1.

1 Measuring length and volume

In physics, we make measurements of many different lengths, for example, the
length of a piece of wire, the height of liquid in a tube, the distance moved by an
object, the diameter of a planet or the radius of its orbit. In the laboratory,
lengths are often measured using a ruler (such as a metre ruler).
Measuring lengths with a ruler is a familiar task. But when you use a ruler, it is
worth thinking about the task and just how reliable your measurements may be.
Consider measuring the length of a piece of wire (Figure 1.4).

• The wire must be straight, and laid closely alongside the ruler. (This may be
tricky with a bent piece of wire.)
• Look at the ends of the wire. Are they cut neatly, or are they ragged? Is it
difficult to judge where the wire begins and ends?
• Look at the markings on the ruler. They are probably 1 mm apart, but they
may be quite wide. Line one end of the wire up against the zero on the
scale. Because of the width of the mark, this may be awkward to judge.
• Look at the other end of the wire and read the scale. Again, this may be
tricky to judge.
Now you have a measurement, with an idea of how precise it is. You can
probably determine the length of the wire to within a millimetre. But there is
something else to think about – the ruler itself. How sure can you be that it is
correctly calibrated? Are the marks at the ends of a metre ruler separated by
exactly one metre? Any error in this will lead to an inaccuracy (probably small)
in your result.
The point here is to recognise that it is always important to think critically about
the measurements you make, however straightforward they may seem. You have

to consider the method you use, as well as the instrument (in this case, the ruler).
More measurement techniques
If you have to measure a small length, such as the thickness of a wire, it may be
better to measure several thicknesses and then calculate the average. You can
use the same approach when measuring something very thin, such as a sheet of
paper. Take a stack of 500 sheets and measure its thickness with a ruler (Figure
1.5). Then divide by 500 to find the thickness of one sheet.

Figure 1.5: Making multiple measurements.

For some measurements of length, such as curved lines, it can help to lay a
thread along the line. Mark the thread at either end of the line and then lay it
along a ruler to find the length. This technique can also be used for measuring
the circumference of a cylindrical object such as a wooden rod or a measuring
cylinder.
Measuring volumes
There are two approaches to measuring volumes, depending on whether or not
the shape is regular.
For a cube or cuboid, such as a rectangular block, measure the length, width and
height of the object and multiply the measurements together. For objects of other
regular shapes, such as spheres or cylinders, you may have to make one or two
measurements and then look up the equation for the volume.
For liquids, measuring cylinders can be used as shown in Figure 1.6. (Recall that

these are designed so that you look at the scale horizontally, not at an oblique
angle, and read the level of the bottom of the meniscus.) The meniscus is the
curved upper surface of a liquid, caused by surface tension. It can curve up or
down but the surface of water in a measuring cylinder curves downwards. Think
carefully about the choice of cylinder. A 1 litre (or a 1 dm3

) cylinder is unlikely

to be suitable for measuring a small volume such as 5 cm3

. You will get a more

accurate answer using a 10 cm3

cylinder.

Figure 1.6: A student measuring the volume of a liquid. Her eyes are level with
the scale so that she can accurately measure where the meniscus meets the scale.
Measuring volume by displacement
Most objects do not have a regular shape, so we cannot find their volumes
simply by measuring the lengths of their sides. Here is how to find the volume of
an irregularly shaped object. This technique is known as measuring volume by
displacement.

• Select a measuring cylinder that is about three or four times larger than the
object. Partially fill it with water (Figure 1.7), enough to cover the object.
Note the volume of the water.

Figure 1.7: Measuring volume by displacement.

• Immerse the object in the water. The level of water in the cylinder will
increase, because the object pushes the water out of the way and the only
way it can move is upwards. The increase in its volume is equal to the
volume of the object.
Units of length and volume
In physics, we generally use SI units (this is short for Le Système International
d’Unités or The International System of Units). The SI unit of length is the
metre (m). Table 1.1 shows some alternative units of length, together with some
units of volume. Note that the litre and millilitre are not official SI units of
volume, and so are not used in this book. One litre (1 l) is the same as 1 dm3
, and

one millilitre (1 ml) is the same as 1 cm3

.

