EFFECT OF SAND AND STONE MINING ON CHILDREN’S EDUCATION IN

TIKONKO AND BONGOR CHIEFDOMS IN BO DISTRICT

BY

FODAY SAWANEH

ID. 76210

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER

EDUCATION, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, NJALA UNIVERSITY, IN PARTIAL

FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTERS OF

EDUCATION (M. ED) DEGREE IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

SEPTEMBER, 2023

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 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation was done by me under the supervision of Dr. Joseph James

Mbavai. Lecturer in the Department of Teacher Education, School of Education, Njala

University. The citations have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that this dissertation has

not previously been submitted for any degree at Njala University or to any other university.

Finally, I declare that the errors contained here are solely my responsibility

……………….. …………………….

Signature Date

Foday Sawaneh

ID NO 76210

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 CERTIFICATION

NJALA UNIVERSITY

BOARD OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS DECLARE ON THE CANDIDATE

That this Dissertation is the original work of the candidate and it is accepted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the award of the degree of MASTERS OF EDUCATION DEGREE in

EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION.

SUPERVISOR ……………………… …………………………

Signature Date

CO-SUPERVISOR ……………………… …………………………

Signature Date

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT ……………………… …………………………

Signature Date

EXTERNAL EXAMINER ……………………… …………………………

Signature Date

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 DEDICATION

This research is sincerely dedicated to my daughter Marion Yeawa Sawaneh for her support,

patience and understanding during this period of study. Also, to those who constantly wished me

success.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My heartfelt gratitude goes to Almighty God who has given me the health, strength and courage

to carry out this research project. I also express my profound thanks and appreciation to all those

who assisted me in carrying out this research. I’m grateful to my supervisor Dr. Joseph J. Mbavai

who tirelessly went through my work and his kind support, patience and understanding assisted

me a great deal. I am obliged to my friends who in diverse ways gave me inspiration and

encouragement during difficult times; I want to thank my family members for their love,

financial supports and inspiration during my studies at Njala University.

To this end, I would like to thank all my respondents and those within a short notice help me

greatly in this research work, without their collaborative efforts this research work would not

have been a success. Special thanks to my late dad Mohamed Wundu Sawaneh, affectionate

mother Haja Jeneba Sawaneh, siblings Ibrihim Sawaneh and Hawa B. Fawundu, cousin Dauda

B. Sandi, also principal Henry Soya-Bongay, Cecil Williams and wife, SQAO Patience Yei

Tommy, Musu Karmoh, you guys have been an inspiration to me. May Allah richly bless you. I

thank you all.

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 Demographic Characteristics ……………………..………………………...31

Table 4.2 Presentation according to Occupation, Family Size and Role in the Family..33

Table 4.3 Level of Sand and Stone Mining ………………………………..…….….…35

Table 4.4 Causes of Sand and Stone Mining ……………….………………..….,…….36
Table 4.5 Factors Influencing Mining ………………………………………...….……37
Table 4.6 Effects of Sand and Stone Mining………………………………….………..37

Table 4.7 Challenges of Sand and Stone Mining………………………………………38

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1 Map of Sierra Lone showing study area………………...…………………………21

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 ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS

ILO - International Labour Organization

EPA - Environmental protection Agency
FQSE - Free Quality School Education
NGO - Non-Governmental Organization
IPECL - International Program on The Elimination of Child Labour
ECE - Early Childhood Education
ASC - Annual School Census
UNICEF - United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Declaration…………………………………………………………………………………………i

Certification……………………………………………………………………………………….ii

Dedication………………………………………………………………………………….……..iii

Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………………………..……iv

List of Tables………………………………………………………………………………………v

List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………………….vi

Acronyms / Abbreviations……………………………………………………………………….vii

Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………..viii

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………...ix

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Research………………………………………………………………1

1.2 Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………………….2

1.3 Aim of the Study…………………………………………………………………………..4

1.4 Objectives of the Research………………………………………………………………...4

1.5 Research Questions………………………………………………………………………..4

1.6 Research Hypothesis……………………………………………………………………....5

1.7 Significance/ Justification of the Study…………………………………………………...5

1.8 Scope and Delimitation of the Study……………………………………………………...6

1.9 Limitation of the Study……………………………………………………………………6

1.10 Definition of Terms……………………………………………………………………….7

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………………………8

2.2 Socio-Economic Characteristics of Miners……………………………………...……...10

2.3 Level of Sand and Stone Mining………………………………………………………...11

2.4 Causes of Sand and Stone Mining………………………………………………………12

2.5 Effects of Sand and Stone Mining………………………………………………………14

2.6 Challenges of Sand and Stone Mining ………………………………………………….15

2.7 Summary of Literature Review…………………………………………………………..17

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design …………………………………………………………………19

3.2 Study Area………………………………………………………………………20

3.3 Population of the Study…………………………………………………………..24

3.4 Sample and Sampling Procedure ………………………………………………..25

3.4.1 Sample Size of the Study………………………………………………………...25

3.4.2 Sampling Procedure……………………………………………………………...25

3.5 Instrument for Data Collection…………………………………………………. 25

3.6 Validation ………………………………………………………………………..26

3.6.1 Validity of Instrument……………………………………………………………26

3.6.2 Reliability of Instrument…………………………………………………………26

3.7 Sources of Data…………………………………………………………………..26

3.7.1 Primary Data…………………………………………………………………….27

3.7.2 Secondary Data ………………………………………………………………….27

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3.8 Method of Data Collection ………………………………………………………27

3.9 Method of Data Analyses ………………………………………………………..27

3.10 Ethical Considerations …………………………………………………………..28

CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Demographic Characteristics…………………………………………………………….29

4.2 Level of Sand and Stone Mining ………………………………………………………..34

4.3 Causes of Sand and Stone Mining……………………………………………………….35

4.4 Factors Influencing Mining ……………………………………………………………...36

4.5 Effects of Sand and Stone Mining……………………………………………………….36

4.6 Challenges of Sand and Stone Mining…………………………………………………...37

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary ………………………………………………………………………………...38

5.2 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………40

5.3 Recommendations ……………………………………………………………………….42

REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………………….45

QUESTIONER ………………………………………………………………………………….48

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 ABSTRACT

The purpose of this research was to examine the effects of sand and stone mining on children’s
education in Tikonko and Bonjor chiefdoms in Bo district. Sand and stone mining practices have
gained immense prominence in numerous parts of the world due to the economic benefits they
offer. However, the long-term consequences of such activities, including their impact on
children's education, remain a concerning issue. This abstract presents a comprehensive
overview of the adverse effects of sand and stone mining on children's education and highlights
potential remedial measures. The mining of sand and stone involves extraction from rivers,
streams, coastlines, and quarries, often leading to environmental degradation and the disruption
of delicate ecosystems. Additionally, the operation of mining sites can have direct and indirect
implications for the education of children residing in nearby communities (Tikonko and Bongor
chiefdoms).

For this study the researcher uses descriptive research design and the investigation was based on
specific objective of the study. Data were collected using structured questionnaire. The research
instrument was pretested. The data was analyzed with the aid of statistical package for social
sciences (SPSS) software program in which the frequency tables including percentages and
figures were drawn. Result demonstrated in this study indicate that majority of the sand and
stone miners were within the age brackets of 25 to 35. This implies that most miners were youth
with their active working age bracket.

The findings revealed that sand and stone mining on children’s education is a pressing issue with
far reaching consequences. Sand and stone mining often require the labor of children leading
them to drop out of school. Local communities, mining companies and government authorities
should collaborate to develop sustainable mining practices that minimize disruption to schools
and community. This includes proper land use planning and zoning regulations. Also, stricter
enforcement of child labour laws and penalties for those employing children in mining activities
can deter the use of child labour.

