English interactive series

Welcome to Form Two English interactive series. In this series, we have eighteen lessons covering the
four skills of English. You are expected to navigate through this vital English learning resource and
interact with the content. You will find many activities and exercises which will help you grasp the
concepts addressed in the CD. As you take this exploratory journey through selected topics in English, it
is hoped that you will adventure and learn. Welcome!

Listening and Speaking

Stress and intonation

In this lesson we will discuss stress and intonation in English language.Stress and intonation are critical to
effective communication. Correct placement of stress and correct intonation in English ensure that speech
is easy to understand and unambiguous.

Stress and Intonation

In this lesson we will discuss stress and intonation in English language.

Stress

Stress refers to the extra force given to a syllable in a word when articulating it.

Syllables

Word syllables play a big role in stress placement. What then is a syllable? A syllable is the part or parts
into which a word is divided. The part usually contains a vowel and one or more consonant sounds. Study
the underlined units of the following words. These fragments are known as syllables.

Grammatical function

Stress in a word is important because it affects grammatical function in a sentence. This however applies
to some words. If we stress the first syllable, then the word is either a noun or an adjective. If stress is on
the second syllable, then it is a verb.
Listen carefully to these words as they are said. Note how the stress on different syllables brings out the
differences in word class.

1. His 'conduct' was questionable (Noun)

2. They conduct their business well (Verb)
3. Mwangi is a 'frequent visitor to Mombasa (Adjective)
4. The learners frequent the library during the school holidays (Verb)

Intonation
Intonation is the rise and fall of voice when speaking especially when a desired effect is aimed at in
communication.

Application in Speech

In speech, stress and intonation are inseparable as they go hand in hand to make communication
effective. Falling intonation is used in statements that have an air of finality, wh-questions, commands and
invitations.
The rising intonation is used with questions requiring Yes or No answers and statements intended to be
questions.

Dialogue

A dialogue is a formal discussion between two or more people. It is important for the people involved in a
dialogue to be attentive to one another. This can be effective if the persons take turns to speak. Turn-
taking ensures that effective communication takes place.

Examples;
Just like adverbs, adverb phrases will state the degree, frequency, place, manner or time of an action. For
example:
The classroom is spotlessly clean. (degree)
He whispers all the time. (frequency)
The arrow fell on this spot. (place)
The baby laughed with a lot of glee. (manner)
The guest of honour arrived in the afternoon. (time)

Explanation
In sentence one, fast is an adverb modifying the verbs is walking
In sentence two, very is an adverb modifying the adjective handsome
In sentence three, quite is an adverb modifying the adverb loudly

Stress and Intonation

Stress and intonation are critical to effective communication. Correct placement of stress and correct
intonation in English are used to ensure that speech is easy to understand and unambiguous and thus
avoid confusion.
Objective;
By the end of the lesson, you should able to use correct stress and intonation.

Background Information

Every community has ways of explaining their origin and heroic deeds
of their people. This is usually done through their myths and legends.The information is passed on from
one generation to the next through word of mouth such as songs, proverbs and stories among others.
Objectives
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to;
(a) Identify features of myths.
(b) Identify features of legends.
(c) Explain the differences and similarities between the legends and myths.
(a) Identify features of myths.
(b) Identify features of legends.
(c) Explain the differences and similarities between legends and myths.

Different communities have different stories to explain the creation of the world, origin of human beings,
animals and other natural and supernatural phenomena which are beyond human understanding. These
stories are referred to as myths and are usually taken seriously in each community. Myths sound like a
simple description rather than a story.

Your knowledge of phrases will be useful in this lesson. As learnt earlier, a phrase is a group of words
that forms part of a sentence and does not make sense on its own. A quantifier is a word that shows
amount or quantity. Some words that show quantity are:
Plenty
Few
Little
Many
Some
one
two
several

A phrasal quantifier is a group of words that express quantity in terms of amount or number.

Material– describes what something is made from, for example, A wooden spoon.
Size – tells you how big or small something is, for example a large envelope.
Age – tells you how young or old something or someone is, for example, Fort Jesus is an ancient
building.

