Star

A star is a luminous spheroid of plasma held together by self-gravity.[1] The nearest star to Earth is
the Sun. Many other stars are visible to the naked eye at night; their immense distances from Earth
make them appear as fixed points of light. The most prominent stars have been categorised into
constellations and asterisms, and many of the brightest stars have proper names. Astronomers
have assembled star catalogues that identify the known stars and provide standardized stellar
designations. The observable universe contains an estimated 1022 to 1024 stars. Only about 4,000
of these stars are visible to the naked eye—all within the Milky Way galaxy.[2]

Image of the Sun, a G-type main-

sequence star, the closest to Earth

A star-forming region in the Large

Magellanic Cloud

A star's life begins with the gravitational collapse of a gaseous nebula of material largely comprising
hydrogen, helium, and trace heavier elements. Its total mass mainly determines its evolution and
eventual fate. A star shines for most of its active life due to the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen
into helium in its core. This process releases energy that traverses the star's interior and radiates
into outer space. At the end of a star's lifetime as a fusor, its core becomes a stellar remnant: a
white dwarf, a neutron star, or—if it is sufficiently massive—a black hole.
Stellar nucleosynthesis in stars or their remnants creates almost all naturally occurring chemical
elements heavier than lithium. Stellar mass loss or supernova explosions return chemically enriched
material to the interstellar medium. These elements are then recycled into new stars. Astronomers
can determine stellar properties—including mass, age, metallicity (chemical composition),
variability, distance, and motion through space—by carrying out observations of a star's apparent
brightness, spectrum, and changes in its position in the sky over time.

Stars can form orbital systems with other astronomical objects, as in planetary systems and star
systems with two or more stars. When two such stars orbit closely, their gravitational interaction
can significantly impact their evolution. Stars can form part of a much larger gravitationally bound
structure, such as a star cluster or a galaxy.

Etymology

The word "star" ultimately derives from the Proto-Indo-European root "h₂stḗr" also meaning star, but
further analyzable as h₂eh₁s- ("to burn", also the source of the word "ash") + -tēr (agentive suffix).
Compare Latin stella, Greek aster, German Stern. Some scholars believe the word is a borrowing
from Akkadian "istar" (Venus), however, this is in doubt. "Star" is cognate (shares the same root)
with the following words: asterisk, asteroid, astral, constellation, Esther.[3]

Observation history

People have interpreted patterns and

images in the stars since ancient
times.[4] This 1690 depiction of the
constellation of Leo, the lion, is by
Johannes Hevelius.[5]

Historically, stars have been important to civilizations throughout the world. They have been part of
religious practices, divination rituals, mythology, used for celestial navigation and orientation, to
mark the passage of seasons, and to define calendars.
Early astronomers recognized a difference between "fixed stars", whose position on the celestial
sphere does not change, and "wandering stars" (planets), which move noticeably relative to the fixed
stars over days or weeks.[6] Many ancient astronomers believed that the stars were permanently
affixed to a heavenly sphere and that they were immutable. By convention, astronomers grouped
prominent stars into asterisms and constellations and used them to track the motions of the
planets and the inferred position of the Sun.[4] The motion of the Sun against the background stars
(and the horizon) was used to create calendars, which could be used to regulate agricultural
practices.[7] The Gregorian calendar, currently used nearly everywhere in the world, is a solar
calendar based on the angle of the Earth's rotational axis relative to its local star, the Sun.

The oldest accurately dated star chart was the result of ancient Egyptian astronomy in 1534 BC.[8]
The earliest known star catalogues were compiled by the ancient Babylonian astronomers of
Mesopotamia in the late 2nd millennium BC, during the Kassite Period (c. 1531 BC – c. 1155 BC).[9]

Stars in the night sky

The first star catalogue in Greek astronomy was created by Aristillus in approximately 300 BC, with
the help of Timocharis.[10] The star catalog of Hipparchus (2nd century BC) included 1,020 stars,
and was used to assemble Ptolemy's star catalogue.[11] Hipparchus is known for the discovery of
the first recorded nova (new star).[12] Many of the constellations and star names in use today derive
from Greek astronomy.

Despite the apparent immutability of the heavens, Chinese astronomers were aware that new stars
could appear.[13] In 185 AD, they were the first to observe and write about a supernova, now known
as SN 185.[14] The brightest stellar event in recorded history was the SN 1006 supernova, which was
observed in 1006 and written about by the Egyptian astronomer Ali ibn Ridwan and several Chinese
astronomers.[15] The SN 1054 supernova, which gave birth to the Crab Nebula, was also observed by
Chinese and Islamic astronomers.[16][17][18]

Medieval Islamic astronomers gave Arabic names to many stars that are still used today and they
invented numerous astronomical instruments that could compute the positions of the stars. They
built the first large observatory research institutes, mainly to produce Zij star catalogues.[19] Among
these, the Book of Fixed Stars (964) was written by the Persian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi,
who observed a number of stars, star clusters (including the Omicron Velorum and Brocchi's
Clusters) and galaxies (including the Andromeda Galaxy).[20] According to A. Zahoor, in the 11th
century, the Persian polymath scholar Abu Rayhan Biruni described the Milky Way galaxy as a
multitude of fragments having the properties of nebulous stars, and gave the latitudes of various
stars during a lunar eclipse in 1019.[21]

According to Josep Puig, the Andalusian astronomer Ibn Bajjah proposed that the Milky Way was
made up of many stars that almost touched one another and appeared to be a continuous image
due to the effect of refraction from sublunary material, citing his observation of the conjunction of
Jupiter and Mars on 500 AH (1106/1107 AD) as evidence.[22] Early European astronomers such as
Tycho Brahe identified new stars in the night sky (later termed novae), suggesting that the heavens
were not immutable. In 1584, Giordano Bruno suggested that the stars were like the Sun, and may
have other planets, possibly even Earth-like, in orbit around them,[23] an idea that had been
suggested earlier by the ancient Greek philosophers, Democritus and Epicurus,[24] and by medieval
Islamic cosmologists[25] such as Fakhr al-Din al-Razi.[26] By the following century, the idea of the
stars being the same as the Sun was reaching a consensus among astronomers. To explain why
these stars exerted no net gravitational pull on the Solar System, Isaac Newton suggested that the
stars were equally distributed in every direction, an idea prompted by the theologian Richard
Bentley.[27]

The Italian astronomer Geminiano Montanari recorded observing variations in luminosity of the star
Algol in 1667. Edmond Halley published the first measurements of the proper motion of a pair of
nearby "fixed" stars, demonstrating that they had changed positions since the time of the ancient
Greek astronomers Ptolemy and Hipparchus.[23]

William Herschel was the first astronomer to attempt to determine the distribution of stars in the
sky. During the 1780s, he established a series of gauges in 600 directions and counted the stars
observed along each line of sight. From this, he deduced that the number of stars steadily increased
toward one side of the sky, in the direction of the Milky Way core. His son John Herschel repeated
this study in the southern hemisphere and found a corresponding increase in the same direction.[28]
In addition to his other accomplishments, William Herschel is noted for his discovery that some
stars do not merely lie along the same line of sight, but are physical companions that form binary
star systems.[29]

