Most species of storage beetles are small. Their bodies storage pests, several groups of organisms can be
are usually 3e5 mm long, although some are relatively mentioned: mites, insects (mainly butterflies and bee-
large, because they have 15e25 mm (e.g., millstone tles), rodents, and microorganisms (bacteria, fungi)
meal). The larvae and adult stages of beetles feed on [19,20,27]. The mites spread along with the grain, on
and develop from the egg to the adult outside of the ker- the packaging of products or on the clothing of ware-
nels, except for the grain weevil. Hatching eggs, pupae, house employees. They can also be transferred on the
and young weevil beetles develop from the inside of the body of insects, rodents, and birdsdother storage pests.
corn seeds of the eggs, initially without visible external Their presence is confirmed during microscopic examina-
symptoms. Under favorable conditions, with higher hu- tion. These pests pollute the grain with faces, broods, and
midity of the raw material and at a higher temperature, dead birds, give it an unpleasant odor, and affect the tem-
the number of generations of storage pest’s increases. In perature and humidity of the grain. Dirt mite contami-
most species of storage beetles, lesions are caused by nated with excrement is unsuitable for human and
both larvae and adults [15e17]. In butterflies, the animal consumption, and if eaten it may cause irritation
harmful stage is larvae, that is, caterpillars, which reside of the gastrointestinal mucosa. In high temperature and
in the top layer of cereal grains. The places where larvae low humidity, the mites die quickly. The most important
feed, as well as the kernels they feed on, are stuck with of the storage organisms for the stored crop are: cereal
threads of sticky yarns [19e21]. weevil, mites, bacteria and fungi, and rodents [15,18,20].
Currently, Sitophilus Zea mays and Prostephanus trun-
cates, the main pests of cereal grains, occur in most parts Grain weevil
of Africa and cause huge damage in a very short time The grain weevil is a beetle with a size of 2.5e4 mm, dark
[22]. During storage on the farm, there may be more brown with a characteristic head elongated in a snout. It
than 30% of the grain loss of maize due to these pests is a pest that feeds mainly on the grain of barley and
[8e11]. In Ghana, approximately 5%e10% of market wheat, biting numerous holes in the grain. The grain
value loss is estimated due to invasion by Sitophilus settled by larvae of grain weevil is not suitable for sow-
spp. and 15%e45% of market value loss because of ing. Beetles avoid light, making it difficult to detect
LGB damage [22e24]. Hussein [25] reported that after them. In the place of concentration of the grain weevil
6 months of maize storage, LGB was responsible for population, the grain mass temperature may be even
more than half (56.7%) of storage losses and then los- 10 C higher than in unfertilized places [19,27e30].
ses due to grain weevil. Patol et al. [5] observed about
25% of R. dominica losses in wheat stored for 3 months
under laboratory conditions [25]. Bacteria and fungi
Bacteria and fungi that develop on the surface or inside
Pests of Crops of the crops are a serious threat. The most dangerous
Agricultural pests include 45 types and 55 species of in- are mold fungi, which can develop on the surface of
sects from 15 families. Most of them are pests of cereals the seeds, as well as penetrate their depths, causing
and millet (3), oilseeds (2), fiber plants (4), vegetables their damage. Grain infested by mold fungi has a
(11), temperate climate (7), tropical and tropical fruits reduced sowing value, its smell, taste, and color
(9), ornamental plants (2), crops field (8), spices (4), change. Developing fungi produce harmful
CHAPTER 1 Pests of Agricultural Crops and Control Measures 3
substancesdmycotoxins that accumulate in grain. more contaminate with droppings, scatter, and
These toxins can cause dangerous poisonings to trample. They can spread infectious diseases such as
humans and animals [29,30]. About 25%e40% of cholera, typhoid, infectious jaundice, trichinosis,
cereal grains around the world are contaminated by rabies, and others. They are carriers of insects and mi-
mycotoxins produced by storage fungi [25,28]. Myco- croorganisms [18,19].
toxins cause a decrease in the dry matter content of
grain, as well as loss of quality and pose a threat in
the food supply chain [31,32]. The most common Pests Control Measures
and most important mycotoxins are aflatoxins, fumo- The fight against destructive pests uses mainly the
nisins, deoxynivalenol, and ochratoxin [33e35]. Afla- following:
toxins, produced as a secondary metabolite by two 1. Cultivation methods (ecological), such as changing
fungal species Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, are the sowing date or avoiding the same crops being
considered the most dangerous group of mycotoxins kept constantly in the same place;
because they increase the risk of liver cancer and limit 2. A chemical fight played a fundamental role in the
the growth of young children [36]. Due to food last century, although its effect is serious ecological
contamination with mycotoxins, about 4.5 billion problems. In the 1960s (Carson 1962 Silent spring),
people in developing countries are exposed to afla- for the first time, attention was paid to the problems
toxins [22]. High concentrations of aflatoxin can lead associated with the use of organic compounds for
to aflatoxicosis, which can cause serious illness and pest control;
even death [35]. Penicillium verrucosum (ochratoxin), 3. Biological methods. The biological conservation
the main mycotoxin in mildew is commonly found strategy was proposed by Baker and Snyder in
in humid cool climates (e.g., in northern Europe), 1965 at the Berkeley Symposium “Ecology of soil-
while Aspergillus flavus is most commonly observed in borne plant pathogens: prelude to biological con-
temperate and tropical climates [24]. During storage, trol” [15,18,20].
it damages grains and limits germination. Conse- In the 1970s, the widespread use of pesticides, with a
quently, it causes deterioration of the quality of dishes, wide range of activities, was replaced by integrated pest
change in their taste and smell, and undesirable effects control, in other words, chemical warfare was com-
on human health [36]. Seeds of oilseeds with a high oil bined with biological combating (using natural
content require special attention during storage, enemiesdpredators and parasites). The term “biocon-
because high levels of moisture cause the degradation trol” can be defined as supporting and inciting to natu-
of vegetable oil and produce large amounts of unsatu- rally occurring “biological wars” [6,16,39,40]. The term
rated fatty acids, which also cause self-heating of seeds ‘biological warfare’ was used to describe virtually all
[25,36,37]. At the farm level in developing countries, pest control methods except for the use of nonselective
even rodents can damage a large part of the crop, while chemical pesticides. Currently, the term has been
mushrooms can be the main reason for spoilage when limited to regulating the number of pests by using their
stored at high relative humidity. The use of scientific natural enemies. The mechanisms of biocontrol are
storage structures and proper handling of grains can different and have not been defined until the end.
reduce storage losses to less than 1% [25,36]. They usually include general and specific inhibition of
Losses can be minimized by physically avoiding the pathogen development. Another important method is
penetration of insects and rodents and maintaining selection of varieties resistant to pests 6, [16,41,42].
environmental conditions that prevent the growth of There are several methods of biological warfare against
microorganisms. Knowing the control points during pests. These includes the following:
collection and drying before storage can help to reduce 1. The introduction consists of importing a natural
losses during storage of cereals. The timely prevention enemy from another geographical area, very often
of biotic and abiotic factors can be very effective in from the same from which the pest originally came
reducing storage losses [38]. from. The number of pests is below economic injury
level (EIL). This method is often called classic bio-
logical struggle. Sometimes it requires the release of
Rodents the enemy several times where it cannot be main-
Rodents are mostly rats and mice. They are storage tained throughout the year. Several generations of
pests that are very difficult to eradicate. They get to the pest are thus controlled;
the warehouses through various gaps. Their activities 2. The release of the local natural enemy may also be
can destroy a significant amount of grain, and even aimed at supplementing the existing population;
therefore, it is carried out repeatedly and usually Lack of competition is probably responsible for the
coincides with the period of rapid growth of the pest boomerang effectdmany competitors die in sterilized
population; soil, and despite the strong reduction of pathogens, los-
3. Colonizationdmass release of the natural enemy to ses of plants grown on it are greater than in natural soil.
destroy the pests present at the time, but without the In the face of environmental problems caused by exces-
expectation that it will be a long-term effect. These sive use of fertilizers and chemical plant protection
enemies are sometimes called biological pesticides; products, biological control can be an alternative sys-
4. Protectiondtreatments aimed at protecting natural tem that can play an important role in achieving the
enemies. Recently, more attention has been paid to most important agricultural goals [15,18,46].
