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Advances in Industrial Control

Tong Heng Lee

Wenyu Liang
Clarence W. de Silva
Kok Kiong Tan

Force and
Position Control
of Mechatronic
Systems
Design and Applications in Medical
Devices
Advances in Industrial Control

Series Editors
Michael J. Grimble, Industrial Control Centre, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow,
UK
Antonella Ferrara, Department of Electrical, Computer and Biomedical
Engineering, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy

Editorial Board
Graham Goodwin, School of Electrical Engineering and Computing, University of
Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
Thomas J. Harris, Department of Chemical Engineering, Queen’s University,
Kingston, ON, Canada
Tong Heng Lee, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National
University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
Om P. Malik, Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB,
Canada
Kim-Fung Man, City University Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Gustaf Olsson, Department of Industrial Electrical Engineering and Automation,
Lund Institute of Technology, Lund, Sweden
Asok Ray, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA, USA
Sebastian Engell, Lehrstuhl für Systemdynamik und Prozessführung, Technische
Universität Dortmund, Dortmund, Germany
Ikuo Yamamoto, Graduate School of Engineering, University of Nagasaki,
Nagasaki, Japan
Advances in Industrial Control is a series of monographs and contributed titles focusing on
the applications of advanced and novel control methods within applied settings. This series
has worldwide distribution to engineers, researchers and libraries.
The series promotes the exchange of information between academia and industry, to
which end the books all demonstrate some theoretical aspect of an advanced or new control
method and show how it can be applied either in a pilot plant or in some real industrial
situation. The books are distinguished by the combination of the type of theory used and the
type of application exemplified. Note that “industrial” here has a very broad interpretation; it
applies not merely to the processes employed in industrial plants but to systems such as
avionics and automotive brakes and drivetrain. This series complements the theoretical and
more mathematical approach of Communications and Control Engineering.

Indexed by SCOPUS and Engineering Index.

Proposals for this series, composed of a proposal form downloaded from this page, a draft
Contents, at least two sample chapters and an author cv (with a synopsis of the whole project,
if possible) can be submitted to either of the:

Series Editors

Professor Michael J. Grimble

Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Royal College Building, 204
George Street, Glasgow G1 1XW, United Kingdom
e-mail: [email protected]

Professor Antonella Ferrara

Department of Electrical, Computer and Biomedical Engineering, University of
Pavia, Via Ferrata 1, 27100 Pavia, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]

or the

In-house Editor

Mr. Oliver Jackson

Springer London, 4 Crinan Street, London, N1 9XW, United Kingdom
e-mail: [email protected]
Proposals are peer-reviewed.

Publishing Ethics

Researchers should conduct their research from research proposal to publication in line with
best practices and codes of conduct of relevant professional bodies and/or national and
international regulatory bodies. For more details on individual ethics matters please see:
https://www.springer.com/gp/authors-editors/journal-author/journal-author-helpdesk/
publishing-ethics/14214

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/1412

Tong Heng Lee Wenyu Liang
• •

Clarence W. de Silva Kok Kiong Tan

•

Force and Position Control

of Mechatronic Systems
Design and Applications in Medical Devices

123
Tong Heng Lee Wenyu Liang
Department of Electrical and Computer Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering Engineering
National University of Singapore National University of Singapore
Singapore, Singapore Singapore, Singapore

Clarence W. de Silva Kok Kiong Tan

Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Electrical and Computer
University of British Columbia Engineering
Vancouver, BC, Canada National University of Singapore
Singapore, Singapore

ISSN 1430-9491 ISSN 2193-1577 (electronic)

Advances in Industrial Control
ISBN 978-3-030-52692-4 ISBN 978-3-030-52693-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52693-1
MATLAB and Simulink are registered trademarks of The MathWorks, Inc. See mathworks.
com/trademarks for a list of additional trademarks.

Mathematics Subject Classification: 93C85, 93C95

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
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the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
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To our families
Series Editor’s Foreword