The science of stellar spectroscopy was pioneered by Joseph von Fraunhofer and Angelo Secchi. By
comparing the spectra of stars such as Sirius to the Sun, they found differences in the strength and
number of their absorption lines—the dark lines in stellar spectra caused by the atmosphere's
absorption of specific frequencies. In 1865, Secchi began classifying stars into spectral types.[30]
The modern version of the stellar classification scheme was developed by Annie J. Cannon during
the early 1900s.[31]

The first direct measurement of the distance to a star (61 Cygni at 11.4 light-years) was made in
1838 by Friedrich Bessel using the parallax technique. Parallax measurements demonstrated the
vast separation of the stars in the heavens.[23] Observation of double stars gained increasing
importance during the 19th century. In 1834, Friedrich Bessel observed changes in the proper
motion of the star Sirius and inferred a hidden companion. Edward Pickering discovered the first
spectroscopic binary in 1899 when he observed the periodic splitting of the spectral lines of the star
Mizar in a 104-day period. Detailed observations of many binary star systems were collected by
astronomers such as Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve and S. W. Burnham, allowing the masses
of stars to be determined from computation of orbital elements. The first solution to the problem of
deriving an orbit of binary stars from telescope observations was made by Felix Savary in 1827.[32]

The twentieth century saw increasingly rapid advances in the scientific study of stars. The
photograph became a valuable astronomical tool. Karl Schwarzschild discovered that the color of a
star and, hence, its temperature, could be determined by comparing the visual magnitude against
the photographic magnitude. The development of the photoelectric photometer allowed precise
measurements of magnitude at multiple wavelength intervals. In 1921 Albert A. Michelson made
the first measurements of a stellar diameter using an interferometer on the Hooker telescope at
Mount Wilson Observatory.[33]

Important theoretical work on the physical structure of stars occurred during the first decades of
the twentieth century. In 1913, the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram was developed, propelling the
astrophysical study of stars. Successful models were developed to explain the interiors of stars and
stellar evolution. Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin first proposed that stars were made primarily of
hydrogen and helium in her 1925 PhD thesis.[34] The spectra of stars were further understood
through advances in quantum physics. This allowed the chemical composition of the stellar
atmosphere to be determined.[35]
 Infrared image from NASA's Spitzer
Space Telescope showing hundreds
of thousands of stars in the Milky
Way galaxy

With the exception of rare events such as supernovae and supernova impostors, individual stars
have primarily been observed in the Local Group,[36] and especially in the visible part of the Milky
Way (as demonstrated by the detailed star catalogues available for the Milky Way galaxy) and its
satellites.[37] Individual stars such as Cepheid variables have been observed in the M87[38] and
M100 galaxies of the Virgo Cluster,[39] as well as luminous stars in some other relatively nearby
galaxies.[40] With the aid of gravitational lensing, a single star (named Icarus) has been observed at
9 billion light-years away.[41][42]

Designations

The concept of a constellation was known to exist during the Babylonian period. Ancient sky
watchers imagined that prominent arrangements of stars formed patterns, and they associated
these with particular aspects of nature or their myths. Twelve of these formations lay along the
band of the ecliptic and these became the basis of astrology.[43] Many of the more prominent
individual stars were given names, particularly with Arabic or Latin designations.

As well as certain constellations and the Sun itself, individual stars have their own myths.[44] To the
Ancient Greeks, some "stars", known as planets (Greek πλανήτης (planētēs), meaning "wanderer"),
represented various important deities, from which the names of the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars,
Jupiter and Saturn were taken.[44] (Uranus and Neptune were Greek and Roman gods, but neither
planet was known in Antiquity because of their low brightness. Their names were assigned by later
astronomers.)

Circa 1600, the names of the constellations were used to name the stars in the corresponding
regions of the sky. The German astronomer Johann Bayer created a series of star maps and applied
Greek letters as designations to the stars in each constellation. Later a numbering system based on
the star's right ascension was invented and added to John Flamsteed's star catalogue in his book
"Historia coelestis Britannica" (the 1712 edition), whereby this numbering system came to be called
Flamsteed designation or Flamsteed numbering.[45][46]

The internationally recognized authority for naming celestial bodies is the International
Astronomical Union (IAU).[47] The International Astronomical Union maintains the Working Group on
Star Names (WGSN)[48] which catalogs and standardizes proper names for stars.[49] A number of
private companies sell names of stars which are not recognized by the IAU, professional
astronomers, or the amateur astronomy community.[50] The British Library calls this an unregulated
commercial enterprise,[51][52] and the New York City Department of Consumer and Worker
Protection issued a violation against one such star-naming company for engaging in a deceptive
trade practice.[53][54]

Units of measurement

Although stellar parameters can be expressed in SI units or Gaussian units, it is often most
convenient to express mass, luminosity, and radii in solar units, based on the characteristics of the
Sun. In 2015, the IAU defined a set of nominal solar values (defined as SI constants, without
uncertainties) which can be used for quoting stellar parameters:

nominal solar luminosity L☉ = 3.828 × 1026 W [55]

nominal solar radius R☉ = 6.957 × 108 m [55]

The solar mass M☉ was not explicitly defined by the IAU due to the large relative uncertainty (10−4)
of the Newtonian constant of gravitation G. Since the product of the Newtonian constant of
gravitation and solar mass together (GM☉) has been determined to much greater precision, the IAU
defined the nominal solar mass parameter to be:

nominal solar mass parameter: GM☉ = 1.327 1244 × 1020 m3/s2 [55]

The nominal solar mass parameter can be combined with the most recent (2014) CODATA estimate
of the Newtonian constant of gravitation G to derive the solar mass to be approximately
1.9885 × 1030 kg. Although the exact values for the luminosity, radius, mass parameter, and mass
may vary slightly in the future due to observational uncertainties, the 2015 IAU nominal constants
will remain the same SI values as they remain useful measures for quoting stellar parameters.

Large lengths, such as the radius of a giant star or the semi-major axis of a binary star system, are
often expressed in terms of the astronomical unit—approximately equal to the mean distance
between the Earth and the Sun (150 million km or approximately 93 million miles). In 2012, the IAU
defined the astronomical constant to be an exact length in meters: 149,597,870,700 m.[55]

Formation and evolution

Stellar evolution of low-mass (left cycle) and

high-mass (right cycle) stars, with examples
in italics

Stars condense from regions of space of higher matter density, yet those regions are less dense
than within a vacuum chamber. These regions—known as molecular clouds—consist mostly of
hydrogen, with about 23 to 28 percent helium and a few percent heavier elements. One example of
such a star-forming region is the Orion Nebula.[56] Most stars form in groups of dozens to hundreds
of thousands of stars.[57] Massive stars in these groups may powerfully illuminate those clouds,
ionizing the hydrogen, and creating H II regions. Such feedback effects, from star formation, may
ultimately disrupt the cloud and prevent further star formation.[58]

All stars spend the majority of their existence as main sequence stars, fueled primarily by the
nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium within their cores. However, stars of different masses have
markedly different properties at various stages of their development. The ultimate fate of more
massive stars differs from that of less massive stars, as do their luminosities and the impact they
have on their environment. Accordingly, astronomers often group stars by their mass:[59]

Very low mass stars, with masses below 0.5 M☉, are fully convective and distribute helium evenly
throughout the whole star while on the main sequence. Therefore, they never undergo shell
burning and never become red giants. After exhausting their hydrogen they become helium white
dwarfs and slowly cool.[60] As the lifetime of 0.5 M☉ stars is longer than the age of the universe,
no such star has yet reached the white dwarf stage.