the fight against insectsdpests against insect path-
ogens as microbiological insecticides; Integrated pest management
5. Microbiological insecticidesdthe use of Bacillus In agriculture, a sustainable food cultivation would be
thuringiensis bacteria is the main microbiological possible if there are reconciled efforts to eliminate
method used worldwide on an industrial scale in the crop losses caused by diseases through effective and
fight against pests (along with baculovirus and safe methods, via a practice called integrated pest man-
about 100 types of fungi) [15,16,43]; agement (IPM). Integrated pest control is more a phi-
6. Genetic struggle and resistancednumerous losophy than a specific strategy. It combines physical,
methods are known that utilize genetic manipula- ecological, chemical, and biological struggle with the
tion to control pests: use of resistant varieties. It has ecological foundations
U The self-destructive method, where it uses only and considers factors determining mortality. The IPM
pests to increase their own mortality (usually by strategy is focused on pest control below EIL1 and is
reducing fertility); based on data on the number of pests and their natural
U For selecting plant varieties resistant to pests (as enemies. Determining the optimal strategy, however,
well as herbicides). The cultivation and use of requires time, effort, and money, although to be effec-
transgenic plants can be a source of potential tive, it should be based on cost effectiveness. The key
environmental benefits. However, social to an effective IPM program is good field monitoring
perception and legal aspects related to this [45,47e50]. Existing and implemented IPM programs
technique as well as problems resulting from the indicate that their use is associated with economic prof-
evolution of resistance are as difficult as in the itability, despite the possibility of a decline in yields.
case of chemical pesticides [16,42].
Usually three mechanisms are involved in Biological Plant ProtectiondBiocontrol
biocontrol: As stated earlier, biological control is the use of one or-
1. Inhibiting the growth of an organism controlled by ganism to suppress the development of another, such as
antibiotics, enzymes, or biocides (antagonism); a parasite or pest in agriculture or an organism that
2. Suppressing the growth of the target organism by damages the environment. Their antagonism with phy-
limiting the availability of the food source or topathogens consists of several mechanisms of action,
depriving it (competition); including competition for living space and nutrients,
3. Inhibition by direct parasitism or predation on pests mycoparasitism, secretion of compounds with anti-
or parasites, for example, Phoma exigua can also be fungal activity, such as antibiotics or killer toxins, in-
used for the biocontrol of some weedsdfield duction of immunity in plants, and the production of
dandelion (Sonchus arvensis L.), field cure (Cirsium volatile compounds that may play a large role in the
arvense L. Scop.), due to the production of specific biocontrol phenomenon [51,52]. In terms of origin,
phytotoxins (cytochalasin A and B, p- they are divided into two main groups, that is, naturally
hydroxybenzaldehyde) [44,45]. occurring in a given environment and coming from
In addition, microorganisms can interact with pro- other areas and/or industrially produced, and then
tected plants, increasing their resistance to parasites or introduced or released into a given environment. In a
pests and to weeds, increasing their sensitivity to dam- broad sense, biological factors include viruses and path-
age or death. Bacteria participating in these interactions ogenic and/or competitive microorganisms in relation
are representatives of plant growth promoting rhizobac- to pests (i.e., bacteria, protozoa, fungi), useful
teria. The most vivid example of a naturally occurring
1
biocontrol is competition, where all organisms have Economic injury level (EIL) is the density of the pest, at which
developed under the conditions of competitive stress. the yield value exceeds the pest control costs to a greatest
extent.
macroorganisms (i.e., predatory mites and insects, para- compounds C (mainly glucose) P, Fe, Mn, and Mg
sitic insects), substances of vegetable and animal origin [45,50]. Peptaibol is a class of small (15e20 amino
(i.e., extracts, active molecules) and so-called semicom- acids) linear polypeptides with a strong antimicrobial
pounds (pheromones, allomones, kairomones, and activity against Gþ bacteria and fungi (probably also
other attractants and repellents); and natural products with the properties of plant resistance elicitors), which
(e.g., plant extracts and their extracts, minerals, and belong to the so-called pore forming antibiotics causing
so-called “biologically active molecules” etc.). The sec- the formation of large (0.55 nm) openings in the cell
ond group includes factors that are not registered at membrane in the presence of sterols, which leads to os-
the EU level and contain plant protection products for motic autolysis of cells. They are characterized by great
independent registration in the EU. The group includes microheterogeneity resulting from their postribosomal
macroorganisms, that is, beneficial arthropods (insects, modification in the process of “thio-template”dthe
mites) and insecticides [48,52,53]. Three basic biolog- transfer of thiol groups (SH) by specific thioesters
ical strategies are used, that is, classic, augmenting, [56]. The conditions for effective colonization of the
and maintenance. Each of them has found a different rhizosphere are the biological protection factors and
application and uses various biological factors. The the use of native rhizosphere microorganisms and pre-
classic biological method involves the introduction inoculation, suitable initial inoculum; coinoculation;
into the environment of useful, exotic biological agents the use of appropriate carriers; “Soil manipulation”;
to control or reduce the population of pests of local or an appropriate phenotype with antibiotic, siderophore,
foreign origin. They are usually obtained from the areas enzymatic activity; resistance to fungicides; and using
of their natural occurrence and released in new areas, root exudates as a source of carbon [46,56]. Supportive
where they expect to be domesticated and effectively features of dissemination: motility, chemotaxis toward
keep the pest at an unimaginable level. The greatest root secretions, recognition of plant agglutinin, and
hope in biological plant protection is the possibility application of genetic engineering methods
of using as a protective factor against fungal diseases [46,48,49]. For example, the ability to produce com-
of bacteria and fungi that would constitute a natural pounds complexing Fe (III) among strains isolated
component of the mycosphere population. The area from the rye centrosphere is much higher than in soil
of microsphere is the first line of protection of plant loosely bound to the roots and in the endosphere. In
cells against attack of pathogens and harmful microor- the centrosphere, the “general synthesis” (number of
ganisms. For microorganisms with a positive effect on producers) of both Fe (III) complexing compounds
plant growthdPGPR (plant growthepromoting rhizo- and specific hydroxamic and catechol siderophores is
bacteria) and PGPF (plant growthepromoting fungi) several times higher than in soil loosely bound to roots
to stimulate the development of plants and protect irrespective of the rye growth period. In the centro-
them against pathogens and microorganisms harmful sphere, the largest amounts of Fe (III) complexing com-
to plant growthdDRMO (deleterious rhizosphere mi- pounds and hydroxyamide siderophores are produced
croorganisms), they must quickly settle in the plant at the stage of propagation by fungal strains and at
root system and be competitive with other rhizosphere the stage of propagation and full maturity by bacterial
organisms. Plant protection against fungal diseases by strains, while catechol siderophores are most inten-
biological methods is based on the use of specific phys- sively generated at the flowering stage. This indicates
iological characteristics of microorganisms. It can be a that the siderophores synthesized by microorganisms
direct or indirect result microbial influences on path- colonizing the root zone of cereals can have a significant
ogen [16,48,49,53e55]. The BCA (biological control impact on the amount of available Fe (III) in this zone
agent) mechanisms are as follows: and on supplying Fe (III). In the conditions of planting
i. Basic, direct: competition for a niche; competition the root system by microorganisms, the supply of the Fe
for nutrients; antibiotics (including antibiotics of plants in both the first and the second strategy is much
the peptaibols type). better. Under conditions of Fe deficiency, strains of
ii. Indirect: stimulation of immunity (defense mecha- plant growth-promoting microorganisms (PGPRs) pro-
nisms) of plants [3,56e61]. duce large amounts of siderophores with high affinity
To boost plant defense, additional biofertilizer prop- to the Fe “scrape” Fe (III) from their environment
erties can be obtained through growth hormones [56,62,63].
(auxin: IAA-indolyl acetic acid, ethylene, cytokinin- Competitive advantages exists in the organisms that
like compounds: gibberellin) and organic acids (i.e., can use, apart from their own, exogenous siderophores
gluconic, lemon, fumaric) facilitating the uptake of (have several receptors). When PGPR siderophore (e.g.,
pseudobactin) is used, only about 1% of rhizosphere They are the factors enabling the biocontrol of phyto-
strains synthesize ligands forming complexes from Fe pathogens. They are also factors that shape soil popula-
(III), with higher constant durability; they produce tions [62,63]. Mechanisms of antagonistic reactions
more siderophores under given conditions, their trans- between pathogens and cultivated plants can be
port system is more efficient, and their siderophores observed in Table 1.1.
are more resistant to degradation (e.g., pseudobactin Indirect mechanisms include stimulation of plant
containing D- and L-amino acids). Siderophores pro- growth and yield, use of microorganisms to create trans-
duced by soil microorganisms make Fe (III) available genic plants resistant to infection, and induction of
both to microorganisms as well as to plants I and II of plant resistance [39,54,62,68,69]. Preparations used
the strategy (transport to the plant through diffusion). for biological protection and promotion of plant
TABLE 1.1
Examples of the Protective Effect of Microorganisms Against Pathogenic Fungi Through the Direct
Interaction of Protecting Microorganisms.
