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Studies in Systems, Decision and Control 200
2 0 0 t h Vo l u m e o f S S D C · 2 0 0 t h Vo l u m e o f S S D C · 2 0 0 t h Vo l u m e o f S S D C
Frank T. Smith
Hemen Dutta
John N. Mordeson Editors
Mathematics
Applied to
Engineering,
Modelling, and
Social Issues
Studies in Systems, Decision and Control
Volume 200
Series editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences,
Warsaw, Poland
The series “Studies in Systems, Decision and Control” (SSDC) covers both new
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Frank T. Smith Hemen Dutta
• •
John N. Mordeson
Editors
Mathematics Applied
to Engineering, Modelling,
and Social Issues
123
Editors
Frank T. Smith Hemen Dutta
Department of Mathematics Department of Mathematics
University College London Gauhati University
London, UK Guwahati, Assam, India
John N. Mordeson
Department of Mathematics
Center for Mathematics of Uncertainty
Creighton University
Omaha, NE, USA
ISSN 2198-4182 ISSN 2198-4190 (electronic)

Studies in Systems, Decision and Control
ISBN 978-3-030-12231-7 ISBN 978-3-030-12232-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12232-4
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018968112
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

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Preface
This book contains several aspects of current researches in mathematics having

significant applications in engineering, modelling and social issues. This book is
primarily designed for researchers, graduate students and educators interested in
mathematics having diverse uses and applications. The book should also be useful
and interesting for several other readers interested in current developments of
mathematics having uses and applications in engineering science and modelling of
natural phenomena including certain social issues having current research signifi-
cance. There are 22 chapters in this book, and they are organized as follows:
The Chap. “On the Reynolds Equation and the Load Problem in Lubrication:
Literature Review and Mathematical Modelling” reviews the theory of hydrody-
namic lubrication. It presents some mathematical models of lubrication with an
emphasis on the load or equilibrium problems. It also presents the derivation of the
most used equation in lubrication, i.e. the Reynolds equation as well as the equa-
tions of equilibrium in certain cases. Different models of cavitation and the gene-
ralized Reynolds equation are also presented.
The Chap. “On Dynamic Interactions Between Body Motion and Fluid Motion”
deals with dynamic fluid-body interactions, concentrating on applying mathematical/
analytical ideas to complement direct numerical studies. It also presents a review of
ideas developed over the last decade for cases of high flow rates. The chapter first
addresses inviscid approaches to one or more bodies free to move within a channel
flow, a skimming sharp-edged body on a free surface, the sinking of a body in water
and the rocking or rolling of a body on a solid surface, before moving on to more recent
viscous-inviscid approaches for channel flows and boundary layers. The chapter also
outlines the beginnings of certain current research projects.
The Chap. “Certain Aspects of Problems with Non Homogeneous Reactions”
reviews certain aspects of systems with reaction terms which are nonhomogeneous
reactions. These types of reactions are frequent in problems arise in various models
of physical processes, in particular, in those where the temperature is the main
variable. Also, it discusses both stationary and evolution problems.
v
vi Preface
The Chap. “A Survey on the Melnikov Theory for Implicit Ordinary Differential
Equations with Applications to RLC Circuits” deals with the development of the
Melnikov theory in studying implicit ordinary differential equations with small
amplitude perturbations, and in particular, the persistence of orbits connecting sin-
gularities in finite time provided that certain Melnikov like conditions hold. Further, it
considered the achievements on reversible implicit ordinary differential equations.
Some applications to nonlinear systems of RLC circuits are also presented.
The Chap. “Numerical Solution of Space-Time-Fractional Reaction-Diffusion
Equations via the Caputo and Riesz Derivatives” considered the numerical solution
of space-time-fractional reaction-diffusion problems used to model complex phe-
nomena that are governed by dynamic of anomalous diffusion. The time- and
space-fractional reaction-diffusion equation is modelled by replacing the first-order
derivative in time and the second-order derivative in space, respectively, with the
Caputo and Riesz operators. It proposed some numerical approximation schemes
such as the matrix method, average central difference operator and L2 method. It
applied the Laplace transform technique in time and the Fourier transform method
in space to give a general two-dimensional representation of the analytical solution
in terms of the Mittag-Leffler function. The proposed methods are tested for
applicability on a range of practical problems.
In the Chap. “An Extended Langhaar’s Solution for Two-Dimensional Entry
Microchannel Flows with High-Order Slip”, Langhaar’s assumptions for the
entrance region of two-dimensional micro-channels (micro-tube, slit channel and
concentric annular micro-channel) have been implemented using high-order slip
models. Different slip models have been used, and velocity profile, entrance length
and apparent friction factor have been obtained in an integral form. The advances in
micro-fabrication technology have brought numerous applications to the field of
micro-scale science, and engineering and micro-channels are inseparable part of
microfluidic technology.
The Chap. “Dynamics of Solitons in High-Order Nonlinear Schrödinger Equations
in Fiber Optics” aims to construct kink, bright and dark solitons of a generalized
higher-order nonlinear Schrödinger equation in a cubic-quintic non-Kerr medium by
applying a modified extended mapping method. It also presented the formation
conditions on solitary wave parameters in which kink, dark and bright solitons can
exist, and graphically illustrated the collision of the constructed soliton solutions that
help realizing the physical phenomena of nonlinear Schrödinger equation. Further, it
outlined descriptions of various issues on integrability. The stability of the model in
normal dispersion and anomalous regime are discussed by using the modulation
instability analysis.
The Chap. “MHD Mass Transfer Flow Past an Impulsively Started Semi-Infinite
Vertical Plate with Soret Effect and Ramped Wall Temperature” presents an exact
solution to the problem of a hydromagnetic natural convective mass transfer flow of
an incompressible viscous electrically conducting non-Gray optically thin fluid past
an impulsively started semi-infinite vertical plate with ramped wall temperature in
Preface vii
presence of appreciable radiation, thermal diffusion and uniform transverse mag-

netic field. It also studied graphically the influences of thermal radiation, ramped
parameter, magnetic field, thermal diffusion and time on the flow and transport
characteristics.
The Chap. “Secure Communication Systems Based on the Synchronization of
Chaotic Systems” aims at giving an overview of secure communications and chaos. It
summarizes the latest advancements made in the field of chaos-based communica-
tions. A case study is also considered assuming antipodal chaos shift keying mod-
ulation and described the complete communication system. Simulation results are
further incorporated highlighting the performance of chaotic modulation systems.
The Chap. “Numerical Techniques for Fractional Competition Dynamics with
Power-, Exponential- and Mittag-Leffler Laws” deals with modelling and analysing
fractional competition system with power law, exponential law and the
Mittag-Leffler law in which the standard derivative in time is replaced with the
Caputo, Caputo-Fabrizio and Atangana-Baleanu fractional derivatives. Further, it
formulates a fractional version of the Adams-Bashforth scheme for the approxi-
mation of these derivatives and justifies the usability of these derivatives by
drawing comparison through an application of them to solve certain problems. It
also considers a number of fractional competition dynamics arising in applied
science and engineering in the simulation framework.
The Chap. “Existence of Periodic Solutions for First Order Differential Equations
with Applications” used a fixed point theorem in cones in a Banach space to present
different sufficient conditions for the existence of at least two positive periodic
solutions of first-order functional differential equations. The results obtained are also
applied to the Nicholson’s Blowflies model and the generalized Michaelis-
Menton-type single-species growth model.
The Chap. “Dynamic Programming Viscosity Solution Approach and Its
Applications to Optimal Control Problems” is concerned with optimal control
problems of dynamical systems described by partial differential equations. First, by
the Dubovitskii-Milyutin functional analytical approach, it studies the Pontryagin
maximum principle of an age-structured population dynamics for spread of uni-
versally fatal diseases. Then an optimal control problem of a McKendrick-type
age-structured population dynamics is solved by the dynamic programming vis-
cosity solution, and its corresponding numerical solutions of optimal feedback
control are constructed. Finally, it proves the convergence of a well-adapted upwind
finite-difference numerical scheme for the HJB equation solution.
The Chap. “A Simple Model of Periodic Reproduction: Selection of Prime Periods”
studies a discrete-time model of periodic reproduction with inter- and intra-specific
competition as a tool to investigate the selection of prime reproduction cycle lengths
observed in certain species of cicadas. It also proposed an approximation for the
average populations and analysed for the case of 2 and 13 populations. It observed that
prime periods have an advantage when compared with composite ones suggesting that
the prime periods displayed by cicada species in nature might arise by the process of
natural selection of adaptive values and not as a random result of evolutionary
constraints.
viii Preface
The Chap. “Transport on Networks—A Playground of Continuous and Discrete

Mathematics in Population Dynamics” studied structured population models in
which the population is subdivided into states according to certain feature of the
individuals. It considered various rules allowing individuals to move between the
states. It observed that depending on the type of the migration rule, the models can
vary from a system of coupled McKendrick equations to a system of transport
equations on a graph. The chapter aims also to address the well-posedness of such
problems.
The Chap. “Augmenting and Decreasing Systems” deals with cooperative games
in which there exists a feasible coalition structure. Augmenting and decreasing
systems are set systems specially introduced for analysing certain situations of partial
cooperation, and they are dual structures. The chapter studied the core and the Weber
set for games on augmenting systems. Two known classical solutions for games are
also defined on augmenting systems: the Shapley value and the Banzhaf one. It also
uses the duality relationship to analyse the values for decreasing systems.
The Chap. “Spatiotemporal Dynamics of a Class of Models Describing
Infectious Diseases” proposed and analysed a class of three spatiotemporal mod-
els describing infectious diseases caused by viruses such as the human immuno-
deficiency virus and the hepatitis B virus. The qualitative analysis of the models,
such as positive invariance, boundedness and global stabilities of steady states, has
also been studied. Biological findings of the analytical results are incorporated, and
further extended and generalized some mathematical virus models and previous
results.
The Chap. “Approximation of Short-Run Equilibrium of the N-region Core-
Periphery Model in an Urban Setting” aims to give an approximation of short-run
equilibrium of the N-region core-periphery model in an urban setting. The
approximation is claimed to be sufficiently accurate, which is expressed explicitly
in terms of the distribution of workers that is contained as known function in the
model. It further argued that the approximation can be used to analyse the beha-
viour of short-run equilibrium.
The Chap. “New Phase-Field Models with Applications to Materials Genome
Initiative” reviews some types of phase-field models formulated by Alber and Zhu.
These models may be used to describe important phenomena, such as solid-solid
phase transitions occurring in, e.g. smart materials like shape memory alloys and
interface motion by interface diffusion. The first chapter presents the background
of these models. Then, mathematical and numerical investigations of these models
are presented as well as some open problems related to the models are also listed.
Further, it introduces phase-field crystal method which can be regarded as an
extension of phase-field approach.
The Chap. “Optimal Control Measures for Tuberculosis in a Population Affected
with Insurgency” applied optimal control theory to a mathematical model
describing the population dynamics of tuberculosis with variability in susceptibility
due to difference in awareness level. Aiming at minimize the number of high-risk
Preface ix
susceptible individuals with low level of tuberculosis awareness and maximizing

