MPPWD Roads 1

CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi
Prof. Manoranjan Parida Director CSIR-CRRI
Dr. Velumurgan Chief Scientist Traffic Engineering & Safety

Dr. Rajeev Goel Chief Scientist Bridge Engineering & Structures
Sh. J K Goyal Chief Scientist Bridge Engineering & Structures
Sh. G K Sahu Chief Scientist Bridge Engineering & Structures
Sh. S S Gaharwar Chief Scientist Bridge Engineering & Structures
Dr. Rakesh Kumar Chief Scientist Rigid Pavement
Dr. K Ravinder Chief Scientist Traffic Engineering & Safety
Dr. Ravi Shekhar Chief Scientist Transport Planning & Environment
Sh. Sunil Jain Chief Scientist Pavement Evaluation
Project Dr. Kanwar Singh Chief Scientist Geotechnical Engineering
Leader
Dr. Mohan Rao Chief Scientist Traffic Engineering & Safety
Dr. A K Sinha Sr. Principal Scientist Geotechnical Engineering
Dr. Abhishek Mittal Principal Scientist Flexible Pavement
Sh. Dinesh Ganvir Principal Scientist Rigid Pavement
Sh. Nitesh Goyal Principal Scientist Bridge Engineering & Structures
Dr. Bharat G Senior Scientist Flexible Pavement
Dr. Naveet Kaur Senior Scientist Bridge Engineering & Structures
Sh. Ashish Walia Scientist Flexible Pavement
Sh. Romeil Sagwal Scientist Rigid Pavement
Sh. Yatin Chaudhary Scientist Rigid Pavement
Dr. Vidhi Vyas Scientist Pavement Evaluation
Dr. Deepa S Scientist Pavement Evaluation
Ms. Mariya Dayana P J Scientist Geotechnical Engineering
Mr. Bhupendra Sr. Technical Assistant Geotechnical Engineering
Mr. Amit Washnic Technician Geotechnical Engineering
DISCLAIMER
All the data and Technical information furnished in this Manual are based on the project
completed at CSIR-Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) New Delhi. The responsibility of
CSIR-CRRI is limited to the technical and scientific matters contained in this report. Any use
of the findings of the manual without consulting CSIR-CRRI by any other agency or person
other than the client is solely at their own risk and responsibility.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The project team of CSIR-CRRI is grateful to the officials of MPPWD Sh. Sukhveer Singh
(IAS), Principal Secretary, MPPWD; Sh. R K Mehra, Secretary; Sh. S R Baghel, Engineer-in-
Chief; and Sh. B P Bourasi, Chief Engineer, Director, (NDB Projects) for financing the project.
We are thankful to Sh. Avinash Shivariya, EE; and Sh. Pushkal Pratap Singh, SDO, MPPWD for
their active association in this project for preparation of Quality Control Manual for Madhya
Pradesh Public Works Departments (MPPWD) Road and Bridge. Special thanks to Ministry of
Road Transport & Highways (MORTH), Ministry of Rural Development (MORD), Indian Road
Congress (IRC), Bureau of Indian standard (BIS) for granting the requisite permission to publish
the manual. Thanks to Mr. Anurag Singh for providing the assistance, collection of data and
formulating the Quality Control Manual. We are also thankful to all staff of CSIR-CRRI for their
support to prepare this manual.
iii
Preface
It's indeed promising to learn of the remarkable growth and development experienced by
Madhya Pradesh over the past two decades, particularly in the realm of infrastructure.
Developing a dedicated manual tailored to the state's geological nuances represents a prudent
approach to ensure that construction and maintenance practices harmonize seamlessly with
the region's distinctive characteristics.
The eight sections outlined within the MPPWD Manual appear to offer a comprehensive
coverage of a broad spectrum of topics pertinent to roads and bridges engineering and
infrastructure development. Here is the brief overview of each section:
Volume I: Quality Control Manual for Roads
Section 1: General
This section includes the general awareness of quality control for roads and bridges. This
section also includes the selection criteria of material for roads and bridge, methods of quality
control, its performances and seeking the approval from higher authorities.
Section 2: Geotechnical Engineering

This section presumably encompasses the intricacies of soil and rock mechanics. Such
knowledge forms the base for proficiently designing and erecting foundations, retaining
walls, embankments, and various other structures.
Section 3: Flexible Pavement Construction

Flexible pavements are conventionally deployed for road networks. This section is likely to
furnish guidance on materials, stratification, and construction methodologies to ensure the
development of enduring and resilient road surfaces.
Section 4: Flexible Pavement Maintenance

The longevity of roads hinges on maintenance. This section could cover topics such as
routine upkeep, repairs, and rehabilitation, all of which are indispensable for preserving
flexible pavements.
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Section 5: Rigid Pavement Construction
Rigid pavements, often found on highways and at airports, demand a specific approach. This
section could focus on the details of concrete pavement design and construction techniques.
Section 6: Traffic Planning

The domain of traffic planning involves the design of road networks, intersections, and traffic
management systems to guarantee safe and efficient transportation.
Section 7: Traffic Engineering & Safety

Within this section, one can anticipate the exploration of traffic flow dynamics, road signage,
signal systems, and safety protocols. All these elements play a pivotal role in minimizing
accidents and traffic congestion.
Volume II: Quality Control Manual for Bridges
Bridge Engineering: Bridges constitute critical elements of infrastructure. This section

likely offers insights into bridge design, construction methodologies, inspection protocols,
and ongoing maintenance procedures.
Undoubtedly, the creation of such a comprehensive manual emerges as an invaluable

resource for engineers, planners, and construction professionals operating within Madhya
Pradesh. It serves as a blue print that ensures infrastructure development aligns harmoniously
with the region's unique geological and geographical characteristics, ultimately contributing
to the realization of safer and more resilient structures
(Sukhveer Singh)
Principal Secretary
Government of Madhya Pradesh
Public Works Department
v
Volume I
CONTENTS Page No.

Disclaimer
Acknowledgements
Section - 1 General 2
1.1.0 Quality Assurance Plan 3
1.1.1 Introduction 3
1.1.2 Quality Control 3
1.1.2.1 Types of Quality Control 3
1.1.2.2 Performance of Quality Control 3
1.1.3 Approval of Quarries and Borrow Areas 6
1.1.4 Approval of Materials 9
1.1.4.1 General 9
1.1.4.2 Approval of Natural Materials 9
1.1.4.3 Approval of Processed Materials 10
1.1.4.4 Approval of Manufactured Materials 10
1.1.4.5 Approval of Designed Materials 10
1.1.4.6 Revocation (withdrawal) of Material Approvals 11
1.1.4.7 Reporting and Recording Material Approvals 11
1.1.4.8 Approval of layers of Road Works 11
1.1.5 Sampling of Materials 12
1.1.5.1 Sampling Requirements 12
1.1.5.2 Sampling Guidelines 12
1.1.5.3 Preparation and Storage of Samples 12
1.1.6 Field Testing Laboratory 13
1.1.7 Acceptance Testing 13
1.1.7.1 General 13
1.1.7.2 Routine Acceptance Tests 14
1.1.7.3 Special Tests 14
1.1.7.4 Quality Control Test Statement (Monthly Progress 15
Report )
1.1.8 Special Considerations for Bridges 15
1.1.9 Guidelines for Non-Conformity Works 15
1.1.9.1 General 15
1.1.9.2 Concrete/Bituminous Works 16
1.1.9.3 Non-conformance other than Strength or Finish 16
1.1.9.4 Non-conformance with Strength Requirements 16
1.1.9.5 Non-conformance with Finish Requirements 17
1.1.9.6 Non-conformance in respect of Concrete Works in 17
Bridges
1.1.9.7 Non-conformance in Works other than concrete in 19
Bridges
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1.1.10 Documentation 21
1.1.10.1 General 21
1.1.10.2 As-built Drawings 22
1.1.10.3 Final Take-off of Quantities and Amounts 22
Section - 2 Geotechnical Engineering 23