In conclusion, sand and stone mining can have detrimental effects on children's education,
leading to displacement, child labor, environmental degradation, and reduced quality of
education. Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive approach that includes
stringent regulations, community engagement, and alternative livelihood opportunities.

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Sand and stone mining are as old as the construction period. Sand and stone were mined during

Bronze and Iron Age. Stone and sand provided the necessary construction materials for houses

during that period. During the Bronze Age architects in Egypt used sand and stone to construct

the famous pyramid which serves as one of the most iconic monuments of the metal age.

The use of stone and sand contributed to the construction of roads. These resources have
immensely contributed to the infrastructural sectors the world all over. Sand mining activities
have impacted, in one way or another, on the economic, social and environmental aspects of man
in mining areas. However, many people resort to the trade of sand so as to earn a living. Since
sand mining has economic gains, most community and traditional leaders sell community lands
within their domains to miners. This is done because people derive their livelihoods from sand
mining to ensure their survival from the natural resources available and accessible to them

This situation is so due to an increase in demand for sand for construction purposes, but this also
places enormous pressure on the environment. According to Kondolf et al. sand mining is one of
the direct and obvious causes of environmental degradation. Sand is one of the construction
materials with high economic value. Wang they argue that sand mining activities have been
rampant in many rivers, which has threatened the environment.

Stone mining and quarrying started in the 1980s in Bongor and Tikonko chiefdom. Quarrying

started when Bo Bandajuma Highway construction project was awarded to Philip Holzmann a

German company during that time. Modern machines and extraction methods were used to blast

and crushed the bulky rocks into granite stones. After their departure from the quarry, the

community people of Bendu-Bongor took over the quarrying, more than 1 billion Leones worth

of granite is bought every year by various individuals and construction companies. Though this

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community stand to benefit from such a huge business transaction, there are some other

disadvantages that may outweigh the said benefit. (CSE Mining company and the Local Chief)

The stone blasting has contributed to the demolition of many old houses due to its vibration. The

dynamite used has contributed to increase headaches, heart disease and breathing difficulties.

Extraction of the granite stone is gradually eliminating the community natural heritage that

attracts tourism. There is also an increase in teenage pregnancy resulting to early marriage and

some other health challenges. Due to the frequent earning of the petty cash by school going

pupils, drop out is on the increase and poor performance of pupils in the public examination in

these areas. Sand mining has been on rise in the Gondama, Magbema and Sembehun

communities. (community heads in Bendu, Magbema and Gondama)

After the decline of diamond mining activities in these areas, Sand along the beaches has been

mined sometimes leading to coastal flooding or environmental degradation. Though it brings

huge chunk of income for the community people, the diving method to extract sand is creating

health hazards for the people; ranging from cold, to severe body pain or vision impairment.

These activities have hampered the implementation of free quality education and the girl

education as well as radical inclusion policies into the learning process.

1.2 Statement of Problem

The effects of sand and stone mining are hardly mentioned hinder the free quality education

program in Sierra Leone.

Its activities have led to dropouts of school pupils and increase high teenage pregnancy rate.

Most of the young girls end up in early marriages. The school going categories of teenagers end

up in child’s labor which is child abuse and it is against the child rights Act of 2007 in Sierra

Leone.

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At a very tender age of ten (10), they are hired into such activities by the communities, business

men and women who amasses huge sums of money at large. The quest for money because of

abject poverty left many pupils not attending school regularly in these communities.

However, the extraction of these materials has minimally brought benefits to the people than

those who are trading and exploiting them. These communities experience environmental

degradation, flooding or health hazards. Alternative sources of earning a living can be

meaningful to the livelihoods of these communities.

Agriculture and farming as economic activities on a very low scale in these areas creating acute

hunger problem. Some other resources are left underdeveloped leading to hardship and poverty.

Moreover, large quantity of these resources are extracted every year bringing immerse wealth to

those people involved. The modern blasting of stone using dynamites which is a chemical

explosive lead to vibration that demolishes houses with poor foundation and can cause death in

the process.

The sounds of the blast send away animals from their original habitats thereby destroying it

entirely. The odor from the dynamite waste causes headaches and other health complication.

It is therefore a global phenomenon and its consequences can be life threatening. Communities

where sand is mined has cleaned the coastal beaches of its beauty and cultural heritage. It serves

as bank, when they are removed can lead to environmental erosion and coastal flooding.

Thousands of people along the coast have been affected by this disaster over the years. Though,

Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is striving

day after day in their endeavor to contain some of these problems. Their activities are however

not enough to contain these escalating problems due to the lack of support from the government

and other stakeholders.

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Education as it is believed is the key to development and therefore by its quality should be

priority to all governments at any time. Activities which hinder the progress of learning outcome

are to be discouraged. Problems in these communities are emanating from high illiteracy rate in

the country.

This research will identify problems and raise awareness on the effects of mining sand and stone

in Bogor and Tikonko Chiefdoms respectively. It will however discuss in details the educational

system in the communities under review.

1.3 Aim of the Study

The general aim of this research is to comprehensively assess the effect of sand and stone mining

that has contributed to drop out in schools and low performances of pupils in public examination

in the Tikonko and Bongor Chiefdoms respectively.

1.4 Objectives of the Research

Specific objective of this research under review will be as follows:

1. To assess the socio-economic characteristics of the miners

2. To evaluate the level of sand and stone mining.

3. To evaluate the causes of sand and stone mining

4. To examine the effects of sand and stone mining

5. To identify the challenges of sand and stone mining.

1.5 Research Questions

I. What are the socio-economic characteristics of the miners?

II. What are the levels of sand and stone mining?

III. What are the causes of sand and stone mining?

IV. What are the effects of sand and sand mining?

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 V. What are the challenges of sand and stone mining?

1.6 Research Hypothesis

The mining companies exploit the communities where these minerals are available; community

members can bring up their social cooperate responsibilities which they can benefit. The sand

and stone mining have affected communities thereby increasing diseases like blindness,

pneumonia, tuberculosis. The beaches have also been removed in the process of mining, it

enables the government and the community to bring conditions such as health facilities to

improve the various health challenges and also reinstate our beautiful beaches.

The research will throw light on the effects of mining on children’s education. Government and

community people will come up with policies to overcome such problems and improve

children’s education in order to complement the free quality school education.

1.7 Significance of the Study

The research will provide a valuable and salient points or factor for future prospective

researchers

The completion of this research will give more relevant information to both government and

NGOs into the effects of sand and stone mining on education in the respective communities.

It will provide an insight into the methods used for mining.

It will give adequate information on the number and percentages of dropouts, performance in

public examination.

It will also provide information on the general benefit the community gets.

It will provide information about the general and the specific problems in the community.

It will give us knowledge about the attempts at solution.

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1.8 Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The study was carried out in the Tikonko and Bongor Chiefdoms Bo district. These two

chiefdoms were chosen as area of study, due to the fact that it had a sufficient sample

representative of the sand and stone mining communities on the region based on the population

size or density. The study was carried out in government and government assisted schools in the

said chiefdoms. The research participations were measured in terms of school approval,

enrollment, attendance participation in class, and drop outs.

1.9 Limitations of the Study

Some schools in Tikonko and Bongor Chiefdoms were difficult to reach due to poor road

network and absence of adequate transport made accessibility a challenge. Increase in the pump

price of fuel was typical evidence. The researcher sought the service of an okada rider who was

an indigene to take the researcher around the school communities in both chiefdoms.