the number of isolated actively-infected individuals placed under Directly Observed
Treatment Short-Course, it incorporated time-dependent control functions that
represent educational campaign programmes in the midst of insurgency, and case
finding techniques for chronic tuberculosis cases. It also characterized the optimal
controls in terms of the optimality systems and solved numerically. Further,
numerical simulations are performed to illustrate the effect of the controls on the
population dynamics of the disease in a population.
The Chap. “Insurance Model to Estimate the Financial Risk Due to Direct
Medical Cost on Dengue Outbreaks” attempts to build a bridge between epi-
demiological and insurance modelling and set up an actuarial based tool that pro-
vides financial arrangements to cover the future medical expenses resulting from the
medical treatments of dengue disease. It converted classical SIR model into
probability model and then developed the insurance plan to cover the future
financial burden due to direct medical expenses. The premium, the present financial
burden due to future expenses is defined by means of the equivalence principle and
discussed the sensitivity with respect to model parameters and external variables. It
introduced several control measures and discussed the variability of the present
financial burden with respect to such measures. Further, it analysed the efficiency
of the controls and discussed necessary and sufficient criterion for the existence of
insurance plans.
The Chap. “Dynamics of Zika Virus Epidemic in Random Environment”
developed a mathematical model for Zika virus dynamics under randomly varying
environmental conditions, in which the birth and loss rates for mosquitoes and
environmental influence are modelled as random processes. It studied the system of
random ordinary differential equations by the theory of random dynamical systems
and dynamical analysis. It first discussed the existence, uniqueness, positiveness
and boundedness of solutions, and then investigated the long-term dynamics in
terms of existence and geometric structures of random attractors and forward omega
limit sets. Finally, it proved some conditions ensuring that the prevalence of Zika
virus among human beings decreases monotonically to zero, and also established
some conditions under which an epidemic may happen.
The Chap. “Incidence Graph Models for the Analysis of Active Illegal
Immigration Routes and Human Loss” studied connectivity in fuzzy incidence
graphs. Different connectivity aspects of fuzzy incidence graphs are discussed. It
introduced the notions like incidence connectivity and incidence connectivity of pairs
and presented results similar to Whitney’s Theorem. It also investigated the notion of
t-connected fuzzy incidence graphs as well as obtained some characterizations. An
application in connection with illegal migration is presented and evaluated certain
risks focusing on some vulnerable routes.
The editors wish to thank the contributors for their timely contribution and
cooperation while the chapters were being reviewed and processed. The reviewers
also deserve sincere thanks for their great efforts and time voluntarily offered
x Preface
towards the successful completion of this book project. The editors are indebted to
several well-wishers, colleagues, editors and supporting staff at Springer for timely
and efficient cooperation which helped in executing this project smoothly.
London, UK Frank T. Smith

Guwahati, India Hemen Dutta
Omaha, USA John N. Mordeson
February, 2019
Contents
On the Reynolds Equation and the Load Problem in Lubrication:

Literature Review and Mathematical Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Hassán Lombera Rodríguez and J. Ignacio Tello
On Dynamic Interactions Between Body Motion and Fluid Motion . . . . 45
Frank T. Smith, Samire Balta, Kevin Liu and Edward R. Johnson
Certain Aspects of Problems with Non Homogeneous Reactions . . . . . . 91
Alejandro Omón Arancibia
A Survey on the Melnikov Theory for Implicit Ordinary Differential
Equations with Applications to RLC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Michal Fečkan
Numerical Solution of Space-Time-Fractional Reaction-Diffusion
Equations via the Caputo and Riesz Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Kolade M. Owolabi and Hemen Dutta
An Extended Langhaar’s Solution for Two-Dimensional Entry
Microchannel Flows with High-Order Slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
R. Rasooli and B. Çetin
Dynamics of Solitons in High-Order Nonlinear Schrödinger
Equations in Fiber Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Gholam-Ali Zakeri
MHD Mass Transfer Flow Past an Impulsively Started Semi-Infinite
Vertical Plate with Soret Effect and Ramped Wall Temperature . . . . . . 245
N. Ahmed
Secure Communication Systems Based on the Synchronization
of Chaotic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Samir Bendoukha, Salem Abdelmalek and Adel Ouannas
xi
xii Contents
Numerical Techniques for Fractional Competition Dynamics

with Power-, Exponential- and Mittag-Leffler Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Kolade M. Owolabi and Hemen Dutta
Existence of Periodic Solutions for First Order Differential
Equations with Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Smita Pati
Dynamic Programming Viscosity Solution Approach
and Its Applications to Optimal Control Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Bing Sun, Zhen-Zhen Tao and Yang-Yang Wang
A Simple Model of Periodic Reproduction: Selection
of Prime Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Raul Abreu de Assis and Mazílio Coronel Malavazi
Transport on Networks—A Playground of Continuous
and Discrete Mathematics in Population Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Jacek Banasiak and Aleksandra Puchalska
Augmenting and Decreasing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
J. M. Bilbao, A. Jiménez-Losada and M. Ordóñez
Spatiotemporal Dynamics of a Class of Models Describing
Infectious Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Khalid Hattaf and Noura Yousfi
Approximation of Short-Run Equilibrium of the N-Region
Core-Periphery Model in an Urban Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
Minoru Tabata and Nobuoki Eshima
New Phase-Field Models with Applications to Materials
Genome Initiative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Peicheng Zhu, Yangxin Tang and Yeping Li
Optimal Control Measures for Tuberculosis in a Population
Affected with Insurgency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
A. O. Egonmwan and D. Okuonghae
Insurance Model to Estimate the Financial Risk Due to Direct
Medical Cost on Dengue Outbreaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
S. S. N. Perera
Dynamics of Zika Virus Epidemic in Random Environment . . . . . . . . . 665
Yusuke Asai, Xiaoying Han and Peter E. Kloeden
Incidence Graph Models for the Analysis of Active Illegal
Immigration Routes and Human Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
Sunil Mathew and John N. Mordeson
Contributors
Salem Abdelmalek Department of Mathematics, University of Tebessa, Tebessa,

Algeria
N. Ahmed Department of Mathematics, Gauhati University, Guwahati, India
Yusuke Asai Department of Hygiene, Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido
University, Sapporo, Japan
Samire Balta University College London, London, UK
Jacek Banasiak Department of Mathematics and Applied Mathematics,
University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa;
Institute of Mathematics, Łódź University of Technology, Łódź, Poland
Samir Bendoukha Department of Electrical Engineering, Taibah University,
Yanbu, Saudi Arabia
J. M. Bilbao Department of Applied Mathematics II, University of Seville,
Escuela Superior de Ingenieros, Camino de los Descubrimientos, Sevilla, Spain
B. Çetin Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip Research Group, Mechanical
Engineering Department, İ.D. Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey
Raul Abreu de Assis Departamento de Matemática, UNEMAT, Sinop, MT,
Brazil
Hemen Dutta Department of Mathematics, Gauhati University, Guwahati, India
A. O. Egonmwan Department of Mathematics, University of Benin, Benin City,
Nigeria
Nobuoki Eshima Center for Educational Outreach and Admissions, Kyoto
University, Kyoto, Japan
xiii
xiv Contributors
Michal Fečkan Department of Mathematical Analysis and Numerical

Mathematics, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Informatics, Comenius
University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia;
Mathematical Institute, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
Xiaoying Han Department of Mathematics and Statistics, 221 Parker Hall Auburn
University, Auburn, AL, USA
Khalid Hattaf Centre Régional des Métiers de l’Education et de la Formation
(CRMEF), Casablanca, Morocco;
Laboratory of Analysis, Modeling and Simulation (LAMS), Faculty of Sciences
Ben M’sik, Hassan II University, Sidi Othman, Casablanca, Morocco
A. Jiménez-Losada Department of Applied Mathematics II, University of Seville,
Edward R. Johnson University College London, London, UK
Peter E. Kloeden Department of Mathematics and Statistics, 221 Parker Hall
Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
Yeping Li Department of Mathematics, East China University of Science and
Technology, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
Kevin Liu University College London, London, UK
Hassán Lombera Rodríguez Centro de Informática Industrial, Universidad de las
Ciencias Informáticas, La Habana, Cuba
Mazílio Coronel Malavazi Instituto de Ciências Naturais, Humanas e Sociais
(ICNHS)—UFMT, Sinop, MT, Brazil
Sunil Mathew Department of Mathematics, National Institute of Technology
Calicut, Calicut, India
John N. Mordeson Department of Mathematics, Center for Mathematics of
Uncertainty, Creighton University, Omaha, NE, USA
D. Okuonghae Department of Mathematics, University of Benin, Benin City,
Nigeria
Alejandro Omón Arancibia Departamento de Ingeniería Matemática,
Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
M. Ordóñez Department of Applied Mathematics II, University of Seville,
Adel Ouannas Laboratory of Mathematics, Informatics and Systems (LAMIS),
University of Larbi Tebessi, Tebessa, Algeria
Contributors xv
Kolade M. Owolabi Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Institute for