2.1.0 Geotechnical Investigations for Roads and 24
Bridges
2.1.2 Scope and Objectives of Investigation 24
2.1.3 Desk Study and Planning of Investigations 25
2.1.4 Stages of Sub-surface Investigation 25
2.1.4.1 Site Reconnaissance 25
2.1.4.2 Preliminary Investigation 25
2.1.4.3 Detailed Investigation 25
2.1.4.4 Construction Stage Investigation 25
2.1.4.5 Post-construction Stage Investigation 26
2.1.5 Field Investigations 26
2.1.5.1 Subsurface explorations 26
2.1.5.2 Disturbed and Undisturbed soil samples 31
2.1.5.3 Standard Penetration Test (SPT) 33
2.1.5.4 Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT) 33
2.1.5.5 Static Cone Penetration Test (SCPT) 33
2.1.5.6 Plate Load Test (PLT) 33
2.1.5.7 Field Direct Shear Test 34
2.1.5.8 Field Permeability Test 34
2.1.6 Laboratory Investigations 34
2.1.6.1 Moisture Content 34
2.1.6.2 Specific Gravity 34
2.1.6.3 Grain Size Test 35
2.1.6.4 Liquid and Plastic Limits 35
2.1.6.5 Swelling Index 35
2.1.6.6 Compaction 35
2.1.6.7 Shear Tests (Direct Shear and Tri-axial) 35
2.1.6.8 Consolidation Test 36
2.1.6.9 Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) Test 36
2.1.6.10 Durability Test 37
2.1.6.11 Permeability Test 37
2.1.7 Bearing Capacity of Soil 38
2.1.7.1 Computation of Bearing Capacity as per Shear 39
Failure Approach
2.1.7.2 Computation of Bearing Capacity as per 40
Settlements Approach
2.1.8 Pile Foundations 41
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Subsurface Investigations for Pile Foundations 41
2.2.0 Earthwork in Embankment 43
2.2.1 Physical requirements of embankment material 43
2.2.2 Moisture Density Relationship 45
2.2.3 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test 46
2.2.4 Density of Compacted Layer (Core Cutter Method) 46
2.2.5 Density of Compacted Layer (Sand Replacement 46
Method)
2.2.6 Methods of Embankment Construction 46
2.2.6.1 Widening 46
2.2.6.2 Mixing 47
2.2.6.3 Layer 47
2.2.6.4 Compaction 48
2.2.6.5 Earthwork for Low Height Embankment 48
2.2.6.6 Earthwork for High Embankment 48
2.2.6.7 Stability of slopes 48
2.2.6.8 Widening of existing road embankment 49
2.3.0 Surface and Sub Surface Drain 50
2.3.1 Surface Drain 52
2.3.2 Sub-Surface Drain 58
2.4.0 Ground Improvement 64
2.4.1 Need of the Ground Improvement 64
2.4.2 Method of Ground Improvement 64
2.4.2.1 Soil Densification or Surface Compaction 64
2.4.3 Lime and Soil Stabilization 66
2.4.4 Grouting 68
2.4.4.1 Cement Grouting 68
2.4.4.2 Compaction Grouting 69
2.4.4.3 Jet Grouting 70
2.4.5 Soil Reinforcement 70
2.4.5.1 Stone Column 70
2.4.6 Chemical Stabilisation 71
2.5.0 Earth Retaining Structure 73
2.5.1 Gravity Wall 73
2.5.2 RCC Wall 74
2.5.3 Gabion Wall 76
2.5.3.1 Retained Fill 76
2.5.3.2 Reinforced Fill 77
2.5.3.3 Wall Fascia 77
2.5.3.4 Reinforcing Material 77
2.5.3.5 Construction Details 78
2.5.4 Reinforced Earth Wall (Accordance with IRC SP 78
102)
2.5.4.1 Retained Fill 79
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2.5.4.2 Reinforced Fill 79
2.5.4.3 Wall Fascia 80
2.5.4.4 Reinforcing Material 80
2.5.4.5 Construction Details 81
2.6.0 Landslide Investigation and Mitigation 83
Measures
2.6.1 Investigation Phases 83
2.6.1.1 Preliminary Investigation 84
2.6.1.2 Detailed Field Investigations and Mapping 84
2.6.2 Enforcing Remedial/Control Measures 86
2.6.3 Technology for Landslide Prevention and 86
Remediation
2.6.3.1 Slope Instability and their Stabilization 87
2.7.0 Slope Protection Measures 89
2.7.1 Natural Slopes 89
2.7.2 Man made slopes 97
2.7.3 Soil Nailing 98
2.7.3.1 Method of Construction of Nailed Structure 98
2.7.3.2 Components of Nailed Structure 98
2.7.3.3 Types of Soil Nails 100
2.7.3.4 Advantages of Soil Nailing 101
2.7.3.5 Disadvantages of Soil Nailing 101
2.7.3.6 Field Pull-Out Test on Soil Nails 102
2.8.0 Geo-synthetic Highway Construction 103
2.8.1 General requirements 103
2.8.2 Testing of Geo-synthetic 103
2.8.3 Geo-textile application for Separation and Erosion 109
2.8.4 Improvement of bearing capacity by Geo-grid 111
2.9.0 Industrial Waste and Marginal Material 114
2.9.2 Fly Ash 114
2.9.2.1 Production and Utilisation 114
2.9.2.2 Physical/Chemical/Geotechnical Characteristics 115
2.9.2.3 Design Specifications and Application Potential 115
2.9.3 Copper Slag 117
2.9.3.1 Production 117
2.9.3.2 Physical and Chemical Characterisation of Copper 117
Slag
2.9.4 Jarofix 121
2.9.4.2 Physical, Chemical and Geotechnical 121
Characteristics
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2.9.5 Phosphogypsum 123
2.9.5.2 Physical, Chemical and Geotechnical 123
Characteristics
2.9.6 Marble dust 125
2.9.7 Foundry Sand 127
2.9.7.1 Application Potential Embankment and Sub-grade 128
2.9.8 Granulated Blast Furnace Slag 128
2.9.9 Red mud 129
2.9.10 Chrome Slag 130
2.9.11 Municipal Solid Waste 131
2.9.11.1 Process of Segregation 131
2.9.11.2 Characteristics of MSW 131
2.9.12 Soft Porous Aggregate 132
2.9.13 Quality Control Tests 133
2.9.13.1 Control Tests 133
2.9.13.2 Acceptance Criteria for Field Compaction 133
Section - 3 Flexible Pavement 134