Colour – describes the colour of something. For example, A blue dress

Shape – describes how something looks like. For example, a round- faced clock.
Origin – describes where something/someone comes from, for example, A Kenyan footballer

Intensive Reading

In this lesson we discuss comprehension and style in poetry and prose

Public writing

Myths and Legends

In this lesson we will discuss myths and legends.
Do you have a story in your community where the chameleon or any other animal delayed to deliver an
important message to humanity?

Legends

Legends, like myths are also specific to a group of people. They are stories about historical figures,
characters or events. They are specific to a particular community. The hero/heroine in a legend usually
possesses superhuman qualities. The qualities of legendry figures are sometimes exaggerated and may
sound like fantasy. For example, Lwanda Magere, a legendry character among the Luo community had a
body of rock and strength was in his shadow.

Attention and Turn Taking

In this section we shall explore the skills of attention and turn taking through use of dialogue.

Watch the following video clip and listen carefully to the dialogue between a prefect and other students.
Take note of the instances where effective communication does not take place.

insert here

Now listen to the same prefect and students. Take note of how they demonstrate the listening and
speaking skills better by paying attention and taking turns.

You will realize that there is a difference between the two dialogues. For effective communication to take
place, one has to consider the following turn-taking features:

Objectives:
By the end of the lesson we should be able to:
Communicate correctly, confidently and appropriately.
Demonstrate acceptable communication skills.
Telephone Conversation
This lesson takes you through correct habits in ordinary face to face conversations and also telephone
conversations

Communicate correctly, confidently and appropriately.

This lesson takes you through correct habits in telephone conversations.

Etiquette

Etiquette is a set of rules and conventions governing correct or polite behavior in society in general or in a
specific social or professional group or situation. These rules form an important social code of interaction.
They are applicable in various settings such as speaking, eating, dressing and working among others. We
are going to concentrate on the set of rules and conventions governing the correct behaviour in telephone
conversations.

Listen to the telephone conversation and answer the following questions by typing in the correct
answers.

Parent: Hallo, I want to speak to the principal

Secretary: The principal is not in.
Parent: Can I leave a message?
Secretary: That is up to you.
Parent: When will he be back?
Secretary: How can I know, I am just a secretary.
Parent: Then tell him that Grace is sick and will not come to school
Secretary: Which Grace, we have so many Graces in this school.
Parent: Your job is to take in messages and not ask questions.
Secretary: If that is how you feel, then I can not help you. Bye!

Parent: Good morning? Is that Jamii High School?

Secretary: Yes it is. How may I help you?
Parent: My name is Peter Muli the parent to Grace Muli of form
2 North. May I speak to the principal please?
Secretary: I am sorry the principal is not in at the moment. Could
you leave a message?
Parent: Please tell her that Grace is unwell and will not come to
school tomorrow.
Secretary: I am very sorry to hear that sir, I will inform the principal
as soon as she comes in.
Parent: Thank you and have a nice day.
Secretary: Thank you sir. We wish Grace a speedy recovery.
Let us summarise the points that will help you develop appropriate telephone etiquette.

A phrasal quantifier is a group of words that express quantity in terms of amount or number.
By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

 Identify phrasal quantifiers in sentences

 Use phrasal quantifiers in sentence construction
 Use phrasal quantifiers in sentence construction

In form 1 you were introduced to the correct use of rules in construction of English sentences. In form two,
we will further explore these rules. In this lesson we will discuss phrasal quantifiers

1. Identify phrasal quantifiers in sentences.

2. Use phrasal quantifiers in sentence construction.

What is a phrase?

As learnt earlier, a phrase is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and does not make sense on
its own.

Phrasal Quantifier
A quantifier is a group of words that express quantity in terms of amount or number. Some words that
show quantity are:

Examples in sentences:
There is plenty of comfort in this house.

There are many youths abusing drugs in the society.

Uncountable nouns

These are substances, concepts etc that we cannot divide into separate elements. We cannot "count"
them. For example, we cannot count "milk". We can count "bottles of milk" or "litres of milk", but we
cannot count "milk" itself. "Bottles" and "litres" are quantifiers used to show or indicate the amount of milk
being referred to. Study the illustration and see how another quantifier "A piece of" may be used with
uncountable nouns.