Groundwater Studies, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa;
Department of Mathematical Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Akure,
Ondo State, Nigeria
Smita Pati Department of Mathematics, Amity School of Engineering and
Technology, Amity University Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
S. S. N. Perera Research and Development Centre for Mathematical Modeling,
Faculty of Science, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka
Aleksandra Puchalska Institute of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics,
University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
R. Rasooli Microfluidics and Lab-on-a-chip Research Group, Mechanical
Engineering Department, İ.D. Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey
Frank T. Smith University College London, London, UK
Bing Sun School of Mathematics and Statistics, Beijing Institute of Technology,
Beijing, China;
Beijing Key Laboratory on MCAACI, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing,
China
Minoru Tabata Department of Mathematical Sciences, Osaka Prefecture
University, Osaka, Japan
Yangxin Tang Department of Mathematics, Shanghai University, Shanghai,
People’s Republic of China;
Institute of Statistics and Applied Mathematics, Anhui University of Finance and
Economics, Bengbu, Anhui Province, People’s Republic of China
Zhen-Zhen Tao School of Mathematics and Statistics, Beijing Institute of
Technology, Beijing, China
J. Ignacio Tello Depto Matemática Aplicada a las TIC. ETSIS Sistemas
Informáticos, UPM, Madrid, Spain
Yang-Yang Wang School of Mathematics and Statistics, Beijing Institute of
Technology, Beijing, China
Noura Yousfi Laboratory of Analysis, Modeling and Simulation (LAMS), Faculty
of Sciences Ben M’sik, Hassan II University, Sidi Othman, Casablanca, Morocco
Gholam-Ali Zakeri Department of Mathematics, and Interdisciplinary Research
Institute for the Sciences (IRIS), California State University - Northridge,
Northridge, CA, USA
Peicheng Zhu Materials Genome Institute and Department of Mathematics,
Shanghai University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China
On the Reynolds Equation and the Load
Problem in Lubrication: Literature
Review and Mathematical Modelling
Hassán Lombera Rodríguez and J. Ignacio Tello
Abstract In this chapter, we provide a literature review concerning the theory of

hydrodynamic lubrication, especially applied to journal bearings. The device consists
of an external cylinder surrounding a rotating shaft, both separated by a lubricant to
prevent contact. In particular, we derive the fluid film thickness model for journal
bearings, considering both the parallel and the misaligned case. The hydrodynamic
Reynolds equation with cavitation phenomenon, through both Reynolds and Elrod-
Adams models are fully derived in this chapter. Subsequently, we pose two suitable
variational formulations for the hydrodynamic problem considering both cavitation
models. In addition, we present the admissible range of misalignment angle projec-
tions for prescribed values of the shaft eccentricity and angular coordinate. Finally,
we properly state the problem of a loaded misaligned journal bearing for stationary
regime, considering the balance of force and torque components involved.
Keywords Reynolds equation · Hydrodynamic lubrication · Journal bearing ·

Misalignment · Cavitation · Inverse problem
1 On the Beginning of the Theory of Hydrodynamic

Lubrication
Hydrodynamic lubrication is a phenomenon characterized by a lubricant flowing

in the narrow gap between two closely spaced surfaces in relative motion. Impor-
tant and well-known scientists, engineers and tribologists investigated in the past
H. Lombera Rodríguez
Centro de Informática Industrial, Universidad de las Ciencias Informáticas,
19370 La Habana, Cuba
e-mail: [email protected]
J. I. Tello (B)
Depto Matemática Aplicada a las TIC. ETSIS Sistemas Informáticos, UPM,
28037 Madrid, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

F. T. Smith et al. (eds.), Mathematics Applied to Engineering, Modelling,
and Social Issues, Studies in Systems, Decision and Control 200,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12232-4_1
2 H. Lombera Rodríguez and J. I. Tello
the relationship between friction, wear and lubrication, especially applied to journal
bearings. Gustave Adolph Hirn (1815–1890), accomplished in 1847 the first exper-
iments on hydrodynamic lubrication and rediscovered the laws of Amontons and of
Coulomb. In 1879, Robert Henry Thurston (1839–1903), published the results of his
study on friction and lubrication. He showed that, with increasing speed, the friction
coefficient of a lubricated bearing diminishes below its static value, passes through
a minimum and then increases. He also specified that the speed corresponding to the
minimum of friction depends on the load applied to the bearing [48].
In 1883, Nikolai Pavlovich Petrov (1836–1920) introduced the results of his stud-
ies and tests on lubricated bearings. He proved that, among the physical characteris-
tics of an oil, the viscosity has a preponderant role in bearing friction. He stipulated
that a fluid film totally separates the surfaces of both shaft and bearing, and that a
constant pressure should be produced in this film. Petrov, also looked through the
work of Hirn and reused the term of mediate friction to characterize hydrodynamic
lubrication [48]. In 1885, a remarkable discovery was the existence of hydrodynamic
pressure in the lubricant film of a bearing by Beauchamp Tower (1845–1904), which
served as a basis for accomplishing the theory of lubrication. Fortunately, Tower’s
discovery results provided experimental confirmation to Reynolds, who was working
on a hydrodynamic theory of lubrication at that time. The result of this was a theory
of hydrodynamic lubrication published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society by
Reynolds; see [82]. In that early work, Reynolds proposed the equation that at present
is named after him and provided the first analytical proof that a viscous liquid can
physically separate two sliding surfaces by hydrodynamic pressure, resulting in low
friction and theoretically zero wear [90]. That work represents the seminal paper
on Lubrication Theory and in fact, most of mathematical models of hydrodynamic
lubrication processes between solid surfaces have the Reynolds Equation (RE) as
their key point. A rigorous approach for the deduction of the classical linear RE from
Navier–Stokes may be found in [4].
It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that Reynolds theory on hydro-
dynamic lubrication was used for calculating thrust and journal bearings. In 1902,
Richard Stribeck confirmed the hydrodynamic effects and performed the original
research into the limits of hydrodynamic lubrication. He proposed the relationship
between friction, load, speed and viscosity that is still used today to present the var-
ious types of lubrication. In most cases, the friction and lubrication relationship is
characterized with basis on μv F
(oil viscosity × sliding velocity/normal load) factor,
in a diagram called Stribeck curve. This diagram summarizes the limits of hydrody-
namic lubrication; see Fig. 1.
Three zones can be identified, each one corresponding to a type of lubrication
depending on the level of pressure established in the contact. For low pressure (0.1
to 50 MPa), zone 1 corresponds to boundary lubrication; surface separation is ensured
by lubricant molecules attached to the surfaces; see Fig. 2a. This type of lubrication is
related to the physico-chemistry of surfaces and of lubricants, for low and moderate
speeds and for relatively low loads. In zone 2, the hydrodynamic effect described by
RE takes some importance and tends to separate the areas still in contact over a part
of their asperities; this type of lubrication is the mixed lubrication; see Fig. 2b. Zone
On the Reynolds Equation and the Load Problem in Lubrication … 3
1 2 3
friction
0 v
F
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram for the limits of hydrodynamic lubrication
(a) Boundary lubrication regime (b) Mixed lubrication regime
(c) Hydrodynamic lubrication regime
Fig. 2 Types of lubrication regimes present on the Stribeck curve
3 corresponds to hydrodynamic lubrication and is described by RE; see Fig. 2c. In

this region a full film separates the surfaces and friction is proportional to the speed
if the lubricant viscosity is constant with temperature [48].
Notice that depending on lubrication regime, different surface interaction mech-
anisms occur, leading to distinct wear and friction responses. Friction behaviour in
Stribeck curve is used to explain rubbing phenomena occurring in lubricated con-
tacts. Transition between zones is explained as follows. For high values of μvF
, friction
coefficient is linearly ascending due to fluid film lubrication. When load increases or
oil viscosity and/or velocity decreases, the μv F
factor falls. It means that the sliding
velocity v and the oil viscosity μ are unable to generate sufficient oil-film pressure p
to support the entire load F [58]. Then, the fluid film becomes thinner and, therefore,
friction coefficient decreases up to a minimum value. Note that for even smaller val-
ues of μvF
, fluid film thickness is further reduced, and contact appears. Then, friction
coefficient increases as the μv F
factor decreases [69]. Such rise in friction coefficient
is also related to oil viscosity increase in some regions at contact area under high
contact pressure. These phenomena characterize the mixed lubrication regime. Addi-
tional reduction in μv F
factor makes contact stronger. Film thickness becomes smaller
than the height of surface asperities and then boundary lubrication regime will occur.
Due to this behaviour, the Stribeck curve is also represented with the film thickness
along the horizontal axis [48].
In 1904, Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld used a change of variables and
succeeded in obtaining an analytical solution of the RE for infinitely long journal
bearings ( ∂∂xp = 0), where p stands for the pressure and x, the geometrical coordinate,
is in the direction of the journal axis [48]. Nevertheless, the used boundary conditions
did not correspond to the physical reality, as they did not take into account the film
rupture in the bearing. In addition, the pressure distribution obtained was negative
in the divergent zone of the film. In 1914, Ludwig Karl Friedrich Gümbel suggested
that only the positive part of the pressure distribution should be included for the
calculation of the bearing load, omitting the negative part. The load calculated was not
exact either. Herbert Walker Swift in 1932, and later W. Stieber in 1933 independently
presented boundary conditions for film exit, representing the reality in an improved
way [91, 95]. With their proposals, the fluid film breaks in its divergent zone along
the boundary, where the pressure has the value of the saturated pressure and its
gradient is zero. Such conditions agree with the continuity of flow at the film exit
and are named the boundary conditions of Reynolds. They are universally used for
calculating bearings with constant loads [48]. This model considers as interface
conditions:
∂p
pc = = 0, (1)
∂n
where pc stands for the cavitation pressure and n stands for the unitary normal
vector to the free boundary. In 1941, a numerical method for solving the RE with
such boundary conditions was proposed in Christopherson [25].
In 1953, Fred William Ocvirk proposed to neglect circumferential pressure gradi-
ent compared to the axial one in the RE. This way he was presenting his approximate
method for short bearing [73]. The solution is analytical and uses Gümbel’s boundary
conditions. The results are almost exact for journal bearings having an L/D ratio
(bearing length over diameter) smaller than 0.25. Calculations are in consequence
considerably simplified [48].
A type of slider, with steps, consisting of two parallel parts, but shifted, was
described by John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh. He showed that this type of slider
exhibits a load carrying capacity for a given minimum film thickness greater than for
any known slider type [48]. In 1917, Lord Rayleigh was the first one in calculating
the load and the friction torque of a hydrostatic thrust bearing.
The review of all existing papers since the beginning of last century represents
a considerable effort that goes beyond the aims of this chapter. We presented here
only a brief review of major achieved progresses in the beginning of hydrodynamic
lubrication, that will allow us to succeed “standing on the shoulders of giants”.
2 On Misalignment and Cavitation in Journal Bearings
Misalignment
In the case where misalignment is not allowed, the mathematical model assumes
that the clearance normalized film thickness, h̄, only depends on the circumferential
coordinate and is expressed as:
h̄ = 1 + ρ̄ cos(θ − α), (2)
where ρ̄ ∈ [0, 1) stands for the normalized shaft eccentricity, α is the shaft angular
coordinate and θ represents a point on the external circumference. The assumption
posed by Eq. (2) is equivalent to the supposition that both shaft and bearing axes
are perfectly parallel to each other, and that the eccentricity ρ̄ does not depend on
the axial coordinate. Thus, this expression restricts the physical simulating capacity
of the study since in reality it becomes impossible to fully avoid radial and angular
misalignments [51]. The most common causes of misalignment are elastic and ther-
mal deflections of the shaft and bearing misalignment, as a result of assembly errors.
Large misalignment can decrease the bearing clearance and its load capacity. It can
increase the temperature and has the potential to reduce the operating velocity thresh-
old [51]. In addition, misalignment and residual unbalance are the typical causes for
rotor vibration. Both excitations are responsible for most common machine dynamic
problems happening in the field.
One of the first documented researches on journal bearing misalignment is re-
ported by McKee and McKee [70], who experimentally observed that measured
peak pressures move from the bearing mid-plane towards the bearing ends when the
journal is subjected to misalignment. Same result was found by Bouyer and Fillon
[18] in an experimental analysis of misalignment effects on hydrodynamic plain
journal bearing performance. They experimentally studied the hydrodynamic plain
journal bearing submitted to a misalignment torque. The misalignment caused more
significant changes in bearing performance when the rotational speed or load was
low [18]. Piggott showed that a 40% reduction in bearing load capacity was induced
by a 0.0002 rad misalignment. These observations clearly revealed the importance of
misalignment in bearing performance [78]. Subsequently, Dubois et al. [41] showed
that the pressure distribution of a misaligned bearing was not symmetric, and re-
ported that the maximum pressure was located as well at the bearing ends. They
observed that when a bearing is subjected to severe misalignment, the maximum