3.2.0 Bituminous Binders 136
3.2.1 Bitumen 136
3.2.2 Paving Grade of Bitumen 137
3.2.3 Modified Bitumen 139
3.2.3.1 Polymer Modified Bitumen ( PMB ) 139
3.2.3.2 Rubber Modified Bitumen ( RMB ) 141
3.2.3.3 Multi Grade Bitumen 143
3.2.4 Emulsion Bitumen 145
3.2.5 Cutback Bitumen 147
3.3.0 Road Aggregates 152
3.3.1 Desirable Properties of Aggregates 153
3.3.1.1 Strength 153
3.3.1.2 Hardness 153
3.3.1.3 Toughness 153
3.3.1.4 Shape of Aggregates 153
3.3.1.5 Adhesion with Bitumen 153
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3.3.1.6 Durability 154
3.3.1.7 Freedom from Deleterious Particles 154
3.3.2 Different Tests of Road Aggregates 154
3.3.2.1 Sieve Analysis 153
3.3.2.2 Los Angeles Abrasion Test 154
3.3.2.3 Aggregate Impact Test 157
3.3.2.4 Shape Test 158
3.3.2.5 Specific Gravity Test 160
3.3.2.6 Soundness Test 160
3.3.2.7 Coating Test 161
3.3.3 Conclusion 162
3.4.0 Mix Design for Bituminous Mixes 163
3.4.1 Mix Design 163
3.4.1.1 Objectives of Mix Design 163
3.4.2 Marshall Mix Design 163
3.4.2.1 Aggregate Evaluation 163
3.4.2.2 Evaluation of Bitumen 166
3.4.2.3 Marshall Specimen Preparation 167
3.4.2.4 Volumetric Properties 167
3.4.2.5 Stability and flow Test 170
3.4.2.6 Determination of Optimum Bitumen Content 172
3.5.0 Construction and Supervision of Bituminous 177
Layers
3.5.1 Prime Coat 177
3.5.2 Tack Coat 181
3.5.3 Bituminous Macadam ( BM ) 183
3.5.4 Dense Bituminous Macadam ( DBM ) 189
3.5.5 Bituminous Concrete ( BC ) 197
3.5.6 Stone Matrix Asphalt ( SMA ) 203
3.5.7 Semi Dense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC) 207
3.6.0 Equipments Needed For Construction of 213
Bituminous Layers
3.6.1 Bitumen Distributor 213
3.6.2 Hot Mix Plant 214
3.6.3 Paver Finisher 218
3.6.4 Roller 220
Section - 4 Pavement Maintenance 225

4.2.0 Overview of Flexible Pavement Distresses 227
4.2.1 Background 227
4.2.2 Surface Defects 227
4.2.2.1 Bleeding (Fatty surface) 227
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4.2.2.2 Smooth surface (Low skid resistance Surface) 229
4.2.2.3 Streaking 229
4.2.2.4 Hungry surface 230
4.2.3 Cracking 231
4.2.3.1 Hairline Cracks 231
4.2.3.2 Alligator and Map Cracking 232
4.2.3.3 Longitudinal Cracking 233
4.2.3.4 Transverse Cracks 234
4.2.3.5 Edge Cracking 235
4.2.3.6 Reflection Cracking 235
4.2.4 Deformation 236
4.2.4.1 Slippage 236
4.2.4.2 Rutting 237
4.2.4.3 Corrugation 238
4.2.4.4 Shoving 239
4.2.4.5 Shallow Depression 240
4.2.4.6 Settlements and Upheaval 241
4.2.5 Disintegration 241
4.2.5.1 Stripping 242
4.2.5.2 Ravelling 242
4.2.5.3 Potholes 244
4.2.5.4 Patch Deterioration 246
4.2.5.5 Edge-Breaking 246
4.3.0 Pavement Serviceability 248
4.3.2 Concept of pavement serviceability index 248
4.3.3 Roughness 249
4.3.3.1 Roughness Measurement Methods 249
4.3.3.2 Equipment for Road Roughness Measurement 250
4.3.3.3 Units for Measuring Roughness 252
4.3.3.4 Roughness Norms 252
4.3.4 Pavement Skid Resistance 254
4.3.4.1 General 254
4.3.4.2 British pendulum tester (BPT) 254
4.3.5 Pavement structural capacity 256
4.3.5.1 General 256
4.3.5.2 Benkelman Beam Deflection (BBD) 256
4.3.5.3 Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) 259
4.4.0 Pavement Condition Surveys and Pavement 262
Condition Index(PCI)
4.4.2 Determination of PCI 263
4.5.0 Maintenance Strategies for flexible pavements 265
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4.5.1 Planning for maintenance activities 265
4.5.2 Routine Maintenance 265
4.5.3 Preventive Maintenance 265
4.5.3.1 Warrants for preventive Maintenance 265
4.5.4 Periodic Maintenance 273
4.5.4.1 Types of Renewal Treatments 273
4.5.4.2 Periodicity of Renewal 273
4.5.5 Materials and Methods for Rectification of Distress 274
on Bituminous Surface
4.5.5.1 Bituminous Materials 274
4.6.0 Road Asset Management System (RAMS) 275
4.6.2 Pavement Management System (PMS) 275
4.6.2.1 Road Asset Data Collection 276
4.6.2.2 Methods of Data Collection 276
4.6.2.3 Planning tools for PMS Application 277
4.6.3 Asset Management Decision Making and 277
Maintenance Plan
4.6.3.1 Decision Making Criteria 277
4.6.3.2 Network-Level Analysis 277
4.6.2.3 Project-Level Analysis 278
Section - 5 Rigid Pavement 279