Nouns that can be Countable and Uncountable.

Sometimes, the same noun can be countable and uncountable, often with a change of meaning.
Drinks (coffee, water, orange juice) are usually uncountable. But if we are thinking of a cup or a glass, we
can say (in a restaurant, for example):
Two teas and one coffee please.
Study the illustration given and suggest quantifiers that may be used to the nouns within countable.

 Plenty
 Few
 Little
 Many
 Some
 one
 two
 several

It is important for you to have adequate knowledge of primary auxiliary verbs, modal auxiliary verbs and
subject-verb agreement rules in order to handle this lesson effectively.
We have three types of primary auxiliary verbs; these are 'be', 'do' and 'have'. The three have other forms.
These forms are:

1. be:'; 'am', 'is','was','are', 'been', 'being' 'were', 'be'.

2. do:'do' 'did','doing', 'done'.
3. have, 'had', 'have', 'having' and 'has'.

The modal auxiliary verbs that are helpful in this particular lesson are 'will' and 'shall'.
By the end of the lesson, you should be able to use the perfective and progressive aspect appropriately in
sentences.

We have three types of primary auxiliary verbs; these are 'be', 'do', and 'have'.
The three have other forms. These forms are:
 1. 'be', 'am', 'is', 'was', 'are', 'been','being', ' were' and 'be'.
2. 'do', 'do, 'did', 'doing' and 'done'.
3. 'have', 'had', 'have', 'having' and 'has'

The modal auxiliary verbs that are helpful in this particular lesson are: 'will'and 'shall'.

Progressive Aspect

The progressive aspect is also referred to as the continuous aspect. It is used with the present, past and
future tenses to show actions going on for a period of time.

John is walking to school

The perfect aspect is used with the past, present and future tense to indicate actions that have been
completed.

John has arrived at school.

Verbs
In this lesson, we will learn about verbs. In particular we shall look at the perfective and progressive
aspects of these verbs.

The progressive Aspect

John is going to school

For a temporary action which may not be happening at the time of speaking for example:(NOTE: the
action is not taking place at the moment of speaking)

For an action already arranged to take place in the near future,for example,

In the present progressive aspect, three forms of the verb 'be' that is 'is' 'am' and 'are' are used with the
main verb in its ____ing form as you may have noticed from the correct answers.

The past progressive.

This aspect is used to indicate:
a) An action that was happening at some time in the past for example,
Anyango was sleeping in class.
b) Persistent habits, for example,
Nakato was always yawning.

Nakato was always yawning

Future progressive
This is the same as future continuous. It talks about;
a) Actions that will be going on for some time in the future, for example
Juma will be going to school next week.
b) Actions in the future which are already planned, for example,
Kamau will be meeting us next year.

The present perfect

This tense is used to:
a) Describe past events which though completed, their effect is still evident in the present.

a) Describe past events which though completed their effect is still evident in the present.
b) Describe actions that have been recently completed or finished. e.g
The plane has taken off

More examples:
The past perfect
The past perfect tense is used to:
Describe an action that was completed before a certain time in the past.

The future perfect

This aspect is used to describe actions and events which are expected to be completed or finished by a
certain time in the future.

More examples of Future perfect are:

They will have gone home by the time you arrive.
Jean will have cooked dinner by the time the guests arrive.
By midnight , we will have loaded the cargo onto the ship.
He will have left before you go to see him.

By the end of this lesson you should be able to identify and use interjections appropriately

Interjections

This lesson introduces us to interjections and their use.

What is an Interjection?

An interjection is a word or short phrase used in speech to gain attention, to exclaim, protest or command.
Interjections can be used to show emotion such as surprise or shock.
Interjections are often found at the beginning of a sentence, especially in speech, and are commonly
followed by an exclamation mark or a comma. Every community uses interjections, can you think of any
from your community?

Wooi!
Ouch!

When an interjection expresses a strong emotion, it is punctuated with an exclamation mark. On the other
hand, when it expresses only a mild emotion, it is punctuated with a comma. Note that an interjection
ends with an exclamation mark (!) and the word that follows begins with a capital letter.
For you to handle the lesson effectively, you need prior knowledge of phrases, and specifically the
definition and functions of a phrase. A phrase is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and does
not make sense on its own. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. Therefore an adverb
phrase is a group of words that form part of a sentence and modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs.