Antagonists and Their Mechanism of
Action Pathogen Protected Plant
ANTIBIOTIC (ACTION THROUGH ANTIBIOTICS)
Erwinia herbicola Fusarium culmorum; Wheat, soy, sunflower bean,
Actinoplanes Phytophthora megasperma poinsettia, white, sugar beet,
Micromonospora sp. Macrophomina phaseolina Snapdragon, pepper, onion, cotton
Streptomyces sp. Pythium: Potato
P. aphanidermatum
P. debaryanum
P. ultimum
Rhizoctonia solani
Bacillus sp. Sclerotium capivorum
ANTIBIOTIC, COMPETITION (ACTION THROUGH ANTIBIOTICS, SIDEROPHORES AND HCN)
Pseudomonas sp.: Aphanomyces euteiches Peas, cloves, rye, wheat, cucumber,
P. fluorescens Fusarium oxysporum cotton, corn, sugar beet
P. putida Gaeumannomyces graminis
P. aphanidermatum
P. ultimum
PARASITISM/PREDATION (ACTION BY LYTIC ENZYMES)
Serratia marcescens Fusarium oxysporum ssp. pisi Cotton, cucumber, rice, peas, turf on
Enterobacter cloacae P. ultimum golf courses, peas, radishes, tomatoes
Trichoderma hamatum Sclerotinia homecarpa
Trichoderma harzianum Pythium ultimum
OPERATION BY MYCOPARASITISM AND NUTRIENTS
Pythium oligandrum Pythium ultimum Sugar beet
Aphanomyces cochliodes
OPERATION BY COMPETITION FOR AN ECOLOGICAL NICHE
Verticillium biguttatum Rhizoctonia solani Potato
Sources: CD. Barratt, L.P. Lawson, G.B. Bittencourt-Silva, N. Doggart, T. Morgan-Brown, P. Nagel, & S.P. Loader, New, narrowly distracted and
critically endangered species of the throat reed frog (Anura: Hyperoliidae) from the highly endangered coastal forest reserve in Tanzania. Herpetol.
J. 17 (1) (2017) 13e24, A. Jamio1kowska, B. Skwary1o-Bednarz, E. Patkowska, Morphological identity and population structure of Hemibiotrophic
fungus Colletotrichum coccodes colonizing pepper plants. Acta Sci. Pol. Hortorum Cultus, 17(4) (2018), 181e192, ISSN 1644-0692 e-ISSN 2545-
1405 doi: 10.24326/asphc.2018.4.16; A. Jamio1kowska. The role of some secondary metabolites in the health status of sweet pepper (Capsicum
annuum L.) grown in the field. Acta Sci. Pol. Hortorum Cultus, 13(2) (2014), 15e30; A. Jamio1kowska, A.H. Thanoon, Diversity and biotic activity of
fungi colonizing pumpkin plants (Cucurbita pepo L.) grown in the field. EJPAU, Horticulture, 19, 4 (2016). Available at: http://www.ejpau.media.pl/
volume19/issue4/art-11.html, G. Kshirsagar, A.N. Thakre, Plant disease detection in image processing using MATLAB. International Journal on
Recent and Innovation Trends in Computing and Communication 6(4) (2018) 113-116; ISSN: 2321-8169, J.M. Whipps, M.P. McQuilken, Aspects
of biocontrol of fungal plant pathogenes. In: Exploitation of Microorganisms, Gareth-Jones, ed. Champan & Hall, London (1993) 45e79.
growth and soil “sanitation” (e.g., Trichodermadbased pest). If social or aesthetic benefits are involved, an AET
measures) have procedural restrictions. In Annex I of is an aesthetic injury level. In the case of pests carrying
the EEC Directive 91/41, there are only four strains: diseases, their eradication seems justified (does not
Ampelomyces quisqualis, Coniothyrium minitans, Paecilomy- consider the economic costs) [51,62,70]. The initiative
ces fumosoroseus, and Pseudomonas chlororaphis. Despite of the International Organization of Biological Control
over 100 registered biological preparations used in (IOBC) gathered practitioners and scientists from many
plant protection, of which only about 50 are directed fields to define the limitations related to the implemen-
to the protection of plants against fungal pathogens. tation of biocontrol and to recommend mitigation
There is still no success in the wide application of these measures. Limitations in the implementation of BC
formulations and the reproducibility of the results ob- concern: risk aversion and not the best regulatory pro-
tained. The fact that there are mechanisms of induction cesses; bureaucratic barriers to access biological protec-
of plant resistance (largely analogous to the immuniza- tion measures; lack or insufficient commitment and
tion of animals) creates great hopes for the develop- lack of communication with the society, breeders and
ment of an effective and reliable plant vaccine [64]. politicians in matters related to the benefits of biocon-
The augmentative method consists of periodically trol; and finally, the fragmentation of biological subdis-
introducing beneficial micro- and/or macroorganisms ciplines. There is a need for better information about
from mass breeding into beneficial crops. These organ- economic, environmental and social success, as well
isms are subject to a suitable formulation, used in the as the benefits of biological control of pests, weeds
form of a biopreparation. In this strategy, the action and plant diseases, addressed to political and social au-
of a biological agent should be immediate and its estab- thorities, breeders, farmers, and other stakeholders. In
lishment in a new area is not expected. This is the most the future, initiatives that promise biocontrol should
commonly used strategy in commercial crops (growing be considered [45,49,51,52,55,70]. The ever-growing
under cover, mushroom farms, orchards and some field market for biological agents indicates great popularity
and forest crops). The conservation method uses natu- of biological methods in plant protection worldwide
rally occurring and specially introduced into agricul- (Table 1.2). This applies to plant crops whose direct
tural and forest areas of landscape elements, enabling consumption requires the highest safety standards
the development of a population of beneficial organ- (fruit, vegetables, mushrooms, baby food, etc.)
isms that naturally occur in these environments. The [48,49,52,55].
main goal of these activities is to improve the quality In recent years, microbial preparations (effective
of the environment by diversifying the landscape and, microorganismsdEM) have also become more popular
consequently, creating shades and hiding places, appro- [45,48,49,73,75,77e80]. They are a mixture of natu-
priate wintering places and securing a diverse food base rally occurring microorganisms, mainly lactic acid bac-
for natural entomophagy’s [70]. The main goal of pest teria (Lactobacillus casei, Streptococcus lactis), yeast
control is to reduce their population to a level where (Saccharomyces albus, Candida utilis), Actinomycetes
further reduction is no longer beneficial (in some cases, (Streptomyces albus, S. griseus), photosynthetic bacteria
it can be completely eradicated). This is called as the (Rhodopseudomonas palustris, Rhodobacter spae) and
EIL. EIL is the density of the pest, at which the yield mold fungi (Aspergillus oryzae, Mucor hiemalis)
value exceeds the pest control costs to the greatest [71,72,75,80e82]. Opinions on the impact of EM prep-
extent. If EIL is greater than zero, complete eradication arations on plant growth, their appearance and the
is not beneficial. If the pest population stays below quality of raw materials obtained from them are gener-
EIL, pest control is not needed, as the costs would far ally positive, which contributes to greater plant resis-
outweigh the benefits. However, if EIL reaches a level tance to diseases and pests and inhibition of pathogen
below the natural abundance of the species, it becomes growth in the environment [80,82e85]. Bolig1owa
a pest. The local total extermination of the pest by bio- et al. [86] and Bolig1owa [87] on EM and herbal extracts
logical warfare is rarely used, as it also causes the loss of suggest that they can successfully replace fungicides in
the regulatory factor [44,45,47,61]. In practical pest crop production and reduce or eliminate the use of
control, it is not so much EIL as the economic threshold plant protection products in the control of pests and
called the control action threshold (CAT), that is, the plant diseases. However, in recent years, the safety of us-
density of the pest, at which actions should be taken ing certain biological agents has also been questioned,
to prevent the mass appearance of the pest (there is both in relation to human health and the environment
not one CAT, because it changes over time and depends [71,72]. Therefore, it is necessary to comply with the
on the population density of the natural enemies of the relevant provisions defining the principles of
TABLE 1.2
Selected Biological Plant Protection Preparations.