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1.10 Definition of Terms

Below are some definition of key terms used in the research

Mining: mining is the process of extracting useful materials from the earth. Some examples of

substances that are mined include sand, stone, coal, gold, or iron ore. Iron ore is the material

from which the metal iron is produced.

Sand Mining: sand mining is the extraction of sand, mainly through an open pit but sometimes

mined from beaches and inland dunes or dredged from ocean and river beds. Sand is often used

in manufacturing, for example as an abrasive or in concrete.

Stone Mining: stone mining refers to the extraction of stone from the earth and after cutting and

polishing, these stones are used for the primary construction of monuments and buildings. It is

also used as decorative facing materials in the interior and exterior of buildings.

Quarry: a quarry is a type of open-pit mine in which dimension stone, rock, construction

aggregate, riprap, sand, gravel, or slate is excavated from the ground. The operation of quarries is

regulated in some jurisdictions to manage their safety risks and reduce their environmental

impact

Blasting: blasting, process of reducing a solid body, such as rock, to fragments by using an

explosive. Conventional blasting operations include drilling holes, placing a charge and

detonator in each hole, detonating the charge, and clearing away the broken

Child Labour: child Labour is the exploitation of children through any form of work that

deprives them of their childhood, interferes with their ability to attend regular school, or is

mentally, physically, socially and morally harmful.

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School Census: the school census is an electronic collection of pupil data from primary,

secondary, special schools and pupil referral units, which takes place three times a year.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter reviews literature as an account of knowledge an ideal that have been established

by accredited scholars and experts in the field of study. It is guided by the objectives of the study

spelt out in chapter one

2.1 Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework for studying the effect of sand and stone mining on children's

education should encompass various dimensions, including social, economic, and environmental

factors. Here's a structured framework to help you understand and analyze this complex issue:

Social Factors

a. Community Dynamics: Explore how sand and stone mining affect the social fabric of

communities. Consider the displacement of families, changes in local demographics, and

community cohesion.

b. Health and Safety: Analyze the health and safety risks associated with mining activities.

Investigate the impact of exposure to dust, noise, and hazardous conditions on children's well-

being and attendance in school.

c. Cultural Practices: Examine how mining activities may disrupt or influence local cultural

practices and traditions, which might indirectly affect children's education.

Economic Factors

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a. Household Income: Study how mining activities impact household income. Lower incomes may

result in families struggling to meet the educational needs of their children.

b. Child Labor: Investigate the prevalence of child labor in mining areas. Assess how child labor

affects children's ability to attend school regularly and perform well academically.

c. Infrastructure Development: Analyze the economic benefits of mining, such as infrastructure

development in the area. Determine if improved infrastructure positively or negatively influences

education access.

Environmental Factors

a. Environmental Degradation: Explore how sand and stone mining contribute to environmental

degradation. Assess the impact of these activities on the availability of clean water, air quality,

and the overall livability of the area.

b. Natural Disasters: Consider the increased vulnerability of mining-affected areas to natural

disasters such as landslides and floods. Evaluate how these disasters disrupt education.

Educational Factors

a. Access to Education: Analyze the accessibility of schools in mining-affected areas. Investigate

whether schools are available and accessible to all children.

b. Quality of Education: Assess the quality of education provided in these areas. Determine if

environmental factors associated with mining affect the quality of teaching and learning.

c. Attendance and Performance: Study the attendance rates and academic performance of children

in mining-affected areas compared to non-mining areas. Identify any disparities and potential

causes.

Policy and Regulation

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a. Legal Framework: Examine the existing legal and regulatory framework related to sand and

stone mining, child labor, and education. Evaluate the adequacy and enforcement of these

regulations.

b. Social Programs: Investigate the presence of government or non-governmental programs aimed

at mitigating the negative effects of mining on education and child welfare.

Interventions and solutions

a. Identify Best Practices: Research successful interventions and policies from other regions or

countries that have effectively addressed similar challenges.

b. Recommendations: Based on your analysis, propose recommendations for mitigating the

negative impact of sand and stone mining on children's education. These may include policy

changes, community initiatives, and educational programs.

This theoretical framework provides a structured approach to understanding the complex

interplay between sand and stone mining and children's education. It enables researchers and

policymakers to examine the issue comprehensively and develop targeted strategies for

mitigating the negative effects on children's education in mining-affected areas.

2.2 Socio-Economic Characteristics of Miners

The socio-economic characteristics of miners and their implications on the mining sector The

study revealed that ASM remains informal with the sector being dominated by the youth. Males

dominate the sector and responsibilities in the industry are determined by one’s sex. There are

regional differences in male–female participation and educational levels due to rural–urban

differences with the existence of foreigners in artisanal mining in the country 1. The study

recommends the incorporation of socio-demographic characteristics of miners into policy

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initiatives of the sector. A further study on how to make licensure procedures more attractive to

ASM to help reduce the informality in the sector is also recommended

This section looks at the socioeconomic situation of people living in Simcoe Muskoka.

Employment, income, education, nutritious food and housing will be explored.

Did you know that higher social and economic status is associated with better health? In fact,

according to Health Canada, these two factors are the most important determinants of health.

2.3 Level of Sand and Stone Mining

Sierra Leone, a small West African country with a rich reservoir of natural resources, has

witnessed a substantial increase in sand and stone mining over the past decades. The nation's

mining sector has long been a key contributor to its economic growth, with the extraction of

diamonds serving as its primary focus. However, sand and stone mining have emerged as an

additional sector within the country's mining industry, posing both opportunities and challenges

for its development. Sand mining in Sierra Leone has gained momentum due to the growing

demand for construction materials. The country's rapid urbanization and infrastructure

development projects have led to an increase in the consumption of sand, which is a crucial

ingredient in the production of concrete and other construction materials. As a result, sand

mining operations have expanded to meet the rising demand. Similarly, stone mining has seen a

surge in activity, primarily driven by the need for building materials in the booming construction

sector. Large quantities of stones are required in the construction of roads, bridges, and

buildings. Consequently, stone mining operations have increased in response to the high demand,

particularly in urban areas. The rise in sand and stone mining has presented both positive and

negative impacts on Sierra Leone's mining industry and the broader economy. On the positive

11
side, it has contributed to job creation and revenue generation, allowing individuals and local

communities to benefit from the economic opportunities associated with mining activities.

Moreover, the mining sector, including sand and stone mining, has bolstered the country's export

earnings and foreign exchange reserves, helping to improve its balance of payments. However,

the uncontrolled and unsustainable extraction of sand and stones has raised environmental

concerns. The intensive mining practices often lead to deforestation and ecosystem degradation,

resulting in the loss of biodiversity and the deterioration of the natural environment.

Furthermore, excessive sand mining can exacerbate the risks of coastal erosion and flooding,

posing significant threats to vulnerable coastal communities. To address these challenges, it is

imperative that Sierra Leone's mining industry adopts sustainable practices and strengthens

environmental regulations. This involves monitoring and regulating sand and stone mining

operations to ensure they do not surpass the ecological carrying capacity. Additionally, efforts

should be made to promote the use of alternative building materials and construction techniques

that reduce the reliance on sand and stones. In conclusion, Sierra Leone has experienced a

notable increase in the level of sand and stone mining due to the country's urbanization and

infrastructure development. While these mining activities have provided economic benefits, they

also pose environmental challenges. Therefore, it is vital for the government to implement

appropriate regulations and promote sustainable practices to mitigate the adverse impacts and

safeguard the country's natural resources for future generations. (School Hack 2022).