Mechatronics is a discipline that includes elements of mechanics, electronics,

computer science, and control. It is a complex discipline simply because its nature
combines the essences of so many others but it is extremely fascinating and relevant
for our daily life and for industrial production. We live in a world pervaded by
mechatronic systems: our cars are an example, as are the robots that contribute to
their assembly, the robotic systems that process the food we eat, the automated cells
involved in the manufacture of fabrics and leather to create the clothes and the shoes
we wear, the machines that make the work of farmers in agriculture less laborious,
and many home automation systems and smart components associated with the
Internet of Things; all these are mechatronic systems.
Apart from the aforementioned applications, there is no doubt that one of the
fields in which mechatronics has taken hold significantly in recent decades is
healthcare. Many fundamental medical devices are mechatronic systems. Think, for
example, of prosthetic limbs that allow realistic movements, restoring to amputees a
quality of life that would have been unbelievable decades ago. Think of robotic
surgery devices, which support surgeons in surgical activities that are extremely
complex to perform by laparoscopy, also allowing the surgeon to operate while
sitting and with a perfect vision of the operating field, which is often impossible
with conventional surgery. In addition, since robot-assisted surgery is minimally
invasive, it enables quicker patient recovery.
Among the possible medical applications of mechatronics, we cannot omit the
use of machines for rehabilitation, including wearable robot systems such as
exoskeletons and rehabilitation robots, which nowadays are increasingly combined
with advanced communication systems, even allowing the patient to be rehabili-
tated remotely. It is no coincidence that, at present, the term bio-mechatronics is
more and more often used in the related technical literature.
In writing this Foreword, I cannot ignore the difficult moment in which this book
is being prepared. A historic moment marked by the heavy social and economic
impact of COVID-19. In this dramatic situation, medical mechatronics has played a

vii
viii Series Editor’s Foreword

crucial role, supporting hospital workers in carrying out their duties despite difficult
and risky conditions. The pandemic has further motivated researchers and tech-
nologists from all over the world to investigate new possibilities in the medical
mechatronics. Given that the pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 is still ongoing and
that future disease outbreaks cannot be excluded, nascent ideas of new mechatronic
medical applications deserve to be sustained and brought to realization whether
these be directly related to patient care—in the automation of taking nasal swabs
without undue patient discomfort, for example—or in more general preventative
measures such as the automated sanitization of daily work spaces without damage
to nearby equipment. In scenarios in which the risk of contagion is high, and
effective personal protection devices are not always available, the role of machines
equipped with a certain level of autonomy, reliability, and finesse becomes of
utmost importance.
The application of mechatronics to the healthcare sector and medicine, in gen-
eral, brings formidable challenges, both from the point of view of the development
of the underlying theory, and of the realization of the devices at affordable cost. To
this end, the use of accurate kinematic and dynamic models is fundamental. The
theoretical implications of controlling the interaction between the device and the
environment, and of the hybrid force/position control of the parts of the machine
which come in contact with the patient cannot be overlooked.
Turning to economic and productivity concerns, the production volumes of these
machines, especially of those which perform niche operations or very-high-
precision tasks such as ophthalmic surgical robots, may not be enormous.
Therefore, the research and development phase must also address cost containment,
in order to guarantee a competitive advantage for producers. Achieving a fair
balance between costs and benefits is also assisted by dedicating attention to the
theoretical aspects and following a rigorous methodological approach in the design
and development phase.
From this perspective, this book plays two important roles. It provides the user
with the methodological tools that can help understand the functioning and char-
acteristics of a certain mechatronic device, specifically a device of medical type. It
also reviews theoretical tools relevant to ensuring that mechanical and control
design is reliable and efficient. It is a very thoroughgoing book, covering a broad
spectrum of topics, from force and position control to observer-based force esti-
mation, encompassing supervisory and vision-based motion and interaction control
strategies.
If, at first glance, the book may appear to be a classic robotics book, a more
careful reading reveals that this is absolutely not true. All parts, even those that refer
to very classic topics, are made modern and interesting thanks to their being cus-
tomized for the specific case of mechatronic medical devices.
Series Editor’s Foreword ix

With this volume, Advances in Industrial Control is enriched with a new

monograph that contributes strongly to broadening the scope of the series, con-
firming that the meaning of the adjective “industrial” that we agree on in this
context is very broad and inclusive of the control of machines, devices, and systems
that do not fall under the conventional classification of industrial applications.

Antonella Ferrara
University of Pavia, Italy
Preface

Mechatronic systems have been increasingly used in many industrial and medical
applications, where they are designed to work for various tasks in different envi-
ronments. Significantly, many applications are required to carry out the contact
operation and handle the interaction between the mechatronic systems and the
environments (contacting objects) in order to complete the specific task success-
fully, such as grasping, polishing, assembly, robotic surgery, injection, etc. During
the contact operation, the interaction force needs to be regulated carefully to avoid
the undesirable effects and ensure the success of the performed task. As a conse-
quence, force control is needed and designed delicately to meet specific require-
ments and achieve desired performance.
To achieve an appropriate or desired interaction, force feedback control is an
effective way to regulate contact behavior. In recent years, huge numbers of
research works report various force feedback schemes, which show good effec-
tiveness of applying force controller in different applications. The explicit force
controllers can achieve low force overshoot good force tracking performance,
especially when the contact model is established accurately. However, it is noted
that the motion/position of the actuation system is unconstrained or uncontrolled for
pure force controllers (i.e., only the force is controlled directly). To deal with the
applications where both force control and position control are required, force and
position control is the major approach.
In this book, we offer systematic coverage of theoretical and practical aspects in
the area of force and position control, which gives the readers an overview on the
concepts, design, and implementation approaches of such control system. This book
totally consists of nine chapters. More specifically, the first chapter of this book
introduces the general concepts and technologies related to the force sensing,
interaction modeling, and control strategy. In the following chapters from Chap. 2
to Chap. 8, the novel ideas and innovations related to the force estimation and the
force and position control (includes direct force control, force–position control and
impedance control) are reported in detail. Significantly, Chaps. 3–8 are technical
chapters that are presented along with specific applications in medical devices.
These chapters not only offer the readers various general knowledge and new