Biocontrol Organisms The Name of the Biological Plant Protection Preparation
BACTERIA
Agrobacterium rhizogenes Galltrol A, Nogall, Diegall, Norbac 84
Agrobacterium tumefaciens BioJet
Azospirillum
Bacillus subtilis Concentrate, HiStick NT, Kodiak, Kodiak HB, Kodiak at, Quantum
4000 HB, Subtilex, system 3
Bacillus subtilis FZB24 Rhizo-Plus, Rhizo-Plus Konz, Serenade
Bacillus subtilis GBO3 Companin, Cocentrate
Bacillus thuringiensis var. aizawai Agree, Design, Math, Xin Tari
Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis Aquabac, Bactimos, Bactis, BMP144, Teknar, VectoBac
Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki Agrobac, Bactec, Bactosis K, Bernan, Biobit HP, BMP 123,
Condor, Cutlass, Dipel, Foil BFC, Foray, Foray 48B, Foray 68B,
Forwabit, Furtura, Javelin WG, Larvo BT, MVP, MVP II, Rapor,
Raven, Thuricide, Vault
Bacillus thuringiensis var. tenebrionis Gnatrol, M-Trak, Norodor, Troy-BT
Bacillus popilliae Doom, Japademic
Burkholderia cepacia Denny (Blue Circle, Percept)
Heterorhabditis bacteriophora Cruiser, Lawn Patrol, Otinem
Heterorhabditis spp. Heterorhabditis Larvanem
Pseudomonas aureofaciens Tx-1 Spotless
Pseudomonas cepacian Intercept
Pseudomonas fluorescens A506 BlightBan A506, BlightBan A506, Conquer
Pseudomonas fluorescens NCIB Vivtus
Pseudomonas chlororaphis Cedomon
Pseudomonas solanacearum PSSOL
Pseudomonas sp. BioJet
Pseudomonas syringae ESC-10 Bio-save 100, Bio-save 1000
Pseudomonas syringae ESC-11 Bio-save 110
Streptomyces griseoviridis Mycostop
Streptomyces lydicus Acinovate
FUNGI
Ampelomyces quisqualis AQ10 Biofungicide
Beauveria bassiana Botanigard, Mycotrol, Naturalis L, Naturalis O, Naturalis T (turf)
Candida oleophila I-182 Aspire
Coniothyrium minitans Contans, Koni
Fusarium oxysporum Biofox C, Fusaclean
Gliocladium catenulatum Primastop
Gliocladium spp. Gliomix
Gliocladium Soil Guard
Gliocladium virens GL-21 Soil Guard (GlioGard)
Metarhizium anisopliae Bay Bio 1010, Bio Blast
Paecilomyces lilacinus Paecil (Bioact)
Paecilomyces fumosoroseus PFR97
Phlebia gigantea Rotstop, P.G. Suspension
Pythium oligandrum Polyversum (Polygandron)

Phytophthora palmivora De vine
Talaromyces flavus Protus WG
Trichoderma harzianum Binab T, root Pro, Supresivit, Trichodex, Trichopel, Trichojest,
Trichoderma polysporum Trichodowels, Trichoseal, T-22G, T-22HB, Planter-Box (Bio-Trek),
Binab
Trichoderma spp. Bio-Fungus (Antifungus), Promot, Trichoderma 2000
Trichoderma viride Eco SOM, Trichopel, Tricjoject, Trichodowles, Trichoseal, Trieco
Verticillium lecanii Vertalec
VIRUSES
Autographa californica (NPV) VFN80
Granulosis virus Caapex, Cyd-X
Heliosis zea (NPV) Gemstar LC
Mamestra brassicae (NPV) Mamestrin
Spodoptera exigua Otienem-S, Spod-X
Syngrapha falcifera (NPV) Celery looper virus, Celery looper virus, Otienem-S
NEMATODES
Steinernema carpocapsaey Biovector, Bio-safe, Biovector, Ecomask, Guardian, Scanmask
Steinernema feltiae Entonem, Nemasys, Nemasys M
Source: J.M. Whipps, M.P. McQuilken, Aspects of biocontrol of fungal plant pathogenes, in: Exploitation of Microorganisms Gareth-Jones (Ed.),
Champan & Hall, London (1993) 45e79, S. Martyniuk. Production of microbial preparations: symbiotic bacteria of legumes as an example. Journal
_
of Research and Applications in Agricultural Engineering 55(4) (2010) 20e23, S. Martyniuk, J., Ksiezniak. Evaluation of pseudo-microbial bio-
preparations used in crop production. Polish J. Agronomy 6 (2011) 27e33, M. Jurkowski, M. B1aszczyk. Physiology and biochemistry of lactic acid
bacteria. Kosmos, Problems of Biological Sciences, 61(3) (2012) 493e504. (in Polish), J.C. Van Lenteren, Early entomology and the discovery of
insect parasitoids. Biol. Control 32 (2005) 2-7. doi:10.1016/j.biocontrol.2004.08.003, I. Pasmionka, K. Kotarba, Possible application of effective
microorganisms in environmental protection. Cosmos, Problems of Biological Sciences 64(1) (2015) 173e184. (in Polish), M.R. Finckh, S. Junge
H.J. Schmidt, O.D. Weedon. Disease and pest management in organic farming: a case for applied agroecology, in: Improving Organic Crop
Cultivation, Prof. U. Köpke (Ed.) Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing (2019) 1e59. (preprint, January 2019).
application, conducting a detailed impact assessment control measures of weeds include seed predators, herbi-
on human health and the environment to which they vores, and plant pathogens [88,91e93]. These organisms
are released, and registration of biological agents/agents have no impact on the health of consumers and therefore
used in plant protection practice. In the European not considered as plant protection products [90]. The use
Union, such provisions have been defined for viruses, of biological control to manage harmful insects is ahead
microbiological agents and substances of natural origin. of the current era of pesticides. The first successes of bio-
The rules and decisions regarding the release of benefi- logical control occurred in the case of exotic pests
cial macroorganisms were left to individual member controlled by natural enemies collected from the origin
states, only some of whom managed to develop appro- of the pest (classical control) [88,90e92,94,95]. Bale
priate regulations [45,48,49,52,53]. et al. [90] applied adhesive control against several pests
A special place in international work on biological in open spaces and in greenhouses and developed for
plant protection products is occupied by macroorgan- this purpose biological protection schemes against local
isms, which include parasitic and predatory insects, predators and parasitoids. They obtained a significant
predatory mites and insecticide nematodes (Table 1.3). economic effect. It turned out that the cost-benefit ratio
Natural enemies of insect pests, also known as biolog- for classical biological control was very favorable (1:
ical control agents, include predators, parasitoids, patho- 250), and for augmentation control it was like that for in-
gens, and their competitors. Plant biological control secticides (1:2e1:5), at much lower costs. According to
agents are called as antagonists. In turn, the biological van Lenteren [92] and Klapwijk and Koppert [93] many
TABLE 1.3
Biopreparations Based on Living Organisms (Macroorganisms) Available on the European Market for Use
in Crops Under Cover.