2.4 Causes of Sand and Stone Mining

The nation of Sierra Leone possesses significant deposits of sand and stone resources, and as a

result, sand and stone mining activities have become increasingly prevalent. Several key factors

contribute to the causes of these mining activities, including economic incentives, population

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growth, and infrastructure development. Firstly, economic incentives play a major role in driving

sand and stone mining in Sierra Leone. The demand for construction materials such as sand and

stone is continually growing due to the rapid urbanization and development occurring throughout

the country. These materials are essential for building houses, roads, and other infrastructure

projects. As a result, individuals and companies are motivated to mine sand and stone in order to

meet market demands and capitalize on the lucrative business opportunities associated with these

resources. Secondly, population growth in Sierra Leone contributes to the increased need for

sand and stone mining. As the population expands, the demand for housing and construction

materials also rises. This creates a larger market for sand and stone, prompting more mining

activities to meet the growing needs of the population. Furthermore, population growth also

leads to the construction of new infrastructure and expansion of existing ones, further driving the

demand for sand and stone resources. Lastly, infrastructure development is a significant factor

behind the causes of sand and stone mining in Sierra Leone. The government of Sierra Leone has

made efforts to improve the country's infrastructure, such as constructing new roads, bridges, and

buildings. These construction projects require substantial amounts of sand and stone, resulting in

increased mining activities. Moreover, infrastructural developments attract investments and

businesses, leading to further urbanization and the need for construction materials. While sand

and stone mining activities in Sierra Leone are driven by economic incentives, population

growth, and infrastructure development, it is crucial to address the potential negative impacts of

these activities. Unregulated and unsustainable mining practices can lead to environmental

degradation, soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, and negative impacts on local communities.

Therefore, it is essential for the government and stakeholders to implement appropriate

regulations and environmental safeguards to ensure responsible mining practices that mitigate

13
these adverse effects. In conclusion, sand and stone mining activities in Sierra Leone are caused

by economic incentives, population growth, and infrastructure development. While these factors

drive the demand for construction materials, it is crucial to strike a balance between economic

development and environmental sustainability. By implementing responsible mining practices

and strengthening regulations, Sierra Leone can harness its sand and stone resources to support

its development while protecting its natural environment. (school Hack app).

2.5 Effects of Sand and Stone Mining

Mining activities, particularly sand and stone mining have had significant effects on Sierra

Leone's environment and the mining industry itself. While mining can contribute to economic

growth and infrastructure development, it can also have adverse environmental and social

implications. One of the most noticeable effects of sand and stone mining is the destruction of

natural habitats. Mining activities often involve the extraction of sand and stones from riverbeds

and coastal areas, leading to the degradation of ecosystems. This can have severe consequences

for plants, animals, and marine life that depend on these habitats. Furthermore, the removal of

sand and stones from riverbeds can disrupt the natural flow of water, exacerbating issues such as

flooding and erosion. Unregulated sand and stone mining practices also contribute to

environmental pollution. The extraction process and transportation of these minerals often

involve the use of heavy machinery and vehicles, leading to air and noise pollution. Additionally,

the accumulation of debris and waste from mining activities can contaminate nearby water

sources, affecting both aquatic life and local communities' access to clean water. The effects of

sand and stone mining extend beyond the environment, impacting local communities and the

14
mining industry itself. In many cases, mining activities have resulted in the displacement of

communities, as their lands are often claimed by mining companies. This leads to social unrest,

loss of livelihoods, and increased poverty levels among affected communities. Furthermore, the

unregulated nature of sand and stone mining in Sierra Leone has often led to illegal mining

practices. Illegal mining not only exacerbates environmental and social issues but also poses

economic challenges for the government. Revenue loss from illegal mining reduces the funds

available for infrastructure development and social services. To mitigate these negative effects, it

is crucial for the government to establish and enforce regulations for sand and stone mining. This

includes measures such as proper licensing of mining companies, monitoring and evaluation of

mining operations, and the implementation of environmental protection policies. Additionally,

community engagement and participation in decision-making processes can help ensure that

mining activities prioritize sustainable development and consider the needs and concerns of local

communities. In conclusion, sand and stone mining in Sierra Leone have significant effects on

the environment, local communities, and the mining industry itself. It is crucial for the

government and mining companies to implement regulations that promote sustainable mining

practices, environmental protection, and community development to mitigate these negative

impacts. By doing so, Sierra Leone can harness the economic potential of mining while

safeguarding its natural resources and the well-being of its people.

2.6 Challenges of Sand and Stone Mining

Sierra Leone, located on the western coast of Africa, is a country rich in natural resources. In

particular, sand and stone mining contribute significantly to the country's economy and

development. These minerals play a crucial role in various industries, including construction,

manufacturing, and infrastructure development. However, the levels of sand and stone mining in

15
Sierra Leone have raised concerns regarding environmental sustainability and social well-being.

Sand mining is primarily carried out along riverbeds and coastal regions. It involves the

extraction of sand for construction purposes, such as building materials, concrete production, and

land reclamation. While sand is an important resource for development, excessive mining can

lead to serious environmental consequences. It causes erosion, loss of habitats, and changes in

river flow patterns. Furthermore, sand mining can displace local communities and affect their

livelihoods, as it may disrupt fishing activities and alter the landscape. Stone mining, on the other

hand, involves the extraction of natural stones, such as granite, limestone, and marble, for

various purposes, including construction, decor, and dimension stone. The demand for these

stones is high both domestically and internationally. However, like sand mining, extensive stone

mining can have adverse impacts on the environment. It can lead to deforestation, soil erosion,

and loss of biodiversity. It is crucial to implement sustainable mining practices, such as land

restoration and responsible extraction techniques, to mitigate these negative effects. To regulate

the levels of sand and stone mining in Sierra Leone, the government has established laws and

regulations. These include the Mines and Minerals Act, the Environmental Protection Agency

Act, and the National Minerals Agency Act. These frameworks aim to ensure that mining

activities are conducted in an environmentally and socially responsible manner. They require

mining companies to obtain permits, conduct environmental impact assessments, and provide

plans for post-mining land restoration. Additionally, it is essential to involve local communities

in decision-making processes and ensure that they benefit from mining activities. This can be

achieved through revenue sharing, job creation, and capacity-building programs. Furthermore,

education and awareness campaigns are crucial to promote sustainable mining practices and raise

environmental consciousness among miners and other stakeholders. In conclusion, sand and

16
stone mining plays a vital role in Sierra Leone's economy. However, it is necessary to consider

the environmental and social impacts associated with mining activities. By implementing

sustainable mining practices, involving local communities, and enforcing relevant regulations,

Sierra Leone can ensure that sand and stone mining contribute to sustainable development and

preserve the country's rich natural resources for future generations. (School Hack).

17
2.7 Summary of Literature Review

The effect of sand and stone mining on children's education can be multifaceted and largely

negative. Sand and stone mining, particularly when done without proper regulation and

environmental safeguards, can have several adverse impacts on the education and overall well-

being of children in affected communities. Here are some of the key ways in which sand and

stone mining can affect children's education:

Disruption of Access to Schools: Mining activities often require a significant amount of land, which

can lead to the displacement of communities and the destruction of infrastructure, including

schools. This can disrupt children's access to education, as they may have to travel longer

distances or may not have a school to attend.

Health Hazards: Mining operations can create dust and air pollution, which can lead to respiratory

problems and other health issues in children. When children are sick or have chronic health

conditions, their ability to attend school regularly and perform well academically is

compromised.

Reduced Parental Involvement: Many families in mining-affected areas rely on income from

mining activities. Parents may have to work long hours in dangerous conditions, leaving them

with little time and energy to support their children's education. This can lead to decreased

parental involvement in their children's schooling.