xi
xii Preface

thinking to solve their application challenges or control problems, but also provide
the readers detailed references and examples on the ways to integrate the suitable
control approaches into the practices. Lastly, the final chapter concludes this book.
In summary, this book gives an overview of the force and position control
techniques; shows the readers our several recent novel ideas and innovations on the
design and implementation of the force control and the force and position control
for mechatronics; and uses the practical applications as case studies where detailed
experimental verifications and results are given. From this book, readers can expect
to learn how to design and implement new techniques of force control or force and
position control for mechatronic systems, especially, medical devices. In particular,
application-oriented readers can benefit more from this book.
Besides, we would like to take the opportunity to many thank Dr. Sunan Huang
for his help and constructive suggestions in the writing of this book. Also, this book
would not be possible without the generous assistance of the following colleagues
and friends: Mr. Chee Siong Tan, Dr. Lynne Hsueh Yee Lim, Mr. Chee Wee Gan,
Dr. Cailin Ng, Mr. Zhao Feng, Dr. Wenchao Gao, Dr. Jun Yik Lau, Dr. Jun Ma,
and Dr. Silu Chen. Moreover, we are grateful for the help provided by the Editors.
Finally, we thank our families for their love and support.
May the force be with you!

Singapore, Singapore Tong Heng Lee

Singapore, Singapore Wenyu Liang
Vancouver, Canada Clarence W. de Silva
Singapore, Singapore Kok Kiong Tan
April 2020
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Mechatronic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Force Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Strain Gauge and Load Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.2 Force Sensing Resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.3 Piezoelectric Force Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.4 Other Force Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4 Modeling of Contacting Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.1 Linear Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.2 Nonlinear Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5 Force and Position Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5.1 Position Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5.2 Force Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5.3 Hybrid Force–Position Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5.4 Parallel Force–Position Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.5.5 Impedance Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.6 Organization of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2 Disturbance Observer-Based Force Estimation Without Force
Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1 Disturbance Observer-Based Force Estimation Methods . . . . . . . . 29
2.1.1 Disturbance Observer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.1.2 Nonlinear Disturbance Observer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.3 Extended State Observer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.1.4 Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2 Friction Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2.1 Model-Based Friction Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2.2 Model-Free Friction Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

xiii
xiv Contents

2.3 Gravity Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

2.3.1 Mechanical Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.3.2 Control Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.4 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3 Force-Based Supervisory Control Assisted Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.2 System Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.2.1 Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.2.2 Surgical Device Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.2.3 Force Sensing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.3 Force-Based Supervisory Controller Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.3.1 Position Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.3.2 Supervisory Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.4 Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.4.1 Prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.4.2 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.5 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4 Stabilization System Based on Vision-Assisted Force Feedback . . . . 85
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.2 Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.2.1 Surgical Device Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.2.2 Human Head Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.3 Controller Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.3.1 Force Feedback Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.3.2 Vision-Based Motion Compensator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.3.3 Vision-Assisted Force Feedback Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.4 Experiments and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.4.1 Experimental System Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.4.2 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.4.3 Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.5 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5 Optimal and Robust Contact Force Control on Soft Membrane . . . . 109
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.2 Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.3 Controller Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.3.1 Optimal Force Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.3.2 Disturbance Observer-Based Motion Compensator . . . . . . . 121
5.3.3 Stability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.4 Experiments and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Contents xv

5.4.1 Application Overview and Experimental System

Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.4.2 Force Controller only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.4.3 Force Controller with Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.5 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6 Force–Position Control for Fast Tube Insertion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.2 Tube Insertion Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.2.1 System Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.2.2 Working Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.3 Controller Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.3.1 Position-Based Insertion Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.3.2 Force-Based Insertion Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.3.3 Force–Position Insertion Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.3.4 Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.4 Experiments and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.4.1 Experiments and Results on Rigid Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.4.2 Experiments and Results on Stabilized Handheld
Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.5 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7 Robust Impedance Control of Constrained Piezoelectric
Actuator-Based End-Effector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.2 Piezoelectric Ultrasonic Motor Modeling in Constrained
Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7.3 Controller Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
7.3.1 Impedance Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7.3.2 Robust Impedance Control Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.4 Experimental Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
7.4.1 Experimental System Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.4.2 Results and Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.5 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
8 Advanced Disturbance Observer-Based Failure Detection
for Force Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
8.2 System Review and Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
8.3 Controller and Observer Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
8.3.1 Modeling of Motor Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
8.3.2 Position Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
xvi Contents