pressure increases and the bearing performance deteriorates due to the permanent
deformation at bearing ends [41]. In presence of cavitation it has been shown that
the maximum pressure is shifted to the bearing ends as well. The location of the
maximum pressure is influenced by the orientation of the misalignment. Besides,
the maximum pressure is greater than that for the aligned bearing and an increase in
the degree of misalignment could yield two peak values in the pressure, axially near
both ends [56].
Representative numerical studies about loaded misaligned journal bearings by
References [3, 52, 80, 98], suggest that misaligned bearings have a finite load ca-
pacity as the end-plane film thickness goes to zero. Moreover, perfectly aligned
journal bearings have a theoretically infinite load capacity, see [29, 81] for instance.
Conversely, Boedo and Booker [16] suggest (but no prove) that misaligned bearings
have infinite load and moment capacity as the end-plane minimum film thickness
approaches zero under transient journal squeeze motion and under steady load and
speed conditions. These results differ markedly from finite capacity trends reported
in previously mentioned numerical and experimental studies.
Nikolakopoulos and Papadopoulos [71] presented an analysis of misaligned jour-
nal bearing operating, considering both the linear and non-linear plain journal bearing
characteristics. The Finite Element Method (FEM) was used to solve the RE. They
calculated the linear and non-linear dynamic properties for misaligned bearings de-
pending on the developed forces and moments as functions of the displacements and
misalignment angles [71].
An analytical solution for misaligned journal bearing axes (short bearing) at its
steady-state was obtained in [51]. The same approach for modelling misalignment
was used in [52]. The solution is expanded in series over a small parameter a, which
characterizes the non parallelism of journal bearing axes. In our model we character-
ize misalignment using an equivalent derivation procedure, but we do not make that
power series expansion, in order to propose a general characterization for misaligned
journal bearings; see Sect. 5.2 for details.
Thus, as a journal bearing almost always operates with some misalignment be-
tween its shaft and bearing, it is important to include this issue in the analysis.
Cavitation models. Their numerical resolution
Mathematical models that we consider in Lubrication Theory, assume that the un-
known pressure p is constant through the thickness of the fluid film, which allows
one to approximate the three dimensional Navier–Stokes equations by the bidimen-
sional RE; see [4] for details. In presence of cavitation, the RE is no longer valid
and this condition makes the use of cavitation models mandatory. A review on the
mathematical and physical analysis for different cavitation models is presented in
[5]. Also, Álvarez [2] studied two different models for describing the fluid pres-
sure distribution in journal bearings: a stationary model and a transient model. He
considered cavitation and demonstrated uniqueness of the solution.
The common feature of the models lies in the domain decomposition into two
parts: a lubricated region and a cavitated region. In the former the RE is verified
while in the latter the pressure is taken to be a constant [12]. The main difference
between models comes from the way to obtain the free boundary that separates
lubricated and cavitated areas. In Sects. 7 and 10 we give details on the derivation of
both cavitation models.
Several papers have used the theory of variational inequalities taking advantage
that the pressure in the full filled area is greater than the saturation pressure. In
fact, the idea was reinforced when Cryer justified the work of Christopherson [25],
associating that study to an obstacle problem [33]. This is known as the Reynolds
cavitation model [12]. In 1975, Rohde and McAllister presented a variational for-
mulation for hydrodynamic lubrication, from which the associated free boundary
problem arose naturally. The Finite Difference Method (FDM) and the FEM were
discussed as strategies for obtaining approximate solutions [84]. In fact, due to the
nature of the Reynolds cavitation model and easy computational approach, it has
been used in a large list of mathematical works; see [22, 26, 27, 34, 66, 83] for
instance. In general, for the numerical resolution of this model, techniques based
on the FEM have been widely used. The discrete problem has been solved by the
classical Gauss-Seidel method or a point-overrelaxation method, including both a
projection technique to consider cavitation; see [21, 34] for instance. In this work,
we also use the Reynolds cavitation model including a FEM discretization. Never-
theless, we propose to solve the system of linear equations by minimizing a convex
functional, using a Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient Method (PCG) with both pro-
jection and restarting strategies. The choice obeys two major reasons: the fact that
we solve a convex functional and that matrices resulting from the discretization of
Partial Differential Equations (PDE) [e.g. FEM or Finite Volume Method (FVM)], in
addition to be sparse are usually ill-conditioned, for which preconditioning is widely
recommended.
Another model to describe cavitation is the Elrod–Adams model [47]. In that
work, the authors introduce the hypothesis that the cavitation region is a fluid-air
mixture and an additional unknown ϑ appears (the saturation of fluid in the mixture1 ).
This model, which still relies on the RE has been widely used in Tribology [68].
Unlike some other models, such as the Reynolds cavitation model, it does allow the
starvation phenomena to take place. Its interest also relies on the evidence that it
is a mass-preserving model. In [5, 45] comparisons for journal bearings are made,
between their operating parameters computed by the Reynolds and the Elrod–Adams
cavitation models.
Vijayaraghavan and Keith [97] analysed the effect of cavitation on the performance
of a line-grooved misaligned bearing for both flooded and starved inlet conditions.
They used the mass-conserving cavitation algorithm in their analysis. They took into
account the lubricant rupture and the reformation phenomena. One year later, they
showed that at the higher degrees of misalignment, the performance characteristics
of the bearing are significantly different from those for an aligned journal bearing
[98].
1 It represents the lubricant concentration.

Numerical methods for solving the Elrod–Adams model for cavitation in different
devices and conditions were presented in [6, 13, 45, 46], among others. Similarly,
numerical experimentations of various schemes based both on stationary upwind
methods and pseudo-stationary techniques were conducted in [21]. These methods
are mainly based on the characteristics discretization for the non-linear convection
term and a duality method for the multivalued non-linear saturation-pressure relation,
posed by the Heaviside operator. Namely, they use an approach based on the Method
of Characteristics (MC) to discretize a total derivative in the final formulation. This
technique was also used in [42–44, 67] among others, and it is the strategy proposed
to solve our problem as well. Additionally, the first three used a Yosida regularization
for the Heaviside operator as in [14]. In contrast, in [67] it is used a regularization
of this function by a cubic interpolating Hermite polynomial that allowed to express
the solution of the direct problem as a minimum of a convex functional.
3 The Inverse Problem. Its Numerical Resolution
Most of the papers previously mentioned deal with imposed geometry in the asso-
ciated RE, i.e. the gap function h for the journal bearing is a given datum and the
unknown is the pressure p. In real engineering applications the position of the shaft,
that defines the gap function h, is unknown. So, Newton’s second law is introduced
to obtain that position. The problem consists in finding the pressure of the lubricant,
its concentration ϑ in the cavitation area and the shaft position. If misalignment is
considered, two more variables need to be found, which stand for the angular mis-
alignment projections. The problem is considered as an inverse problem where the
coefficient h depends on the unknown p.
Díaz and Tello [36] addressed such a problem, considering the simple case in
which the surfaces are two parallel planes, and assuming prescribed the total force
applied upon one of the surfaces. They provided some sufficient conditions on the
total force in order to solve the inverse problem. Ciuperca et al. [28] also studied
analytically the inverse problem for a more general geometry. Specifically, they
studied the asymptotic behaviour of the position in the evolution problem.
Furthermore, Ciuperca et al. [29] studied the inverse problem for journal bearings
using the Reynolds cavitation model. In that work the inner cylinder is parallel to
the exterior one and misalignment is not allowed. They proved the existence of shaft
equilibrium positions when the hydrodynamic force created by the pressure film
balances an external radial force. The authors proved the non-existence of contact
for any force, even for the case where the shape of the external surface presents
some rugosity. Additionally, Ciuperca and Tello considered the problem for both
cases, a rigid surface moving over a flat plane and the elastohydrodynamic problem;
see [31, 32] for instance. Similarly, Ciuperca, Jai and Tello studied the existence
of equilibrium positions for the load problem in Lubrication Theory. In their work,
considering the Elrod–Adams model, the balance of forces allows to obtain the
unknown position of the surfaces, defined with one degree of freedom [30].
As for the numerical resolution of the inverse problem which entails the balance
between an imposed load on the device and the hydrodynamic load we can mention
the work of [42]. They developed a numerical scheme which combines fixed point
algorithms, the MC, duality techniques and finite element approximations. In [44]
the authors used an implicit Euler method to deal with the dynamical shaft problem
coupled with the fluid hydrodynamic problem. At each time step the resulting non-
linear system is solved by the Broyden method combined with the Armijo–Goldstein
criterion to choose a proper step length in the descent direction. Conversely, in [67]
the authors proposed a different approach to deal with the shaft model. It was based
on first solving the Elrod–Adams equation for a known position by minimizing
a convex and lower semi continuous (l.s.c) functional and then using an iterative
method to reach the equilibrium, namely a trust-region strategy. In general, there
are a lot of gradient based algorithms for continuous optimization that can be used
for solving problems like the one addressed in this work. They allow to find a local
minimum, but the optimized function needs to be continuous and differentiable.
Thus, their usefulness is limited due to such prerequisites. Line search and trust-
region approaches are two of the fundamental strategies in optimization algorithms
that must be mentioned; see [72] for a wide explanation on these approaches.
On the other hand, metaheuristics are a family of optimization techniques, which
have seen increasingly rapid development and application to numerous problems
in computer science and other related fields. Normally, they require the problem to
be partitioned into a set of components to look for the solution in an optimal com-
bination or permutation of them. One of the more recent, prominent and actively
developed metaheuristic is Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) which was inspired by
the ants’ foraging behaviour. It was originally introduced by Dorigo [38], to solve
discrete optimization problems where each decision variable is characterized by a set
of components; see [39, 92] for instance. Many successful implementations of the
ACO metaheuristic have been applied to a number of different discrete optimization
problems [63]. These applications mainly concern NP-hard combinatorial optimiza-
tion problems including problems in routing [49], assembly sequence planning [37],
bioinformatics [15] and many other areas.
ACO was initially designed to solve the Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP),
where a salesman must visit a list of cities exactly once, using the shortest possible
route. The cities and paths between them can be represented as a connected graph,
and the ants move from one city to another following the pheromone trails on the
edges. Let Ti j (t) be the trail intensity on edge (i, j) at time t. Then, each ant chooses
the next city to visit depending on the intensity of the associated trail. When the ants
have completed their city tours, the trail intensity is updated according to:
Ti j (t + 1) = Ti j (t) + Ti j , ∈ [0, 1], (3)
where is a coefficient such that (1 − ) represents the evaporation of trail and


m
Ti j = Ti kj , (4)
k=1
where Ti kj is the pheromone quantity laid by the kth ant on edge (i, j), defined as:

1
, if edge (i, j) is in the trajectory of the kth ant,
Ti kj = Wk (5)
0, otherwise,
with Wk the tour length of the kth ant [38]. The transition probability Pikj from city
i to city j for the kth ant is defined as:
[Ti j ]a [ηi j ]b
Pikj = , (6)
l∈allowedk [Til ] [ηil ]
a b
where ηi j = 1/di j is called visibility and di j is the associated cost to travel from
city i to city j; a and b are parameters that control the relative importance of trail
versus cost, and allowedk is the set of allowed cities the kth ant can move to from city
i [50]. Genetic Algorithm, Simulated Annealing, Tabu Search and Particle Swarm
Optimization are other approaches we find in the literature to deal with combinatorial
optimization problems; see for instance [75, 79, 89, 100] for a detailed explanation
of them.
Since the emergence of these approaches as combinatorial optimization tools, at-
tempts have been made to use them for addressing continuous problems [87]. Now,
these metaheuristics that were originally developed for combinatorial optimization
are adapted to the continuous case. Examples include the Continuous Genetic Al-
gorithm [24], Enhanced Simulated Annealing [86], or Enhanced Continuous Tabu
Search [23]. There are also included some ant related methods. In this sense, Socha
and Dorigo [88], proposed one of the most popular and easy to implement ACO
algorithms for continuous domains, called Ant Colony Optimization for continuous
domain (ACOR ). It uses a solution archive as a form of pheromone model for the
derivation of a probability distribution over the search space. However, its use in
problems with many decision variables have some limitations, reported in Leguiza-
món and Coello [60]. Thus, Leguizamón and Coello [61] proposed an Alternative
Ant Colony Optimization for continuous domain (DACOR )2 which could be more
appropriate for large scale unconstrained continuous optimization problems. Later
on, Liao et al. [62] proposed an Incremental Ant Colony Optimization with Local
Search for continuous domain (IACOR -LS). This algorithm uses a growing solution
archive as an extra search diversification mechanism and a local search to intensify
the search. Subsequently, Liao et al. [64] proposed an ACO algorithm for continu-
ous optimization that combines algorithmic components from ACOR , DACOR and
IACOR -LS. They called it Unified Ant Colony Optimization for continuous domain
(UACOR ). It is unified, because from UACOR , we can instantiate the original ACOR ,
2 “D” stands for diversity.

DACOR and IACOR -LS algorithms by using specific combinations of the available
algorithmic components and parameter settings. Since in our inverse problem, we
only deal with four decision variables and considering that ACOR has proven to be
an efficient, versatile and easy to implement tool for continuous optimization, we
propose its use in our work. However, we do deal with a large scale direct problem
and motivated by the inherent parallelism of the ACOR and possible computation
speed up we suggest an implementation of the algorithm with parallel regions for
time-consuming tasks, using Open Multi-Processing (OpenMP).
4 Other Topics
Moreover, we mention other topics which have also received attention on the subject
of misaligned journal bearings. Literature concerning the topics of thermohydrody-
namic and elastohydrodynamic lubrication can be found in [1, 19, 54, 59, 76, 77, 93,
96, 99]. Besides, lubrication is not the only way to decrease the effect of friction; the
materials used and the quality of polished surfaces are also of major concern. How-
ever, if surfaces are extremely polished, it is probable a contrary trend to decrease
load capacity. It has often been observed in engineering practice that there is a risk of
sudden seizure if the surface is too smooth. In this sense, it is commonly believed that
small asperities play a useful role as a reservoir for the lubricant between asperities
[90]. The effect of surface roughness on the performance characteristics of bearings
can be found in [53, 85]. In general, roughness is one of the challenges of the field;
see [7–11, 68] and references there in, to study its effects in journal bearings for
different scenarios. More recent results on this topic can be found in [93, 94].
The current research on journal bearings also includes the applications of non-
Newtonian fluids to improve performance of modern machines [56]. Such non-
Newtonian fluids have shown that the stress is not directly proportional to the shear
strain, and the formulation of the governing equations needs to be changed. Litera-
ture on non-Newtonian fluids includes the works of [1, 17, 35, 57, 74]. The general
characterization of the behaviour of a misaligned journal bearing considering all
mentioned factors and including the prediction of its final position is very complex.
For that reason most researches focus on specific topics.
5 Fluid Film Thickness
In this section we depict the formulations of the fluid film thickness of a journal
bearing, for the parallel and the misaligned case. Actually, there are similar results
that can be found in the literature; see [48, 51] for instance. However, for making
this chapter self-contained we present their derivations in this section.
5.1 Parallel Case
Figure 3 depicts the cross section of a journal bearing. The inner cylinder, the shaft of
radius R, rotates in counter-clockwise direction at a constant velocity ω, about the X
axis. The film pressure generated by the moving surfaces, forces the lubricant through
a wedge shaped zone of thickness h, which varies according to the angle α. It is
assumed a coordinate system in which “y” represents the circumferential coordinate,
“z” is the coordinate across the fluid film and “x” depicts the journal bearing axial
dimension, orthogonal to the zy-plane. Let Ob and O j be the centres of the bearing
and shaft, respectively. The origin of coordinate “y” is located over the line segment
Ob O j , to place the minimum gap of the device at an angle = π. Moreover, the
reference z = 0 is taken on the bearing surface. The model characterizes the parallel
misalignment, where the shaft is allowed to move with two degrees of freedom.
Let M be a point over the bearing surface, represented by the angular coordinate
= (Ob A, Ob M), where Ob A and Ob M are line segments. The fluid film thickness
is given by:
h = Ob M − Ob M = Rb − Ob M . (7)

Applying the sine rule for the triangle O j M Ob we have:
O j M R R R ρ
= = = = , (8)
sin(O j Ob M ) sin(O j Ob M ) sin(π − ) sin() sin(α)
where
ρ R
sin(α) = sin() and Ob M = sin(Ob O j M ). (9)
R sin()
Fig. 3 Cross section of a Y

journal bearing
Φ
R
O
M’ ˜ R Z
M O
h
Notice that:

ρ
(Ob O j M ) = − α̃ = − arcsin sin() , (10)
R
and therefore:
R ρ
Ob M = sin − arcsin sin() . (11)
sin() R
Taking into account that:

ρ ρ 2 1/2
arcsin sin() = arccos 1 − sin() , (12)
R R
we can calculate the sine of the sum indicated in Eq. (11), from which we obtain:

R ρ 2 1/2

Ob M = sin() cos arccos 1 − sin()
sin() R
ρ
− cos() sin arcsin sin() ,
R
ρ 2 1/2
R ρ
Ob M = sin() 1 − sin() − cos() sin() ,
sin() R R
ρ 2 1/2
Ob M = R 1 − sin() − ρ cos(). (13)
R
Substituting Eq. (13) in (7) we have:

ρ 2 1/2
h = Rb − R 1 − sin() − ρ cos() . (14)
R
Let C = Rb − R be the radial clearance. It must be noticed the relation:
ρ C
< 1. (15)
R Rb
Thus, the term Rρ sin()

2
can be neglected compared to unit [48, p. 116]. The fluid
film thickness becomes:
h ≈ Rb − R + ρ cos(),
h ≈ C + ρ cos(). (16)
In Fig. 3 we can notice the relation = θ − α. Thus, Eq. (16) can be rewritten as:
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relatively large and rather prominent calices separated by
considerable stretches of compact coenosteum. The zooids bear a
crown of ten to forty-eight or more capitate tentacles.
Neohelia has a fistulose stem lined internally by a horny membrane.

There seems to be some reason for supposing that this membrane is
formed by the zooids themselves. A similar membrane is found in
the fistulose stems of Amphihelia and perhaps other Oculinidae. If
this membrane is really formed by the activity of the corals it forms
an exception to the general rule that the skeleton of the
Madreporaria is entirely calcareous. Others maintain, however, that
this membrane is formed by the Chaetopod worms which are found
in the tubes, and that the fistulose stem of the coral is formed by
folding round and encrusting the horny tubes of the worm. Neohelia
is found in the Pacific Ocean.[415]
Lophohelia is a genus forming dendritic colonies of considerable

size. The calices have thick walls and are very deep. Lophohelia
prolifera has been found in deep water off the island of Skye and in
other localities off the west coast of Scotland. It is also not
uncommon in some of the Norwegian fjords and in other parts of the
world.
Oculina is another widely distributed genus found in the shallow

tropical waters of the West Indies, the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It
forms dendritic colonies of considerable size. The calices are usually
arranged in a spiral manner on the branches. The colour of the West
Indian species is stated to be light or dark brown when alive. The
tentacles are arranged in three cycles, and are usually twenty-four in
number. Asexual reproduction takes place by budding at the apex of
the branches.
Fam. 3. Astraeidae.—This is a very large family, and authorities are