Low mass stars (including the Sun), with a mass between 0.5 M☉ and ~2.25 M☉ depending on
composition, do become red giants as their core hydrogen is depleted and they begin to burn
helium in core in a helium flash; they develop a degenerate carbon-oxygen core later on the
asymptotic giant branch; they finally blow off their outer shell as a planetary nebula and leave
behind their core in the form of a white dwarf.[61][62]
 Intermediate-mass stars, between ~2.25 M☉ and ~8 M☉, pass through evolutionary stages similar
to low mass stars, but after a relatively short period on the red-giant branch they ignite helium
without a flash and spend an extended period in the red clump before forming a degenerate
carbon-oxygen core.[61][62]

Massive stars generally have a minimum mass of ~8 M☉.[63] After exhausting the hydrogen at the
core these stars become supergiants and go on to fuse elements heavier than helium. Many end
their lives when their cores collapse and they explode as supernovae.[61][64]

Star formation

Artist's conception of the birth of a star

within a dense molecular cloud

A cluster of approximately 500 young

stars lies within the nearby W40 stellar
nursery.

The formation of a star begins with gravitational instability within a molecular cloud, caused by
regions of higher density—often triggered by compression of clouds by radiation from massive
stars, expanding bubbles in the interstellar medium, the collision of different molecular clouds, or
the collision of galaxies (as in a starburst galaxy).[65][66] When a region reaches a sufficient density
of matter to satisfy the criteria for Jeans instability, it begins to collapse under its own gravitational
force.[67]
As the cloud collapses, individual conglomerations of dense dust and gas form "Bok globules". As a
globule collapses and the density increases, the gravitational energy converts into heat and the
temperature rises. When the protostellar cloud has approximately reached the stable condition of
hydrostatic equilibrium, a protostar forms at the core.[68] These pre-main-sequence stars are often
surrounded by a protoplanetary disk and powered mainly by the conversion of gravitational energy.
The period of gravitational contraction lasts about 10 million years for a star like the sun, up to
100 million years for a red dwarf.[69]

Early stars of less than 2 M☉ are called T Tauri stars, while those with greater mass are Herbig
Ae/Be stars. These newly formed stars emit jets of gas along their axis of rotation, which may
reduce the angular momentum of the collapsing star and result in small patches of nebulosity
known as Herbig–Haro objects.[70][71] These jets, in combination with radiation from nearby massive
stars, may help to drive away the surrounding cloud from which the star was formed.[72]

Early in their development, T Tauri stars follow the Hayashi track—they contract and decrease in
luminosity while remaining at roughly the same temperature. Less massive T Tauri stars follow this
track to the main sequence, while more massive stars turn onto the Henyey track.[73]

Most stars are observed to be members of binary star systems, and the properties of those binaries
are the result of the conditions in which they formed.[74] A gas cloud must lose its angular
momentum in order to collapse and form a star. The fragmentation of the cloud into multiple stars
distributes some of that angular momentum. The primordial binaries transfer some angular
momentum by gravitational interactions during close encounters with other stars in young stellar
clusters. These interactions tend to split apart more widely separated (soft) binaries while causing
hard binaries to become more tightly bound. This produces the separation of binaries into their two
observed populations distributions.[75]

Main sequence

Stars spend about 90% of their lifetimes fusing hydrogen into helium in high-temperature-and-
pressure reactions in their cores. Such stars are said to be on the main sequence and are called
dwarf stars. Starting at zero-age main sequence, the proportion of helium in a star's core will
steadily increase, the rate of nuclear fusion at the core will slowly increase, as will the star's
temperature and luminosity.[76] The Sun, for example, is estimated to have increased in luminosity
by about 40% since it reached the main sequence 4.6 billion (4.6 × 109) years ago.[77]

Every star generates a stellar wind of particles that causes a continual outflow of gas into space.
For most stars, the mass lost is negligible. The Sun loses 10−14 M☉ every year,[78] or about 0.01% of
its total mass over its entire lifespan. However, very massive stars can lose 10−7 to 10−5 M☉ each
year, significantly affecting their evolution.[79] Stars that begin with more than 50 M☉ can lose over
half their total mass while on the main sequence.[80]

An example of a Hertzsprung–Russell
diagram for a set of stars that
includes the Sun (center) (see
Classification)

The time a star spends on the main sequence depends primarily on the amount of fuel it has and
the rate at which it fuses it. The Sun is expected to live 10 billion (1010) years. Massive stars
consume their fuel very rapidly and are short-lived. Low mass stars consume their fuel very slowly.
Stars less massive than 0.25 M☉, called red dwarfs, are able to fuse nearly all of their mass while
stars of about 1 M☉ can only fuse about 10% of their mass. The combination of their slow fuel-
consumption and relatively large usable fuel supply allows low mass stars to last about one trillion
(10 × 1012) years; the most extreme of 0.08 M☉ will last for about 12 trillion years. Red dwarfs
become hotter and more luminous as they accumulate helium. When they eventually run out of
hydrogen, they contract into a white dwarf and decline in temperature.[60] Since the lifespan of such
stars is greater than the current age of the universe (13.8 billion years), no stars under about
0.85 M☉[81] are expected to have moved off the main sequence.

Besides mass, the elements heavier than helium can play a significant role in the evolution of stars.
Astronomers label all elements heavier than helium "metals", and call the chemical concentration of
these elements in a star, its metallicity. A star's metallicity can influence the time the star takes to
burn its fuel, and controls the formation of its magnetic fields,[82] which affects the strength of its
stellar wind.[83] Older, population II stars have substantially less metallicity than the younger,
population I stars due to the composition of the molecular clouds from which they formed. Over
time, such clouds become increasingly enriched in heavier elements as older stars die and shed
portions of their atmospheres.[84]
Post–main sequence

Betelgeuse as seen by ALMA. This is

the first time that ALMA has observed
the surface of a star and resulted in
the highest-resolution image of
Betelgeuse available.