8.3.3 Advanced Disturbance Observer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

8.3.4 Contact Estimator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
8.3.5 Failure Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
8.4 Numerical Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8.5 Experimental Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
8.5.1 Experimental System Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.5.2 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.6 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Feedback control system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Fig. 1.2 General concept of mechatronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Fig. 1.3 Working concept of a typical strain gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Fig. 1.4 An example of force measurement using strain gauges . . . . . . . . 6
Fig. 1.5 Wheatstone Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Fig. 1.6 Different Wheatstone Bridges: a quarter bridge; b half bridge;
c full bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8
Fig. 1.7 Temperature compensation for strain guage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9
Fig. 1.8 Instrumentation amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9
Fig. 1.9 Different kinds of load cells: a structure; b commercially
available load cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10
Fig. 1.10 Electrical system for strain gauge and piezoresistive force
sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11
Fig. 1.11 Force sensing resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11
Fig. 1.12 Voltage divider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12
Fig. 1.13 Syringe detection using FSR in a medical device: a medical
device prototype; b syringe detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12
Fig. 1.14 Working principle of piezoelectric force sensor . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
Fig. 1.15 Working principle of optical reflectance sensor for force
measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 14
Fig. 1.16 Linear contact models: a Maxwell; b Kelvin–Voigt;
c Kelvin–Boltzmann (Reprinted from [65], Copyright (2019),
with permission from Elsevier) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Fig. 1.17 Position control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fig. 1.18 Force control: a direct approach; b position-based approach. . . . 19
Fig. 1.19 Hybrid force–position control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Fig. 1.20 Parallel force–position control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Fig. 1.21 Impedance control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Fig. 2.1 Classical disturbance observer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Fig. 2.2 Nonlinear disturbance observer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Fig. 2.3 Extended state observer with known model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

xvii
xviii List of Figures

Fig. 2.4 Friction Compensation (© 2019 IEEE. reprinted,

with permission, from [57]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 42
Fig. 2.5 Adaptive learning-based friction compensation
(© 2019 IEEE. reprinted, with permission, from [57]) . . . . . . .. 44
Fig. 2.6 The flow chart of Genetic Algorithm (© 2019 IEEE. reprinted,
with permission, from [57]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 48
Fig. 2.7 Artificial intelligence system (© 2019 IEEE. reprinted,
with permission, from [57]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 49
Fig. 2.8 Neural network friction modeling and compensation scheme
(© 2019 IEEE. reprinted, with permission, from [57]) . . . . . . .. 51
Fig. 2.9 Fuzzy logic estimator-based controller (© 2019 IEEE.
reprinted, with permission, from [57]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Fig. 3.1 Prototype of the surgical device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Fig. 3.2 Tiny Tytan grommet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Fig. 3.3 Surgical device for the treatment of OME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Fig. 3.4 Installation and force analysis of the force sensor:
a installation of the force sensor; b force analysis . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Fig. 3.5 Filtered output of the force sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Fig. 3.6 Force-based supervisory controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Fig. 3.7 Motion controller for USM stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Fig. 3.8 Program flow chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Fig. 3.9 Force profile during touch and incision sequences . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Fig. 3.10 Boxplot of the maximum incision force of the different
types of mock membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 75
Fig. 3.11 Structure of the MLP neural network with one hidden
layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 75
Fig. 3.12 Confusion plot of MLP neural network after training stage . . .. 76
Fig. 3.13 Step response of a critical damped third-order system . . . . . . .. 77
Fig. 3.14 Modified S-curve motion profile (S-curve ending
with gentle straight-line path) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Fig. 3.15 Motion profile for the four types of membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Fig. 3.16 Velocity profile for the four types of membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Fig. 3.17 Experimental system: a setup; and b system architecture . . . . . . 81
Fig. 3.18 Successful tube insertion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Fig. 4.1 Surgical device for the treatment of OME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Fig. 4.2 Top view of the head and the device (Reprinted from [10],
Copyright (2016), with permission from Elsevier) . . . . . . . . . .. 90
Fig. 4.3 Head motions along Z-axis of three different persons . . . . . . . .. 91
Fig. 4.4 Spectrum of the head motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 91
Fig. 4.5 Control scheme for the stabilization system (Reprinted
from [10], Copyright (2016), with permission
from Elsevier) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 92
List of Figures xix