5.1.0 General Introduction to Rigid Pavement 280
5.1.1 Definition of Rigid Pavements 280
5.1.2 Type of Rigid Pavement 281
5.1.3 Methods of Construction 283
5.1.3.1 Sub-grade 283
5.1.3.2 Sub-base 284
5.2.0 Materials for Rigid Pavement Construction 288
5.2.1 Cement 288
5.2.2 Aggregate 288
5.2.2.1 Coarse Aggregate 288
5.2.2.2 Fine Aggregate 288
5.2.3 Water 289
5.2.4 Admixture 289
5.2.4.1 Chemical Admixtures 289
5.2.4.2 Mineral Admixture 289
5.2.5 Dowel bars & Tie bars 290
5.2.6 Supplementary Cementitious Materials 290
5.2.6.1 Fly Ash 290
5.2.6.2 Granulated Blast Furnace Slag 291
5.2.6.3 Silica Fume 291
xiii
5.2.6.4 Metakaolin 291
5.2.7 Special Additives 291
5.2.7.1 Air Entraining Admixtures 291
5.2.7.2 Fibers 291
5.3.0 Design of Concrete Pavements 292
5.3.1 Design of Concrete Pavements for Highways 292
5.3.2 Design of Rigid Pavements for Low Volume Roads 294
5.3.3 Design of Concrete Overlays (Thin White Topping) 296
5.4.0 Mix Design of Rigid Pavements 298
5.4.1 Mix Design for Dry Lean Concrete (DLC) 298
5.4.1.1 Concrete Mix Proportions 298
5.4.1.2 Trial Mixes 298
5.4.1.3 Concrete Compressive Strength 298
5.4.2 Mix Design for Pavement Quality Concrete (PQC) 298
5.4.2.1 Target Strength for Mix Proportioning 298
5.4.2.2 Selection of Mix Proportions 301
5.5.0 Construction of Rigid Pavements 304
5.5.1 Sub-grade 304
5.5.2 Sub-base 304
5.5.3 Dry Lean Concrete 306
5.5.4 Joints 307
5.5.5 Separation Memberane 308
5.5.6 Pavement Quality Concrete 308
5.5.6.1 Weather Limitations 309
5.5.7 Texturing 310
5.5.7.1 Transverse Tining 311
5.5.7.2 Longitudinal Tining 311
5.5.8 Finishing 311
5.5.9 Curing 311
5.5.10 Joint Widening & Sealing 311
5.6.0 Quality Control for Rigid Pavements 313
5.6.1 General 313
5.6.2 Quality control for Materials 313
5.6.2.1 Cement 313
5.6.2.2 Mineral Admixture 314
5.6.2.3 Aggregates 315
5.6.2.4 Water 318
5.6.3 Quality Control for Concrete Road Construction 320
5.6.3.1 Dry Lean Concrete 320
5.6.3.2 Pavement Quality Concrete 321
5.6.3.3 Joints 329
5.7.0 Maintenance of Cement Concrete Pavement 333
xiv
5.7.2 Types Defects 334
5.7.2.1 Distress Identification 334
5.7.2.2 Distress Types 335
5.7.2.3 Structural Distresses 335
5.7.2.4 Functional Distress 335
5.7.3 Types of Distresses and Defects, Their Causes, 335
How to Check, How to Measure, How to Repair
5.7.3.1 Introduction 335
5.7.3.2 Types of Distress 336
5.7.4 Repair Materials 358
5.7.4.1 Concrete as a Material 358
5.7.4.2 Repair Materials 358
5.7.4.3 Preparation of Repair Area 359
5.7.4.4 Longitudinal Cracking 360
5.7.4.5 Full Depth Repair (FDR) Methodology 362
5.7.4.6 Plastic Shrinkage Cracks 364
5.7.4.7 Joint Repairs of Concrete Road 364
5.7.5 Periodic Maintenance 365
5.7.6 Repair Materials 365
5.8.0 New Technologies for Rigid Pavement 367
5.8.1 White topping/short Panel Concrete Pavement 367
5.8.1.1 Benefits of White topping 367
5.8.1.2 Types of White topping 368
5.8.2 Precast Concrete Pavement 369
5.8.2.1 Advantages of Precast Concrete Pavement 371
5.8.3 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement 371
5.8.4 Interconnected Block Pavement 373
5.8.4.1 Technical Specification for Block Pavement 373
5.8.4.2 Construction Guidelines for Block Pavement 375
5.8.4.3 Sub-grade Preparation 376
5.8.4.4 Base and Sub-Base Layers 376
5.8.4.5 Edge Restraint Blocks and Kerbs 376
5.8.4.6 Placing and Screeding of Bedding Sand 377
5.8.4.7 Laying of Blocks 377
Section - 6 Transport Planning and Environment 378

6.1.0 Traffic Data Collection Methods and Analysis 379
6.1.1.1 Purpose of Traffic Data Collection 380
6.1.1.2 Types of Traffic Data 381
6.1.2 Manual Method of Traffic Data Collection 381
6.1.2.1 Traffic Counters 383
6.1.2.2 Surveys and Interviews 383
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6.1.2.3 Video Recording and Observations 384
6.1.2.4 Floating Car Method 384
6.1.2.5 Travel Time Surveys 384
6.1.3 Automatic Traffic Data Collection Methods 384
6.1.3.1 Inductive Loop Detectors 385
6.1.3.2 Radar-based Sensors 386
6.1.3.3 Infrared Sensors 386
6.1.3.4 Video Image Processing 388
6.1.3.5 Global Positioning System (GPS) 389
6.1.4 Data Collection from Intelligent Transportation 389
Systems (ITS)
6.1.5 Traffic Data Analysis 391
6.1.5.1 Traffic Flow Analysis 392
6.1.5.2 Traffic Pattern Identification 394
6.1.5.3 Traffic Data Visualization Techniques 394
6.1.5.4 Traffic Flow Analysis includes Traffic Volume 396
Analysis
6.1.5.5 Traffic Density Analysis 397
6.1.5.6 Traffic Speed Analysis 398
6.1.5.7 Traffic Flow Relationships (Fundamental 400
Diagrams)
6.1.5.8 Traffic Pattern Identification 402
6.1.5.9 Origin-Destination Analysis 403
6.2.0 Traffic Forecasting Techniques 406
6.2.2 Estimation of Traffic Growth 406
6.2.3 Traffic Forecasting Techniques 407
6.2.4 Traffic Impact Assessment 409
6.3.0 Environmental and Appraisal- Mitigation 410
6.3.2 Environmental Appraisal 410
6.3.3 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 411
6.3.4 Social Impact Assessment (SIA) 412
6.3.5 Case Studies: Construction of a New Highway and 412
Best Practices
Section - 7 Traffic Engineering and Safety 415

7.1.0 A Brief History of Road Safety Audit 416
7.1.1 Purpose of Road Safety Audit 416
7.2.0 Road Safety Audit: An Overview 417
7.2.1 The Road Safety Situation 417
7.2.2 What is road safety audit? 420
7.2.2.1 Road safety audit is: 421
xvi
7.2.2.2 Just as importantly, a road safety audit is not: 421
7.2.2.3 A good road safety audit will be accomplished 421
when
7.2.2.4 If road authority elects to develop such a program, 422
there is need to
7.3.0 Five stages of Road Safety Audit 423
7.3.1 Stage 1: Planning/Feasibility Study Stage 423
7.3.2 Stage 2: Detailed Design Stage 423
7.3.3 Stage 3: Construction Stage 423
7.3.4 Stage 4: Pre-Opening Stage 423
7.3.5 Stage 5: Safety Audit of Existing Roads 424
7.4.0 What projects are to be road safety audited? 425
7.4.1 Managing the Road Safety Audit 439
7.4.2 Putting road safety audit to work in the road 440
authority
7.4.3 Options for having a road safety audit undertaken 441
7.4.4 A suggested road safety audit policy 442
7.4.5 Draft terms of reference for commissioning a road 443
safety audit
Empanelment of Road Safety Audit Consultant
7.4.6 Risk Assessment of Safety Concerns and 446
Prioritization of Suggested Recommendations
7.5.0 Road Markings and Signs 448
7.5.1 Classification Of Road Signs as per IRC 67: 2022 451
7.5.2 Material for Signs 453
7.5.3 Retro Reflective Sheeting 455
7.5.4 Placement and Operation of Road Signs 457
Orientation of Signs
7.6.0 Black spot Treatment Process 458
7.7.0 Reference codes for Principles for Safer Design 460
The Road Safety Audit checklists 461
Table 7.1: Checklist for Planning/Feasibility Stage
Table 7.2 Checklist for Detailed Design Stage
Table 7.3 Checklist for Construction Stage
Table 7.4 Checklist for Pre-opening Stage
Table 7.5 Checklist for Audit of Existing Roads
Volume II
Bridge Engineering and Structures
xvii
Section 1 General
Quality Control Manual for Roads
Volume I
Quality Control Manual for Roads 1

Section 1 General
Section 1
General

Section 1 General
CHAPTER 1
1.1.0 Quality Assurance Plan
1.1.1 Introduction
The Quality Assurance Plan (QAP) is the methodology that is selected for ensuring that the
project incorporates all elements that are needed for the successful design, construction and
maintenance of a project. Since projects vary in scope, the QAP has to be project-specific.
The QAP should deal with all aspects of selection and testing of materials, acceptance
criteria, guidelines for non-conforming materials and works and documentation.
1.1.2 Quality Control
1.1.2.1 Types of Quality Control