Loss of Livelihoods: If mining negatively impacts agriculture or other local industries, families

may lose their primary source of income. This can result in economic instability and poverty,

which in turn can hinder children's access to education, as they may be forced to work or engage

in other income-generating activities to help their families.

18
Environmental Degradation: Unregulated mining can lead to environmental degradation, including

deforestation, soil erosion, and water pollution. These environmental changes can affect the

overall quality of life in affected communities, including access to clean water and safe living

conditions, which are essential for children's health and well-being.

Social Disruption: Mining can sometimes lead to social disruption and conflict within

communities. This can create an unstable and unsafe environment for children, making it

difficult for them to focus on their education and leading to emotional and psychological stress.

Reduced Investment in Education: In some cases, mining activities can generate revenue for local

governments. However, if this revenue is not properly managed and reinvested in education and

other essential services, it may not benefit the children in affected communities.

To mitigate these negative effects, it is crucial for governments, mining companies, and local

communities to work together to implement responsible mining practices that prioritize the well-

being of children and their access to education. This may include the enforcement of

environmental regulations, the provision of adequate compensation and support for affected

families, and investments in education infrastructure and resources.

Additionally, awareness and advocacy efforts by local and international organizations can help

shed light on the impacts of sand and stone mining on children's education and mobilize support

for sustainable and responsible mining practices.

19
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

This section focuses on research design, target population, sample size and sampling techniques,

research instruments, instrument validity and reliability. Data collection procedures and data

analysis techniques.

3.1 Research Design

The study used descriptive survey designed method. Descriptive research design determines and

reports the ways things are (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003). This approach or method is

appropriate for this study because it include fact finding and enquiries from teachers of sand and

stone mining on the children’s education in Bo District, a case study Borgor and Tikonko

Chiefdoms. The design explored and evaluated in details the relationship between the variables

(independent variable - sand and stone mining and dependent variables - pupils participation in

education, child labour, school enrollment, pupil’s attendance, absenteeism poor performance in

public exams and drop out).

Descriptive survey can also be sued to investigate a population by collecting samples to analyses

and discover occurrences.

20
3.2 The Study Area

Figure 3.1 Map of Sierra Lone showing study area

Bo district is a district in southern province of Sierra Leone. It is one of the sixteen Districts of

Sierra Leone. Bo district is the second largest most populated district in Sierra Leone. Its capital

and largest city is the city of Bo, which is also the second largest population city in the nation.

Other major towns in the District includes Baoma, Bupeh, Tikonko, Serabu, Sumbuya, Baima

and Njala komboya.

However, Bo district borders Kenema District to the east. Tonkolili district to the North,

Moyamba district to the Southwest and Pujehun district to the south. The population of

Bo district occupies a total area of 5,219 km2 and is sub divided into sixteen chiefdoms. The

population of Bo district is mainly from the Mende ethnic group, though the city of Bo has a

21
very ethnic diverse population. Moreover, Bo district has its own directly elected local

government called district councils and is where executives and legislative authority is vested at

local level within Bo district.

The Bo district council is headed by a council chairman who is an elected official and is

responsible for the general management of the district in terms of education and other

developmental programmes.

In Bo district, I look at Tikonko and Bongor chiefdom as case of study area. The Tikonko was a

powerful mende chiefdom in the upper Bum basin with a professional army, as documented by

Abraham (2003, page 58) Ndawa, a famous mende warrior was raised in one of Tikonko’s three

fortified towns, local legends details ferocity of the local warrior, one story confirmed in fyfe

(1962) page 584 recall a local muslim warrior. Allie Limbo, who ordered the capture of all local

missionaries in 1896.

However, Christian missionaries mainly creates and other Christian were capture and thrown

alive into a well, Allie Limbo was arrested and send to face trails in Bandajuma, but was

seriously tortured and beaten to death by colonial police on the way.

The chiefdom today has four houses, each of which trace the linage to the four sons of Momoh

Kakuwa, a Tikonko leader at the turn of the 19th century. All families are remember as being

unfriendly to the British in keeping with the chiefdom fience tradition. The current chief is

Joseph Kangbai Makavoray, a mende elected in 2002. The chief during the war, Micheal Kinawa

Gigba died of natural causes in the year 1993 and the office was held by a regent chief until

2002.

Kangbai was the eldest son of Kakuwa and sandy was the second son of Momoh kakuwa and the

first chief to be recognized by the British in a treaty signed in 1896. Though he is remember as

22
not being friendly to the British, notes in the chiefdom from 1899 by a colonial official indicated

that he was in fact loyal during the rebellion.

The Gigba was the third son of Momoh kakuwa. He took power after his elder brother sandy.

Gainah was the fourth and last son of Momoh kakuwa. Before colonial era in Sierra Leone,

Tikonko was one of the personal amorphous state of the king makavoray.

Tikonko chiefdom is divided into eight sections namely: Seiwa, Ngolamajei, Moku, Mambawa,

Njagbla 1, Njagbla 2, Sendeh and Bainyawa.

Each of these sections is further divided into towns and villages.

The main economic activities in the chiefdom are farming and mining. Trading is now on the

increase in the chiefdom because of the expansion of many towns and villages into urban centers.

Gondama a town located in Njagbla 2 section is one of the focus settlements for this study in

Tikonko chiefdom. According to Mr. Joseph Michael George principal of Tikonko community

secondary school, said, Gondama started near the sewa, with ten hurts built on the bank of the

river sewa. Its first chief was Gembe a younger brother of the then chief at Magbeima village.

Chief Gemba was advices by his elder brother to move from Magbeima village to Gondama

village with his family and a family of five. Upon their arrival other family members followed

them to live in the settlement.

After the death of the chief Gemba the Ngeyawa came from an unknown location and stayed

with the inhabitant who later seemed as their defender in the territory. Due to his hard work and

care for the people he met, as a result he was crowned chief of the settlement.

As time went by flooding emerged and dislocated the settlers which force them to move off the

bank of the river to the hill side of the Sewa River which is currently the town cemetery.

23
After several months, fire broke out and devastated their new settlement. Which displaced them

to another location within the same vicinity and eventually settled. Since then the settlement had

grown over time. After the demised of chief Ngeyawo another chief emerge who was called the

chief Mamba Kai and was a twin, and took over one of the locations called Banda.

Due to his leadership prowess, he mobilized all the settlers and they teamed up to develop the

town. Basically, Gondama is divided into two section called ‘Mahawei” namely “Kasehun” and

Njamahun section. Each of these sectios are further divided into family heads.

Simala, Amadula, Kumala, Charleslah and Batula.

The town is located on the south east of Bo which is seven miles away from the city of Bo.

Gondama accommodates the fifth infantry brigade headquarters of Sierra Leone Armed forces

(RSLAF). It is a Muslim dominated and very few churches. The main economics activities

include sand, stone and diamond mining, fishing and farming is no exception. The last midterm

census figure approximated five (5) thousand inhabitants. There are more young people than the

aged. Gondama and it surrounding had fifteen primary and three secondary schools. Gondama is

as growing settlement is open to entrepreneurships that is why it has a good number of people

who combine their mining with business on small scale trade. Traders referred to as hawkers and

peddlers usually come from the second capital city (Bo) to trade around the township during the

day and returned in the evening hours. This community has a police station, a military Barack

and one Health center. Water well and bore holes, hand pumps are their source of drinking water

in the said community.