not agreed as to its limits or classification. Excluding the simple
forms for the present, the family may be said to be distinguished by
having the calices so closely crowded that there is little or no
coenosteum between them. The corallum is compact and massive,
unless bored and perforated by algae, worms, and other coral-
destroying organisms.
The genera of Astraeidae that form colonies may be divided into two
groups: the Gemmantes and the Fissiparantes. In the group
Gemmantes asexual reproduction is effected by gemmation, and
each zooid of a colony is a distinct individual with two pairs of
directive mesenteries. Among the best known of recent corals
included in this group may be mentioned Galaxea. In this genus
there is a good deal more coenosteum between the calices than
there is in most of the Astraeidae. The calices are long and project
some distance above the coenosteum. The septa are exsert. In
Galaxea esperi examined by Fowler[416] there are twelve septa,
twelve pairs of mesenteries, and twenty-four tentacles, of which
twelve are very small and twelve rather larger. The colour is green or
brown. The genus is found in shallow water in the tropics of the old
world.
In Astrangia solitaria the zooids are either isolated or more generally

united by thin strands of perithecal tissue to form encrusting
colonies. The septa are not exsert as in Galaxea. Six are prominent
and belong to the first cycle, six smaller ones form a second cycle,
and an incomplete third and fourth cycle may be seen.
Corresponding with each septum there is a tentacle. The tentacles of
the innermost cycle are the longest (3 mm. in length). All the
tentacles terminate in a knobbed apex. The living zooids are
colourless throughout, or display only very delicate tints within
restricted areas.[417] This genus occurs principally on the coasts of
the American continent, extending as far south as the Straits of
Magellan. Other well-known genera of Astraeidae Gemmantes are
Orbicella, Cladocora, Phyllangia.
In the group Fissiparantes asexual production takes place by
fission without the production of morphologically complete zooids.
The tentacles, mesenteries, and septa, when fission is established,
are not arranged in regular hexameral cycles, and no new directive
mesenteries arise. In some cases very large corals are formed, and,
if our conception is correct, these must be regarded, not as a colony
of zooids, but as a single individual zooid divided into a considerable
number of incompletely separated parts. Among the well-known
genera belonging to this group are Euphyllia, Mussa, Meandrina,
Coeloria, Favia, and Goniastraea.
In such genera as Euphyllia the parts of the colony become

separated by deep grooves, and have the superficial appearance of
being distinct individuals; but in the Brain-coral Coeloria and others
the surface of the coral presents a series of more or less bent or
curved grooves, each with a row of slit-shaped mouths and bordered
by rows of tentacles.
A number of genera of solitary corals united in the subfamily

Trochosmiliacea are generally included in the family Astraeidae. The
study of their skeletal characters has suggested[418] that they are
more closely allied to the Turbinoliidae. The principal genera thus
transferred would be Trochosmilia, Placosmilia, Parasmilia, and
Asterosmilia. As these genera and their allies are nearly all extinct,
and nothing is known of the structure of the living zooids, their
removal from the Astraeidae may be regarded as not fully justified.
Fam. 4. Pocilloporidae.—The general anatomy of the zooids of this

family of corals has some resemblance to that of the Entocnemaria,
and it is possible that they will eventually find a place in our
classification near to, if not actually within that group. The fact,
however, that the skeleton is imperforate is sufficient for the present
to justify the inclusion of the family in the section Aporosa. There are
but two genera at present known, and in both of them the zooids
have twelve tentacles, twelve mesenteries, and only two mesenterial
filaments. The zooids are connected together by an elaborate
system of canals running in the superficial coenosarc. The calices
are bilaterally symmetrical, and in Seriatopora the septa which are
parallel with the axis of the branch are united in the centre of the
calyx, and are very much larger than the others, as in Madrepora. In
all these characters the family shows affinities with the
Entocnemaria. In the characters of the skeleton, which is imperforate
and tabulate, the affinities are rather with the Cyclocnemaria. The
two genera are widely distributed on the coral reefs of the old world,
and in some localities are very abundant. Neither genus is found in
the West Indies. They are both of recent origin, but Pocillopora
occurs in the Miocene. It is a remarkable feature of the family that
both genera may be attacked by the gall-forming crab
Hapalocarcinus. From some reefs nearly all the Pocilloporidae show
crab-galls on a large number of their branches, whereas other
Madreporaria are free from them.
Fig. 175.—A portion of a colony of Pocillopora from the Maldive Archipelago.
Fig. 176.—A single calyx of Pocillopora septata, showing Co, the columella; S, S,
the septa; Th, the theca wall. (After Gardiner.)
Pocillopora is a coral that forms encrusting masses, rising into lobes

or branches of considerable size, terminating in blunt apices.
Seriatopora is much more slender and ramified, the branches
terminating in sharp points.
Sect. 2. Fungacea.—This section of Cyclocnemaria contains a
number of solitary and colonial corals of very varied form united in
the possession of a number of cross-bars called "synapticula"
connecting the septa, and thereby giving strength to the calyx apart
from any increase in the thickness of the calyx-wall. The family
Fungiidae shows many peculiarities which separate it very distinctly
from both the Cyclocnemaria and the Aporosa. The Eupsammiidae,
however, approach the Cyclocnemaria in many respects, and the
Plesiofungiidae form a connecting link with the Astraeidae. It is very
probable that this section had a dual origin, and therefore does not
represent a single line of descent.
Fam. 5. Plesiofungiidae.—This family is related to the Aporosa in

the possession of septa that are generally solid and imperforate, and
to the Astraeidae in particular in the possession of dissepiments.
They differ from them, however, in the presence of synapticula and
in certain peculiarities of the tentacles.
The genus Siderastraea has recently been studied by Duerden.[419]

The colony is usually massive and encrusting in habit. The zooids
when expanded do not rise much above the level of the corallum.
The tentacles are short and are arranged in irregular cycles on the
disc. They terminate in knobbed extremities, and those of the inner
cycles are bifurcated. The colour of S. sideraea is reddish-brown
when alive. Siderastraea is found in shallow water on the coral reefs,
and is widely distributed.
In Agaricia the colony is more foliaceous. The tentacles are

rudimentary or small. The colour of the living zooids is very similar to
that of Siderastraea. Epistrelophyllum is a solitary coral, from the
Jurassic series, belonging to the family.
Fam. 6. Fungiidae.—Fungia is an unattached solitary coral of a flat

disc-like shape with very numerous exsert imperforate septa. It is
frequently of considerable size (six to twelve inches in diameter). On
many of the coral reefs of the old world it is extremely abundant, and
consequently it is one of the commonest corals of our collections.
When alive the corallum is almost hidden by the disc, which is
studded all over with very numerous long tentacles.[420] The colour
varies in different species, but is usually brown. One species on the
Australian barrier reef, F. crassitentaculata, is of a dark olive green
colour, the tentacles terminating in white knobs.
The free adult Fungias are derived from a fixed stock called the
trophozooid, from which the young Fungias are detached by
transverse fission (see p. 388). The thecal wall of the young Fungia
when detached from the trophozooid is perforated, but the pores
become largely filled up during the later growth of the coral.
There are several genera of colonial Fungiidae of less frequent

occurrence, such as Halomitra, Herpetolitha, and Cryptabacia.
Fam. 7. Cycloseridae.—These are solitary or colonial Fungacea

with an imperforate theca. Bathyactis occurs at great depths.
Diaseris, shallow water on coral reefs.
Fam. 8. Plesioporitidae.—The septa in this family are trabeculate

and perforate, resembling in this respect the septa of Poritidae.
Leptophyllia, Microsolena, extinct.
Fam. 9. Eupsammiidae.—This family of perforate corals is usually

placed with the Madreporidae and Poritidae in the old group
Perforata. The researches of Fowler and Gardiner have shown that
the arrangement of the mesenteries is that of the Cyclocnemaria,
and the presence of synapticula connecting the septa suggests
affinities with the Fungacea. The synapticula of the Eupsammiidae,
however, are peculiar in being arranged, not in a vertical series, but
alternately with one another or quite irregularly in position. The
members of this family are solitary or colonial in habit.
Stephanophyllia is a flattened disc-shaped coral, with perforate and
dentate septa, found in the Pacific Ocean and as a fossil in various
strata since Cretaceous times.
In Leptopenus, from depths of about 1500 fathoms, the perforations

are much larger than in the last-named genus, and the skeleton is
reduced to a system of slender trabeculae.
Rhodopsammia has a conical shape, and gives rise by gemmation to

a number of young zooids, which remain attached for some time to
the parent form before becoming free.
Among the colonial genera are Dendrophyllia, Coenopsammia, and

the well-known Mediterranean genus Astroides.
Order IV. Zoanthidea.

This order of Zoantharia consists of a number of solitary or colonial
Anemones that do not form a skeleton of horn or carbonate of lime,
and are distinguished from the Actiniaria by the peculiar
arrangement of their mesenteries.
Fam. 1. Zoanthidae.—Sphenopus is a solitary coral and terminates

aborally in a small sucker-like base, by which it may be attached to
foreign bodies. The genera Gemmaria and Isaurus include solitary
forms.
In the majority of the species of Zoanthids, however, a basal

encrusting stolon is formed, which may be thick and fleshy or
membranous, or may consist of a plexus of bands from which
several zooids rise and on which the new buds are formed.
The tentacles are numerous, simple, usually short, and arranged in

one or two circles on the margin of the disc. Most Zoanthidae are
encrusted with sand, shell fragments, or sponge spicules, but
Zoanthus and Isaurus are naked. The foreign particles that form the
incrustation are firmly attached to the ectoderm, and as a rule many
of them sink down into the mesogloea to give additional support to
the body-wall. It is the presence of so much incorporated sand that
frequently gives these Zoantharia such a very brittle character. The
stomodaeum usually exhibits a well-marked ventral siphonoglyph.
The mesenteries consist of a pair of complete ventral directives, a
pair of incomplete dorsal directives, while of the remaining
protocnemes the lateral mesenteries which are first and second in
the order of appearance are complete, the sixth is incomplete,
whereas the fifth is complete in the Macrocneminae and incomplete
in the Brachycneminae. Duerden[421] has found in specimens of
three species that the arrangement of the mesenteries is
"brachycnemic" (the sixth protocneme imperfect) on one side and
"macrocnemic" (the sixth protocneme perfect) on the other. The
metacnemes appear in the spaces between the sixth protocnemes
and the ventral directives in unilateral pairs, of which one becomes
complete and the other always remains incomplete (Fig. 163, 4, p.
368).
The Zoanthidae are usually dioecious, but hermaphroditism

undoubtedly occurs in the genera Zoanthus and Isaurus. Little is
known of their development, but a larval form discovered by Semper
off the Cape of Good Hope, of cylindrical shape, with an opening at
each end and distinguished by a longitudinal band of cilia running
from one end to the other, is probably the larva of a Zoanthid. It is
commonly known as Semper's larva. Other larvae provided with a
ring of cilia have also been attributed to this group.
A great many Zoanthidae are epizoic in habit. Thus several species

of Epizoanthus form colonies on the shells of Gasteropods inhabited
by hermit crabs. Parazoanthus tunicans is found on the stem of a
Plumularia; Parazoanthus separatus, from Jamaica, is associated
with a sponge. The base of the bundle of long spicules of the
Sponge Hyalonema (p. 204) is almost invariably sheathed by a
colony of Epizoanthus stellaris.
The only genera occurring within the British area are Epizoanthus
(with six species), Parazoanthus (with four species), and Zoanthus
sulcatus.
Of the species of Epizoanthus, E. incrustatus is fairly common, in

depths of twenty to eighty fathoms on all our coasts, and is
frequently commensal with different species of hermit crabs, while E.
paguriphilus is found in much deeper water off the west coast of
Ireland and is always commensal with hermit crabs. Parazoanthus
anguicomus is found at depths of a hundred fathoms off the
Shetlands and west of Ireland, and is usually associated with various
species of Sponges.
Gerardia savalia is the largest "black coral" of the Mediterranean.