Quantity Units
length metre (m)
1 decimetre (dm) = 0.1 m
1 centimetre (cm) = 0.01 m
1 millimetre (mm) = 0.001 m
1 micrometre (μm) = 0.000 001 m

1 kilometre (km) = 1000 m

volume cubic metre (m3

)
1 cubic centimetre (cm3

) = 0.000 001 m3

1 cubic decimetre (dm3

) = 0.001 m3
Table 1.1: Some units of length and volume in the SI system.
Questions
1 The volume of a piece of wood which floats in water can be measured as
shown in Figure 1.8.
a Write a paragraph to describe the procedure.
b State the volume of the wood.

Figure 1.8: Measuring the volume of an object that floats.

2 A stack of paper contains 500 sheets of paper. The stack has dimensions of
0.297 m × 21.0 cm × 50.0 mm.
a What is the thickness of one sheet of paper?
b What is the volume of the stack of paper in cm3?

1.2 Density
Our eyes can deceive us. When we look at an object, we can judge its volume.
However, we can only guess its mass. We may guess incorrectly, because we
misjudge the density. You may offer to carry someone’s bag, only to discover
that it contains heavy books. A large box of chocolates may have a mass of only
200 g.
The mass of an object is the quantity (amount) of matter it is made of. Mass is
measured in kilograms. But density is a property of a material. It tells us how
concentrated its mass is. You will learn more about the meaning of mass and
how it differs from weight in Chapter 3.
In everyday speech, we might say that lead is heavier than wood. We mean that,
given equal volumes of lead and wood, the lead is heavier. In scientific terms,
the density of lead is greater than the density of wood. So we define density as
shown, in words and as an equation.
Density is the mass per unit volume for a substance.
KEY EQUATION
density =
p=
The symbol for density is ρ, the Greek letter rho. The SI unit of density is kg/m3
(kilograms per cubic metre). You may come across other units, as shown in
Table 1.2.
Unit of mass Unit of volume Unit of density Density of water
kilogram, kg cubic metre, m3 kilograms per

cubic metre 1000 kg/m3

kilogram, kg cubic decimetre,

dm3

kilograms per
cubic decimetre 1.0 kg/dm3

gram, g

cubic centimetre,
cm3

grams per cubic

centimetre 1.0 g/cm3

mass
volume
m
v

Table 1.2: Units of density.

Values of density
Some values of density are shown in Table 1.3. Gases have much lower densities
than solids or liquids.

Material Density / kg/m3

Gases air 1.29

hydrogen 0.09
helium 0.18
carbon dioxide 1.98
Liquids water 1000
alcohol (ethanol) 790
mercury 13 600
Solids ice 920
wood 400–1200
polyethene 910–970
glass 2500–4200
steel 7500–8100
lead 11 340
silver 10 500
gold 19 300

Table 1.3: Densities of some substances. For gases, these are given at a
temperature of 0 °C and a pressure of 1.0 × 105
Pa.

An object that is less dense than water will float. Ice is less dense than water
which explains why icebergs float in the sea, rather than sinking to the bottom.
Only about one tenth of an iceberg is above the water surface. If any part of an
object is above the water surface, then it is less dense than water.
Many materials have a range of densities. Some types of wood, for example, are

less dense than water and will float. Other types of wood (such as mahogany) are
more dense and will sink. The density depends on the nature of the wood (its
composition).
Gold is denser than silver. Pure gold is a soft metal, so jewellers add silver to
make it harder. The amount of silver added can be judged by measuring the
density.
It is useful to remember that the density of water is 1000 kg/m3

, 1.0 kg/dm3
or

1.0 g/cm3
.

Calculating density
To calculate the density of a material, we need to know the mass and volume of
a sample of the material.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1.1
A sample of ethanol has a volume of 240 cm3

. Its mass is found to be 190.0 g.

What is the density of ethanol?

Step 1: Write down what you know and what you want to know.

mass m = 190.0 g
volume V = 240 cm3
density ρ = ?