During the implementation of a road contract, a critical responsibility of the supervisory team
is to ensure that the materials and work provided by the Contractor adhere to the technical
specifications outlined in the contract. This process involves two distinct approaches to
quality control, which we will discuss below.
(a) Control of Methods

The oversight of construction methods is typically undertaken by the Consultant's on-site
personnel, who are tasked with monitoring the Contractor's activities during project
execution. Simultaneously, these field personnel conduct basic measurements, including
recording the thickness of fill layers, monitoring the temperature of asphalt materials, and
assessing the slump of cement concrete.
(b) Control of End-Results

End-result control encompasses a variety of examinations, including field tests such as the
assessment of the uniformity of finished pavement layers, as well as laboratory tests like the
Marshall tests conducted on asphalt materials. Some tests involve a combination of field and
laboratory assessments. For instance, in the case of compaction control for earthworks, the
achieved density is established through a field test, while the reference IS/AASHTO density
for comparison is determined via a laboratory test. Laboratory technicians are responsible for
conducting end-result control, with the majority of their work focused on laboratory testing
procedures.
1.1.2.2 Performance of Quality Control
1.1.2.2.1 Testing Facilities

Prior to commencing earthworks, asphalt paving, concrete works, and other construction
activities, the necessary testing facilities must be established. This entails:
(a) Constructing and equipping laboratories;

(b) Procuring and verifying the functionality of laboratory equipment;

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(c) Preparing test forms; and

(d) Recruiting and training laboratory technicians.
For comprehensive guidance on field laboratory details, you can refer to Section 100 of the
Ministry of Road Transport & Highways' Specifications for Road and Bridge Works, Fifth
Revision (April 2023). The Contractor also has the option to conduct specialized tests in
accredited external testing laboratories, particularly for tests not covered by the equipment
specified in the provided list. However, the Engineer's approval must be obtained beforehand,
and it is essential to adhere to the recommended servicing schedules for testing equipment as
per the suppliers' guidelines. Additionally, a calibration chart should be accessible for each
piece of equipment, and forms for laboratory testing can be sourced from IS codes.
1.1.2.2.2 Testing Frequency

Typically, the Consultants establish the frequency of technical control at the project's outset,
and it is typically aligned with the specified requirements. To ensure adherence to this, the
Contractor is responsible for creating a comprehensive testing plan that includes details on
testing frequency, standards, acceptance criteria, and the entity responsible for conducting the
tests. This plan must then be submitted to the Engineer for approval.
1.1.2.2.3 Method Control

The approach to method control is tailored to the nature of the work. In instances where the
work method holds significant importance and demands continuous oversight to ensure
quality or when enhancing quality proves challenging, the presence of a field engineer on-site
is imperative. This is evident in activities such as pile ramming, asphalt laying, and
concreting. Conversely, when work methods are less critical, and the contractor consistently
meets quality standards, continuous surveillance may not be necessary. Excavation and soil
compaction serve as examples of such activities.
1.1.2.2.4 End-result Control

The frequency of end-result control is contingent on the specific quality parameters that
necessitate examination. Parameters that exhibit substantial variability undergo continuous
monitoring. For instance, the composition of asphalt materials and the compaction of asphalt
courses are subject to such continuous control. As for the regulation of laboratory tests, the
specification typically outlines the required quantity of tests. In instances where project
initiation is underway or when challenges arise in meeting quality requirements, there is
usually an escalation in the intensity of laboratory testing.
1.1.2.2.5 Quality Parameters

Quality parameters that typically remain relatively consistent, such as the Los Angeles
Strength of stone materials sourced from a single quarry, undergo sporadic control. This also
extends to parameters that can be reasonably assessed visually, such as the particle shape of
crushed stone. In the case of manufactured materials that employ advanced technology, like

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steel and bitumen, reliance is often placed on the manufacturer's certificates. However, in
situations where uncertainty arises, supplementary tests are conducted.
1.1.2.2.6 Reporting of Test Results

Systematic recording of the test results is essential in a designated register, and the entries
should bear the signatures of both the testing authority and, if present during the tests, the
Engineer's representative.
1.1.2.2.7 Interpretation of Test Results

Plot the test results on a graph sheet with the x-axis representing dates/sample numbers and
the y-axis indicating test values. On these graphs, mark the statistical "warning limits" and
"action limits." If any test results fall outside the "warning limits," conduct an investigation to
identify the cause and implement appropriate corrective measures. In cases where a test result
surpasses the "action limits," halt the process, conduct a comprehensive investigation into the
entire operation to pinpoint the cause of subpar performance, and promptly implement
remedial actions to regain control of the process.
1.1.2.2.8 Statistical Quality Control

Relying solely on individual quality control tests does not guarantee the attainment of well-
defined product qualities. In the industrial field, statistical methods have been employed for
many years to assess works and supplies, making approval or rejection decisions based on the
evaluation of the mean and standard deviation of multiple test results. A similar transition
towards statistical methods is gradually occurring within the road construction sector, where
it has become increasingly common to employ these approaches for quality control. For
guidance, the IRC Handbook on Quality Control (SP-11) is a valuable resource. It is
advisable to use Control Charts for establishing trend lines and identifying the appropriate
timing for implementing corrective measures.
1.1.2.2.9 Monitoring of Quality Control

The Engineer is entrusted with the authority and duty of overseeing the implementation of the
Quality Control System and ensuring the adherence to the aforementioned policies. They
must also be prepared to consider the necessity of any potential modifications.
The Contractor bears the obligation to perform and is accountable for:
- Conducting sampling and testing

- Taking measurements
Nonetheless, it is crucial to note that the Contractor's responsibilities do not exempt the
Engineer or the Resident Engineer from their obligations to the Employer. These
responsibilities include:

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(a) The Engineer's issuance of:
- Decisions
- Certificates
- Orders
As stipulated in the contract.
(b) The contractual duties of the Engineer and the Resident Engineer encompass:
- Monitoring and supervising the works

- Testing and inspecting materials and workmanship
- Implementing "process control" as required
Consequently, the Resident Engineer, supported by a suitably qualified and sufficient staff,
must carry out supervision and control activities such as:
- Sub-soil investigations
- Inspections of works and workmanship
- Geometric assessments and measurements
- Quality control of both works and materials
The Resident Engineer's team can be categorized to establish a supervisory structure

composed of specialized groups responsible for specific areas, including:
- Structures
- Highway
- Materials and laboratory
It is crucial that each area of responsibility functions effectively and efficiently. Equally
important is the seamless coordination and collaboration between these segments to prevent
any potential gaps or oversights. Designated areas of responsibility should maintain close
communication with other team members to ensure that information regarding subpar
workmanship or issues is promptly conveyed to the appropriate individuals.
Ultimately, it is the responsibility of the Resident Engineer to ensure that the supervision
organization adheres to these functional requirements.
1.1.3 Approval of Quarries and Borrow Areas

The Contractor must secure approval from the Material Engineer via the Resident Engineer
for each Quarry and Borrow Area intended for use in the project before commencing
quarrying or borrows area excavation activities. The Engineer's considerations in granting
approval encompass:

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- Ensuring that the proposed materials meet specification requirements.