As stars of at least 0.4 M☉[85] exhaust the supply of hydrogen at their core, they start to fuse
hydrogen in a shell surrounding the helium core. The outer layers of the star expand and cool greatly
as they transition into a red giant. In some cases, they will fuse heavier elements at the core or in
shells around the core. As the stars expand, they throw part of their mass, enriched with those
heavier elements, into the interstellar environment, to be recycled later as new stars.[86] In about
5 billion years, when the Sun enters the helium burning phase, it will expand to a maximum radius of
roughly 1 astronomical unit (150 million kilometres), 250 times its present size, and lose 30% of its
current mass.[77][87]

As the hydrogen-burning shell produces more helium, the core increases in mass and temperature.
In a red giant of up to 2.25 M☉, the mass of the helium core becomes degenerate prior to helium
fusion. Finally, when the temperature increases sufficiently, core helium fusion begins explosively in
what is called a helium flash, and the star rapidly shrinks in radius, increases its surface
temperature, and moves to the horizontal branch of the HR diagram. For more massive stars, helium
core fusion starts before the core becomes degenerate, and the star spends some time in the red
clump, slowly burning helium, before the outer convective envelope collapses and the star then
moves to the horizontal branch.[88]

After a star has fused the helium of its core, it begins fusing helium along a shell surrounding the
hot carbon core. The star then follows an evolutionary path called the asymptotic giant branch
(AGB) that parallels the other described red-giant phase, but with a higher luminosity. The more
massive AGB stars may undergo a brief period of carbon fusion before the core becomes
degenerate. During the AGB phase, stars undergo thermal pulses due to instabilities in the core of
the star. In these thermal pulses, the luminosity of the star varies and matter is ejected from the
star's atmosphere, ultimately forming a planetary nebula. As much as 50 to 70% of a star's mass
can be ejected in this mass loss process. Because energy transport in an AGB star is primarily by
convection, this ejected material is enriched with the fusion products dredged up from the core.
Therefore, the planetary nebula is enriched with elements like carbon and oxygen. Ultimately, the
planetary nebula disperses, enriching the general interstellar medium.[89] Therefore, future
generations of stars are made of the "star stuff" from past stars.[90]

Massive stars

Onion-like layers at the core of a

massive, evolved star just before core
collapses

During their helium-burning phase, a star of more than 9 solar masses expands to form first a blue
supergiant and then a red supergiant. Particularly massive stars (exceeding 40 solar masses, like
Alnilam, the central blue supergiant of Orion's Belt)[91] do not become red supergiants due to high
mass loss.[92] These may instead evolve to a Wolf–Rayet star, characterised by spectra dominated
by emission lines of elements heavier than hydrogen, which have reached the surface due to strong
convection and intense mass loss, or from stripping of the outer layers.[93]

When helium is exhausted at the core of a massive star, the core contracts and the temperature and
pressure rises enough to fuse carbon (see Carbon-burning process). This process continues, with
the successive stages being fueled by neon (see neon-burning process), oxygen (see oxygen-
burning process), and silicon (see silicon-burning process). Near the end of the star's life, fusion
continues along a series of onion-layer shells within a massive star. Each shell fuses a different
element, with the outermost shell fusing hydrogen; the next shell fusing helium, and so forth.[94]

The final stage occurs when a massive star begins producing iron. Since iron nuclei are more tightly
bound than any heavier nuclei, any fusion beyond iron does not produce a net release of energy.[95]
Collapse

As a star's core shrinks, the intensity of radiation from that surface increases, creating such
radiation pressure on the outer shell of gas that it will push those layers away, forming a planetary
nebula. If what remains after the outer atmosphere has been shed is less than roughly 1.4 M☉, it
shrinks to a relatively tiny object about the size of Earth, known as a white dwarf. White dwarfs lack
the mass for further gravitational compression to take place.[96] The electron-degenerate matter
inside a white dwarf is no longer a plasma. Eventually, white dwarfs fade into black dwarfs over a
very long period of time.[97]

The Crab Nebula, remnants of a

supernova that was first observed
around 1050 AD

In massive stars, fusion continues until the iron core has grown so large (more than 1.4 M☉) that it
can no longer support its own mass. This core will suddenly collapse as its electrons are driven into
its protons, forming neutrons, neutrinos, and gamma rays in a burst of electron capture and inverse
beta decay. The shockwave formed by this sudden collapse causes the rest of the star to explode in
a supernova. Supernovae become so bright that they may briefly outshine the star's entire home
galaxy. When they occur within the Milky Way, supernovae have historically been observed by naked-
eye observers as "new stars" where none seemingly existed before.[98]

A supernova explosion blows away the star's outer layers, leaving a remnant such as the Crab
Nebula.[98] The core is compressed into a neutron star, which sometimes manifests itself as a
pulsar or X-ray burster. In the case of the largest stars, the remnant is a black hole greater than
4 M☉.[99] In a neutron star the matter is in a state known as neutron-degenerate matter, with a more
exotic form of degenerate matter, QCD matter, possibly present in the core.[100]

The blown-off outer layers of dying stars include heavy elements, which may be recycled during the
formation of new stars. These heavy elements allow the formation of rocky planets. The outflow
from supernovae and the stellar wind of large stars play an important part in shaping the interstellar
medium.[98]

Binary stars

Binary stars' evolution may significantly differ from that of single stars of the same mass. For
example, when any star expands to become a red giant, it may overflow its Roche lobe, the
surrounding region where material is gravitationally bound to it; if stars in a binary system are close
enough, some of that material may overflow to the other star, yielding phenomena including contact
binaries, common-envelope binaries, cataclysmic variables, blue stragglers,[101] and type Ia
supernovae. Mass transfer leads to cases such as the Algol paradox, where the most-evolved star in
a system is the least massive.[102]

The evolution of binary star and higher-order star systems is intensely researched since so many
stars have been found to be members of binary systems. Around half of Sun-like stars, and an even
higher proportion of more massive stars, form in multiple systems, and this may greatly influence
such phenomena as novae and supernovae, the formation of certain types of star, and the
enrichment of space with nucleosynthesis products.[103]

The influence of binary star evolution on the formation of evolved massive stars such as luminous
blue variables, Wolf–Rayet stars, and the progenitors of certain classes of core collapse supernova
is still disputed. Single massive stars may be unable to expel their outer layers fast enough to form
the types and numbers of evolved stars that are observed, or to produce progenitors that would
explode as the supernovae that are observed. Mass transfer through gravitational stripping in binary
systems is seen by some astronomers as the solution to that problem.[104][105][106]

Distribution

Artist's impression of the Sirius

system, a white dwarf star in orbit
around an A-type main-sequence star
Stars are not spread uniformly across the universe but are normally grouped into galaxies along
with interstellar gas and dust. A typical large galaxy like the Milky Way contains hundreds of billions
of stars. There are more than 2 trillion (1012) galaxies, though most are less than 10% the mass of
the Milky Way.[107] Overall, there are likely to be between 1022 and 1024 stars[108][109] (more stars
than all the grains of sand on planet Earth).[110][111][112] Most stars are within galaxies, but between
10 and 50% of the starlight in large galaxy clusters may come from stars outside of any
galaxy.[113][114][115]

A multi-star system consists of two or more gravitationally bound stars that orbit each other. The
simplest and most common multi-star system is a binary star, but systems of three or more stars
exist. For reasons of orbital stability, such multi-star systems are often organized into hierarchical
sets of binary stars.[116] Larger groups are called star clusters. These range from loose stellar
associations with only a few stars to open clusters with dozens to thousands of stars, up to
enormous globular clusters with hundreds of thousands of stars. Such systems orbit their host
galaxy. The stars in an open or globular cluster all formed from the same giant molecular cloud, so
all members normally have similar ages and compositions.[89]

Many stars are observed, and most or all may have originally formed in gravitationally bound,
multiple-star systems. This is particularly true for very massive O and B class stars, 80% of which
are believed to be part of multiple-star systems. The proportion of single star systems increases
with decreasing star mass, so that only 25% of red dwarfs are known to have stellar companions. As
85% of all stars are red dwarfs, more than two thirds of stars in the Milky Way are likely single red
dwarfs.[117] In a 2017 study of the Perseus molecular cloud, astronomers found that most of the
newly formed stars are in binary systems. In the model that best explained the data, all stars initially
formed as binaries, though some binaries later split up and leave single stars behind.[118][119]

This view of NGC 6397 includes stars

known as blue stragglers for their
location on the Hertzsprung–Russell
diagram.