Fig. 4.6 Displacement input signal and output response:

a displacement input (deformation); b force sensor output . . . .. 94
Fig. 4.7 Model validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 95
Fig. 4.8 Bode plot of force feedback system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 96
Fig. 4.9 Schematic diagram of the setup for the motion compensator
(Reprinted from [10], Copyright (2016), with permission
from Elsevier) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97
Fig. 4.10 Flow chart of the motion measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97
Fig. 4.11 Experimental system setup (Reprinted from [10], Copyright
(2016), with permission from Elsevier) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99
Fig. 4.12 Force output and error of the force control system:
a force output; b force error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Fig. 4.13 Position outputs from the linear encoder and the image
processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Fig. 4.14 Error of the vision-based motion measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Fig. 4.15 Force outputs of different control methods: a without control;
b only under force feedback control; c only under motion
compensation; d under vision-assisted force control . . . . . . . . . . 102
Fig. 4.16 Errors of different control methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Fig. 4.17 Comparison among different control methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Fig. 4.18 Force outputs of different control methods for head motion:
a without control; b only under force feedback control;
c under vision-assisted force control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Fig. 5.1 Control scheme for the contact force control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Fig. 5.2 Kelvin–Boltzmann (SLS) model (© 2018 IEEE. reprinted,
with permission, from [26]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Fig. 5.3 Displacement input and force sensor output: a displacement
input (deformation); b FFT of input; c force sensor output . . . . . 115
Fig. 5.4 Model verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Fig. 5.5 Illustration of gradient-based optimization algorithm . . . . . . . . . 120
Fig. 5.6 Change of cost and norm of projection gradient matrix . . . . . . . 120
Fig. 5.7 Setup of the ear surgical device (© 2018 IEEE. reprinted,
with permission, from [26]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Fig. 5.8 Experimental system setup (© 2018 IEEE. reprinted,
with permission, from [26]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Fig. 5.9 Comparison of force controller (only) with different gains . . . . . 125
Fig. 5.10 Comparison of different control schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Fig. 5.11 Contact force control without and with DOB subject
to sine wave disturbance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Fig. 5.12 Estimated error of DOB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Fig. 5.13 Comparison between vision-based motion compensation
method and proposed method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Fig. 5.14 Proposed control scheme subject to random motion . . . . . . . . . . 128
Fig. 6.1 System architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
xx List of Figures

Fig. 6.2 Mechanical design of the surgical device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Fig. 6.3 Working process of the proposed device: a initialization;
b touch detection; c myringotomy; d tube insertion;
e tube release (© 2016 IEEE. reprinted, with permission,
from [16]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Fig. 6.4 Force sensor output and its filtered output during
tube insertion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Fig. 6.5 Differential of filter output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Fig. 6.6 Motion controller for USM stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Fig. 6.7 Position-based insertion method (© 2016 IEEE. reprinted,
with permission, from [16]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Fig. 6.8 Force-based insertion method (© 2016 IEEE. reprinted,
with permission, from [16]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Fig. 6.9 Force–position insertion method (© 2016 IEEE. reprinted,
with permission, from [16]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Fig. 6.10 Motion sequence for insertion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Fig. 6.11 Designed weighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Fig. 6.12 Features by using different slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Fig. 6.13 Experimental system setup: rigid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Fig. 6.14 Force output of the force control system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Fig. 6.15 Insertion time by using force-based insertion method:
a histogram; b boxplot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Fig. 6.16 Insertion time by using force–position insertion method:
a histogram; b boxplot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Fig. 6.17 Comparison among the insertion methods on rigid setup . . . . . . 153
Fig. 6.18 Experimental system setup: stabilized handheld (© 2016 IEEE.
reprinted, with permission, from [16]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Fig. 6.19 Insertion time by using force–position insertion method on
stabilized handheld setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Fig. 7.1 USM-driven (PA-based) end-effector with manipulator . . . . . . . . 160
Fig. 7.2 Model of USM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Fig. 7.3 Device in contact with environment (Reprinted from [35],
Copyright (2019), with permission from Elsevier) . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Fig. 7.4 Block diagram of robust impedance control scheme . . . . . . . . . . 166
Fig. 7.5 General structure of DOB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Fig. 7.6 Experimental system setup of the USM-driven surgical
device (end-effector) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Fig. 7.7 Experimental results with varying kf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Fig. 7.8 Tracking errors with varying kf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Fig. 7.9 Experimental comparison results (0.25 Hz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Fig. 7.10 Experimental comparison results (0.5 Hz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Fig. 7.11 Experimental comparison results (1 Hz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Fig. 7.12 Error comparison (between PIDIC and RIC) of MaxAE
and RMSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
List of Figures xxi