1. Identify the constituents of the adverb phrase.

2. Explain the functions of the adverb phrase.
3. Use adverb phrases correctly.

Adverb Phrases
This lesson introduces you to adverb phrases. They are also referred to as adverbial phrases.

A very good road

What is a Phrase?

A phrase is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and does not make sense on its own. Adverbs
modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs.

The water flows beautifully downstream

Objectives;

By the end of this lesson you should be able to:

1. Identify relative clauses correctly.

2. Use relative clauses appropriately in sentences

Clauses

In this lesson, we shall look at clauses.

A Clause
A clause is a group of words that has a subject and predicate. It can be a sentence on its own or form part
of a sentence. When a clause forms part of a sentence, it is called a subordinate or dependent clause. A
subordinate clause relies on the main or independent clause to convey meaning. For example,

In this lesson, we shall look at relative clauses.

A relative clause is a group of words that is introduced by a relative pronoun. Examples of relative
pronouns are:

 Who
 Whose
 Whom
 Which / that
A relative clause gives extra information about the noun(s) in the main clause.
It is important for a learner to have knowledge of tenses and simple sentence structures such as the
subject - verb - object structure, in order to handle the lesson effectively.
There are two voices in English: The Active voice and the Passive voice.

By the end of the lesson you should be able to:

a) Identify sentences in the active and passive voice.

b) Change sentences from the active voice to the passive voice and vice versa.

Active and Passive Voice

In this lesson, you are going to learn about active and passive voice.
Study the following photograph.

If you were to describe it, the following would be possible descriptions:

1. The boy is holding a cat.

2. The cat is being held by the boy.

Sentence 1. is active while sentence 2. is passive. Read on for more information about active and passive
voices in English.
An active sentence gives prominence to the doer of the action, that is, the subject. In this case, the
sentence states:
a) The doer of the action
b) The action
c) The receiver of the action
In the active voice, the doer of the action must be mentioned

For example:
Juma polished the shoes.
Active voice

A passive sentence will give prominence to the receiver of the action (object). In this case, the sentence
states:
a) The receiver of the action.
b) The action.
c) The doer of the action.

Note that Mentioning the doer of the action is optional.

The shoes were polished ( by Juma).

When a sentence changes from active voice to the passive voice the subject changes to the object
position and the object to the subject position. Note the change in the positions of the subject and the
object in the following sentences.
When a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice, the object in the active sentence
becomes the new subject in the passive sentence.

Active Voice

In active voice emphasis is on the subject while in passive voice emphasis is on the receiver of the action
or the object.
The tense of the verb in the active voice changes when the sentence is changed to passive voice.

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Identify adjectives in sentences.

2. Use adjectives appropriately in sentences.

Order of Adjectives
In this lesson we shall learn the use and order of adjectives.

Order of Adjectives

An adjective is a word that modifies a noun or pronoun. As seen in the description of the buffalo ,nouns
and pronouns can be described by several adjectives at the same time for example:

A huge buffalo.
A fierce buffalo.
A black buffalo.
A male buffalo.
Purpose - describes what something is used for. They often end in -ing. An example of this is A walking
stick.

An old man with a walking stick

Material - describes what something is made from, for example, A wooden spoon.
Shape - describes how something looks like. For example, a round- faced clock.
Describing Nouns and pronouns

An Adjective is a word that modifies a noun or a pronoun. Nouns and pronouns can be described by
several adjectives at the same time for example:
Mariamu has lovely long, dark hair.

The underlined words are the adjectives that describe the noun 'hair'
When we use more than one adjective before a noun or pronoun, there is a preferred order. This order is
referred to as the order of adjectives.
The use of the correct order makes the sentence run smoothly and grammatically correct.
Adjectives are divided into two main categories; these are opinion and fact.
Opinion Adjectives
They explain what one thinks about somebody, something or situation. Other people may not necessarily
share the opinion.

Opinions can vary from one individual to another. Different people would express different opinions about
the house. For example, you can view it as a beautiful and your friend might say it’s horrible.