The nearest star to the Earth, apart from the Sun, is Proxima Centauri, 4.2465 light-years
(40.175 trillion kilometres) away. Travelling at the orbital speed of the Space Shuttle, 8 kilometres
per second (29,000 kilometres per hour), it would take about 150,000 years to arrive.[120] This is
typical of stellar separations in galactic discs.[121] Stars can be much closer to each other in the
centres of galaxies[122] and in globular clusters,[123] or much farther apart in galactic halos.[124]

Due to the relatively vast distances between stars outside the galactic nucleus, collisions between
stars are thought to be rare. In denser regions such as the core of globular clusters or the galactic
center, collisions can be more common.[125] Such collisions can produce what are known as blue
stragglers. These abnormal stars have a higher surface temperature and thus are bluer than stars at
the main sequence turnoff in the cluster to which they belong; in standard stellar evolution, blue
stragglers would already have evolved off the main sequence and thus would not be seen in the
cluster.[126]

Characteristics

Almost everything about a star is determined by its initial mass, including such characteristics as
luminosity, size, evolution, lifespan, and its eventual fate.

Age

Most stars are between 1 billion and 10 billion years old. Some stars may even be close to
13.8 billion years old—the observed age of the universe. The oldest star yet discovered, HD 140283,
nicknamed Methuselah star, is an estimated 14.46 ± 0.8 billion years old.[127] (Due to the uncertainty
in the value, this age for the star does not conflict with the age of the universe, determined by the
Planck satellite as 13.799 ± 0.021).[127][128]

The more massive the star, the shorter its lifespan, primarily because massive stars have greater
pressure on their cores, causing them to burn hydrogen more rapidly. The most massive stars last
an average of a few million years, while stars of minimum mass (red dwarfs) burn their fuel very
slowly and can last tens to hundreds of billions of years.[129][130]

Lifetimes of stages of stellar evolution in billions of years[131]

Initial Mass (M☉) Main Sequence Subgiant First Red Giant Core He Burning

1.0 9.33 2.57 0.76 0.13

1.6 2.28 0.03 0.12 0.13

2.0 1.20 0.01 0.02 0.28

5.0 0.10 0.0004 0.0003 0.02

Chemical composition

When stars form in the present Milky Way galaxy, they are composed of about 71% hydrogen and
27% helium,[132] as measured by mass, with a small fraction of heavier elements. Typically the
portion of heavy elements is measured in terms of the iron content of the stellar atmosphere, as
iron is a common element and its absorption lines are relatively easy to measure. The portion of
heavier elements may be an indicator of the likelihood that the star has a planetary system.[133]

As of 2005 the star with the lowest iron content ever measured is the dwarf HE1327-2326, with only
1/200,000th the iron content of the Sun.[134] By contrast, the super-metal-rich star μ Leonis has
nearly double the abundance of iron as the Sun, while the planet-bearing star 14 Herculis has nearly
triple the iron.[135] Chemically peculiar stars show unusual abundances of certain elements in their
spectrum; especially chromium and rare earth elements.[136] Stars with cooler outer atmospheres,
including the Sun, can form various diatomic and polyatomic molecules.[137]

Size comparison of some well-known

supergiant and hypergiant stars,
featuring Cygnus OB2-12, V382
Carinae, Betelgeuse, VV Cephei, and
VY Canis Majoris

Diameter

Due to their great distance from the Earth, all stars except the Sun appear to the unaided eye as
shining points in the night sky that twinkle because of the effect of the Earth's atmosphere. The Sun
is close enough to the Earth to appear as a disk instead, and to provide daylight. Other than the Sun,
the star with the largest apparent size is R Doradus, with an angular diameter of only 0.057
arcseconds.[138]

The disks of most stars are much too small in angular size to be observed with current ground-
based optical telescopes, and so interferometer telescopes are required to produce images of these
objects. Another technique for measuring the angular size of stars is through occultation. By
precisely measuring the drop in brightness of a star as it is occulted by the Moon (or the rise in
brightness when it reappears), the star's angular diameter can be computed.[139]

Stars range in size from neutron stars, which vary anywhere from 20 to 40 km (25 mi) in diameter, to
supergiants like Betelgeuse in the Orion constellation, which has a diameter about 640 times that of
the Sun[140] with a much lower density.[141]

Kinematics

The Pleiades, an open cluster of stars

in the constellation of Taurus. These
stars share a common motion
through space.[142]

The motion of a star relative to the Sun can provide useful information about the origin and age of a
star, as well as the structure and evolution of the surrounding galaxy.[143] The components of motion
of a star consist of the radial velocity toward or away from the Sun, and the traverse angular
movement, which is called its proper motion.[144]

Radial velocity is measured by the doppler shift of the star's spectral lines and is given in units of
km/s. The proper motion of a star, its parallax, is determined by precise astrometric measurements
in units of milli-arc seconds (mas) per year. With knowledge of the star's parallax and its distance,
the proper motion velocity can be calculated. Together with the radial velocity, the total velocity can
be calculated. Stars with high rates of proper motion are likely to be relatively close to the Sun,
making them good candidates for parallax measurements.[145]

When both rates of movement are known, the space velocity of the star relative to the Sun or the
galaxy can be computed. Among nearby stars, it has been found that younger population I stars
have generally lower velocities than older, population II stars. The latter have elliptical orbits that are
inclined to the plane of the galaxy.[146] A comparison of the kinematics of nearby stars has allowed
astronomers to trace their origin to common points in giant molecular clouds, and are referred to as
stellar associations.[147]

Magnetic field

Surface magnetic field of SU Aur (a

young star of T Tauri type),
reconstructed by means of Zeeman–
Doppler imaging

The magnetic field of a star is generated within regions of the interior where convective circulation
occurs. This movement of conductive plasma functions like a dynamo, wherein the movement of
electrical charges induce magnetic fields, as does a mechanical dynamo. Those magnetic fields
have a great range that extend throughout and beyond the star. The strength of the magnetic field
varies with the mass and composition of the star, and the amount of magnetic surface activity
depends upon the star's rate of rotation. This surface activity produces starspots, which are regions
of strong magnetic fields and lower than normal surface temperatures. Coronal loops are arching
magnetic field flux lines that rise from a star's surface into the star's outer atmosphere, its corona.
The coronal loops can be seen due to the plasma they conduct along their length. Stellar flares are
bursts of high-energy particles that are emitted due to the same magnetic activity.[148]

