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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN
ELEC TRIC AL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
Xavier Fernando
Ajmery Sultana
Sattar Hussain
Lian Zhao
Cooperative
Spectrum Sensing
and Resource
Allocation Strategies
in Cognitive Radio
Networks
SpringerBriefs in Electrical and Computer
Engineering
Series editors
Woon-Seng Gan
Sch of Electrical & Electronic Engg
Nanyang Technological University
Singapore, Singapore
Mauro Barni
Dept of Info Engg & Mathematics
University of Siena
Siena, Italy
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10059
Xavier Fernando • Ajmery Sultana • Sattar Hussain
Lian Zhao
Cooperative Spectrum
Sensing and Resource
Allocation Strategies in
Cognitive Radio Networks
123
Xavier Fernando Ajmery Sultana
Department of Electrical and Computer Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering Engineering
Ryerson University Ryerson University
Toronto, ON, Canada Toronto, ON, Canada
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer
Nature 2019
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Preface
v
vi Preface
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 The Interweave Cognitive Radio System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Cooperative Spectrum Sensing in CRNs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Challenges in Cooperative Spectrum Sensing Challenges . . . 8
1.2.2 Spectrum Sensing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.3 Sensing and Relaying Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Diversity Combining Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2 Relay-Based Cooperative Spectrum Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1 Spectrum Sensing over Fading Channels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 The Spectrum Sensing Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.1 Single-Relay System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.2 Multi-Relay CSS System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 Convergence Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4 Approximated Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5 Performance Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3 Taxonomy for the Resource Allocation in CRNs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1 Resource Allocation Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3 Basic Elements or Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.4 Resource Allocation Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4.1 Heuristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4.2 Optimization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4.3 Graph Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.4.4 Game Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.4.5 Genetic Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4.6 Particle Swarm Intelligence Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4.7 Geometric Water-Filling Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
vii
viii Contents
AF Amplify-and-forward
AWGN Additive white gaussian noise
CCI Co-channel interference (CCI)
CDF Cumulative distribution function
CF Characteristic function
CR Cognitive radio
CRC Cyclic redundancy check
CRN Cognitive radio network
CRP CR pair
CSI Channel state information
CSS Cooperative spectrum sensing
CWF Conventional water-filling
CXI Cross-channel interference (XCI)
DF Decode-and-forward
DFT Discrete Fourier transform
DSL Digital subscriber lines
DVB Digital video broadcasting
D2D Device-to-device
EGC Equal gain combining
FEC Forward error-correction
FFT Fast Fourier transform
GWF Geometric water-filling
GWFPP Geometric water-filling with individual peak power constraints
IGPP Iterative partitioned weighted geometric water-filling with individual
peak power constraints
i.i.d Independent identically distributed
IPWF Iterative partitioned water-filling
ISI Inter-symbol interference
LOS Line of sight
LTE Long term evaluation
LWF Linear water-filling
ix
x Abbreviations
Ever increasing demand for myriad of wireless services poses two major challenges
in the wireless network paradigm. One is the spectrum scarcity and the other is
the demand of high data rates, up to tens of Gbps. While there is continuous effort
to allocate more spectrum for wireless usage, it is observed that currently licensed
spectrum is significantly underutilized [2, 3] due to sporadic transmission nature of
most communication devices.
CR concept was first coined by Joseph Mitola [4], who proposed it as a
solution for efficiently utilizing the radio resources. Original CR concept was
strictly interweave. Since a CR transceiver shall have the ability to tune to different
frequency bands, the CR is typically built using software-defined radio technology.
Therefore, the transmitter operating parameters, such as the carrier frequency,
modulation type and transmission power can be dynamically adjusted by software
[5, 6]. CRs, with its ability to smartly interact with the surrounding environment, are
amenable to allow the coexistence licensed users (PUs) and unlicensed users (SUs)
sharing the same bandwidth opportunistically without causing harmful interference
to each other.