Name and Characteristics of Organism The Scope of Application
Steinernema feltiae parasitic nematode Diptera from the family ground worms in vegetable and plant crops
decorative under covers and in mushroom farms
Steinernema carpocapsae parasitic nematode Caterpillars of butterflies in greenhouse cultivation
Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita parasitic nematode Snails in crops vegetables and decorative plants under covers
Heterorhabditis bacteriophora parasitic nematode Beetle larvae (mainly gardeners, mycelium, and cockchafer
May) in crops of vegetables
Atheta coriaria predatory ladybird Ground and pupae thrips in crops of vegetables and decorative
plants under covers
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri predatory ladybird Mealybugs and June w plant crops decorative under covers
Adalia bipunctata predatory ladybird (colon) Aphids in crops of vegetables and decorative plants under covers
Delphastus pusillus predatory ladybird (whitefly) Whiteflies in the cultivation of vegetables and decorative plants
under covers
Stethorus punctilium predatory ladybug Spider mites in vegetable crops under covers
Aphelinus abdominalis predatory diphtheria Aphids in crops of vegetables and decorative plants under covers
Episyrphus balteatus predatory diptera Aphids in the cultivation of vegetables and ornamental plants
under covers
Sphaerophoria rueppellii predatory diptera Aphids, whiteflies, thrips, and spider mites in vegetable and plant
crops decorative under covers
Feltiella acarisuga predatory diptera (minced pimples) Spider mites in crops of vegetables and decorative plants under
covers
Aphidoletes aphidimyza predatory dipter (aphids Aphids in crops of vegetables and decorative plants under cover
aphids)
O. laevigatus, O. majusculus, Thrips in vegetable and ornamental crops under covers
O. insidiosus, O. strigicollis predatory bugs
Macrolophus melanotoma or pygmeus, the predatory Whiteflies, spider mites, thrips in crops of vegetables and
bug (whitefly perennial) decorative plants under covers
Nesidiocoris tenuis predatory bugs Whiteflies and Tuta absoluta in the cultivation of greenhouse
tomato
Phytoseiulus persimilis predatory mite (benefactor Spider mites in crops of vegetables and decorative plants under
greenhouse) covers
H. miles, H. aculeifer predatory mites Ground and pupae thrips in crops of vegetables and decorative
plants under covers
Amblyseius californicus predatory mite Spider mites, other mites herbivorous and thrips in crops of
vegetables and decorative plants after shields
Neoseiulus fallacis predatory mite Spider mites, other mites herbivores in crops of vegetables and
decorative plants after shields
Amblyseius swirskii predatory mite Whiteflies, spider mites, and thrips in crops of vegetables and
decorative plants under covers
Neoseiulus degenerans predatory mite (benefactor Thrips in crops of vegetables and decorative plants under covers
brown)
Amblyseius cucumeris predatory mite Thrips in crops of vegetables and decorative plants under covers
Amblyseius barkeri predatory mite Thrips in crops of vegetables and decorative plants under cover
Amblyseius andersoni predatory mite Spider mites, other mites herbivores in crops of vegetables and
decorative plants under covers
Euseius gallicus predatory mite Whiteflies and thrips in plant crops decorative under covers
Chrysopa carnea predatory networkers (golden eyed) To combat the thrips, spider mites, and whiteflies
common)
Encarsia Formosa parasitic wasp (greenhouse Whiteflies in crops of vegetables and decorative plants under
hygrometer) covers
Eretmocerus eremicus, E. ervi parasitic wasps Whiteflies in crops of vegetables and decorative plants under
covers
Encarsia formosa þ Eretmocerus eremicus parasitic Whiteflies in crops of vegetables and decorative plants under
wasps covers
Eretmocerus mundus parasitic wasp Whiteflies in crops of vegetables and decorative plants under
covers
Aphidius colemani parasitic wasp (greenhouse aphid) Aphids in crops of vegetables and decorative plants under covers
Aphidius matricariae parasitic wasp Aphids in crops of vegetables and decorative plants under covers
Dacnusa sibirica þ Diglyphus ISAE parasitic wasps Miners in crops of vegetables and decorative plants under covers
Leptomastix dactylopii parasitic wasp (yellowish Mealybugs and June w plant crops decorative under covers
reddish)
Source: D.I. Shapiro-Ilan R., Gaugler, W.L., Tedders, I., Brown, E.E., Lewis, Optimization of inoculation for in vivo production of entomopathogenic
nematodes. J. Nematol. 34(4) (2002) 343e350; M. Kozak-Ciezczyk. _ Molecular diagnostics in parasitology. Cosmos. Problems of Biological
Sciences 54(1) (266) (2005) 49e60 (in polish), M. Pojman ska, M. Parasitism, Parasites and their hosts. Cosmos. Problems of Biological Sciences,
54 (1) (266) (2005) 5e20; S. Bale, J.C., van Lenteren, J.C., Bigler. Biological control and sustainable food production. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 363
(2008) 761e776, doi: 10.1098/rstb.2007.2182; J.C. Van Lenteren. The state of commercial augmentative biological control: plenty of natural
enemies, but a frustrating lack of uptake. BioControl 57 (2012) 1-20, doi: 10.1007/s10526-011-9395-1; J.C. Van Lenteren, J.S., Bale, F., Bigler,
H.M.T., Hokkanen, A.J.M., Loomans, Assessing risks of releasing exotic biological control agents of arthropod pests. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 51
(2006) 609e634, doi: 10.1146/annurev.ento. 51.110104.151129; M.R. Finckh, S. Junge H.J. Schmidt, O.D. Weedon. Disease and pest man-
agement in organic farming: a case for applied agroecology, in: Improving Organic Crop Cultivation, Prof. U. Köpke, Ed. Burleigh Dodds Science
Publishing (2019) 1e59. (preprint, January 2019) https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330366201.
effective species of natural enemies have already been their possible impact on the environment. At present,
discovered and 230 are now available commercially. nine countries (Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Great Brit-
The plant protection industry has developed guidelines ain, Austria, Switzerland, the Czech Republic, Hungary,
for quality control, mass production methods, dispatch, and Slovenia) have introduced and apply registration reg-
and release as well as appropriate guidelines for farmers. ulations for macroorganisms. In several countries
However, augmentative biological control is still used on (Finland, Germany, Spain, and the Netherlands), such
a small area. However, due to the environmental safety provisions are currently under preparation. The basis
and good of the user and the consumer, a significant for the regulation developed by the International Plant
number of EU member states have introduced their Protection Convention (FAO): there are guidelines for
own regulations governing the import and use of macro- the export, dispatch, import, and issuance of Control Cer-
organisms. Freedom in this area means that the same fac- tificates (Agent Biocontrol) of other beneficial
tor and the measure containing it may be subject to organismsdISPM 3 (2005). These guidelines relate to
completely different regulations in individual countries risk managementdthe obligations and rights of the con-
or be completely excluded from registration. This makes tracting parties. The regulation applies to protection orga-
it difficult to market macroorganisms using time and eco- nizations at the national level. Potential threats to human
nomic barriers, or vice versa, it allows new species to be health are not considered to be significant, except for
introduced into Europe, without enough knowledge of some allergies in the production of mites and nematodes
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Biocontrol Manufacturers Association (IBMA). Biocon- 2008. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
trol Workshop, Cairo, January, 2018, p. 16. 308642520.
[94] EPPO, Safe use of biological control: import and release [2] C. Szewczuk, D. Sugier, S. Baran, E.J. Bieli nska,
of biological control agents. EPPO Standard PM6/2(1), M. Gruszczyk, The impact of fertilizing agents and different
EPPO Bull. 31 (2001) 33e35. doses of fertilizers on selected soil chemical properties as
[95] EPPO, List of biological control agents widely used in the well as the yield and quality traits of potato tubers, Ann.
EPPO region. EPPO Standard PM6/3(2), EPPO Bull. 32 UMCS, Agric. 71 (2) (2016) 65e79 (in Polish).
(2002) 447e461, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-
2338.2002.00600.x.
CHAPTER 2
Plant Diseases, Pathogens and

Diagnosis
BARBARA SAWICKA, PHD • CHUKWUEBUKA EGBUNA, BSC, MSC •
ASHISH KUMAR NAYAK, PHD • SMRITI KALA, PHD
INTRODUCTION Plant Diseases

Plant diseases and pests attacks are key issues in agricul- All manifestations of plant life, for example, growth,
ture, because they can cause a significant reduction in maturation, and fruiting, are a result of physiological
both the quantity and quality of agricultural products processes taking place inside the plant in a harmonious
[1e6]. Quantitative losses are more common in devel- manner, in a specific order, and in closely consecutive
oping countries [5,7] than in developed countries. At time sequences. These processes therefore represent
the global level, the amount of lost and wasted agricul- the internal environment of the plant, which is influ-
tural produce in high income regions is higher in the enced by external factors. If the plant’s organism can
further phases of the food chain, and vice versa as in adapt its processes to influences from the external
low-income regions where more food is lost and wasted environment, it remains healthy. However, for example,
in the start-up phase [5]. In turn, the quality losses also failure to supply the plant with water for 3e5 days re-
include those that affect the composition of nutrition, sults in the loss of turgor and disturbance of physiolog-
caloric, digestibility, or the acceptability of agricultural ical balance. After this time, plant water supply usually
produce. These losses are generally more common in leads to its rapid return to normal. Physiological imbal-
developed countries [8,9]. It was estimated that in ce- ance due to temporary loss of water is not a disease, but
reals, root crops, fruits, and vegetables, these losses ac- if you leave the plant without access to water for the
count for respectively: approx. 19%; 20%, and 44% of next few days, changes in plant physiology will become
losses [5,9,10]. Root plants and vegetables are particu- irreversible. Therefore, considering the time and inten-
larly exposed to these losses [6,11e13]. It is estimated sity of the external factor’s impact on the plant, the
that in Georgia (USA), there are over 2046 plant dis- disease can be defined as follows: the disease is the
eases which causes losses, amounting to approximately effect of strong disturbance of physiological processes
USD $1,040 million in loss. Of this amount, about US $ of the plant [20e22].