Gondama township benefited from rural electrification generated from Bo city. Motorbike,

vehicle and tricycle are the general means of transportation for the inhabitants. The settlers is a

24
mixture of various tribes, such as Mende, Temne, Limba, Loko, Madingo, Fullah, Hausa Kono

and the mende are the predominant tribe followed by Temne.

Bongor before now was amalgamated chiefdom with Jaima. Both chiefdoms have been de

amalgamated with Bongor now being an independent chiefdom. Bongor was funded by two

warriors, VandiKain and Musa BogbeTomboKandor, who came in a war party from the sherbro

land to eventually settle at wansatellu. The chiefdom has seven families, all of whom link

themselves to these original invaders. The first chief of the Bongor chiefdom was VandiKain,

known also as KaiKai. After the B.A Foday Kai a relative of VandiKain rule the chiefdom from

1952-1989. The chiefdom was then without a leader leading up until war, when its headquarters

at Tellu became a major base for the kamajors military group, who established a site for them

initiation ceremonies nearby.

Hinga Norma, leader of the kamajors was appointed as chief briefly in 1993. He left in 1994 and

was followed by a sense of caretakers until paramount chief Mohamed K Gbao, a mende who

trace his linage to the original invaders of Jaima was elected in 2002. Bongor has four secondary

schools and 22 primary school. The main economic activities are farming, mining and petty-

trading.

3.3 Population of the Study

The targeted populations for the study included all primary and secondary schools’ pupils,

parents, stakeholders and teachers from all government and government assisted schools in

Borgor and Tikonko Chiefdoms in Bo District.

According to the Deputy Director of Basic and Senior Secondary Education, Bo District (2021),

there were 104 Primary Schools, 37 Junior Secondary Schools and 11 Senior Secondary Schools

in both Borgor and Tikonko Chiefdoms, Bo District. The said data was collected in 2021/2022

25
Annual School Census data Survey (ASC) which was collected by MBSSE. There were 141 pin

coded Trained and Qualified Teachers in the two (2) Chiefdoms.

3.4 Sample and Sampling Procedure

3.4.1 Sample Size

The total sample size for this study was 200 respondents selected from among the targeted

population of study base on the Taro Yamme sample size determination method.

3.4.2 Sampling Procedure

The sample was a subjective sampling technique which is a form of non-probability sampling in

which researcher rely on their own judgments when choosing member of the population to

participate in their survey. As a result of 104 public primary schools in Borgor and Tikonko, the

study carried out a survey of 20 primary schools which were manageable in terms of standard.

The study then used stratified simple random sampling methods to select pupils from the schools

according to their classes. The same method was used for the total number of 37 junior

secondary schools but the study carried out a survey of 12 junior secondary schools.

3.5 Instrument for Data Collection

The research instrument used in the study consisted of questionnaires developed by the

researcher. According to Orodho (2004), questionnaires allow for measurement for or against a

viewpoint and emphasizes that a questionnaire has the ability to collect a large amount of

information in a reasonably quick space of time. The questionnaires were used to collect data

from the Head teachers, teachers, pupils and parents. The questionnaires were divided into

sections with the first section seeking demographic characteristics questions of the respondents,

then the subsequent sections seeking to solicit data to the research objectives.

26
3.6 Validation

3.6.1 Validation of Instrument

The term validity is the degree to which a test measures what it purports to measure (Borg &

Gall, 2003). In testing the validity of the instrument, the researcher conducted a pilot study using

two schools from a chiefdom not part of the schools (20 pupils, 10 Teachers and four (4) head

teachers were selected using random sampling (Mugenda&Mugenda 2003). This pilot study data

was analyzed, interpreted and the instruments reviewed in readiness to the main data collections

study. After scrutiny, the researcher amended the instruments.

3.6.2 Reliability of Instrument

Reliability is a measure of the degree to which a research instrument yields consistent results or

data after repeated trials (Mugenda&Mugenda, 2003). The split half method was used to

establish instrument reliability. The researcher administered the questionnaires to the same group

of persons after one week. The data collected were analyzed and it was realized that there was a

positive and strong correlation between the first and the second test.

3.7 Sources of Data

Data are facts and other significant materials,past and present which serves as basis for sudy and

analysis( Krishnaswami and Ranagnatham 2006).research data may be arranged or formatted in

such a way as to make it suitable for communication, interpretation and processing. Data comes

in many formats both digital and physical. In this research, the data collected are classified as

primary and secondary data.

27
3.7.1 Primary Data:

According to Kothari (1985:11) primary data is original information collected for the first time

and it is a unique data which is directly collected by the researcher from a source such as

observations, surveys, questioners, case studies, and interviews according to his requirements.

3.7.2: Secondary Data

Secondary data is collected by someone other than the researcher and found in documentary

reviews which includes published reports, books, and internets (saunders et al, 2003). The

secondary data sources are extremely useful. This allows researchers and data analyst to build

large, high-quality data base that help solve problems.

3.8 Method of Data Collection

In carrying out this research, the researcher first got a release letter from the course

administrators which the researcher took to the schools under study. The researcher then was

given permission by the authorities to access information from the schools. A copy of the permit

was given to the District Education Officer. The researcher was permitted by the school leaders

to conduct the study. The researcher administered the questionnaire personally to the

respondents. The researcher waited for the questionnaire to be filled in and collected the

completed questionnaires. However, the researcher assures the respondents of confidentiality.

3.9 Method of Data Analyses

Data was edited to identify and eliminate errors made by respondents. Coding was then done to

translate questions responses into specific categories. The coded items were analysed with the

aid of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Software. Quantitative data was analyzed

by the use of frequency distribution and percentages, frequency and percentage table, pie charts

and graphs was used to present the data.

28
3.10 Ethical Considerations

Approval and permission from Njala University was considered before carrying out this study.

Other research ethical issues of getting permission to carry out the study involved permission

from community stakeholders, local authorities and Ministry of Basic and Senior Secondary

School Education Bo district respectively, who allowed the researcher to collect data from the

target place. Also, the study was carried out in accordance with the ethical requirements of

scientific practices and of the law. The researcher allowing the respondents to participate into the

study by their own voluntary informed consent (Burns and Grove, 1995). Lastly, the issue of

privacy, confidentiality and anonymity was considered from different respondents who were

involved in this study. The identity of the participant was not revealed in any way and also each

respondent received uniform and fair treatment during the study to avoid discomfort and harm

(Burns and Grove, 1995). However a letter of consent was writing to the respondents soliciting

their consent to participate in the research and finally there were no embarrassing questions and

discomfort in the questionnaire

29
 CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter presents and discussed data collected from the field. Results are presented in tables

in forms of frequency counts and percentages. These results and discussions are centered on the

objectives of the study.

4.1 Demographic Characteristics

The demographic characteristic was one of the major objectives of this study. This was to

examine the category of people engaged in mining. Results on this are presented in Tables 4.1

and 4.2 respectively.

30
Table 4.1 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

The demographics characteristics considered in this research are gender, age, education, marital

status and religion.