Young, rapidly rotating stars tend to have high levels of surface activity because of their magnetic
field. The magnetic field can act upon a star's stellar wind, functioning as a brake to gradually slow
the rate of rotation with time. Thus, older stars such as the Sun have a much slower rate of rotation
and a lower level of surface activity. The activity levels of slowly rotating stars tend to vary in a
cyclical manner and can shut down altogether for periods of time.[149] During the Maunder
Minimum, for example, the Sun underwent a 70-year period with almost no sunspot activity.[150]
Mass

Stars have masses ranging from less than half the solar mass to over 200 solar masses (see List of
most massive stars). One of the most massive stars known is Eta Carinae,[151] which, with 100–
150 times as much mass as the Sun, will have a lifespan of only several million years. Studies of the
most massive open clusters suggests 150 M☉ as a rough upper limit for stars in the current era of
the universe.[152] This represents an empirical value for the theoretical limit on the mass of forming
stars due to increasing radiation pressure on the accreting gas cloud. Several stars in the R136
cluster in the Large Magellanic Cloud have been measured with larger masses,[153] but it has been
determined that they could have been created through the collision and merger of massive stars in
close binary systems, sidestepping the 150 M☉ limit on massive star formation.[154]

The reflection nebula NGC 1999 is

brilliantly illuminated by V380 Orionis.
The black patch of sky is a vast hole
of empty space and not a dark nebula
as previously thought.

The first stars to form after the Big Bang may have been larger, up to 300 M☉,[155] due to the
complete absence of elements heavier than lithium in their composition. This generation of
supermassive population III stars is likely to have existed in the very early universe (i.e., they are
observed to have a high redshift), and may have started the production of chemical elements
heavier than hydrogen that are needed for the later formation of planets and life. In June 2015,
astronomers reported evidence for Population III stars in the Cosmos Redshift 7 galaxy at
z = 6.60.[156][157]

With a mass only 80 times that of Jupiter (MJ), 2MASS J0523-1403 is the smallest known star
undergoing nuclear fusion in its core.[158] For stars with metallicity similar to the Sun, the theoretical
minimum mass the star can have and still undergo fusion at the core, is estimated to be about 75
MJ.[159][160] When the metallicity is very low, the minimum star size seems to be about 8.3% of the
solar mass, or about 87 MJ.[160][161] Smaller bodies called brown dwarfs, occupy a poorly defined
grey area between stars and gas giants.[159][160]

The combination of the radius and the mass of a star determines its surface gravity. Giant stars
have a much lower surface gravity than do main sequence stars, while the opposite is the case for
degenerate, compact stars such as white dwarfs. The surface gravity can influence the appearance
of a star's spectrum, with higher gravity causing a broadening of the absorption lines.[35]

Rotation

The rotation rate of stars can be determined through spectroscopic measurement, or more exactly
determined by tracking their starspots. Young stars can have a rotation greater than 100 km/s at the
equator. The B-class star Achernar, for example, has an equatorial velocity of about 225 km/s or
greater, causing its equator to bulge outward and giving it an equatorial diameter that is more than
50% greater than between the poles. This rate of rotation is just below the critical velocity of
300 km/s at which speed the star would break apart.[162] By contrast, the Sun rotates once every
25–35 days depending on latitude,[163] with an equatorial velocity of 1.93 km/s.[164] A main
sequence star's magnetic field and the stellar wind serve to slow its rotation by a significant amount
as it evolves on the main sequence.[165]

Degenerate stars have contracted into a compact mass, resulting in a rapid rate of rotation.
However they have relatively low rates of rotation compared to what would be expected by
conservation of angular momentum—the tendency of a rotating body to compensate for a
contraction in size by increasing its rate of spin. A large portion of the star's angular momentum is
dissipated as a result of mass loss through the stellar wind.[166] In spite of this, the rate of rotation
for a pulsar can be very rapid. The pulsar at the heart of the Crab nebula, for example, rotates 30
times per second.[167] The rotation rate of the pulsar will gradually slow due to the emission of
radiation.[168]

Temperature

The surface temperature of a main sequence star is determined by the rate of energy production of
its core and by its radius, and is often estimated from the star's color index.[169] The temperature is
normally given in terms of an effective temperature, which is the temperature of an idealized black
body that radiates its energy at the same luminosity per surface area as the star. The effective
temperature is only representative of the surface, as the temperature increases toward the core.[170]
The temperature in the core region of a star is several million kelvins.[171]

The stellar temperature will determine the rate of ionization of various elements, resulting in
characteristic absorption lines in the spectrum. The surface temperature of a star, along with its
visual absolute magnitude and absorption features, is used to classify a star (see classification
below).[35]

Massive main sequence stars can have surface temperatures of 50,000 K. Smaller stars such as the
Sun have surface temperatures of a few thousand K. Red giants have relatively low surface
temperatures of about 3,600 K; but they have a high luminosity due to their large exterior surface
area.[172]

Radiation

The energy produced by stars, a product of nuclear fusion, radiates to space as both
electromagnetic radiation and particle radiation. The particle radiation emitted by a star is
manifested as the stellar wind,[173] which streams from the outer layers as electrically charged
protons and alpha and beta particles. A steady stream of almost massless neutrinos emanate
directly from the star's core.[174]

The production of energy at the core is the reason stars shine so brightly: every time two or more
atomic nuclei fuse together to form a single atomic nucleus of a new heavier element, gamma ray
photons are released from the nuclear fusion product. This energy is converted to other forms of
electromagnetic energy of lower frequency, such as visible light, by the time it reaches the star's
outer layers.[175]

The color of a star, as determined by the most intense frequency of the visible light, depends on the
temperature of the star's outer layers, including its photosphere.[176] Besides visible light, stars emit
forms of electromagnetic radiation that are invisible to the human eye. In fact, stellar
electromagnetic radiation spans the entire electromagnetic spectrum, from the longest wavelengths
of radio waves through infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, to the shortest of X-rays, and gamma rays.
From the standpoint of total energy emitted by a star, not all components of stellar electromagnetic
radiation are significant, but all frequencies provide insight into the star's physics.[174]

Using the stellar spectrum, astronomers can determine the surface temperature, surface gravity,
metallicity and rotational velocity of a star. If the distance of the star is found, such as by measuring
the parallax, then the luminosity of the star can be derived. The mass, radius, surface gravity, and
rotation period can then be estimated based on stellar models. (Mass can be calculated for stars in
binary systems by measuring their orbital velocities and distances. Gravitational microlensing has
been used to measure the mass of a single star.[177]) With these parameters, astronomers can
estimate the age of the star.[178]

Luminosity

The luminosity of a star is the amount of light and other forms of radiant energy it radiates per unit
of time. It has units of power. The luminosity of a star is determined by its radius and surface
temperature. Many stars do not radiate uniformly across their entire surface. The rapidly rotating
star Vega, for example, has a higher energy flux (power per unit area) at its poles than along its
equator.[179]