Fig. 8.1 Medical devices with force sensing system: ear surgical
device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Fig. 8.2 Medical devices with force sensing system: needle insertion
device for epidural anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Fig. 8.3 Control scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Fig. 8.4 Position controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Fig. 8.5 Advanced disturbance observer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Fig. 8.6 Advanced disturbance observer output in simulation:
a overall view; b zoomed view. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Fig. 8.7 Observer error in simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Fig. 8.8 Experimental system setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Fig. 8.9 Position controller performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Fig. 8.10 Advanced disturbance observer output during touch
detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Fig. 8.11 Observer error during touch detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Fig. 8.12 Advanced observer and force sensor output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Fig. 8.13 Analysis of the difference between observer and sensor
outputs: a actual difference; b filtered difference; c output
of decision mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
List of Tables

Table 3.1 Conditions for instance identification from force output . . . . . . . 72

Table 3.2 Types of mock membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Table 3.3 Parameters for different types of membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Table 3.4 Experimental results for the four types of membranes . . . . . . . . 82
Table 4.1 Effects of the head motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Table 4.2 Errors for sine wave motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Table 4.3 Errors for simulated head motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Table 5.1 Comparison among different models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Table 5.2 Errors of different sine wave motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Table 5.3 Comparison to vision-based motion compensation method . . . . 128
Table 6.1 Comparisons among insertion methods on rigid setup . . . . . . . . 152
Table 7.1 Controller parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

xxiii
Chapter 1
Introduction

Forces result from interactions between objects. Interactions with other objects play
a significant role in the proper and successful completion of various specific tasks
for mechatronic systems. To deal with the interaction problems, force control is
an effective and good way to guarantee the acceptable or desired contact. In recent
years, the force control plays a more and more important role in mechatronic systems
as the tasks of these systems become more complex and have increasing needs for
handling the interaction between their contacting objects (e.g., environment, human)
and themselves.

1.1 Overview

With the rapid development of mechatronics, mechatronic systems have been increas-
ingly used in healthcare and medical applications due to their capabilities of automat-
ing processes with precise and fast motions, such as ear surgical device [1], surgical
robot for laparoscopic surgery [2], robot-assisted beating heart surgery [3, 4], robot-
assisted vitreoretinal surgery [5, 6], palpation probe for minimally invasive surgery
(MIS) [7], hand-held ultrasound probe [8], cell injection system [9–11], powered
exoskeleton [12], and so on. Remarkably, advancements in mechatronic systems of
the medical devices allow surgeons/doctors to conduct the surgical treatments in a
more efficient way.
Meanwhile, the tasks of medical devices become more complex, and higher dex-
terity as well as higher adaptability to different circumstances are needed with the
increase of various applications. Therefore, they are not only required to generate
precise motions to complete their tasks but also required to handle the interactions
between the environment or human and themselves (e.g., robot–environment inter-

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

T. H. Lee et al., Force and Position Control of Mechatronic Systems,
Advances in Industrial Control,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52693-1_1
2 1 Introduction