Step 2: Write down the equation for density, substitute values and

calculate ρ.
ρ=
=
= 0. 79 g/cm3

Answer
Density of ethanol = 0.79 g/cm3

Measuring density
The easiest way to determine the density of a substance is to find the mass and
volume of a sample of the substance.

m
v
190 g
240 cm3

For a solid with a regular shape, find its volume by measurement (see Section
1.1). Find its mass using a balance. Then calculate the density.
Questions
3 A brick is shown in Figure 1.9. It has a mass of 2.8 kg.

Figure 1.9: A brick labelled with its dimensions.

a Give the dimensions of the brick in metres.
b Calculate the volume of the brick.
c Calculate the density of the brick.

4 A box full of 35 matches has a mass of 6.77 g. The box itself has a mass of
3.37 g.
a What is the mass of one match in grams?
b What is the volume (in cm3

) of each match. A match has dimensions

of 42 mm × 2.3 mm × 2.3 mm?

c What is the density of the matches?
d How do you know if these matches will float?
5 The Earth has a mass of 6 × 1024 kg and a radius of about 6400 km. What
is the density of the Earth (in kg/m3

)? The volume of a sphere is given by

the equation V = πr3

, where r is the radius.

6 40 drawing pins (thumb tacks) like those shown in Figure 1.10 have a
mass of 17.55 g. What is the volume (in mm3

) of one pin when they are

made of metal with a density of 8.7 g/cm3?

Figure 1.10: A pair of drawing pins (thumb tacks).

7 A young girl from the Kayan people in northern Thailand wears a neck
ring made of brass (Figure 1.11). It looks as if there are 21 individual rings
but the ring is actually one continuous length of brass fashioned (bent) into
a coil. The height of the brass coil is 12 cm and its average circumference
is 40 cm. Neck rings are usually only removed to be replaced with a
bigger one as the girl grows. However, we can estimate the mass of this
neck ring without removing it.

4
3

Figure 1.11: A Kayan girl wearing a neck ring.

a What looks like 21 individual rings around the girl’s neck is actually
21 turns of a coil of brass. Each turn has a circumference of 40 cm.
Calculate (in cm) the total length of brass used to make the girl’s neck
ring.
b The coil has a height of 12 cm and the coil has 21 turns. Calculate the
radius of the brass in cm.
c If the brass coil is unwound from the girl’s neck and straightened out,
it would be a long, thin, cylinder. Calculate the volume of this cylinder
in cm3
. The volume of a cylinder is given by the equation V = πr
2h,

where
r = radius and h = height.
d Calculate the mass of brass used to make the neck ring and express

your answer in kg. The density of brass = 8.73 g/cm3

.

Finding the density of a liquid

Figure 1.12 shows one way to find the density of a liquid. Place a measuring
cylinder on a balance. Set the balance to zero. Now pour liquid into the cylinder.
Read the volume from the scale on the cylinder. The balance shows the mass.

Figure 1.12: Measuring the mass of a liquid.

When liquids with different densities are poured into the same container, they
will arrange themselves so that the liquid with the lowest density will be at the
top and the ones with the highest density will be at the bottom. This is because
the denser liquids displace the less dense liquids. This is easier to see when each
liquid is given a different colour. In Figure 1.13, the green liquid is less dense
than the red liquid and so on.

Figure 1.13: Liquid density towers.

When a distinct layer forms in a mixed solution, the liquids are said to be
immiscible, which means they do not mix. This is why oil floats on water.
However, not all liquids stay separated so you would be disappointed if you tried
this at home with squash and water, for example. When liquids mix, it is usually
because one liquid dissolves in the other. For example, orange squash is a
concentrated syrup that is diluted by dissolving it in water.
Apart from making colourful liquid density towers, do variations in the density
of liquids have practical consequence? In Chapter 11, you will learn about
convection currents in fluids (liquids and gases), which are driven by differences
in density. These convection currents include the thermohaline circulation in the
oceans. Colder and saltier water sinks, displacing (pushing up) warmer and less
salty water.
ACTIVITY 1.1
Finding the density of a regularly shaped solid
In pairs, create a worksheet on the computer for finding the density of a
regularly shaped solid object (for example, a rectangular block) using a

ruler and a mass balance. Your worksheet should include:

• a method for measuring the mass and working out the volume
• the equation for calculating density
• a table to record the data.
You could include an optional task to work out the density of a liquid.
After your allotted time, another pair is going to test a copy of your
worksheet (perhaps by doing the experiment). They are going to add any
steps that are missing or make suggestions to make your worksheet clearer.
When you get your worksheet returned, edit and save a new version of it.
Finding the density of an irregularly shaped solid
Before you start, make a copy of your previous worksheet and save it under
a new name. Some of what you included in the previous worksheet can be
kept and some will need to be edited.
In pairs, create a worksheet for finding the density of an irregularly shaped
solid object using a mass balance, a measuring cylinder, some thread, a pair
of scissors and a eureka can (if you have access to one). Your method
explaining how to measure the mass and how to calculate the density
should be the same. However, you should:
• explain how to measure volume by displacement
• say something about choosing a suitably sized measuring cylinder
• change your previous table
You could include an optional task to work out the density of an irregularly
shaped solid object that is less dense than water. Finding its mass and
calculating the density is straightforward. The challenging part is
explaining how to work out the volume of an object that floats.
Design a flowchart or decision-tree (optional)
Design a flowchart or decision-tree for use by anyone who wants to work
out the density of any liquid or any solid object. Ensure that your flowchart
includes enough information so that someone could take the measurements.
Ask your partner or someone else who has completed the first two parts to
check and correct your flowchart.
REFLECTION
Write down one thing that you did really well in this activity.
Write down one thing that you will try to do better next time. How will you
do this?

1.3 Measuring time

The athletics coach in Figure 1.14 is using his stopwatch to time a sprinter. For a
sprinter, a fraction of a second (perhaps just 0.01 s) can make all the difference
between winning and coming second or third. It is different in a marathon, where
the race lasts for more than two hours and the runners are timed to the nearest
second.

Figure 1.14: An athletics coach uses a stopwatch to time a hurdler, who can then
learn whether she has improved.

ACTIVITY 1.2
How dense can you be?
In groups of three, write a method showing how you could work out your
own density, or that of a friend or of a younger sibling. Alternatively, plan
out your strategy and be prepared to share it with the class. There are at
least two methods: a dry method and a wet method. Discuss one or both of
them.
You will need to include:

• a method that is detailed enough for someone to follow (this should

include advice about how a measurement should be taken)
• any calculations
• possible sources of uncertainty in the measurements
• what you expect your answer to be.
If you actually carried out the experiment, comment on how close your
measurement was to what you expected.

In the laboratory, you might need to record the temperature of a container of

water every minute, or find out how long an electric current is flowing. For
measurements like these, stopclocks and stopwatches can be used. You may
come across two types of timing device.
An analogue clock (Figure 1.15) is like a traditional clock whose hands move
round the clock’s face. You find the time by looking at where the hands are
pointing on the scale. It can be used to measure time intervals to no better than
the nearest second.

Figure 1.15: An analogue clock.

A digital clock (Figure 1.16) or stopwatch is one that gives a direct reading of
the time in numerals. For example, a digital clock might show a time of 9.58 s. A
digital clock records time to a precision of at least one hundredth of a second.
You would never see an analogue watch recording times in the Olympic Games.
Figure 1.16: A digital clock started when the gun fired and stopped 9.58 s later
when Usain Bolt crossed the finishing line to win the 100 m at the 2009 World
Championships in world record time.
When studying motion, you may need to measure the time taken for a rapidly
moving object to move between two points. In this case, you might use a device
called a light gate connected to an electronic timer. This is similar to the way in
which runners are timed in major athletics events. An electronic timer starts
when the marshal’s gun is fired, and stops as the runner crosses the finishing
line.
You will learn more about how to use electronic timing instruments in Chapter
2.
Measuring short intervals of time
Figure 1.17 shows a typical lab pendulum. A mass, called a plumb bob, hangs
on the end of a string. The string is clamped tightly at the top between two

wooden jaws. If you pull the bob gently to one side and release it, the pendulum
will swing from side to side.

Figure 1.17: A simple pendulum.