Age of Respondents Frequency Percentage

Below 15 years 64 32.0
15-25 48 24.0
25-35 76 38.0
35-45 12 6.0
Sex
Male 173 86.5
Female 27 13.5
Level of Education
Class 1- 6 40 20.0
JSS 1- 3 34 17.0
Technical/Vocational 66 33.0
University 5 2.5
SSS 1- 3 13 6.5
No Formal Education 42 21.0
Marital Status
Single 71 35.5
Married 63 31.5
Separated 57 28.5
Divorced 9 4.5
Religion
Christian 84 42.0
Islam 114 57.0
Others 2 1.0
Source: Field Study 2023

31
Table 4.1 presents results on age, sex, level of education, marital status and religion of the

respondents. Results shows majority of the respondents are with the age brackets of 25- 35 years

(38%), followed by below 15 years (32%) and 15 – 25 years (24%). This implies that most of the

miners are youth with their active working age brackets. The table also indicate that (86.5%) of

the miners are male and (13.5%) were female this simply means that more male is engaged in

mining than female. The level of education also indicates that (33.0%) have completed technical

or vocational institution, for classes 1 to 6 (20.0%) were involve in mining and only (2.5%) has

university degree which is very low for the said communities and therefore it a concern, the table

further shows that (21.0%) had no formal education. For marital status of the targeted

population, the table also indicate that (35.5%) were single, (31.5%) were married, (28.5%) were

separated and (4.5%) were divorced. This implies that majority of miners are not marriage

demonstrating the involvement of youths in mining activities and 31.5% were married as a result

of providing family needs.

The table also indicates that (57.0%) were Muslims involved in mining activities followed by

Christian (42.0%). this implies that these two chiefdoms are predominantly Muslim communities

.(1.0%) represent other religions.

32
Table 4.2 Presentation according to Occupation, Family Size and Role in the Family

Main Occupation Frequency Percentage

Farming 58 29.0
Mining 64 32.0
Teaching 18 9.0
Business 58 29.0
Others 2 1.0
Secondary Occupation
Business 83 41.5
Civil Servant 49 24.5
Teacher 41 20.5
Others 27 13.5
Family Size
Large 12 6.0
Medium 65 32.5
Small 123 61.5
Role in Family
Father breadwinner 100 50.0
Mother Caregiver 9 4.5
Sister supporting Mum 7 3.5
Brother support Father 84 42.0
Source: Field Study 2023

The results from table 4.2 shows that (32.0%) of respondents were involved in mining activities,

while (29.0%) were farmers and (29.0%) respectively were involve in business activities, (9.0%)

were teachers, and (1.0) represent other activities. This implies that there is low level education

rate in these communities, which is influence by mining activities

33
In the case of the secondary occupation, (41.5%) of respondents were engaged in Business

activities (24.5%) were civil servants, followed by (20.5%) were teachers contributing to the

development of education. Also (13.5%) were engaged in some other activities.

The table also shows the family size of respondents where (32.5%) were medium size

families,(6.0%) were large families and (61.5%) were small family size. From the result majority

of youths are involved in mining resulting in small family size as most of them were single.

From the above findings, the family play a vital role to up keep their dependents, as (50.0%)

represents fathers as bread winners, and (4.5%) were mothers who takes care of the home, while

(42.0%) were brothers supporting the father to feed the home and (35%) represent sisters

supporting the mothers at home with household work. This influences the drop out of youth from

school to support their families through mining.

34
4.2 Level of Sand and Stone Mining

Table 4.3 Level of Sand and Stone Mining

Are you engaged in Mining Frequency Percentage

Yes 200 100.0
No 0 0
If yes, what do you mine?
Sand 54 27.0
Stone 51 25.5
Diamond 95 47.5
How long have you been mining
Less than 5years 47 23.5
5-10 years 47 23.5
10-15 years 53 26.5
15-20 years 53 26.5
Who do you mine for?
Self 105 52.5
Parent 39 19.5
Sponsor 50 25.0
Company 6 3.0
Source: Field Study 2023

Table 4.3 shows that (100%) of the targeted population are miners. And (47.5%) were engage in

diamond mining followed by (27.0%) were engage in sand mining. Furthermore (25.5%) were

involved in stone mining. This implies that the livelihood of the targeted population largely

depends on mining. The table also indicate the number of years which respondent have been

engaged in mining (23.5%) of the respondents less than five years were engaged in mining, and

5-10years of the respondents which represents (23.5%) were also involved in mining.10-15years

35
of the respondents (26.5%) and 15-20years, (26.5%) respectively has being in mining for years

as indicated in the analysis above.

From the table (52.5%) mind for themselves and (19.55) mine for their parent to support family,

while (25.0%) are sponsored to mine. Only (3.0%) were mining for company.

This indicate that mining is the major economic activity of people in the study area.

4.3 Causes of Sand and Stone Mining

Table 4.4 Causes of Sand and Stone Mining

Where you force into mining Frequency Percentage

Yes 75 37.5
No 125 62.5
If you have an alternative source of income,
would you abandon the mining
Yes 117 58.5
No 83 41.5
Source: Field Study 2023

Form the Table 4.4 data shows (62.5) agreed that they were not forced in to mining and (35.5%)

were forced in to mining by parents causing children to drop out of school and engaged in child

labour. The findings revealed that (58.5%) agreed to abandon mining for an alternative source of

income. (41.5%) still preferred miming as their main source of income and will not abandon

mining for any other alternative source of income

36
Table 4.5 Factors Influencing Mining

B S.E. Wald df Sig. Exp(B)

Sex .274 .429 .407 1 .524 1.315
Level of Education -.001 .083 .000 1 .993 .999
Marital Status -.318 .165 3.729 1 .053* .728
Religion -.126 .284 .195 1 .659 .882
Main Occupation .028 .120 .056 1 .813 1.029
Family Size .285 .239 1.416 1 .234 1.329
Constant -.096 .984 .010 1 .922 .908
Source: Field Study 2023: p<10% significant level.

Added to the causes of sand and stone mining, results in Table 4.5 revealed that among the

various hypothesized as factors influencing stone and sand mining, marital status was considered

as the major factor influencing sand and stone mining in the study area. This implies that parents

and care givers catered for the up keeping of their families. As a result of these family

responsibilities respondents are left with no option, but engaged in sand and stone mining to earn

their living.

4.6 Effects of Sand and Stone Mining

Table 4.6 Effects of Sand and Stone Mining

What are the effects of sand and stone

mining Frequency Percentage
Sickness 40 20.0
Drop out of school 86 43.0
Affect Performance 74 37.0
Source: Field Study 2023

Results from Table 4.6 indicate that (43.0%) of respondents drop out of schools which is one of

the significant effects of and stone mining (37.0%) affect the performance of school going

37
children and (20.0%) of respondent indicate sickness as an effect of sand and stone mining

leading to death in some cases. The findings from the above clearly show that sand and stone

mining has adverse effect on children especially in the area of education.

4.5 Challenges of Sand and Stone Mining.

Table 4.7 Challenges of Sand and Stone Mining.

What are the challenges of sand and stone

mining Frequency Percentage
No effective control 18 9.0
Lack of laws 97 48.5
Pupils abandoning school 85 42.5
Source: Field Study 2023

From table 4.7 data shows that (48.5%) of targeted population agree that there were lack of lack

of laws or regulations to protect miner especially children in the communities, (42.5%) indicate

the rate at which pupils abandoning school for mining and finally (9.0%) show that there was no

effective control in the mining sector at community levels to prevent children from child labour.

These has been the challenges affecting children’s education in the both communities.

38
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary:

The effect of sand and stone mining on children's education in Tikonko and Bongor chiefdoms is

a pressing issue with far-reaching consequences. This literature review examines the impacts of

these mining activities on children's access to education, academic performance, and overall

well-being. It reveals that sand and stone mining have detrimental effects on children's education

due to factors such as school disruption, health hazards, and economic pressures on families. The

effect of sand and stone mining on children's education in Tikonko and Bongor chiefdoms is a

critical concern with multifaceted implications for the local communities.

Disruption of School Attendance: Sand and stone mining operations often require the labour of

children, leading them to drop out of school. This disruption to regular attendance can lead to

missed education opportunities and hinder their academic progress.