Patches of the star's surface with a lower temperature and luminosity than average are known as
starspots. Small, dwarf stars such as the Sun generally have essentially featureless disks with only
small starspots. Giant stars have much larger, more obvious starspots,[180] and they exhibit strong
stellar limb darkening. That is, the brightness decreases towards the edge of the stellar disk.[181]
Red dwarf flare stars such as UV Ceti may possess prominent starspot features.[182]

Magnitude

The apparent brightness of a star is expressed in terms of its apparent magnitude. It is a function of
the star's luminosity, its distance from Earth, the extinction effect of interstellar dust and gas, and
the altering of the star's light as it passes through Earth's atmosphere. Intrinsic or absolute
magnitude is directly related to a star's luminosity, and is the apparent magnitude a star would be if
the distance between the Earth and the star were 10 parsecs (32.6 light-years).[183]

Both the apparent and absolute magnitude scales are logarithmic units: one whole number
difference in magnitude is equal to a brightness variation of about 2.5 times[185] (the 5th root of 100
or approximately 2.512). This means that a first magnitude star (+1.00) is about 2.5 times brighter
than a second magnitude (+2.00) star, and about 100 times brighter than a sixth magnitude star
(+6.00). The faintest stars visible to the naked eye under good seeing conditions are about
magnitude +6.[186]

On both apparent and absolute magnitude scales, the smaller the magnitude number, the brighter
the star; the larger the magnitude number, the fainter the star. The brightest stars, on either scale,
have negative magnitude numbers. The variation in brightness (ΔL) between two stars is calculated
by subtracting the magnitude number of the brighter star (mb) from the
Number of stars
magnitude number of the fainter star (mf), then using the difference as an
brighter than
exponent for the base number 2.512; that is to say: magnitude

Apparent Number
magnitude of stars[184]

0 4
Relative to both luminosity and distance from Earth, a star's absolute
1 15
magnitude (M) and apparent magnitude (m) are not equivalent;[185] for
2 48
example, the bright star Sirius has an apparent magnitude of −1.44, but it has
3 171
an absolute magnitude of +1.41.
4 513
The Sun has an apparent magnitude of −26.7, but its absolute magnitude is 5 1,602
only +4.83. Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky as seen from Earth, is
6 4,800
approximately 23 times more luminous than the Sun, while Canopus, the
7 14,000
second brightest star in the night sky with an absolute magnitude of −5.53, is
approximately 14,000 times more luminous than the Sun. Despite Canopus
being vastly more luminous than Sirius, the latter star appears the brighter of the two. This is
because Sirius is merely 8.6 light-years from the Earth, while Canopus is much farther away at a
distance of 310 light-years.[187]

The most luminous known stars have absolute magnitudes of roughly −12, corresponding to
6 million times the luminosity of the Sun.[188] Theoretically, the least luminous stars are at the lower
limit of mass at which stars are capable of supporting nuclear fusion of hydrogen in the core; stars
just above this limit have been located in the NGC 6397 cluster. The faintest red dwarfs in the
cluster are absolute magnitude 15, while a 17th absolute magnitude white dwarf has been
discovered.[189][190]

Classification

The current stellar classification system originated in the early 20th century, when stars were
classified from A to Q based on the strength of the hydrogen line.[192] It was thought that the
hydrogen line strength was a simple linear function of temperature. Instead, it was more
complicated: it strengthened with increasing temperature, peaked near 9000 K, and then declined at
greater temperatures. The classifications were since reordered by temperature, on which the
modern scheme is based.[193]

Stars are given a single-letter classification according to their spectra, ranging from type O, which
are very hot, to M, which are so cool that molecules may form in their atmospheres. The main
classifications in order of decreasing surface temperature
Surface temperature ranges for
are: O, B, A, F, G, K, and M. A variety of rare spectral types are
different stellar classes[191]
given special classifications. The most common of these are
Class Temperature Sample star
types L and T, which classify the coldest low-mass stars and
O 33,000 K or more Zeta Ophiuchi
brown dwarfs. Each letter has 10 sub-divisions, numbered
B 10,500–30,000 K Rigel
from 0 to 9, in order of decreasing temperature. However, this
system breaks down at extreme high temperatures as classes A 7,500–10,000 K Altair

O0 and O1 may not exist.[194] F 6,000–7,200 K Procyon A

G 5,500–6,000 K Sun
In addition, stars may be classified by the luminosity effects
K 4,000–5,250 K Epsilon Indi
found in their spectral lines, which correspond to their spatial
M 2,600–3,850 K Proxima Centauri
size and is determined by their surface gravity. These range
from 0 (hypergiants) through III (giants) to V (main sequence
dwarfs); some authors add VII (white dwarfs). Main sequence stars fall along a narrow, diagonal
band when graphed according to their absolute magnitude and spectral type.[194] The Sun is a main
sequence G2V yellow dwarf of intermediate temperature and ordinary size.[195]

There is additional nomenclature in the form of lower-case letters added to the end of the spectral
type to indicate peculiar features of the spectrum. For example, an "e" can indicate the presence of
emission lines; "m" represents unusually strong levels of metals, and "var" can mean variations in
the spectral type.[194]

White dwarf stars have their own class that begins with the letter D. This is further sub-divided into
the classes DA, DB, DC, DO, DZ, and DQ, depending on the types of prominent lines found in the
spectrum. This is followed by a numerical value that indicates the temperature.[196]

Variable stars

The asymmetrical appearance of

Mira, an oscillating variable star
Variable stars have periodic or random changes in luminosity because of intrinsic or extrinsic
properties. Of the intrinsically variable stars, the primary types can be subdivided into three principal
groups.

During their stellar evolution, some stars pass through phases where they can become pulsating
variables. Pulsating variable stars vary in radius and luminosity over time, expanding and
contracting with periods ranging from minutes to years, depending on the size of the star. This
category includes Cepheid and Cepheid-like stars, and long-period variables such as Mira.[197]

Eruptive variables are stars that experience sudden increases in luminosity because of flares or
mass ejection events.[197] This group includes protostars, Wolf-Rayet stars, and flare stars, as well
as giant and supergiant stars.

Cataclysmic or explosive variable stars are those that undergo a dramatic change in their
properties. This group includes novae and supernovae. A binary star system that includes a nearby
white dwarf can produce certain types of these spectacular stellar explosions, including the nova
and a Type 1a supernova.[88] The explosion is created when the white dwarf accretes hydrogen from
the companion star, building up mass until the hydrogen undergoes fusion.[198] Some novae are
recurrent, having periodic outbursts of moderate amplitude.[197]

Stars can vary in luminosity because of extrinsic factors, such as eclipsing binaries, as well as
rotating stars that produce extreme starspots.[197] A notable example of an eclipsing binary is Algol,
which regularly varies in magnitude from 2.1 to 3.4 over a period of 2.87 days.[199]

Structure

Internal structures of main sequence stars with

masses indicated in solar masses, convection zones
with arrowed cycles, and radiative zones with red
flashes. Left to right, a red dwarf, a yellow dwarf, and
a blue-white main sequence star