Fact Adjectives

These are adjectives which describe size, age, shape, colour, origin, make/material and purpose. the
following are examples of opinions and facts.
Fact Adjectives
These are adjectives which describe size, age, shape, colour, origin, make/material and purpose. the
following are examples of opinions and facts.

Red and orange flowers

Size - tells you how big or small something is, for example a large envelope.
Age - tells you how young or old something or someone is, for example, Fort Jesus is an ancient building.
Colour - describes the colour of something. For example, A blue dress
Origin - describes where something/someone comes from, for example, A Kenyan footballer.

ADVERBS

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

For this lesson, prior knowledge of the definition of an adverb will be necessary. You should also be
familiar with the different parts of speech. Let us remind ourselves what an adverb is. An adverb is a word
used to modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs.

The road leads to the top of the hill

1. Identify adverbs of place and degree in sentences.

2. Use adverbs of place and degree correctly and appropriately.

ADVERBS

In this lesson we will learn about adverbs of place and degree.

Bull fighting can be extremely dangerous.

Click the circle and read the sentences below paying attention to the adverbs used in each case:

The highlighted words in the sentences are adverbs of place.

They are used to indicate where something happens or where something goes
Adverbs of place answer the question 'where'
Here are more examples of adverbs of place. Write them down;
Downstairs, elsewhere, nearby, down, eastwards, there, inland, behind, anywhere and indoors

Adverbs of degree, tell how much or to what extent something happened. They tell us about the intensity
of an action, that is, a verb, an adjective or another adverb. For example:
I almost collapsed after taking part in the marathon.
Our principal was quite irritated by the scantily dressed student.
The rain was enough for people to begin ploughing.
This is a fast car.

Nwoye seldom visits his rural home for fear of witchcraft.

The highlighted words show the intensity of an action, adjective or adverb. These adverbs, answer the
question 'to what extent.' Other examples of adverbs of degree are: very, extremely, rarely, hardly, often,
too, really, scarcely, just and nearly.
Adverbs of degree modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb in a sentence, for example,

By the end of the lesson you should be able to demonstrate appropriate use of interpretive
reading.

Reading

Reading is a skill employed widely in life. We read for different purposes. For example, we read for
leisure, information and examinations. In this topic we shall explore interpretive and intensive reading.

Interpretive Reading

Interpretive reading is reading aloud with expression in a manner that brings out the intonation, rhythm,
word meaning and mental pictures as intended by the author.
Reading interpretively
The purpose of interpretive reading is to develop skills in conveying meanings and emotions of a poem or
prose selection.
Consider the following points when reading aloud:

1. Use pauses appropriately.

2. Articulate and pronounce words correctly.
3. Vary your voice.
4. Emphasize certain words.

Read the poem interpretively

The poor mother

Another mother wishes you were hers
But you are mine
She wants to nurse you on her gorgeous rug
She wishes you were hers
To lay you on her rug of camel-hair
But you are mine,to lay my poor ragged mat;
She wishes you were hers. but you are mine
Set high standards for the youth.
Nowadays, the media sets the agenda on issues like dress code, but regulating dressing especially in
public universities, is a Herculean task.
The society has lost its traditional norms. Have you ever stopped and watched music videos? In most
video clips women spill out of their skimpy pieces of clothing while the men sag their trousers to the
ground. And society has no problem with that.
These so-called celebrities have been glorified by the media and the society. Legislation alone cannot
uproot this vice.
It is the responsibility of parents, teachers, guardians, opinion leaders, legislators and the media to set
appropriate standards.
(Paul Wafula , via email-the standard 28.10.08).

Click to watch the presentation the poem

But you are mine,to lay on my poor ragged mat;
She wishes you were hers, but you are mine!
For you to handle this lesson effectively you need to know:
The meaning of poetry ,
Different types of poems,
Definition of simple stylistic devices used in poetry.