- Verifying that the Contractor possesses legal authorization from the owner to extract
materials from the designated quarry or borrow area.
- Receiving an acceptable "Environmental Management Plan" from the Contractor, detailing
the development, utilization, and closure of the intended quarry or borrow area, along with
any other requisite approvals or documents from relevant authorities, such as the Ministry of
Environment and Forests.
The steps for securing approval of each Quarry/Borrow Area are as follows:
(a) The Contractor is to complete the "Materials Sources Data" form, providing information
on the size, location, orientation, and access to the proposed quarry or borrow area (with a
rough map). This form should also include a list of materials required for the project works
(e.g., embankment, GSB, WMM, etc.) and their estimated quantities.
(b) Summarize the results of laboratory tests conducted on materials jointly sampled with the
Consultant's Material Engineer (or designated representative) on the approval form, and
attach complete test copies to the form.
(c) Attach a letter or written acknowledgment from the quarry or borrow area owner
indicating their consent for the Contractor to extract the specified types and quantities of
materials.
(d) Include the Contractor's proposed "Environmental Management Plan" for the
development, use, and closure of the designated quarry or borrow area. Additionally, provide
photographs of the source site, including access roads, to establish baseline conditions.
(e) Upon receiving the proposal for quarry (ies)/borrow area(s) approval, the Resident
Engineer is to dispatch a team consisting of the Environmental Officer and Materials
Engineer to inspect the proposed site and subsequently report their findings to the Resident
Engineer.
(f) Based on the Contractor's proposal and the site inspection team's observations, the
Resident Engineer will respond to the Contractor within five days of receiving the proposal,
with one of the following:
(i) Approval of the Quarry/Borrow Area as proposed.

(ii) Approval of the proposed Quarry/Borrow Area, subject to specified changes or additions
(as detailed by the Resident Engineer).
(iii) A request for the Contractor to revise and resubmit all or part of the proposal, outlining
necessary changes and additional requirements.
(iv) Rejection of the proposed Quarry/Borrow Area.

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Regarding the approval of Quarry/Borrow Area, particular attention must be given to the
Environmental Management Plan, especially in the following areas:
(a) Selection of area:
- Borrow Areas should not be within the Project Right-of-Way.

- Preferred locations for Borrow Areas include non-productive, barren lands, elevated lands,
waste lands, etc.
- Borrow Areas on agricultural land should first have the top 150 mm minimum removed and
stockpiled. The stockpiled topsoil should be reinstated and spread over the original areas once
excavation for borrow is completed.
- For quarry areas, ensure that testing (and approval) is limited to areas indicated on the plan
with materials exhibiting homogeneous properties. Additionally, specify the depth and extent
of overburden to be removed before quarrying.
(b) Transport of Materials:
- Ensure that equipment stationed in designated areas causes minimal soil compaction. In
critical situations, the Engineer may mandate equipment with tracks rather than wheels.
- All transport vehicles must be covered and equipped with adequate covers, sides, and
tailgates to prevent material spillage.
- Transport vehicles should choose appropriate routes and delivery times and practice safe
driving habits to minimize disruption to local communities and reduce the risk of accidents.
The Contractor is responsible for repairing and maintaining any roads or facilities damaged
by their transport equipment.
(c) Development/Redevelopment of Borrow Pits and Quarries:
- During and after excavation in the borrow areas, the Engineer and the Environmental
Officer must inspect the areas to ensure proper grading and drainage, minimizing erosion and
preventing runoff that may damage adjacent properties. Preserve and protect all existing trees
within the quarry/borrow areas' boundaries.
- Position temporary stockpiles of blasted quarry materials and borrow area soils to ensure
unobstructed traffic flow and access to main roads. Design these stockpiles to minimize
contamination and damage from rainfall or runoff.
- Unless the landowner agrees that the borrow pit can serve as a pond for agricultural
purposes, Borrow Areas will be redeveloped by filling and providing a 150 mm thick layer of
preserved topsoil. The Contractor must also replace any removed vegetation.
- The Material Engineer and other consultancy field staff must continue monitoring
quarry/borrow materials through periodic sampling and testing as well as visual assessments.
If tests reveal significant changes in a material's properties or if visual observations suggest
alterations, the material properties must be verified through testing. If variations are

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considered significant, a new application for source approval must be submitted, repeating
the above procedure.
It's essential to note that no field activities related to the above should commence until the
appropriate Inspection Request Forms are completed, submitted, and approved.
1.1.4 Approval of Materials
1.1.4.1 General
The initial step in the project involves obtaining approval for all materials the Contractor
intends to use. In essence, there are four distinct categories of materials that necessitate
approval:
(a) Natural Materials: These are materials that undergo minimal to no processing, except for
actions like screening for oversized particles and the elimination of unsuitable components.
For instance, soil embankment materials fall into this category.
(b) Processed Materials: This category includes materials that demand substantial processing,
such as the removal of unsuitable particles, crushing, screening, and potentially blending of
different sizes. Processed materials exhibit homogeneity but adhere to specified gradations. A
prime example is the Wet Mixed Macadam Base Course.
(c) Manufactured Materials: These are construction materials that possess exceptional
homogeneity, like Portland cement and bitumen. They are used to blend with natural
materials, usually soil or aggregate, to create a pavement mix.
(d) Designed Materials: Materials in this category involve mixing two or more distinct
materials, be they natural, processed, or manufactured, in specific proportions. The objective
is to produce a modified material with a desired set of specific properties.
Approval is required for each of these material types. However, it's worth noting that the
specific requirements for obtaining approval may vary slightly for each category.
1.1.4.2 Approval of Natural Materials

Natural materials are typically extracted (i.e., excavated) from specific sources. After
ensuring that the material aligns with its intended purpose, the initial step involves securing
approval for the designated Borrow Area or Quarry.
Once this preliminary approval is in place, the material can proceed to obtain construction
approval. This involves submitting test results for all tests mandated by the Specifications to
demonstrate that the material satisfies all essential properties. In certain instances, it may also
necessitate the creation of trial sections to confirm that the material can be effectively placed

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in the field, meeting the prescribed minimum field properties, such as achieving the required
density, among other criteria.
1.1.4.3 Approval of Processed Materials

The approval process for processed materials mirrors the steps outlined for "natural"
materials, with the distinction that specifications are typically more stringent. This may
encompass stricter gradation limits and a broader range of tests, as well as additional
requirements for production and storage conditions that must be satisfied.
1.1.4.4 Approval of Manufactured Materials

The approval process for manufactured materials, as stipulated in the specific Specifications
requirements, typically involves two stages.
(a) Initial Approval: This stage is granted before the materials are received, contingent on the
submission of relevant testing results verified by the manufacturer. It's important to note that
claims made by manufacturers or tests conducted by distributors should not be accepted as
sufficient evidence.
(b) Final Approval: This approval stage builds upon the initial approval and is awarded when
all "acceptance" tests, as mandated by the Specifications or as directed by the Engineer, yield
positive results. Additionally, the manufacturer's Quality Assurance System and plan are
scrutinized prior to granting final approval.
1.1.4.5 Approval of Designed Materials

The approval process for "designed" materials in the project pertains to mix designs for
Cement Concrete (used in structures like concrete pavements, box culverts, and bridges) and
Asphaltic Concrete (utilized in flexible pavement materials, including bituminous macadam,
dense bituminous macadam, bituminous concrete, mixed seal surfacing, semi dense
bituminous concrete, and seal coat). Given the intricate nature of these composite materials
and the diversity of plant facilities required for producing various material sizes, the final
approval is deferred until the completion of the subsequent steps:
(a) Initial approval for the sources, typically quarries, providing each of the processed
material constituents that will be integrated into the final mix design.
(b) Approval for each of the individual processed and manufactured materials that will be
incorporated into the final mix design.
(c) Tentative approval for a laboratory-based mix design, formulated using a combination of
approved materials to ensure that the mixture aligns with all Specifications requirements.
(d) Tentative approval for a plant mix design, derived from proportioning materials in
aggregate bins and manufactured materials to closely replicate the proportioning of material
types and sizes finalized in the laboratory-based mix design, while still meeting the minimum
Specifications requirements.