action and human–robot interaction) in the sophisticated tasks. To this end, the force
control plays an important role in these mechatronic systems.
Force control is essentially a kind of approach that controls the dynamic interaction
between a mechatronic system and its contacting object. Its main objectives are to
maintain the contact force within an acceptable range or control the applied force
to follow a desired reference. There are enormous numbers of research works on
force control. For example, in [3], a model reference adaptive force control was
designed suitably for beating heart surgery. In [10], a force control strategy for cell
injection system was proposed based on the cell model of polynomial function and
feedback linearization technique, so that an explicit force tracking was achieved. Also
of interest is the work in [13] where an inversion-free force tracking controller for
a variable physical damping actuator was proposed without complicated modeling.
Nevertheless, although suitable individual force controllers can achieve fast response
and low force overshoot, the position of the actuated device is typically unconstrained
and uncontrolled for pure force controllers; and such a situation (while obviously
possibly posing certain dangers) is oftentimes part of the trade-off for the actuated
device to reach the desired location to complete the overall task [14]. Furthermore,
many applications need to perform the position tracking in certain directions while
the force control is required in other directions. To deal with such cases, the force and
position control is the major approach, where both force and position are considered
in the control system.
In moving beyond pure force control, it can be noted that the regulation of both
position and force can be realized through employing the hybrid force–position
(force/position) control approach [15] or the parallel force–position (force/position)
control approach [16], which includes a position controller and a force controller to
track position and force, respectively. Such force–position control approaches are
widely used in various mechatronic systems. In [17], a hybrid force/position con-
trol scheme is designed and implemented in a flexible parallel manipulator. In [18],
through employing a suitably optimized algorithm, a selective force–position control
approach was applied on an ear surgical device. In [19], a parallel force/position con-
trol approach was designed and used in a parallel wire robot for epicardial interven-
tions. In [20], a proportional–integral–derivative (PID) force controller and an adap-
tive sliding mode position controller were combined to penetrate zebrafish embryos.
Alternatively, the methodology of impedance control proposed by Hogan in [21] is
an effective and practical approach to regulate the position and force simultaneously
without direct force control. Through establishing a virtual mass–spring–damper sys-
tem containing position error and contact force, a delicate and compliant interaction
control is achieved. Large numbers of research works on the impedance control are
reported in various publications, and some examples of which are listed as follows. In
[22], a force tracking impedance control was designed for a robot manipulator con-
tacting with a rigid environment. In [23], a robust impedance control was proposed to
handle parametric uncertainties, unknown force conversion function and hysteresis
nonlinearity for a piezo-actuated flexure-based four-bar mechanism. Additionally
too, discrete-time sliding mode impedance controllers have also been designed to
complete microassembly in [24, 25].
1.1 Overview 3

Controller Actuator Plant

Sensor

Fig. 1.1 Feedback control system

In summary, there are mainly four types of control schemes that can be used in
the force and position control: position-based force control, hybrid force–position
control, parallel force–position control and impedance control. It is noteworthy that
the feedback control is the core for all of these control schemes. A block diagram
showing a typical feedback control for mechatronic systems is depicted in Fig. 1.1.
The feedback control system senses the output of a plant (i.e., system to be con-
trolled), computes corrective actions by the comparison between the sensing output
and desired behavior and then actuates the system to approach the desired behavior
[26]. In particular, the sensor and the controller are two key components to construct
the feedback control system. In the following of this chapter, a brief introduction of
mechatronic systems is given at first, and then an overview of the general concepts
and technologies on force sensing, interaction modeling, and control is presented.

1.2 Mechatronic Systems

The term mechatronics was originated and created by an engineer of Yaskawa Electric
Corporation in the late 1960s, which is a portmanteau of “mechanics and electronics”.
An accepted definition of mechatronics is: Mechatronics is the synergistic applica-
tion of mechanics, electronics, control engineering, and computer science in the
development of electromechanical products and systems through integrated design
[27].
Figure 1.2 illustrated the general concept of mechatronics. Mechatronics is a mul-
tidisciplinary engineering field which involves a synergistic integration of several
areas, such as mechanical engineering, electrical and electronic engineering, con-
trol engineering, and computer engineering. A typical mechatronic system con-
sists of a mechanical skeleton, actuators, sensors, controllers, signal condition-
ing/modification devices, computer/digital hardware and software, interface devices,
and power sources [28]. Some examples of mechatronic systems are modern automo-
biles, aircraft, spacecraft, robots, medical devices, which are multi-domain systems
consisting of multiple subsystems: mechanical systems, electrical and electronic
systems, and control systems.
4 1 Introduction

Information Technology
(Control and Computer Mechatronics
Engineering)

Fig. 1.2 General concept of mechatronics

1.3 Force Sensing

The sense of touch is one of the crucial sensory modalities to close the control
loop with adequate feedback, so that the dexterous and dynamic interaction with the
environment can be achieved. A force sensing system, consisting of a force sensor or
a network of force sensors, is a system that provides the force information (i.e., the
sense of touch). The force sensor is the key component in the force sensing system.
Generally, a sensor is a device that detects or measures a physical property and
records, indicates, or responds to it [29]. A force sensor is a device that converts an
input mechanical force into an electrical output signal. In the following subsections,
different types of force sensors are introduced and discussed.