By the end of the lesson you should be able to:

1. Demonstrate appropriate comprehension skills.

2. Analyse simple aspects of style.

In this lesson we shall discuss comprehension and style in poetry and prose
Click to watch the Poem; The Village Well

The Village Well, by Henry Barlow

Read the poem and answer the questions as instructed.
By this well,
Where fresh waters still quietly whisper
As when I
First accompanied mother and filled my baby gourd,
Where many an evening its clean water cleaned me
This silent well
Dreaded haunt of the long haired Musambwa,
who basked
In the mid-day sun reclining on the rock
Where I now sit
Welling up with many poignant memories;
This spot,
Which has rung with the purity of child laughter
Where eyes spoke secretly to responding eye
This spot
Where hearts pounded madly in many a breast;
Over-hung by leafy branches of sheltering trees
I first noticed her,
I saw her in the cool of a red, red evening
I saw her
As if I had not seen her a thousand times before.
By this well
My eyes asked for love, and my heart went mad.
I stuttered.
And murmured my first words of love
And cupped,
With my hands, the intoxication that were her breasts.
In this well,
In the clear waters of this whispering well
The silent moon
Witnessed with a smile our inviolate vows,
The Kisses
That left us weak and breathless.
It is dark.
It is dark by the well that still whispers.
It is darker,
It is utter darkness in the heart that bleeds
Where magic has evaporated but memories linger.
Of damp death
The rotting foliage reeks,
And the branches
Are grotesque talons of hungry vultures?
For she is dead,
The one I first loved by this well.
Click to watch the presentatation of the Poem; ' Torrents of torment '

TORRENTS OF TORMENT by Kyeva Kyalo

Read the poem below and answer the questions as instructed.

My welling eyes cannot dry at this moment due to this torment

I decry my Rose's blossom and bloom
Reduced to ashes of misery and doom
Bringing this moment of sadness and gloom.
This is a cry over my rosy Rose;
My rosy Rose derosed
The rising beautiful flower nipped at the bud
My Rose had vision and ambition
To fly high and higher
Like a kite to soar high and be a surgeon
Did the cruel claws of this beast leave to extinguish the flame of her dreams?
Did it have to be this hungry heinous hyena?
It tracked her, the hungry panther
Followed her, the lonely hunter;
Thinking only of its hunger
He was no stranger
She saw no danger in this venture
By this lone ranger
Searching for a lust quencher

A smile that was the snare

Did not give her a scare.
The lollipop that was the trap
Saw her in a flash
Dragged into the bush.
Her scream was too faint
For her lungs were too small.
Her struggle was too futile
For her hands were too frail.
In a pool of crimson red that was her bed
He left her for the dead
So much brutalized
Recovery impossible
So much traumatized
Innocence and trust irreplaceable
So much stigmatized
The scars irreparable
Robbed of purity with shear impurity
Desecrated with impurity
And the death penalty
For the hyena harboured a deadly illness.
We hear he just got two years behind bars
To come out and continue with this carnality
Shed more torrents of torment .

Personification
This is when we give non-human objects/things human qualities.
Alliteration
It is the repetition of the initial consonant sounds in words which occur close to each other in a line.
Repetition
It is the recurrence of words, phrase and whole sentences.
Symbolism
It is the use of objects, signs, situations, shapes and action which represent a person, idea or a value.
Simile
It is a direct comparison between two things in which words such as 'like' or 'as' is used.
Metaphor
An indirect comparison between two things where one is substituted for the other.
Rhyme
This refers to words ending in similar sounds usually found at the end of lines in a poem.

Rhetoric Questions
These are questions in a poem that do not require answers.
Effective writing

Good Spelling Habits

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to spell words correctly.

Spelling

This lesson guides you on how to improve your spelling.

Good Spelling Habits

Good spelling habits can be developed through the following techniques:

1. Pronunciation of the word, studying and writing it down.

2. Learn to spell the words by breaking them into syllables and use the dictionary to confirm the
correct pronunciation and spelling.

The rule is LOOK at the word, SAY the word, THINK about it, WRITE the word and CHECK the spelling.

3. You need prior knowledge of spelling rules.

How to study a word
1. Look at the word
-How does it look?
-What does it mean?
2. Say the word
-Did you say it as you normally would?
-What are the vowel and consonants sounds?
3. Think about the word
-How is each sound spelled?
-Did you note any prefixes, suffixes, or other word parts?

4. Write the word

-Did you form the letters carefully?
-Did you think about the sounds and letters?