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(e) Conducting trial sections outside the project site, employing the tentatively approved plant
mix design and adhering to a previously approved construction methodology that complies
with Specifications requirements.
(f) Based on the successful placement of the mixture following the approved Methodology,
conformity of the placed mixture with specified placing temperatures, levels, finish, and other
criteria, as well as compliance with quality control requirements, as validated through
successful testing as per the Specifications, the Material Engineer grants final approval for
the mix design based on the plant mix proportions.
1.1.4.6 Revocation (withdrawal) of Material Approvals

Subsequent to the endorsement of the job mixture (i.e., the job mix formula), the Material
Engineer and all field support staff are tasked with ongoing monitoring. This entails close
observation of both test results and the visible characteristics of the authorized mix as it's
placed. The objective is to swiftly identify any substantial alterations in the mix design that
might compromise its adherence to the Specifications.
If it becomes evident that noteworthy changes in mix design properties are rendering the
mixture non-compliant with all Specification requirements, the need for a new mix design
arises. This may involve an adjustment in the plant's proportioning of materials to re-establish
the sanctioned job mix formula.
Furthermore, a new mix design is imperative in scenarios where the approval of a material
source or one of the materials is revoked or withdrawn.
1.1.4.7 Reporting and Recording Material Approvals

The Material Engineer is responsible for communicating, in written form, to the Resident
Engineer and the Highway Engineer (and through the Resident Engineer, to the Contractor)
whenever there is an approval or revocation of a new source, material, or mix design. This
essential information is to be incorporated into the Monthly Quality Control Report, which is
to be submitted along with the Monthly Progress Report.
The Material Engineer must maintain comprehensive records, cataloging the existing
approvals for all Borrow Areas, Quarries of all types, and Mix Designs for all items in the
Bill of Quantities (BOQ). These up-to-date summaries are to be an integral part of the
Monthly Quality Control Report.
1.1.4.8 Approval of layers of Road Works

Road Works encompass the stratified placement of earth and various pavement courses.

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1.1.5 Sampling of Materials
1.1.5.1 Sampling Requirements

Before commencing the Works, all construction materials intended for use in the permanent
structures must undergo a joint sampling process conducted by both the Consultant and the
Contractor. This comprehensive procedure covers materials earmarked for testing and
seeking approval for the material source, as well as materials slated for approval as individual
construction components.
In each case, the Contractor is responsible for notifying the Consultant in advance (with a
minimum notice of 48 hours) through the Inspection Request Form (IRF) to request such
sampling. The Contractor is also responsible for providing all necessary support, including
sampling instruments, equipment, sample bags, and labour for carrying out the sampling
activities.
During these sampling activities, the Consultant is to be represented by the Material Engineer
or an individual appointed by the Consultant.
1.1.5.2 Sampling Guidelines

(a) All sampling activities must adhere to the directives provided by the Consultant.
These procedures are to align with established principles of sound engineering
practice, which encompass the following:
(b)
(c) (a) Obtaining samples from a minimum of three distinct areas.
(d) (b) Ensuring that the materials and locations selected for sampling are representative
of the material to be tested.
(e) (c) Removing all overburden or extraneous material from within the stockpiles rather
than from the stockpile's surface (top, side, or base). This precaution is taken to
prevent the collection of segregated materials.
(f) (d) Ensuring that an ample quantity of the material is sampled, sufficient for
conducting all required tests, with some additional material set aside for potential
future testing.
(g) (e) Each sample bag should be meticulously marked and labelled both on the inside
and outside, providing essential details such as the sample number, material type,
sample location, date, bag number, along with any additional information directed by
the Material Engineer or their representative.
1.1.5.3 Preparation and Storage of Samples

The samples obtained are subject to reduction and preparation following established
procedures in accordance with standard methods, as defined by Indian Standards.
Additionally, an ample quantity of these prepared samples is securely preserved within
appropriately sealed bags or containers. These retained samples are stored separately in the
laboratory's sample storage room, allowing for potential future testing or reference as needed.

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Specifically for concrete samples, meticulous curing and storage practices are to be
employed, and these samples are to be placed within the curing tank situated within the
laboratory.
Access to the stored samples is rigorously controlled and overseen directly by the
Consultant's Material Engineer. A comprehensive record of all stored samples is meticulously
maintained within a register, which is under the supervision of the Material Engineer.
1.1.6 Field Testing Laboratory

The Contractor is responsible for the establishment and upkeep of the Field Testing
Laboratory, including all essential furniture, testing equipment, and required apparatus as
stipulated in the Specifications. Furthermore, the Contractor must ensure the provision of all
necessary utilities, such as electricity, water, sewerage, and drainage.
The laboratory's design and layout are subject to approval by the Resident Engineer, with
recommendations from the Material Engineer. It is incumbent upon the Contractor to
effectively manage and safeguard the laboratory throughout both day and night, regulating
access and maintaining security. Daily cleaning and proper maintenance are also essential
responsibilities of the Contractor.
To guarantee accurate and proper operation, correct calibration, and full compliance with
Specifications requirements, testing equipment and apparatus must undergo initial approval
and periodic checks by the Consultant. The Contractor is obliged to strictly adhere to all
testing procedures specified in the Specifications, as well as those directed by the Material
Engineer as part of their Quality Control and Quality Assurance Plan.
The Consultant is tasked with overseeing, monitoring, and verifying all facets of the testing
procedures, encompassing sample storage, preparation, testing, analysis, and the reporting of
testing results. Comprehensive details related to material testing, including sample
preparation, testing, and analysis of results, are to be meticulously documented on the
relevant standard testing forms provided in Appendix IV.
1.1.7 Acceptance Testing
1.1.7.1 General
All construction materials integrated into the works, particularly those for which quality
control tests are stipulated and Engineer approval has been granted in advance must undergo
thorough inspection and evaluation to determine their conformity with the Specifications
requirements.
Should any of the finished construction works incorporate materials that are unapproved,
untested, or unaccepted, and this integration occurs without prior approval or written

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permission from the Consultant, it is understood that these works are executed at the
Contractor's own risk and are categorically deemed as both unacceptable and unauthorized.
1.1.7.2 Routine Acceptance Tests

The Contractor is responsible for bearing all expenses related to sampling, quality control
testing, and check tests designed to validate the material's quality. These activities must be
carried out under the direct oversight of the Consultant. The selection of specific test types
and the frequency of testing should align with the Minimum Quality Control Testing
Requirements as outlined in the Specifications.
Sampling and testing procedures should adhere to the relevant IS (Indian Standards) methods.
Comprehensive test results are to be documented on appropriate forms for proper record-
keeping and reporting.
1.1.7.3 Special Tests