Spectrum sensing is one of the most fundamental elements of a CRN; the task
can be seen as occupying two-layers. The PHY-layer detection methods such as
energy detection, matched filter, and feature detection aim to efficiently discover the
presence of primary user signal by learning its modulation/encoding schemes and
parameters. On the other hand, the MAC-layer sensing determines how frequently
and when, the secondary user has to sense given channels (sensing period). The
sensing period has to be optimized based on the traffic characteristics of the PUs as
well as SUs [7].
Spectral hole locations usually change dynamically. This is an issue in optimizing
the sensing period and need wideband agile receivers with fast sensing capabilities.
Advanced techniques such as compressed sensing may be helpful here. Also note,
sensing operation drains energy which can be an issue if the secondary network is a
wireless sensor network.
CRNs have distinctive characteristics from a traditional wireless network where it
intelligently recognizes the status of the radio environment and adjusts its functional
parameters accordingly [6, 8]. Most critical part of CRN is allowing CR users to
share the licensed spectrum with PUs without degrading their performance [7]. This
imposes new challenges and open research issues.
1.1 The Interweave Cognitive Radio System 3
Spectrum
Allocation
Spectrum
Cognitive Radio
Mobility
Functionalities
Spectrum
Access
Spectrum
Sharing
The basic elements for the operation of CR systems are depicted in Fig. 1.1 and
the main functions of those elements to support intelligent and efficient utilization
of frequency spectrum are envisioned in Fig. 1.2.
From Figs. 1.1 and 1.2, it can be seen that the proper functionality of a CRN
depends on optimally sensing, accessing and sharing operations of the spectrum.
Capacity of CR depends on what white spaces are available and how accurately
they are detected. In addition to fading and shadowing, random interference can also
cause false detection. Furthermore, SU transmitter and receiver must coordinate to
find common holes for successful transmission. Therefore, the cognitive network
throughput is usually difficult to guarantee. Ergodic and outage capacity of a CR
4 1 Introduction
of view, a temperature sensor may have a very low data rate whereas cellular handset
may have a very high data rate. The IEEE 802.15.4 standard supports different data
rates varying from 20 kbps (868 MHz band) to 250 kbps (2.4 GHz band).
s1 s2 sL
r1 r2 rL
Primary User
CR2
CR1
ordinary link
relay link
common receiver
need to have a base-station to synchronize the scheduling such that all users can
have the same sensing cycles and avoid interfere with sensing operations [41].
On the other side, distributed systems require an exchange of observations among
CR users [42]. In the fully distributed system, all signal processing is done at
the CR terminals. Decisions are taken locally by these terminals and forwarded
later on to the fusion center. Global or final decision are then made by the fusion
center [43]. Distributed network solutions are mainly proposed for cases where the
construction of an infrastructure is not preferable [42, 44, 45]. These networks lack
the centralized support and rely on local coordination for network management
and topology configuration [46]. One common cooperative scheme of distributed
systems is to form clusters to share the sensing information locally [47].
The basic assumption of the spectrum sensing is that the locations of the primary
receivers are unknown due to the lack of signalling between primary users and
CR users. CR terminals have to only rely on detecting weak primary transmitter
signals based on their local observations [44]. Accordingly, CR receiver sensitivity
must be higher than the highest primary receiver sensitivity by a large margin
[30]. Even though, the detection of primary transmitter signals may not prevent a
hidden terminal problem. The hidden terminal problem is considered as a critical
challenging issue in the spectrum sensing [30]. It arises when the secondary user
fails to detect the primary transmitter due to either deep fading/shadowing or
receiver uncertainty as shown in Fig. 1.5. In this case, the CR cannot sense the
TS TD
presence of the primary user signal, and thus it is allowed to access the channel
while the primary user is still in operation.