1.3.1 Strain Gauge and Load Cell

1.3.1.1 Strain Gauge

When a force is applied on an object, a deformation will be generated on the object’s

body. As the strain is proportional to the deformation that is related to the applied
force, the applied force can be measured via the strain measurement in an indirect
manner. A strain gauge, a device used to measure strain on an object [27], is a very
widely used sensor for force measurement.
Figure 1.3 shows the working concept of a typical strain gauge. The strain gauge
is mostly made of metal foil as well as metal wire, which can be considered as an
1.3 Force Sensing 5

Fig. 1.3 Working concept of

a typical strain gauge

electrical conductor. It will become narrower and longer when it is stretched, which
leads to an increase in its electrical resistance mainly due to the physical property
of electrical conductance. On the contrary, the strain gauge will become broader and
shorter when it is compressed, which causes its electrical resistance to be decreased.
Remarkably, all the deformations on the strain gauge should be within the limit of
its elasticity.
By measuring the electrical resistance of the strain gauge, the stress and strain on
the strain gauge can be obtained. The ratio of relative change in electrical resistance
to the mechanical strain is called “Gauge Factor (GF)”, which is mathematically
written as
ΔRs /Rs
KG F = , (1.1)
ε
where Rs is the electrical resistance of the strain gauge, ε is the strain.
By bonding the strain gauge to the surface of an object, the strain on the object
can be determined through measurement of the resistance change and thus the force
applied on the object can be calculated through analytical mechanics. Figure 1.4
shows an example of force measurement using strain gauges. In this setup, the applied
force on the needle will cause the bending on the beam which can be detected by the
attached strain gauges.

1.3.1.2 Wheatstone Bridge

The Wheatstone Bridge is an electrical circuit that transforms resistance change to

voltage change. To capture the resistance changes from an electrical system, the
Wheatstone Bridge is used which configuration is shown in Fig. 1.5.
The voltage output Vout of the Wheatstone Bridge is given by
6 1 Introduction

Fig. 1.4 An example of

force measurement using
strain gauges

Fig. 1.5 Wheatstone Bridge

-
 
R1 R4
Vout = − Vin
R1 + R2 R3 + R4
R1 R3 − R2 R4
= Vin . (1.2)
(R1 + R2 )(R3 + R4 )

For a balance bridge (i.e., Vout /Vin = 0), the bridge meets the following condition:

R1 R4
= . (1.3)
R2 R3

Consider there are changes on the electrical resistances from the balanced con-
dition and the fact that ΔRi /Ri  1 (i = 1, 2, 3, 4), we can have the following
approximation on the voltage output:
 
1 ΔR1 ΔR2 ΔR3 ΔR4
Vout ≈ − + − . (1.4)
4 R1 R2 R3 R4

Here, if we select R1 as a strain gauge while the other three as three constant
resistors with the same resistance, (1.4) becomes

1 ΔR1
Vout ≈ Vin . (1.5)
4 R1
1.3 Force Sensing 7

Since ΔRr /R1 = K G F ε1 according to (1.1), the voltage output of the Wheatstone
Bridge is approximately proportional to the strain, i.e.,

1
Vout ≈ K G F ε1 Vin . (1.6)
4
In this case, the Wheatstone Bridge is a quarter bridge. Furthermore, there are
different versions of the Wheatstone Bridge as shown in Fig. 1.6, which include
quarter bridge, half bridge, and full bridge.
For a half bridge, its voltage output is given by

1
Vout ≈ K G F (ε1 − ε2 )Vin . (1.7)
4
For a full bridge, its voltage output is given by

1
Vout ≈ K G F (ε1 − ε2 + ε3 − ε4 )Vin . (1.8)
4
Specially, with proper installations of strain gauges such that ε1 = −ε2 (i.e., the
tension on the strain gauge R1 equals to the compression on the strain gauge R2 ),
R3 = R4 in a half bridge, and ε1 = −ε2 =ε3 = −ε4 in a full bridge, we can have

1
Vout ≈ K G F ε1 Vin for a half bridge; (1.9)
2
Vout ≈ K G F ε1 Vin for a full bridge. (1.10)

This shows that the half bridge and the full bridge can achieve two times and four
times the sensitivity of the quarter bridge, respectively.
Furthermore, variations in temperature will cause the change in the object’s size
due to thermal expansion which will also lead to the strain change on the strain gauge.
Also, the electrical resistances of the strain gauge and its connecting wires will be
affected by the temperature change. Therefore, the variations in temperature can
affect the measurement by the strain gauge. To compensate the temperature effects,
one effective way is the use of a dummy strain gauge as shown in Fig. 1.7. As can be
seen, two identical strain gauges are used in a half bridge: the active one is mounted
on the object surface where the stress will be applied and the other (dummy) one is
mounted on the same material but not subjected to the stress. Therefore, the resistance
changes on both strain gauges due to the variations in temperature will be in the same
amount. As a result, the temperature effects will be canceled according to (1.7) and
(1.9).

1.3.1.3 Instrumentation Amplifier

To increase the voltage output signal from the Wheatstone Bridge to a suitable range
such that it can be used in a sensing system or a control system, a special type
8 1 Introduction

Fig. 1.6 Different

Wheatstone Bridges: a
quarter bridge; b half bridge;
c full bridge

+
(a)

+
(b)

-
+

(c)
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