185 million was spent on combating leaf diseases, and
the rest is the damage caused by other diseases [6]. Due Classification scheme for plant diseases
to the calorific value of products, cereals (53%), such as Plant diseases can be classified in many ways
wheat, rice, and maize, have the largest share in losses (Table 2.1). For instance, they can be divided into
[6,14]. According to the World Bank’s report, only noninfectious and infectious diseases. Plant infectious
Sub-Saharan Africa is losing grains worth more than diseases are caused by bacteria, viruses, and viroids,
USD 4 billion a year. In India, losses due to crop dam- while plant noninfectious diseases are mainly caused
age by diseases and pests, inadequate storage of yield by abiotic factors.
reach 47% [14e17]. These losses play a key role for As described in Table 2.1, there are several criteria
small agricultural producers [14,18,19]. Therefore, the that may be used as basis for plant disease classification.
purpose of this chapter is to attempt to classify diseases, For instance, plant diseases are classified based on the
pests, and pathogens, and assess their harmfulness and following:
impact on yield losses of the most important crop spe- Symptoms they cause:
cies of high economic importance for feeding the pop- i. Root rots.
ulation, as well as an attempt to diagnose them earlier. ii. Cankers.
Natural Remedies for Pest, Disease and Weed Control. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819304-4.00002-6

Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 17
18 PART I Green Approach To Pest and Disease Control
TABLE: 2.1
Classification of Plant Diseases.
S/No Class Category Diseases/Organisms/Hosts
1. Type of infection Localized diseases Leaf spot
Systematic diseases Downy mildew
2. Part of host affected Foliage diseases Blight of rice
Stem diseases Stem rot
Root diseases Root rot
3. Kind of symptoms produced Root rots Bean
Fruit rots Tomato
Powdery mildew Grapes, cucumber
Downy mildew Rose, llettuce
Leaf spot Corn
Rust Wheat
Leaf blight Rice
Mosaic Tobacco
Wilt Cucurbit, potato
Damping off Tobacco, tomato
Smut Wheat, bbarley
Canker Citrus
4. Multiplication of inoculum Simple interest disease
Compound interest
disease
5. Type of perpetuation and spread Soilborne disease Root rot, wilt
Seedborne disease Blight, rust
Airborne disease Damping off
6. Extent of occurrence and Endemic diseases Wart disease of potato
geographic distribution Epidemic diseases Rust, mildews
Sporadic diseases Leaf blight, wilt
Pandemic diseases Late blight of potato
7. Based on causal agent Biotic Fungi, protozoa, algae, infects, nematodes,
phytoplasma, spiroplasma
Abiotic Deficiency/excess of nutrients
Low/extreme light
Unfavorable oxygen supply and soil
moisture
Atmospheric impurities
Air pollutants
Mesobiotic Viruses
Viroids
8. Based on pathogen generation Monocyclic disease Loose smut of wheat
Polycyclic disease Late blight of potato
iiiv. Wilts’ Plant organ affected:

iv. Leaf spots. i. Root diseases: Root rots (Verticillium, Colleto-
v. Scabs. trichum, Macrophomina), club root disease of
vi. Blights. crucifer, vascular wilts (Fusarium spp., Verticillium),
vii. Anthracnoses. and other root diseases caused by Gaeumannomyces
viii. Rusts. graminis, Phymatotrichum omnivorum, and Armillaria
ix. Smuts. mellea.
CHAPTER 2 Plant Diseases, Pathogens and Diagnosis 19
ii. Stem diseases: Stem rot of jute, Black stem rust of 1. Nonparasitic disease: The causal factors of these are
wheat. mainly physiological or environmental like freezing
iii. Foliage diseases: Leaf spot of turmeric, leaf blight of injury caused by low temperature, high temperature,
wheat, leaf curl of peach. unfavorable oxygen or soil moisture, mineral defi-
iv. Fruit diseases: Crown gall of stone fruits, citrus ciency or excess mineral, etc. Example: Red leaf of
canker. cotton and Kharia disease of rice is caused due to
v. Seedling diseases: Seedling blight (Pythium, Phy- mineral deficiency, Black heart of potato is caused
tophthora, Fusarium, Corticium). due to high temperature, Bark necrosis of red deli-
Extent to which plant disease is associated with cious apple is caused due to excess mineral. In
plant: summary, diseases can be classified based on the
(i) Localized disease: Affects only a part of the plant. following factors:
(ii) Systemic disease: Affects the entire plant. (a) Nutrient deficiencies.
Host plants affected: (b) Mineral toxicities.
i. Vegetable diseases. (c) Lack or excess of soil moisture.
ii. Cereal diseases. (d) Too low or too high temperature.
iii. Ornamental diseases. (e) Air pollution.
iv. Forest diseases. (f) Lack of oxygen.
v. Fruit tree diseases. (g) Lack or excess of light.
Mode of natural perpetuation and mode of (h) Soil acidity or alkalinity (pH).
infection: 2. Parasitic disease: The causal factors of the disease
(i) Airborne: The microorganisms are spread through are parasitic micro- or macroorganisms that need a
the air and attack the plants causing diseases, for host plant to survive or to complete the life cycle.
example, blight, rust, powdery mildew. Various fungi, bacteria, viruses, mycoplasma, algae,
(ii) Soilborne: Inoculums of the diseases causing and animal parasites such as nematodes parasitize
pathogen remains in the soil and penetrate the plant and cause disease in host plants. Example: Club root
resulting in diseased condition, for example, root of crucifer caused by mycoplasma, Bacterial blight of
rot, wilt. paddy, smut, and rusts caused by fungi, Tobacco
(iii) Seedborne: The microorganisms are carried along mosaic caused by a virus, ergot etc. On this basis,
with seeds and cause diseases when the congenial plant diseases are classified as follows:
condition occurs, for example, damping off. (a) Diseases caused by fungi
Occurrence and distribution of plant disease (b) Diseases caused by bacteria
geographically: (c) Diseases caused by parasitic higher plants
(i) Endemic: When a disease is more or less constantly (d) Diseases caused by viruses
prevalent from year to year in a moderate-to-severe (e) Diseases caused by nematodes
form in a particular country, for example, Wart
disease of potato is endemic to Darjeeling. Pathogenic Agents
(ii) Epidemic or epiphytotic: A disease occurring peri- A pathogen is a parasite that adversely affects its host to
odically but in a severe form involving a major area such an extent that it causes its illness or death. Not all
of the crop. It may be constantly present in the parasites are pathogens and not all pathogens are
locality but assume severe form occasionally, for parasites (an example of an antiparasitic pathogen is
example, rust, late blight, mildews. Clostridium botulinum that produces exotoxind
(iii) Sporadic: Diseases that occur at a very irregular neurotoxindinhibits the release of acetylcholine and,
interval and location in a moderate-to-severe form, consequently, botulismdmuscle paralysisdwhich can
for example, leaf blights, wilt. cause death) [23,24].