Multipath fading is another main obstacle to achieve reliable communications by
CR users [48]. Under channel fading or shadowing, a low received signal strength
does not necessarily imply that the primary system is not active or located out of
the CR’s interference range as the signal may be experiencing a deep fade or is
being heavily shadowed by obstacles [49]. Hence, a performance analysis for both
coherent or noncoherent detections over fading channels requires knowledge of the
fading envelope statistics and will be considered in detail in the following chapter.
CR users should monitor the spectrum continuously. Because the receiver’s RF
front-end cannot differentiate between the primary user signals and CR user signals,
CR users can not transmit and sense at the same time [32, 50]. This necessitates a
periodic sensing scheme where sensing and transmitting are alternating in a periodic
manner with separate observation and transmission periods [41]. Figure 1.6, illus-
trates the basic structure of spectrum sensing cycles in CR networks. The periodic
sensing structure introduces another design challenge [41]. Interference avoidance
depends on the sensing accuracy which is in turn determined by the observation
time. Since the transmission of CR users is not allowed during the observation
time, the transmission time is reduced which inevitably reduces the spectrum usage
efficiency.
Spectrum sensing is also challenged by the fact that the available spectrum
holes show different characteristics which vary over time. In order to describe
the dynamic nature of CR networks, each spectrum hole should be characterized
by considering not only the time-varying radio environment but also the primary
user activity and the spectrum band information such as operating frequency and
bandwidth [30]. Most CR research assumes that the primary user activity is modeled
by exponentially distributed inter-arrivals [41, 44, 51, 52]. In this model, the primary
user traffic is modeled as a two state birth-death process. An ON (busy) state
represents the period used by primary users and an OFF (idle) state represents
the unused period [53]. Since each user’s arrival is independent, each transition
10 1 Introduction
follows the Poisson arrival process and the length of the ON and the OFF periods
are exponentially distributed.
Interference temperature introduces another challenge to CSS in CR networks.
It has shown that interference temperature management technique may not lead to
accurate detection [49, 54–56]. This technique accounts for the cumulative radio
frequency energy from multiple transmissions, and sets limit on their aggregate
level that the primary receiver could tolerate called the interference temperature
limit (ITL) [57]. CR users are allowed to use the spectrum band as long as their
transmission does not exceed the pre-defined limit. The distribution of the aggregate
interference is characterized in terms of parameters such as sensitivity, transmitted
power, density of cognitive radios, and the underlying propagation environment. The
difficulty of this technique lies in accurately measuring the interference temperature
since CR users cannot distinguish between actual signals from the primary user and
noise/interference. Finally, the large operating bandwidths required by the spectrum
sensing, impose additional requirements on the RF components such as antenna and
power amplifiers as well as the need to high speed processing units (DSPs/FPGAs)
for performing computationally demanding signal processing tasks with relatively
low delay [58].
Spectrum sensing techniques can be classified into three principal types [25]:
matched filter detection, cyclostationary detection, and energy detection. When the
noise is Gaussian and the signal has a known form, even with unknown parameters,
the appropriate processing includes a matched filter or its correlator equivalent [59].
Matched filter is an optimal detector in AWGN channel since it maximizes the
received SNR [60]. The main advantage of the matched filter is that it needs less time
to achieve high processing gain due to coherent detection [61]. However, matched
filters require a high synchronization between the primary user and the CRs [46].
Furthermore, CR users need to have different multiple matched filters dedicated to
each type of the primary user signal, which increase the implementation cost and
complexity [46].
Cyclostationary detection determines the presence of the primary user signals
by extracting their specific features such as pilot signals, cyclic prefixes, symbol
rate, spreading codes, or modulation types from its local observation [46]. The main
advantage of the feature detection is its robustness to the uncertainty in noise power.
If the signal of the primary user exhibits strong cyclostationary properties, it can
be detected at very low SNR values by exploiting the information (cyclostationary
features) embedded in the received signal [46, 62]. Furthermore this detection
approach can distinguish the primary signal from other CR users’ signals over the
same frequency band provided that the cyclic features of the primary user and the
CRs’ signals differ from each other [63]. However, cyclostationary detection is more
1.2 Cooperative Spectrum Sensing in CRNs 11
complex to implement than the energy detection and requires a prior knowledge of
the primary signal such as modulation format [28, 64].