The time for one oscillation of a pendulum (when it swings from left to right
and back again) is called its period. A single period is usually too short a time to
measure accurately. However, because a pendulum swings at a steady rate, you
can use a stopwatch to measure the time for a large number of oscillations
(perhaps 20 or 50), and calculate the average time per oscillation.
Any inaccuracy in the time at which the stopwatch is started and stopped will be
much less significant if you measure the total time for a large number of
oscillations.

Questions
8 High-speed video can record sporting events at a frame rate of 60 frames
per second (frame/s).
a What is the time interval between one frame and the next?
b If we can see 24 frame/s as continuous motion, by what factor can the
action recorded at 60 frame/s be slowed down and still look
continuous?

9 A student was investigating how the period of a pendulum varied with the
length of the string and obtained the results in Table 1.4.
Length of string / m Time for 20 oscillations /

Time for 1 oscillation / s

0.00 0.0
0.20 18.1
0.40 25.1
0.60 28.3
0.80 39.4
1.00 40.5
1.20 44.4
1.40 47.9

Table 1.4
a Why did the student record the time for 20 swings?
b Make a copy of Table 1.4 and, for each length of the pendulum,
calculate the time for one oscillation and record the value in the third
column of the table.
c Plot a graph of the period of the pendulum against its length (that is,
plot the length of the pendulum on the x -axis).
d Use the graph to work out the length of the pendulum when the period
is 2 seconds. This is the length of pendulum used in a grandfather
clock.

ACTIVITY 1.3
Using a pendulum as a clock
In 1656 the Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens invented a clock based on a
swinging pendulum. Clocks like these were the most precise in the world
until the 1930s. One oscillation of a pendulum is defined as the time it takes
for a plumb bob at the bottom of the string to return to its original position
(Figure 1.18).

Figure 1.18: One oscillation is when the plumb bob swings one way and
then the other and returns back to its original position.
You need to develop a worksheet so that students can plot a graph of how
the period of oscillation of a pendulum varies with the length of the string.
They then need to use the graph to find the length the pendulum needs to be
to give a period of one second (useful for a clock). Your worksheet needs
to:
• define what an oscillation means (so that a student knows when to
start and stop the stopwatch)
• explain why we take the time for 10 or 20 oscillations when we only
need the time for one oscillation
• provide a labelled diagram of the assembled apparatus (not just a list
of equipment) so that students know how to put the equipment
together
• a method (step-by-step instructions).
Swap copies of your worksheet with a classmate. Write down suggestions

for any improvements on the worksheet you receive before returning it to

its owner. Note down any improvements if you have a class discussion.

PROJECT
In groups of three or four, produce a podcast (no more than five minutes
long) on one of the following options.
Option 1: Can we build on what we have learned about density?
This is opportunity to revise what you have learned about density and then
consolidate that knowledge and understanding by applying it to one of the
two examples below.
• You must explain how density is calculated, including the equation.
• You should describe how to measure the mass and volume of both
regular and irregular shaped objects.
• You could describe how to work out the density of an object that can
float.
1 RSS Titanic
It was claimed that the RSS Titanic was unsinkable. However the ship sank
in 1912 on its first voyage.
• You must explain why a ship can float despite being made of material
that is denser than water.
• You should explain why a ship can sink, in terms of changes in
density.
• Do some research to find out about bulkheads in ships: what are they
and what are they for? Why did the RSS Titanic sink despite being
fitted with bulkheads?
2 Submarines and scuba divers
You could describe one phenomenon that depends on changes or
differences in density. You could think of your own or select one of these:
• Explain how a submarine or scuba diver moves up and down in the
water column (or perhaps explain how a Cartesian diver demonstration
works).