(iv) Pandemic: Diseases occurring throughout the Among pathogens, the following can be distin-
continent or subcontinent resulting in mass mor- guished: noninfectious and infectious. In the case of
tality, for example, late blight of potato. noninfectious agents, the disease does not spread; there-
However, the most commonly used criterion in fore, there are no new plants with clear symptoms.
plant disease classification is the type of pathogen that Noninfectious agents include too low air humidity,
causes the disease. On the basis of causal factors, dis- low air temperature and high temperature, lack or insuf-
eases are classified into two groups: ficiency of light, environmental pollution, soil reaction,
genetic defects, plant protection chemicals, acid rain, Symbiotes, on the one hand, use the plant’s food; on
hurricane, wind, hail, and tsunamis. Noninfectious the other hand, they either directly supply it with nutri-
plant diseases, however, most often cause lack or excess ents or facilitate the plant’s collection [28,31].
of nutrients [25e27]. Parasitic affinity, aggressiveness, pathogenicity:
Infectious factors are those that infect after physical Parasitic affinity is the mutual tendency of the para-
contact with the plant. Then, they grow, grow, and site and the host. The pathogenic agent then has a
reproduce on it or in it. Infectious agents are called tropism against the host and enzymatic adaptation
pathogens. Infection factors include viruses and viroids, that allows tissue infection and colonization. Lack of af-
phytoplasmas, bacteria, fungi, parasitic seed plants, finity prevents infection or colonization. Pathogenicity
chromista, and protozoa [28]. is a genetically determined ability of a parasite to inter-
fere with one or more of the physiological functions of a
Classification of pathogens plant. Parasitism plays a significant but often not very
In terms of parasitism, pathogens can be divided into significant role in this process [29,30].
the following: Aggressiveness is the ability to infect, colonize, and
1. Obligatory parasites (absolute, strict)dthey develop use plant nutrients. The degree of aggressiveness de-
and reproduce only in living cells of plants, for pends on the characteristics of the pathogen and host
example, viroids or fungi from the order Erysiphales. and on external factors. The measure of aggressiveness
2. Facultative parasites (relative, facultative), which is (a) the infection threshold, that is, the smallest num-
differ from the absolute parasites, that in certain ber of infectious agents of the pathogen (e.g., fungal
circumstances they can develop on dead organic spores): needed to infect the plant; (b) duration of
matter, for example, Ascomycota (Ascomycota) infection; (c) the length of the incubation period of
mushrooms [27]. the disease, that is, the time from the infection to the
3. Occasional parasites (relative, optional), that is, first symptoms manifested. Pathogenicity is the para-
pathogens of weakness. They attack plants that are site’s ability to cause disease. Virulence is the measure
weakened or damaged [29]. of pathogenicity [29,30]. Virulence is a constant, genetic
ability of a pathogen to cause disease. However, the vor-
Concepts of parasitism and pathogenicity tex can sometimes change, for example, after prolonged
Parasitism and pathogenicity are not unambiguous breeding on artificial substrates [28].
concepts. A parasite is an organism that lives on a living Mandatory parasites, facultative parasites, faculta-
plant and receives nutrients from it, without providing tive saprophytes, half-parasites. The obligatory para-
anything to the plant in exchange. Dependencies be- sites are represented, for example, by the fungi of the
tween the parasite and its host are called parasitism. order Uredinales, fungi of the order Erysiphales, most of
Parasitism is a kind of intimidation. Among the para- the representatives of the Peronosporaceae family, and
sites, there are pathogens, nonpathogenic parasites, fungal organisms from the order Plasmodiophorales
symbiotes [29,30]. The pathogen is the body, often a (e.g., Plasmodiophora brassicae, the perpetrator of Crucif-
microorganism that causes disease. However, the erous syphilis). Parasitic parasites develop only on living
main goal of the pathogen is to get food. It causes plants. They infect plants through undamaged skin, nat-
disease in plants to weaken their defenses. For most dis- ural holes, or less often through wounds. Most parasites
eases, the amount of damage to plants caused by the from this group cannot be grown on artificial substrates.
pathogen is usually greater than the losses resulting They usually infect plants in a good condition, because
from the absorption of nutrients by them. Additional they are the source of more nutrients of higher quality
losses result from, for example, introducing toxins to [29].
plants, damaging cells and tissues that interfere with Optional parasites live commonly as saprotrophs,
transpiration, causing wilting, abnormal cell division, but under certain conditions they eat parasitically.
etc. The parasite’s pathogenicity is usually not propor- This group includes most fungi and fungus-causing
tional to its nutrient needs. For example, local damage organisms that cause diseases, among others: Botrytis
to the base of the stems usually causes the plants to cinerea and Pythium spp. Optional parasites infect plants
freeze. Nonpathogenic parasites use the nutrients of mainly through wounds, sometimes through undam-
the living plant, but they do not cause disease. The aged peels. Symptoms often are accompanied by
nonpathogenic parasite is, for example, Phialophora gra- various necrosis. These parasites are easier to paralyze
minicola, a fungus inhabiting the roots of many grass weakened plants. Organisms from this group grow
species [28]. well on artificial substrates [29].
Hosts. There are several categories among the hosts. parasitizes on Dianthus caryophyllus (garden carnation).
There are two main categories associated with parasitic The breed is a form of adaptation of the pathogen to
ontogenesis: final hosts and intermediate hosts. The the variety or species of the plant. Breeds are marked
final host is the organism in which the sexual parasite with numbers, for example, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp.
propagates. In the case of Metazoan, this is the host of Dianthi rasa 1dit can infect only, for example, the A va-
the adult figure, and in the case of Protozoadthe riety of carnation, and Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Dianthi
host, in which the parasite produces male and female rasa 2donly variety B of this species. Special forms usu-
gametes, joining the zygote. However, in the case of ally do not differ in morphological features or these dif-
digenetic flaws, where in ontogenesis occurs at least in ferences are very small. The physiological race does not
two generations of parthenogenetic and one sexual gen- show such differences; breed is differentiated based on
eration, the final host is the last-generation host of this pathogenicity [29,33,34].
generation, also known as the adult figure. The interme- Life cycle of the pathogen versus disease cycle. The
diate host is the organism in which Metazoan larvae life cycle is the successive stages of parasitic or parasitic
parasitize, or those protozoan generations that repro- and saprophytic development interrupted by periods of
duce asexually. The exception are larvae of few tape- rest, for example, due to winter. During both types of
worms (including the genus Echinococcus and some development, reproduction (reproduction) and dissem-
Hymenolepidiidae), whose larvae produce in the interme- ination often occur. All parts, fragments, or structures of
diate host numerous so-called. “Heads” tapeworms, the organism from which a new individual may
and each of the “heads” may in the final host develop develop, for example, a fungal or bacterial colony, are
into an adult individual. In ontogenesis of digenetic propagation units [29,30,33,34]. In summary, a disease
digestion, intermediate hosts are mollusks in which cycle is a sequence of events during which the disease
the parasite produces at least two generations of parthe- begins, develops, and maintains. The disease cycle
nogenetic, including a larva, from which the adult will sometimes coincides with the pathogen life cycle, but
grow in the final host. Many parasitic trematodes pro- not always. The disease cycle is distinguished by infec-
duce two larval forms in the developmental cycle, and tion, inoculation, and specific disease (symptomizing).
the development of each of them is associated with a The infection is preceded by inoculation [28,31].
change in the host. In this case, the first and second in- Infection. An infection is a process in which a path-
termediate hosts are distinguished [29,30]. ogen contacts a sensitive cell or tissue and uses nutrients
Half-parasites are photosynthetic-able organisms, from it. During the infection, the pathogen grows and
but they take up water and mineral salts from their multiplies, penetrates, and colonizes the plant to a
host plant. A parasite is, for example, mistletoe (Viscum greater or lesser extent. Thus, the penetration of a path-
album), which is particularly often parasitized on poplar ogen into plant tissues and its growth as well as repro-
[28]. duction in or on infected tissues are components of
The scope of parasitism, parasitic specialization. disease development as part of the infection stage
Depending on the number of hosts, we divide patho- [24,28].
gens into monophagous, polyphagia, omni phages The factors determining the occurrence of infec-
(omnivorous). Monophagous exist among all pathogen tion are as follows: contact of the pathogen with the
groups. Monofagic are, for example, numerous perpe- plant, for example, inoculation; presence of a sensitive
trators of rust, powdery mildew, and Venturia inaequalis. plant variety on a specific race of pathogens (the path-
Polyphagias are, for example, Botrytis cinerea, Pythium ogen must be virulent toward the plant); the presence
spp., Fusarium spp., and Verticillium spp. and Rhizoctonia of the plant in a pathogen-sensitive development phase;
solani [32]. Most monophagous are obligatory parasites. presence of pathogen in the pathogenic stage; tempera-
Among the polyphagous, occasional parasites domi- ture and humidity conducive to the growth, reproduc-
nate. The group of omni phages is represented by, for tion, and spread of the pathogen. An effective
example, Botrytis cinerea, the perpetrator of gray molds infection ends in establishing a parasitic contact and af-
of various plant species. Specialization may also apply ter the incubation period leads to the formation of dis-
to the organ of the plant, for example, roots, leaves, colorations or necrosis on the surface of the plant,
and shoots. The proper form of specialization is the which are called disease symptoms. Sometimes the
occurrence of special forms and physiological races infection does not lead to the occurrence of disease
within the same species. The special form is the result symptoms. It is then that the disease is latent or asymp-
of the adaptation of the pathogen to the host plant spe- tomatic. Its manifestation often depends on the envi-
cies, for example, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Dianthi ronmental conditions or the age of the plant [29,30].