5. Check the spelling

-Did you write the word correctly?
-Do you need to write it again?

Words are misspelled because of poor pronunciation. This is through:

1. Omission of letters in words

Enviroment- environment
Campain - campaign
Hemsphere - hemisphere
2. Addition of letters in words
Arguements - arguments
Wellcome - welcome
Pronounciation - pronunciation
3. Change of letters in words
Repeatation - repetition
indiginous - indigenous
Indefinate - indefinite
4. Transposition of letters in words
amination - animation
prespiration - perspiration
charasteristics - characteristics

5.Misspelling is also caused due to poor application of affixation rules through prefixes and suffixes

Prefixes-it is where a letter (s) is added at the beginning of the word to form a new word. When a prefix is
added, the spelling of the original word does not change.
If the prefix ends with the same letter as that which begins the word, both letters are retained.

Paragraphs

In this lesson we will discuss various devices used in developing paragraphs

By the end of the lesson you should be able to develop paragraphs using different devices.

What is a Paragraph?

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that work together to explain or develop one main idea.

The main idea in a paragraph is clearly expressed in a topic sentence which usually comes at the
beginning of the paragraph.

What comes after the topic sentences are the supporting details. They make up the body of a paragraph
by giving details to develop and support the main idea.
Finally, there is the clincher sentence. This is the closing sentence, which restates the main idea of a
paragraph using different words. The clincher sentence summarizes the paragraph.

The Great Rift-valley

Kenya is one of the best tourist destinations in the world. First, the Kenyan people are friendly and enjoy
having the tourists around. Secondly, there are diverse breathtaking sceneries for instance, Mount Kenya,
migration of the wildebeest, the Great Rift-valley among others. Finally, its sandy beaches are
spectacular. Therefore, this makes Kenya a desirable place to visit.

Giving reasons and examples

A paragraph can be developed by giving reasons and examples. Reasons are logical statements that
answer the question 'WHY' while examples are specific objects, situations, incidents that explain or relate
to the main idea. Examples are introduced by words like; for instance, for example, such as, among
others.

Overgrazed land

There are various causes of soil erosion. One major cause is poor farming practices, for example; farming
on steep slopes, non-rotation of crops and overgrazing. Natural calamities also lead to soil erosion. Such
natural calamities include floods, landslides and whirlwinds. Another cause of soil erosion is deforestation
which refers to the cutting down of trees without replacing them. The reasons cited above have been
known to leave productive land barren.
The paragraph above illustrates how reasons and examples can be used to develop paragraphs.

Informal Letter of Apology

In this topic you are going to be taken through the general layout of writing an apology letter.
For you to have a better understanding of this lesson, you should have adequate knowledge of;

1. the general layout of formal and informal letters

2. appropriate register for formal and informal letters
3. Addressing and signing off procedure
4. paragraph development

A formal letter is also referred to as either an official or business letter.

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to use appropriate register and format in writing a
letter of apology.

Formal letter

A formal letter of apology is written when one wants to apologize for a wrong deed
to express a feeling that one is sorry for doing wrong or causing a problem. Such a letter is usually
addressed to the person or institution that has been offended.The following are the parts of a formal letter:

Situations that may require the writing a lette rof apology include:

1. Arriving or reporting to school late.

2. Failure to do or complete assignments.
3. Being rude to a teacher or fellow students.

Study Writing

In this lesson we shall discuss study writing

By the end of the lesson you should be able to communicate effectively through descriptive essays.

Descriptive writing
Descriptive writing is an attempt to vividly convey people's impressions to the audience or the reader. You
can describe a process, activity or static features. The description should appeal to the reader's sense of
sight, sound, smell, taste and touch. However, you may not appeal to all the senses at the same time.

Step by Step description

This is describing everything from one step to another and showing where each detail is located. For
example, in describing a tree, you can begin by describing the roots then the stem, followed by the
branches and lastly the leaves to create a whole picture.
A video recording is one of the best ways of capturing breathtaking scenes. It is also an easier way of
sharing experiences because it brings reality to life. Likewise a good description creates strong emotions
and moods like fear and excitement among others. In addition, it creates clear mental pictures of people,
places and things.