• Explain how differences in fluid density can lead to convection

(something you will meet in Chapter 11). You might want to go on to
discuss how this relates to ocean currents or wind.
Option 2: What was the solution to the longitude problem?
A clock based on a pendulum is impractical on the moving deck of a
(sailing) ship but knowing the time is important for navigation as this
provides your longitude on a spinning Earth. Lines of longitude are the
vertical lines on a map. When you move east or west you are changing your
longitude; move far enough and you change time zone.
• You must start with a short description of the longitude problem.
• You could describe the various suggested solutions to the longitude
problem.
• You could describe the final solution to the longitude problem. For
this, you would need to look up John Harrison and his marine
chronometer.
Option 3: How did the Ancient Egyptians build their pyramids so
accurately?
The pyramids are an incredible feat of engineering, even by today’s
standards. Using very basic tools, the Egyptians' pyramids are perfectly
symmetrical.
• You could start by introducing the dimensions of the Giza pyramid
and the number of blocks required to build it.
• You could explain how the Egyptians managed to get the sides of their
pyramids lined up with true north (without a compass) and how they
got the base of them absolutely level (flat) without a (spirit) level.
Option 4: How did Eratosthenes work out the circumference of the
Earth?
Eratosthenes was a brilliant scientist. He was told that, at the same time
every year (12 noon on 21 June), vertical columns in Syene (present day
Aswan) cast no shadows while columns where he lived in Alexandria cast
shadows. He used this to work out that the Earth is round. Eratosthenes
may have hired a man to measure out the distance between Alexandria and
Syene.

• You could start with a short biography of Eratosthenes.

• You should explain why the observation with the shadows shows that
the Earth is a sphere. You might want to include a diagram like Figure
1.2.
• You should try and show how the man hired by Eratosthenes could
have worked out his stride-length (the distance of each step) and kept
count of his strides (steps). Think about his possible journey: did he
follow a straight line; were there any hills in the way? Could this have
introduced errors in measuring the distance between Alexandria and
Syene?
• Finally, you could show how Eratosthenes did the calculation.
Option 5: How did Archimedes really work out that the goldsmith had
replaced some of the gold in Hiero’s crown with silver?
Archimedes was probably the most brilliant scientist of his era. He is
supposed to have solved the problem of how to work out the density of the
crown while having a bath. Legend has it that he then ran into the streets
shouting ‘eureka’ (I’ve solved it).
• You could start with a short biography of Archimedes.
• You could then describe the usual explanation of how he worked out
that some gold had been stolen. Silver is less dense than gold so the
same mass of silver has a bigger volume and will displace a bigger
volume of water. However, it would be difficult to measure the
difference in volume, especially since bubbles of air could cling to the
submerged crown and there could be other sources of error.
• You could describe a better method, which uses a mass balance. You
would need to explain why, when the masses are equal, the balance
tips towards the denser mass when lowered into water.
• Gold needs some silver impurity or it would be too soft and would be
easy to bend out of shape. Perhaps the goldsmith was falsely accused?
Perhaps this idea could form part of a piece of creative writing (some
prose or a play) but be sure to include the physics.

REFLECTION

• For your project, write down some thoughts about what you feel went
well and areas where you could improve.
• Give yourself a score out of ten for how much you know and
understand the physics you included. If you scored ten, write down
how you could have produced a more ambitious project. If you scored
less, do you need to thoroughly review the material or are you making
careless errors? Write down what concrete steps you need to take to
improve for next time.
• Give yourself a score out of ten for the quality of your presentation.
Write down what you thought was good about the other presentations
or any effective presentation ideas that you might use next time you
present.

SUMMARY
Length can be measured using a ruler.
The period of one oscillation can be measured by measuring the time for
20 oscillations and then dividing the time by 20.
The volume of a cube or cuboid can be found by measuring the length of
the three sides and multiplying the measurements together.
The volume of a liquid can be measured using a measuring cylinder where
the bottom of the meniscus appears on the scale when looked at
horizontally.
All objects that sink in water displace their own volume of water.
The volume of an irregularly shaped object can be found from the change
in the height of liquid in a measuring cylinder when it is immersed in the
liquid.
Density is the ratio of mass to volume for a substance: ρ = .
The density of water is 1000 kg/m3

or 1.0 g/cm3
.

Anything less dense than water will float in water and anything denser
than water will sink in water.
Ice floats because it is less dense than water.
One liquid will float on top of another liquid if it is less dense.
Time can be measured using a clock or watch.
An analogue clock has hands and can only measure time to the nearest
second.
A digital clock displays numbers and records time to a precision of at least
one hundredth of a second.