Depending on the extent of the infection, the following root diseases and ground organs of many plant
are distinguished: species. Raindrops are spreading with raindrops
1. A local infection that involves a single cell, several mitospores Spilocea pomi (mitomorphic stage Ven-
cells, or a small part of the plant; this infection is turia inaequalis), fungus causing scab of apple trees
caused by the plant anthracnose offenders, [27,28].
2. Systemic infectiondthis includes all or most of the 3. Animals: For example, the thrush spreads mistletoe
plant; this infection is caused by viruses, viroids, seeds. Flies and mosquitoes spread spores of Spha-
mycoplasmas, and some fungi, for example, Graph- celia segetum (mitomorphic stage Claviceps purpurea).
ium ulmi, the metamorphic stage of Ceratocystis ulmi, Bees and flies carry along with pollen Erwinia amy-
the author of the Dutch elm disease [28]. lovora, the perpetrator of the fire blight of many plant
species from the Rosaceae family. Insect, the green
Spread of pathogens fodder (Tortixviridana) participates in the spread of
Pathogens are spread directly and indirectly. The direct Chalara quercina (mitomorphic stage Ceratocystis
spread of pathogens occurs through seeds, organs, or fagacearum), causes of oak dieback. Many species of
other vegetative parts: aphids and jumpers with piercing and sucking
• Seeds: Infected seeds are the primary source of mouth transmits viruses [28,34].
infection of plants by some viruses, bacteria, and 4. Human: Humans spreads pathogens because of the
many fungus-like organisms and fungi. The seeds acquisition and sale of agricultural products and
carry, for example, alfalfa mosaic virus, transferring a carrying out care work. For example, during potato
mosaic of lucerne, Colletotrichum lindemuthianum, peeling, it can carry a bacterium that causes the black
the perpetrator of bean anthracnose, Pseudomonas leg of a potato (Erwinia carotovora subsp. atroseptica),
syringae var. lachrymans, causing bacterial squared and various viruses that transmit in a mechanical
cucumber, Pseudomonas syringae var. phaseolicola, manner (EPPO 1994, Rataj-Guranowska et al., 2017).
causing peripheral bacteriologist of the beans, Sep- 5. Infection, pollution (contamination): When a
toria apiicola, cause of celery septoriosis, Stagonospora dead material contains or carries infectious units of a
nodorum, causing wheat chaff disease, Ustilago tritici, pathogen, it is contaminated. Pollution often also
cause of wheat dusting head [27,35]. means contamination with toxic substances.
• Vegetative Organ: Organs of vegetative reproduc- Contamination is the loss of cleanliness. Dead ma-
tion originating from plants infected systemically, terial cannot be infected. Live material can be
mainly by viruses and bacteria. In this way, all vi- contaminated, contaminated and infected. Infected
ruses found in the organs of plants used for their material carries a pathogen [27,28].
breeding because of grafting, budding, planting in 6. Monocyclic and polycyclic pathogens: Pathogens
the form of seedlings, bulbs, bulbs, and rhizomes that close their disease cycle only in one or in part of
are transmitted; 1 year are monocyclic pathogens. Monocyclic path-
ogens are numerous species of fungi from the Usti-
Factors that facilitate spread of pathogens laginaceae family, the perpetrators of plant heads,
The indirect transfer of the perpetrators of diseases is because they produce spores at the end of the
usually facilitated by a number of factors: growing season; in the following year, these spores
1. Air currents: Pathogens transmitted by air currents are the primary and only source of infection. Other
are usually the most serious causes of an epidemic. monocyclic pathogens are different perpetrators of
With air currents move, among others urediniospora tree rust requiring two separate hosts and at least
of fungi from the Pucciniaceae family, causing rust of 1 year for the end of the cycle. In monocyclic path-
plants. Urediniospores can be carried over several ogens, the primary inoculum is the only source of
thousand kilometers; infection throughout the season, because the path-
2. Flowing water and raindrops: With flowing water ogen does not cause secondary infections and
are transferred, among others spores of fungus-like therefore does not form a secondary inoculum. The
organisms from the family Pythiaceae, fungi of the amount of inoculum produced at the end of the
genus Fusarium, bacteria cells Erwinia carotovora growing season is usually greater than the amount
subsp. carotovora, causes potato rot wet rot, spores of presents at the beginning of the. In the case of
Plasmodiophora brassicae, fungal-like organism pathogens that propagate with propagating mate-
causing syphilis cabbage and swimming spores of rial, in both terms the amount of inoculum may be
representatives of the genus Phytophthora causing similar [28].
7. Polycyclic pathogens: Polycyclic pathogens are inefficient to the pathogen or plays a minor role in
pathogens that can create more than one generation creating this resistance.
of infectious units in one growing season. The 2. The influence of genes on many physiological
number of generations in this group of pathogens processes conditioning the emergence of plant de-
can range from 2 to 30 during the year. The amount fense mechanisms. However, noticeable immune
of inoculum produced thus increases with each cycle responses in, for example, different varieties are too
and is eventually increased many times. These little differentiated to be able to divide these vari-
pathogens are the main contributors to the fastest- eties into resistance groups using horizontal
growing epidemics, for example epidemics caused resistance.
by perpetrators of pseudo and mildew mildews and 3. Variability depending on environmental conditions.
contagious potato and tomato plague. In polycyclic 4. Lack of protective capacity against infection of the
fungi, the primary inoculum is generally represented plant.
by spores of the monomorphic stage. In fungi rarely 5. Horizontal immunity only delays the infection and
forming or not forming this stage, the primary the spread of the disease [27,28,31]. Horizontal
inoculum is spores or mycelium developing from immunity is sometimes called as nonspecific, gen-
the wintering organs. Pathogens terminating the eral, quantitative, or permanent immunity.
disease cycle over many years are called poly-bicyclic
pathogens. Such pathogens are, for example, the
perpetrators of odorous diseases, mycoplasmas and Vertical resistance. Distinguishing features of vertical
viral trees. The amount of inoculum at the end of the resistance are as follows:
growing season is usually not significantly different i. No variability depending on environmental
from the amount of inoculum present at the conditions.
beginning of the season. In many years, the amount ii. Inhibiting the development of an epidemic by
of inoculum may gradually increase, and the path- limiting the size of the initial inoculum.
ogen may cause an onerous epidemic [27,28]. iii. Controlling immunity by one or several genes
(monogenic or oligogenic resistance). These genes
Resistance, Tolerance, and Disease are likely to control the main phase of interaction of
Outbreak the pathogen with the host.
During the growing season, plants are attacked by a iv. Maladjustment of the pathogen to the host. One of
huge number of infectious units of a specific pathogen. the ways of this maladaptation is the hypersensi-
Resistance to disease is a feature of the host plant that tivity reaction.
does not allow disease to be caused by a pathogen v. Suppression of initiation of the pathogen associa-
adapted to it. The types of plant resistance to diseases tion with the host [27,28].
are real resistance and apparent immunity. Disease The vertical resistance guarantees the total resistance
resistance, which is genetically controlled by the pres- of the plant to certain races of the pathogen. However,
ence of one, several, or many plant resistance genes, is in relation to his other breeds, the same plant is sensi-
called real resistance. In the real resistance, the host tive. Vertical resistance is also called specific or qualita-
and pathogen are mutually incompatible, because of tive resistance. In turn, apparent immunity is expressed
the lack of the following: by avoidance of disease or tolerance. Avoidance of the
a. Chemical recognition between host and pathogen. disease occurs when the sensitive plant is not infected,
b. The plant’s ability to be protected against a path- because three factors are necessary for the onset of the
ogen by means of various protective mechanisms disease (sensitive variety, virulent pathogen, and favor-
already present in the plant or activated after infec- able environment) and do not cooperate at the right
tion of the pathogen [28,31]. time or long enough. Plants can avoid the disease
because of the following:
Types of real resistance 1. Their seeds germinate faster, or seedlings strengthen
There are two types of real resistance: horizontal and before the advent of a pathogen-friendly temperature.
vertical resistance. 2. Some plants are sensitive to the pathogen only in
certain stages of growth; in the absence of a path-
Horizontal resistance. The distinguishing features of ogen or it’s a virulence, the plant remains healthy.
horizontal resistance are as follows: For example, young plants are much more sensitive
1. Controlling immunity by many genes (polygene or to Pythium spp., perpetrators of powdery mildews,
multigene resistance). Each of the genes is rather and most bacteria and viruses. However, fungi from
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