Physical Hazards: The mining activities may expose children to physical hazards such as

working in dangerous conditions, carrying heavy loads, and exposure to harmful dust and

chemicals. These risks can have detrimental effects on their health and well-being.

Psychological Impact: Children engaged in mining activities may experience stress, anxiety,

and a sense of deprivation as they miss out on the chance to learn and socialize in school. This

can have long-term psychological consequences.

Cycle of Poverty: Limited access to education can perpetuate a cycle of poverty, as children

who miss out on schooling opportunities may have fewer prospects for better-paying jobs in the

future. This, in turn, can perpetuate the reliance on mining activities for livelihoods.

39
Gender Disparities: Girls are often disproportionately affected, as they may be withdrawn from

school to assist with household chores or sibling care due to male family members' involvement

in mining activities.

Community Development: The focus on mining can divert resources and attention away from

investing in educational infrastructure and programs, further hindering children's access to

quality education.

Environmental Impact: Sand and stone mining can also have environmental consequences,

affecting the sustainability of communities and potentially contributing to long-term challenges

that indirectly impact children's well-being

40
5.2 Conclusion:

The effect of sand and stone mining on children's education in Tikonko and Bongor Chiefdom is

concerning and has several noteworthy conclusions:

Negative Impact on School Attendance: The presence of sand and stone mining activities in

these chiefdoms often leads to the displacement of families, which can disrupt the education of

children. Families engaged in mining may prioritize economic survival over education, resulting

in increased absenteeism and dropouts among school-aged children.

Health and Safety Risks: The mining industry often involves hazardous working conditions and

exposure to harmful substances. Children may be forced or compelled to work in these

dangerous environments to support their families, compromising their health, safety, and overall

well-being.

Infrastructure Degradation: Extensive mining operations can lead to the deterioration of

infrastructure in these areas, including roads and schools. This can make it more difficult for

children to access education facilities, resulting in reduced attendance and lower educational

attainment.

Environmental Consequences: Sand and stone mining can have severe environmental

consequences, including land degradation, deforestation, and water pollution. These

environmental issues can indirectly impact children's education by affecting their living

conditions and overall quality of life.

Economic Pressures: Families involved in mining may face economic pressures that prioritize

short-term gains over long-term investments in education. As a result, children may be pulled

into the workforce at an early age to contribute to their family's income, leading to reduced

educational opportunities.

41
Gender Disparities: The impact of mining on education can exacerbate gender disparities, with

girls often being more vulnerable to dropping out of school due to household responsibilities or

early marriages, which may be more prevalent in mining-affected communities.

Community Development: Sustainable development efforts, including investments in education

and infrastructure, are essential for mitigating the negative effects of sand and stone mining on

children's education. Collaborative efforts between local authorities, mining companies, and

community stakeholders are needed to address these challenges.

In conclusion, the effect of sand and stone mining on children's education in Tikonko and

Bongor Chiefdoms is multifaceted, encompassing economic, environmental, and social

dimensions. To mitigate these adverse effects, it is crucial for local governments, non-

governmental organizations, and mining companies to work together to implement policies and

practices that prioritize the well-being and education of children in these communities. This may

include creating alternative economic opportunities for families, improving infrastructure, and

promoting sustainable mining practices that minimize the disruption to education and the

environment

5.3 Recommendations:

To mitigate the adverse effects of sand and stone mining on children's education in Tikonko and

Bongor chiefdoms, the following recommendations are proposed:

Community Engagement: Local communities, mining companies, and government authorities

should collaborate to develop sustainable mining practices that minimize disruption to schools

and communities. This includes proper land-use planning and zoning regulations.

Child Labor Regulation: Stricter enforcement of child labor laws and penalties for those

employing children in mining activities can deter the use of child labor.

42
Healthcare Access: Improved access to healthcare services in mining-affected areas can address

the health risks children face. Regular health check-ups and health education programs should be

made available in the study area.

Alternative Income Sources: Initiatives to diversify income sources for families involved in

mining can reduce economic pressures that lead to child labor. These could include vocational

training and microfinance opportunities.

Education Support: Scholarships, school feeding programs, and transportation assistance can

help children overcome barriers to education caused by mining.

Infrastructure Repair: Investment in the repair and maintenance of damaged infrastructure can

improve school accessibility for children.

Awareness and Advocacy: Community awareness campaigns on the importance of education

and the risks associated with child labor in mining should be conducted. Local and international

advocacy can also bring attention to this issue and support positive change.

Popularization of radical inclusion policy: The ministry of basic and senior secondary school

education, Bo district council, non-governmental organization, head teachers and principals as

well as other education stake holders should engage the communities in those chiefdoms on

radical inclusion policy awareness campaign to ensure parent support their children to go to

school for future capacity building.

In conclusion, addressing the adverse effects of sand and stone mining on children's education

requires a multi-faceted approach involving community collaboration, regulation, and support

mechanisms. By implementing these recommendations, it is possible to mitigate the impact of

43
mining on children's education in Tikonko and Bongor chiefdoms and pave the way for a

brighter future for these communities' youth

44
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47
 QUESTIONNAIRE

The Examination of the effect of sand and stone mining on children’s education in Bo District (A

case study of selected communities in the Tikonko and Bongor Chiefdoms)

Dear respondent,

I am researching on the above topic in order to establish the facts of the effects of sand and stone

mining in selected communities in the Tikonko and Bongor chiefdoms respectively.

Your participation to achieve my general aim and objective will be of essence for this project.

This project is a partial fulfillment of a past Graduate Degree in Education.

Your support to my work is highly solicited and I therefore asked for contributions and obtain

information from you. This information will be kept confidentially and used only for this

research purpose. There is financial reward and your participation is not either compulsory.

Yours Faithfully,

Foday Sawaneh.

SECTION A

1. Socio-Economic characteristic of miners.

Age:

Sex: M F

Level of Education

a. Class 1-6 c. Technical/ vocational e. SSS 1-3

b. Jss 1-3 d. University f. No formal Education

2. Marital Status?

a. Single b. Married c. Separated d. Divorced

3. Religion

48
 a. Christian

b. Islam

c. Others

4. Main occupation

a. Farming

b. Mining

c. Teaching

d. Business

e. Others

5. Secondary Occupation

a. Business

b. Civil servant

c. Teacher

d. Other

6. Family size

a. Large b. Medium c. Small

7. Role in the Family

a. Father breadwinner b. Mother Caregiver c. Sister support mum d. Brother support

father

49
 SECTION B

Level of Stone and Sand mining

10. Are you engage in mining?

a. Yes

b. No

11. If yes what do you mind?

a. Sand

b. Stone

c. Gold

d. Diamond

e. Others

12. If you are engaging in mining, how long have you been mining?

------------------------- Years.

13. Who do you mine for?

a. Self

b. Parent

c. Sponsor

d. Company

e. Others

14. Considering all the sources of income where do you get the highest income?

-------------------------------------------.

50
 SECTION C

Causes of Sand and Stone mining

15. Where you force into mining?

a. Yes b. No

16. Why are you engage in mining?

---------------------------------------

17. If you have an alternative source of income, will you abandon mining?

a. Yes b.

18. If yes why?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

19. If no why?

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

SECTION D

Challenges of Mining

20. During your mining activities, what are the possible challenges you face as a miner?

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

21. What other challenges you faced with buyers?

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

22. What are the challenges with local authorities?

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

51
23. What are the challenges of sand mining?

a. No effects control

b. Lack of laws

c. Pupils abandoning school

d. Teachers abandoning school

24. What are the effects of sand and stone mining?

a. Sickness

b. Dropout of school

c. Affect performance

d. Child labour

52
53