Energy detector is a non-coherent detector that is simple to implement [65]. The
energy detector is a threshold device which measures the energy of the received
waveform over an observation time window [65]. It is considered an optimal
detector for unknown signal when the noise power is known [25]. Since the CR radio
doesn’t need to have prior knowledge about the primary signal, the energy detection
is widely considered as a local spectrum sensing detection method. The reliability
of the energy detector depends on the receiver’s noise characteristics, the received
signal strength, and the length of time that is used for the integration. While the
energy detector is easy to implement and can be used without any prior knowledge
of the primary signal, it still has some drawbacks. The first problem is that it has
poor performance under low SNR conditions and can not be able to detect the signal
reliably if the SNR is less than SN Rwall [25, 66]. SN Rwall is the weakest SNR
below which a detector fails to reliably detect the signal. Since the threshold used in
energy detection depends on the noise variance, any small noise power estimation
errors can result in significant performance loss [32]. The energy detector also
suffers from longer detection time compared to the matched filter detection [46].
Another challenging issue is the ability to differentiate the interference from other
secondary users sharing the same channel and the primary user. For this reason,
CR networks need to provide a synchronization over the sensing operations of all
neighbors, i.e. each CR user should be synchronized with the same sensing and
transmission schedules. Otherwise, CR users cannot distinguish the received signals
from primary and CR users, and hence the sensing operations of the CR user will
be interfered by the transmissions of its neighbors.
When the signal has an unknown form, it is sometimes appropriate to consider
the signal as a sample function of a random process [59]. When the signal statistics
are known, this knowledge can often be used to design a suitable detector. In the
case of CR networks, it seems appropriate to use an energy detector to determine the
activity of the primary network due to the absence of much knowledge concerning
the primary user signals.
The energy detector consists of a square law device followed by a finite time
integrator. First the input signal is filtered with a band-pass filter to select the
bandwidth of interest. The filtered signal is then squared and integrated over a time
interval, T . The requirement of T is that it must be short in comparison to the time
required for the fading amplitude to change up appreciably, but long in comparison
to the period of the signal [67]. Figure 1.7, depicts the block diagram of a typical
energy detector.
For an arbitrary CR user, the signal receiver over the sensing link ys at time t can
be represented as
H0 : ys (t) = ns (t)
(1.1)
H1 : ys (t) = hs .xp (t) + ns (t)
12 1 Introduction
u Ys
ys 2
k=0
where, xp denotes the signal transmitted by the primary radio, hs denotes the
channel fading coefficient of the sensing link, and ns denotes the additive Gaussian
noise. The hypotheses H0 and H1 are for the primary signal’s absence and presence,
respectively. For local detection, the power of ys denoted by Ys is compared with a
given threshold λ to infer the primary state following a decision rule given by [34]
H1
Ys ≥ λ (1.2)
<
H0
By definition, a false alarm occurs when the primary user activity is claimed
under H0 , while an accurate detection occurs when the primary user activity is
claimed under H1 . Therefore, the detection probability, Pd , and the false alarm
probability, Pf , are given by,
a large network, the required bandwidth may exceed the capability of the reporting
channels, which may be alleviated through DF relaying.