The interior of a stable star is in a state of hydrostatic equilibrium: the forces on any small volume
almost exactly counterbalance each other. The balanced forces are inward gravitational force and
an outward force due to the pressure gradient within the star. The pressure gradient is established
by the temperature gradient of the plasma; the outer part of the star is cooler than the core. The
temperature at the core of a main sequence or giant star is at least on the order of 107 K. The
resulting temperature and pressure at the hydrogen-burning core of a main sequence star are
sufficient for nuclear fusion to occur and for sufficient energy to be produced to prevent further
collapse of the star.[200][201]

As atomic nuclei are fused in the core, they emit energy in the form of gamma rays. These photons
interact with the surrounding plasma, adding to the thermal energy at the core. Stars on the main
sequence convert hydrogen into helium, creating a slowly but steadily increasing proportion of
helium in the core. Eventually the helium content becomes predominant, and energy production
ceases at the core. Instead, for stars of more than 0.4 M☉, fusion occurs in a slowly expanding shell
around the degenerate helium core.[202]

In addition to hydrostatic equilibrium, the interior of a stable star will maintain an energy balance of
thermal equilibrium. There is a radial temperature gradient throughout the interior that results in a
flux of energy flowing toward the exterior. The outgoing flux of energy leaving any layer within the
star will exactly match the incoming flux from below.[203]

The radiation zone is the region of the stellar interior where the flux of energy outward is dependent
on radiative heat transfer, since convective heat transfer is inefficient in that zone. In this region the
plasma will not be perturbed, and any mass motions will die out. Where this is not the case, then the
plasma becomes unstable and convection will occur, forming a convection zone. This can occur, for
example, in regions where very high energy fluxes occur, such as near the core or in areas with high
opacity (making radiatative heat transfer inefficient) as in the outer envelope.[201]

The occurrence of convection in the outer envelope of a main sequence star depends on the star's
mass. Stars with several times the mass of the Sun have a convection zone deep within the interior
and a radiative zone in the outer layers. Smaller stars such as the Sun are just the opposite, with the
convective zone located in the outer layers.[204] Red dwarf stars with less than 0.4 M☉ are
convective throughout, which prevents the accumulation of a helium core.[85] For most stars the
convective zones will vary over time as the star ages and the constitution of the interior is
modified.[201]
 A cross-section of the Sun

The photosphere is that portion of a star that is visible to an observer. This is the layer at which the
plasma of the star becomes transparent to photons of light. From here, the energy generated at the
core becomes free to propagate into space. It is within the photosphere that sun spots, regions of
lower than average temperature, appear.[205]

Above the level of the photosphere is the stellar atmosphere. In a main sequence star such as the
Sun, the lowest level of the atmosphere, just above the photosphere, is the thin chromosphere
region, where spicules appear and stellar flares begin. Above this is the transition region, where the
temperature rapidly increases within a distance of only 100 km (62 mi). Beyond this is the corona, a
volume of super-heated plasma that can extend outward to several million kilometres.[206] The
existence of a corona appears to be dependent on a convective zone in the outer layers of the
star.[204] Despite its high temperature, the corona emits very little light, due to its low gas density.[207]
The corona region of the Sun is normally only visible during a solar eclipse.

From the corona, a stellar wind of plasma particles expands outward from the star, until it interacts
with the interstellar medium. For the Sun, the influence of its solar wind extends throughout a
bubble-shaped region called the heliosphere.[208]

Nuclear fusion reaction pathways

 Overview of the proton–proton
chain

The carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle

When nuclei fuse, the mass of the fused product is less than the mass of the original parts. This lost
mass is converted to electromagnetic energy, according to the mass–energy equivalence
relationship .[209] A variety of nuclear fusion reactions take place in the cores of stars,
that depend upon their mass and composition.

The hydrogen fusion process is temperature-sensitive, so a moderate increase in the core

temperature will result in a significant increase in the fusion rate. As a result, the core temperature
of main sequence stars only varies from 4 million kelvin for a small M-class star to 40 million kelvin
for a massive O-class star.[171]

In the Sun, with a 16-million-kelvin core, hydrogen fuses to form helium in the proton–proton chain
reaction:[210]

41H → 22H + 2e+ + 2νe(2 x 0.4 MeV)

2e+ + 2e− → 2γ (2 x 1.0 MeV)
21H + 22H → 23He + 2γ (2 x 5.5 MeV)
 23He → 4He + 21H (12.9 MeV)

There are a couple other paths, in which 3He and 4He combine to form 7Be, which eventually (with
the addition of another proton) yields two 4He, a gain of one.

All these reactions result in the overall reaction:

41H → 4He + 2γ + 2νe (26.7 MeV)

where γ is a gamma ray photon, νe is a neutrino, and H and He are isotopes of hydrogen and helium,
respectively. The energy released by this reaction is in millions of electron volts. Each individual
reaction produces only a tiny amount of energy, but because enormous numbers of these reactions
occur constantly, they produce all the energy necessary to sustain the star's radiation output. In
comparison, the combustion of two hydrogen gas molecules with one oxygen gas molecule
releases only 5.7 eV.

In more massive stars, helium is produced in a cycle of reactions catalyzed by carbon called the
carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle.[210]

In evolved stars with cores at 100 million kelvin and masses between 0.5 and 10 M☉, helium can be
transformed into carbon in the triple-alpha process that uses the intermediate element
beryllium:[210]
4
He + 4He + 92 keV → 8*Be
4
He + 8*Be + 67 keV → 12*C
12*
C → 12C + γ + 7.4 MeV

For an overall reaction of:

Overview of consecutive fusion

processes in massive stars
 34He → 12C + γ + 7.2 MeV

In massive stars, heavier elements can be burned in a contracting core through the neon-burning
process and oxygen-burning process. The final stage in the stellar nucleosynthesis process is the
silicon-burning process that results in the production of the stable isotope iron-56.[210] Any further
fusion would be an endothermic process that consumes energy, and so further energy can only be
produced through gravitational collapse.

Duration of the main phases of fusion for a

20 M☉ star[211]

Fuel Temperature Density Burn duration

material (million kelvins) (kg/cm3) (τ in years)

H 37 0.0045 8.1 million

He 188 0.97 1.2 million

C 870 170 976

Ne 1,570 3,100 0.6

O 1,980 5,550 1.25

S/Si 3,340 33,400 0.0315

See also

Fusor (astronomy)

List of proper names of stars

Outline of astronomy

Sidereal time

Star clocks

Star count

Stars in fiction

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External links

"How To Decipher Classification Codes" (http://www.assa.org.au/sig/variables/classifications.as

p) . Astronomical Society of South Australia. Retrieved 20 August 2010.
Kaler, James. "Portraits of Stars and their Constellations" (http://stars.astro.illinois.edu/sow/sow.
html) . University of Illinois. Retrieved 20 August 2010.

Pickover, Cliff (2001). The Stars of Heaven (https://archive.org/details/starsofheaven00pick) .

Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514874-9.

Prialnick, Dina; et al. (2001). "Stars: Stellar Atmospheres, Structure, & Evolution" (http://www-star.s
t-and.ac.uk/~kw25/teaching/stars/stars.html) . University of St. Andrews. Retrieved 20 August
2010.

"Query star by identifier, coordinates or reference code" (http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-fi

d) . SIMBAD. Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 20 August 2010.

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