The colony begins by encrusting the stem of one of the Gorgoniidae,
but soon surpassing its support in growth, it forms a basal horny
skeleton of its own and builds up very large branching colonies. A
specimen in the British Museum,[422] from twenty fathoms off the
island Negropont, is two metres high and two metres wide. The
genus appears to be related anatomically to Parazoanthus.
Fig. 177.—Zoanthus macgillivrayi, a small colony. The tentacles are shown
somewhat contracted by the preservative. Each zooid is about 25 mm. in
length. (After Haddon.)
Fam. 2. Zaphrentidae.—This family of Palaeozoic corals is usually

placed with the Turbinoliidae or in the separate group Tetracoralla.
Recently Duerden[423] has given reasons, based on the method of
increase of the septa in Lophophyllum, for believing that their
affinities lie rather with the Zoanthidae than with the Madreporaria.
They are solitary turbinate corals, with numerous septa exhibiting a
distinct bilateral symmetry in arrangement. Zaphrentis,
Lophophyllum.
Order V. Antipathidea = Antipatharia.

The members of this order can readily be distinguished from all other
Zoantharia by the presence of a horny axial skeleton (sclerobase)
and the absence of any spicules of calcium carbonate. The skeleton
is covered by a thin bark which consists of a number of simple,
naked zooids united at their edges. The zooids bear six tentacles, or
if there are more than six, six large prominent tentacles. In most
genera there are but ten mesenteries, in others twelve. In
Cladopathes only six mesenteries are found. The skeleton of the
Antipathidea is simple in Stichopathes and Cirripathes, but in all
other genera it is ramified. The ramification is usually profuse and
irregular. The horny substance of which it is composed is free from
any deposit or infiltration of lime. The surface of the younger
branches is beset with numerous short spines, the number and
arrangement of which are characters largely used in the
determination of species. The basal parts of the main axis and the
thicker branches are frequently bare, the zooids having died and
become disintegrated. In these cases the spines wear away and the
skeleton appears to be smooth. The presence of spines on some of
the branches is, however, generally sufficient to enable the naturalist
to distinguish a dried Antipathid from the axis of a Gorgonid, with
which alone it might be confounded.
There are six complete mesenteries in each zooid, but as they bear
no retractor muscles it is not certain that they represent the first six
protocnemes of other Zoantharia. In a great many species the zooids
are oval in shape, the longer diameter being parallel with the axis of
the branch. The mouth and stomodaeum are compressed and at
right angles to this diameter. It is usually assumed that the
mesenteries attached to the angles of the stomodaeum are the
directives, and that the remaining pair, which is axial in direction,
corresponds with the first pair of protocnemes. The axial pair of
mesenteries is frequently very well developed and alone bears the
gonads. When other mesenteries are formed they always arise in
bilateral pairs between the axial mesenteries and the directives. The
tentacles correspond with the intermesenteric chambers. In some
genera there is a constriction of the zooid between the pairs of the
tentacles on each side of the axial mesenteries and the directive
tentacles. This gives them the appearance of a division into three
zooids with two tentacles apiece, one with a mouth and two without a
mouth; and as the mouthless parts alone bear the gonads on the
single axial mesentery, they have been called the "gastrozooids" and
"gonozooids" respectively. This must not be regarded, however, as a
case of true dimorphism, as the cavities of the so-called gastrozooid
and gonozooids are continuous.
The Antipatharia are widely distributed in nearly all the great seas of
the world. Some species are found in shallow water in the tropics,
but most of them occur in depths of fifty to five hundred fathoms. The
genus Bathypathes is only found at enormous depths ranging from
1070 to 2900 fathoms. Specimens of Cirripathes spiralis,
Antipathella gracilis, and another species have recently been
obtained in deep water off the west coast of Ireland,[424] but these
are the only Antipatharia known to occur within the British area.
The very simple structure of the Antipatharia is usually attributed to

degeneration. On this view the Antipathidae with only six complete
mesenteries are the most modified, whereas the Leiopathidae with
twelve mesenteries are more closely related to the ancestral forms,
and Gephyra dohrnii (see p. 382) is a link connecting the order with
the Actiniaria.
There is no reason, however, for supposing that Gephyra is specially

related to this order, and, as pointed out recently by Roule,[425] the
simple structure of the zooids of the Antipathidea is more easily
explained if they are regarded as primitive forms.
Gerardia (p. 406), from the Mediterranean, forms a horny axial

skeleton like that of the Antipathidea, but this genus is probably a
Zoanthid.
Fam. 1. Antipathidae.—In this family the zooids have six tentacles

and six or ten mesenteries. It includes nearly all the familiar genera,
such as Stichopathes, Cirripathes, Antipathes, Antipathella,
Cladopathes, and Bathypathes. Schizopathes and its allies occurring
in deep water are the forms regarded by Brook as dimorphic.
Fig. 178.—A portion of a branch of Antipathes ternatensis, showing three zooids

and the horny axis beset with thorn-like projections. (After Schultze.)
Fam. 2. Leiopathidae.—This family includes the single genus

Leiopathes of the Mediterranean Sea. It is distinguished from the
others by the presence of twelve mesenteries.
Fam. 3. Dendrobrachiidae.—This family also consists of a single
genus, Dendrobrachia, from 400 fathoms in the South Atlantic. It is
distinguished by having pinnate retractile tentacles.
Order VI. Cerianthidea.

This order contains the remarkable Sea-anemone called Cerianthus.
Two of the species have been placed in separate genera, but they
do not appear to be of more than sub-generic rank. Cerianthus has a
long cylindrical body with a double crown of numerous long tentacles
at the oral extremity and tapering to a blunt point or rounded at the
aboral extremity.
There are numerous mesenteries, which increase in number by the

addition of bilateral pairs, arising only in the ventral inter-mesenteric
space throughout the greater part, if not the whole, of the life of the
zooid. The right mesentery of each young pair is always more
advanced than the left, so that the mesenteries have the appearance
of arising alternately right and left. None of the mesenteries bear
conspicuous bands of retractor muscles. The movements of the
body are effected by a thick band of longitudinal fibres lying between
the ectoderm and the mesogloea in the body-wall.
The absence or very slight development of muscles on the

mesenteries renders it difficult to recognise the homologues of the
protocnemes of other Zoantharia in the adult. From the evidence of
embryology, however, it seems certain that the six dorsal pairs of
mesenteries represent the protocnemes (Fig. 163, 3, p. 368) and the
others are metacnemes.
The stomodaeum exhibits a single long deep siphonoglyph, which is

probably dorsal in position.
There are two tentacles to each inter-mesenteric space, one being

marginal and the other circumoral. The gonads are borne upon
alternate mesenteries, and both ova and spermatozoa are produced
by the same individual.
Fig. 179.—Cerianthus membranaceus. Colour pink, with tentacles annulated pink

and brown. About 35 cm. in length. (After Andres.)
The ectoderm of Cerianthus is remarkable for the immense number

of nematocysts and gland cells. The latter secrete a quantity of
mucus which binds the threads of the discharged nematocysts into a
sticky feltwork and this secures particles of sand and mud, the whole
forming a long tube in which the animal freely moves. This tube is
often of considerable thickness. It is tough and resistant, smooth
inside but ragged and muddy outside. It is often many times the
length of the animal's body.
The embryo of Cerianthus is set free before the completion of

segmentation, and it gives rise to a floating pelagic larva known as
Arachnactis. It has a variable number of tentacles and mesenteries
according to its age, but when it reaches a size of about 15 mm. in
length it has developed characters which are sufficient to determine
its position as a Cerianthid.
The genus Cerianthus appears to be widely distributed. C.

membranaceus is the common species in the Mediterranean Sea,
but a smaller species has been described from Naples under the
name C. oligopodus by Cerfontaine. C. americanus occurs on the
eastern coasts of North America. The British and North European
species is C. lloydii, but another species, C. vogti, has been found at
a depth of 498 fathoms in the North Sea. C. nobilis is a gigantic
species supposed to be about 1 foot in length when complete, from
Torres Straits.
C. bathymetricus of Moseley, placed by Andres in the genus