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hölgyet és ott maradt nála négy évig… Jean megszületett, az anyja
még kicsi korában meghalt, az apjának nyolc évig Japánban kellett
élnie a követségnél és amikor onnan visszatért, akkor se kereste fel
a fiát, mert nem akarta belekeverni a maga kalandos életébe. De
anyagiakban gondoskodott róla, birtokot juttatott neki s a fia még
huszonöt éves korában is egyedül él ezen a birtokon, annak a
munkának, amelyet a legjobban kedvel, dolgosan, igénytelenül,
megelégedetten, nagy nyugalomban. Az apjának csak akkor jut
eszébe, hogy fölkeresse fiát, amikor észreveszi, hogy öregedni kezd,
mert először történt meg vele, hogy egy nő nevetni tudott rajta. De
mit nyer vele a fiú, hogy az apja adoptálja? Csak azt, hogy ez a
fordulat kiforgatja a megszokott és neki kedves életből, az apja rá
akarja oktrojálni a maga életmódját, a rangjához méltó életmódot és
végül még a menyasszonyát is elüti a kezéről, mert ő egyszerű,
derék, munkás, falusi ember, az apjában pedig, aki mindig csak a
nőknek, az udvarlásnak, a szép dolgok kultuszának és a
bókfaragásnak élt, még öregedése idején is több a hódító vonás,
mint ő benne. Persze, ezt a megoldást már Jean maga diktálja rá
menyasszonyára és apjára… ő maga kényszeríti őket egymás
karjaiba… némi lemondással, de már egy másik szerelem
reményében… belenyugodva abba, hogy: „szülék és gyermekek
közt mindig az volt a viszony, hogy az egyik feláldozta magát a
másikért… ezt hívják szeretetnek. Rendszerint a szülő áldozza fel
magát a gyermekeiért. Hát most az egyszer megfordítva lesz… nem
tesz semmit… alapjában véve mindegy“. Szóval főképpen
nobilitásból mond le, mert ebben a darabban mindenki nobilis és
kedves… még a rendkívül finom apa is, bár ennek az önzésében
van egy kis hajlandóság még a brutalitásra is… de a legnobilisabb
lény mégis csak a törvénytelen fiú.
A Papa alakjai valamennyien régi ismerőseink. Ez a fiú is a régi
Fils Naturel, közel rokona a Fourchambault-család Bernardjának, a
Demimonde Nanjacjának és az Agglegények Nantyájának; Jocas
abbét Constantin abbé néven ismerjük; számtalan változatban láttuk
már Georginát is, akit nem az erény, nem az elvek tartanak meg a
tisztességben, hanem a jó ösztöne, az, hogy a jobb sorsra érdemes
fiatalságának önkéntelenül el kell nevetnie magát, amikor véletlenül
megpillantja, milyen csunyává tette a merénylő öreget nagy
igyekezete, arcának feldúltsága s összefésültségéből való
kiborzolódása… De a legjobb ismerősünk: Larzac gróf, aki félig a
régi Olivier de Jalin, Mortemer és Ryons úr, a Nők barátja, félig pedig
a Père prodigue.
Mindezek a régi ismerőseink azonban, ha nem is
továbbfinomodott érzésvilággal, de divatosabb ruhában jelennek
meg előttünk és olyan nyelven szólnak hozzánk, amelyet jobban
értünk, mint a felsorolt régi színpadi alakok szólásmóját, amely a mai
közönségnek már szinte eufonisztikus beszédként hangzik. (Semmi
se vénül olyan hamar, mint a színpadi nyelv, mert hiszen ennek kell
leginkább tartania a rokonságot az utca nyelvével, amely minden
természetes beszéd közül a legtermészetesebb beszédnek tűnik fel
a sokaság előtt.) És Larzac gróf nemcsak megvesztegetően kedves,
hanem igazán ragyogóan elmés is. Annyira sugározza az
elmésséget, minden második mondatában, hogy ez már majdnem
sok a jóból; s a Papa meghallgatása után valami olyas utóérzésünk
van, mint annak a gyermeknek, aki többet lakmározott a krémes
édességből, mint kellett volna s hamarosan nem tud szabadulni a
kesernyés szájíztől. (1911 december.)
XXXIII.
FLERS ÉS CAILLAVET.
Primerose kisasszony.
BERNSTEIN.
Az ostrom.
BATAILLE.
A szerelem gyermeke.
ECHEGARAY.