Bathyanthus, is a species of small size (25 mm.), obtained by the
"Challenger" from a depth of 2750 fathoms in the North Atlantic. It
exhibits a remarkable prolongation of the stomodaeum into the
coelenteron in the form of a sack which contained food. Moseley
described a species of Cerianthus, 6 inches long, living on the coral
reef at Zebu in the Philippines fully expanded in the tropical
sunshine.
Several species of Arachnactis larvae have been described. Of

these Arachnactis lloydii appears to be undoubtedly the larva of C.
lloydii. The adult forms of Arachnactis albida from various stations in
the Atlantic Ocean and of Arachnactis americana are not known. The
larva of Cerianthus membranaceus has been called Dianthea nobilis,
and is characterised by the great length of the column, by the
general opacity of all parts of the body, and by the precocious
appearance of the median marginal tentacle. A considerable number
of remarkable pelagic larvae have been described by van
Beneden[426] from the Atlantic Ocean, and provisionally assigned by
him to five different genera. The adult forms of these larvae are not
known, but they are probably members of this order.
CHAPTER XV
CTENOPHORA
The Ctenophora are spherical, lobed, thimble-shaped, or band-like
animals, usually very transparent and gelatinous in structure. They
are exclusively marine, and are found floating at or near the surface
of the sea.
Although they are generally classified with the Coelenterata, they are
regarded by some authors as having closer affinities with the
Polyclad Turbellaria (cf. Vol. II. p. 7). They agree, however, with
neither of these divisions in their essential characters, and the only
way to indicate and emphasise their unique position is to place them
in a separate Phylum.
They differ from all the Coelenterata in the absence of nematocysts,

and in the presence in development of a definite mesoblast. The
character from which they derive their name, Ctenophora, is the
presence on the surface of bands of swimming plates. The plates
are called the "combs" (κτείς, gen. κτενός = a comb) or "ctenophoral
plates." They occur in all genera included in the Phylum except in
Coeloplana (Fig. 183, p. 422).
Another peculiarity of all Ctenophora (except the Beroidae) is the

presence, at some stage in the life-history, of two long and extremely
contractile tentacles. There is also a well-developed sense-organ
(statocyst) in the centre of the aboral area of the body.
The Ctenophora differ from the Turbellaria in the presence of the

combs and of the two long tentacles, in the position and relative
importance of the statocyst, and, with the exception of Coeloplana, in
the general characters of the alimentary canal.
Shape.—Several of the Ctenophora are conical or spherical in

shape, but exhibit at the pole where the mouth is situated (Fig. 180,
M) a slight conical projection, and at the opposite pole where the
sense-organ is placed a slight depression (Ab). In others, the sides
of the body are drawn out into a pair of wing-like lobes (Lobata), and
the body is considerably flattened or compressed (Fig. 181). The
Cestoidea have a long flattened ribbon- or band-shape (Fig. 182),
and the Platyctenea (Fig. 183) are flattened in the oro-apical axis
and exhibit a well-marked distinction between the dorsal and ventral
surfaces. The shape of Beroe is that of a hollow cone or thimble.
Fig. 180.—Hormiphora plumosa. Ab, position of the aboral sense-organ; Ct, rib
of ctenophoral plates; M, mouth; t, tentacle, with two kinds of pinnae. (After
Chun.)
Ctenophoral plates.—In many Ctenophora eight lines can be

traced, like the lines of longitude on a globe, from the area of the
sense-organ to the base of the mouth-cone or hypostome. In the
course of these lines are situated the ctenophoral plates. In some
species they extend along the greater part of these lines of
longitude, but in others they are more restricted. That part of the line
that bears the plates is called the "rib" or "costa." These plates or
combs form the principal organs of locomotion of the Ctenophores.
They consist of a row of cilia fused at the base (cf. p. 141) to form
the plate, but free at the extremity where they form the comb-like
edge. They are alternately raised, by a rapid contractile action, and
then slowly flattened down again. The plates are raised in
succession from the aboral to the oral end of each rib, and the
appearance given to the bands in the living animal is that of a series
of waves travelling down the lines of longitude from the sensory area
towards the mouth. The effect of these rhythmic movements of the
combs is to drive the animal slowly through the water with the oral
cone forwards. In some Ctenophores the costæ are phosphorescent.
[427]
Tentacles.—In all the Ctenophora, except the Beroidae and the

adult stages of Lobata and Cestoidea, there is a single pair of
tentacles. They are attached to the base of a blind funnel-shaped pit
which opens to the exterior near the equator of the animal's body.
The pits are on opposite sides of the body, and the plane which
passes through them both vertically divides the body into
approximately equal parts. It is called the "tentacular" or "transverse"
plane (Fig. 180). The plane at right angles to this, which also passes
through the mouth and statocyst, is called the "sagittal" plane.
The tentacles are solid, and in the Cydippidae, of considerable

length. During life they are usually extended, and trail behind the
animal as it progresses through the water. But they are extremely
contractile, and when the animal is alarmed are suddenly withdrawn
into the shelter of the tentacular pits. Each tentacle usually bears a
row of short pinnae. The surfaces of the tentacles and of their pinnae
are crowded with remarkable cells which carry little globules of an
adhesive secretion, and are called the glue-cells or "colloblasts."
These cells stick to any foreign body they touch, and may be drawn
out some distance from the tentacle, but they remain attached to it
by a long spiral thread which unwinds as the cell is pulled out.
Although the colloblasts have the function of catching prey similar to
that of the nematocysts of Coelenterata, they are true animal cells
and are not therefore homologous with nematocysts, which are the
cell products of the cnidoblasts.[428]
The Lobata and Cestoidea pass through a stage in development

called the Cydippiform or Mertensia stage, when they possess a
single pair of long tentacles similar to those described above. In the
adult condition, however, these tentacles are absent, and their
functions are performed by numerous small accessory tentacles or
tentilla arranged in rows on definite lines along the body-wall.
Sense-organ.—At the aboral pole of the Ctenophore there is a hard
granulated calcareous body, the "statolith." This is supported by four
tufts of fused cilia, and is usually covered by a dome of delicate
protoplasmic texture, which is believed to be formed by a fusion of
cilia. The dome enclosing the statolith is called the "statocyst."
Supporting the statocyst there is a circular or oval area of ciliated

epithelium which is usually supposed, but on insufficient evidence, to
be specially sensory in function. Extending from this area in the
sagittal plane there are two strips of ciliated epithelium called the
"polar fields."
The aboral sense-organ of the Ctenophora is one of the most

characteristic organs of the Phylum. The aboral pole of the Medusae
of Coelenterata is usually devoid of any special modification of the
ectoderm of the bell, and in the Tiarid genus Stomatoca the little
tassel at the aboral pole of the Medusa cannot in any sense be
regarded as a homologue of the sense-organ of the Ctenophore. If
the aboral sense-organ of the Ctenophora can be compared with
that of any other group of animals, it would be with the statocyst of
many of the Turbellaria, such as that of Convoluta, but it is far more
satisfactory to regard it as an organ peculiar to the Ctenophora and
as having no true relationship with any sense-organ found in other
animals.
Alimentary Canal.—The mouth of the Cydippiform Ctenophores

opens into a sac-like chamber called the "stomodaeum," flattened in
the sagittal plane and stretching from the oral pole as far as the
centre of the body. The stomodaeum passes into a chamber
flattened in the transverse plane called the "infundibulum." From the
infundibulum a narrow tube passes in the direction of the aboral pole
called the "intestine," and from the extremity of this four short tubes
pass to the sides of the polar fields at the place where these fields
join the sensory area. Two, or, in some cases, all four of these tubes
open to the exterior; but they do not appear to serve the purpose of
ejecting the undigested portions of the food, which usually pass to
the exterior by the mouth as in Coelenterata and Turbellaria.
From the lateral extremities of the infundibulum four pairs of tubes

pass to the equatorial region of the body, where each one joins a
longitudinal vessel which runs immediately beneath the epithelium
supporting the ribs. These are called the longitudinal or "sub-costal"
canals. From the infundibulum there also passes a single pair of
blind canals, the "paragastric canals," one on each side of the
stomodaeum, to end in the oral cone.
In the Lobata the paragastric canals communicate with the

longitudinal canals under the transverse costae,[429] and send long
blind processes into the lobes. In the Cestoidea the arrangement of
the canals is considerably modified in adaptation to the needs of the
ribbon-like body. In the Beroidae the paragastric and longitudinal
canals are in communication by a peripheral network of canals, and
in the Platyctenea there is also a network of canals but without any
definite longitudinal vessels.
Sexual Organs.—Most of the Ctenophora are undoubtedly

hermaphrodite, but Willey was unable to find ova in some of his
specimens of Ctenoplana that were producing spermatozoa. In the
Cydippidea the ova are produced on one side of the longitudinal
canal and the spermatozoa on the other. Each longitudinal canal
therefore performs the functions of a hermaphrodite gland. When the
sexual cells are ripe they escape into the infundibulum and are
discharged by the mouth. In Ctenoplana there are definite and direct
male genital ducts.
The ova are very small when discharged and undergo complete
segmentation in the sea water. The development of the Cydippidea
is really direct, but there is a stage passed through in which the
tentacles are relatively very prominent and situated close to the
aboral pole, and this stage is very different in appearance from the

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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13304

ISSN 2198-4182 ISSN 2198-4190 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018968112

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

This book contains several aspects of current researches in mathematics having

presence of appreciable radiation, thermal diffusion and uniform transverse mag-

The Chap. “Transport on Networks—A Playground of Continuous and Discrete

susceptible individuals with low level of tuberculosis awareness and maximizing

London, UK Frank T. Smith

On the Reynolds Equation and the Load Problem in Lubrication:

Numerical Techniques for Fractional Competition Dynamics

Salem Abdelmalek Department of Mathematics, University of Tebessa, Tebessa,

Michal Fečkan Department of Mathematical Analysis and Numerical

Kolade M. Owolabi Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Institute for

Hassán Lombera Rodríguez and J. Ignacio Tello

Abstract In this chapter, we provide a literature review concerning the theory of

Keywords Reynolds equation · Hydrodynamic lubrication · Journal bearing ·

1 On the Beginning of the Theory of Hydrodynamic

Hydrodynamic lubrication is a phenomenon characterized by a lubricant flowing

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram for the limits of hydrodynamic lubrication

(a) Boundary lubrication regime (b) Mixed lubrication regime

(c) Hydrodynamic lubrication regime

Fig. 2 Types of lubrication regimes present on the Stribeck curve

3 corresponds to hydrodynamic lubrication and is described by RE; see Fig. 2c. In

2 On Misalignment and Cavitation in Journal Bearings

h̄ = 1 + ρ̄ cos(θ − α), (2)

observed that when a bearing is subjected to severe misalignment, the maximum

1 It represents the lubricant concentration.

3 The Inverse Problem. Its Numerical Resolution

Ti j (t + 1) = Ti j (t) + Ti j ,  ∈ [0, 1], (3)

where  is a coefficient such that (1 − ) represents the evaporation of trail and

2 “D” stands for diversity.

5 Fluid Film Thickness

5.1 Parallel Case

Fig. 3 Cross section of a Y

Taking into account that:

Substituting Eq. (13) in (7) we have:

Let C = Rb − R be the radial clearance. It must be noticed the relation:

Thus, the term Rρ sin()

Neohelia has a fistulose stem lined internally by a horny membrane.

Lophohelia is a genus forming dendritic colonies of considerable

Oculina is another widely distributed genus found in the shallow

Fam. 3. Astraeidae.—This is a very large family, and authorities are

In Astrangia solitaria the zooids are either isolated or more generally

In such genera as Euphyllia the parts of the colony become

A number of genera of solitary corals united in the subfamily

Fam. 4. Pocilloporidae.—The general anatomy of the zooids of this

Ti j (t + 1) = Ti j (t) + Ti j , ∈ [0, 1], (3)

where is a coefficient such that (1 − ) represents the evaporation of trail and