Typically, the Agreement with the Supervision Consultant outlines the authority for the
Engineer to issue orders for special tests of materials or completed works when necessary. It
is worth noting that the Engineer will usually seek prior approval from the Employer before
issuing orders for these special tests. As per the works contract, the Contractor is generally
accountable for the expenses associated with special tests in cases where the tests reveal non-
conformance with the contract's provisions.
Special tests are typically initiated by the Engineer when there are concerns related to certain
aspects of routine acceptance tests, such as issues with the sampling process, sample
contamination, problems with testing equipment, operator errors, and so on. Based on this
context, the following procedure is to be followed for special testing:
(a) Identify the specific concerns regarding routine testing and seek concurrence from the
Material Engineer and the Resident Engineer on the necessity of conducting a special test.
(b) Specify the details of how, where, and when the special test is to be carried out, with
options including testing by the Contractor within the Field Laboratory, internal independent
testing (conducted by the consultant within the Field Laboratory), or external independent
testing.
(c) If required by contract provisions, obtain the Employer's approval for conducting the
special test.
(d) Based on the outcomes of the special test(s), determine who is responsible for covering
the costs of the special test.
(e) After implementing any necessary actions based on the results of the special test,
document the test results and incorporate them into the "Quality Control Test Statement,"

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which is to be submitted as part of the Supervision Consultant's Monthly and Quarterly

Progress Reports.
1.1.7.4 Quality Control Test Statement (Monthly Progress Report)

Per the Consultant's contract agreement and in line with standard construction supervision
practices, a comprehensive compilation of laboratory test results accomplished during the
month, along with statistical analyses, is to be seamlessly integrated into each of the
Supervision Consultant's Monthly Progress Reports to be submitted to the Employer. This
condensed record of both field and a laboratory test outcome is commonly referred to as a
Quality Control Test Statement and must encompass the following elements:
(a) Description of the item and the type of test conducted.

(b) Quantification of the tests performed, including the number of tests that were successfully
completed, those that met the required standards, and those that did not.
(c) Detailed analysis of the test results and the identification of emerging trends.
(d) Inclusion of any pertinent remarks or comments derived from the detected trends and any
necessary corrective actions to address them.
1.1.8 Special Consideration for Bridges

The extent of testing for each material is determined based on the material type and the
prevailing best practices. While all materials must undergo initial testing before their
inclusion in the structure, the need for further testing depends on the material's significance.
Generally, all materials go through Level 2 testing, with some tests being conducted in the
on-site laboratory, and the remaining tests being carried out in an approved external
laboratory if on-site facilities are inadequate.
For specialized materials such as pre-stressing hardware, bearings, and expansion joints,
certain tests may not be feasible in external laboratories due to a lack of suitable facilities. In
such instances, even Level 3 tests must be conducted within the manufacturer's own
laboratory.
It is of utmost importance to secure a signed certificate confirming either the conformance or

non-conformance of the material to meet the specified requirements outlined in relevant
codes and standards.
1.1.9 Guidelines for Non-Conforming Works
1.1.9.1 General
In general, it is imperative for both materials and workmanship to align with the stipulated
contract requirements, and ideally, any work that does not conform should be declined. If the
work deviates from the requirements, this deviation should be promptly communicated to the
Employer.

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However, unique challenges arise in specific work items, such as concrete, where non-
conformance may only become apparent after a few days when cube test results become
available, by which time the work has progressed further. In some cases, it may be possible to
accept the work following repair or a review for adequacy. Therefore, distinct procedures are
outlined for handling various scenarios of non-conformance.
If the rectified work still does not meet the specified requirements after such repair or review,
the non-conforming item should be rejected. In certain instances of non-conformance, it is
also crucial to refer the matter to the Head Office and/or the designer to seek their expert
advice and guidance.
1.1.9.2 Concrete/Bituminous Works

Quality Assurance is primarily ensured through the implementation of the procedures
delineated in the pertinent material qualification and workmanship method statement. In
cases where concrete or bituminous items do not meet the required standards, they shall
undergo additional review as outlined below
1.1.9.3 Non-conformance other than Strength or Finish

If any requirement, aside from strength and standard of finish, is not met, the following
procedure will be implemented:
(a) The Contractor will promptly be informed both verbally and in writing using the
following methods:
(i) Return of the Request for Inspection Form signed "not approved," along with a
statement of the reason for rejection.
(ii) Issuance of a Site Inspection, Site Order, or letter confirming the non-approval of the
works and outlining the facts.
(b) Approval for concreting/asphalting of a similar nature will be withheld.

(c) The Contractor will be required to submit proposals for rectifying the non-compliance,
which may involve resubmission of materials, new trial mixes, and revised method
statements.
(d) The acceptance or rejection of any unapproved concrete/asphalt work will be
communicated to the Engineer.
(e) Once satisfied with the measures taken to ensure future compliance, the Engineer will
provide approval to proceed with concrete/bituminous items for permanent works.
1.1.9.4 Non-conformance with Strength Requirements

(a) The specifications for concrete/bituminous works take into account the statistical
possibility of specimen failure, specifying limits for means, standard deviation, and minimum
values of strength. Rejection criteria are outlined in the agreement.
(b) Materials stored for extended periods must undergo regular retesting before use to detect
any quality deterioration. Defective materials shall be identified and removed from the site.

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(c) In the event that cube/density results do not meet the Contract provisions, the following
non-compliance procedures will be followed:
(i) Approval for concreting/asphalting of similar works will be withheld.
(ii) All aspects of concreting/asphalting will be reviewed.
(iii) The cause of failure will be identified, and measures will be taken to address the issue.
(d) The contract specifies various repair/rectification procedures for commonly arising non-
conformance. The Contractor shall submit precise proposals for consideration.
(e) The occurrence of non-conformance and the proposed rectification procedure will be
communicated to the Engineer/design organization of the owner (or design consultant) for
review and opinion regarding:
(i) The acceptability of measures proposed by the Contractor, if any.
(ii) The need for further non-destructive testing, if any.
(iii) The acceptability in case strength is achieved at a later age (e.g., 90 days).
(iv) The acceptability at the level of strength achieved for the stress levels in concerned
members.
(v) The acceptance of repair/rectifications/strengthening measures with modifications, if
required, or rejection.
(vi) Rejection in case the item does not meet modified acceptance limits after repairs.
1.1.9.5 Non-conformance with Finish Requirements

(a) If the specified finish is not achieved, the non-conformance procedure for
repair/rectification outlined in the Specifications will be implemented.
(b) Additionally, the following procedure will be carried out:

(i) Approval of similar work will be suspended.
(ii) A comprehensive review of all work aspects will be conducted.
(iii) The underlying cause of the poor finish will be identified.
(c) Specifications and instructions will be revised to prevent future occurrences of non-
conformance. The same guidelines apply to non-conformance in the case of earthwork, base,
and other pavement courses, as applicable.
1.1.9.6 Non-conformance in respect of Concrete Works in Bridges
1.1.9.6.1 Non-compliance other than strength or Finish

In the event that any requirement other than strength and standard of finish is not met, the
following procedure shall be followed:
(a) The Contractor shall be promptly notified both verbally and in writing through the
following means:

Section 1 General
(i) Return of the Request for Inspection Form signed "not approved," with the reasons for
rejection clearly stated.
(ii) Issuance of a Site Instruction, Site Works Order, or a letter detailing the facts and
confirming that the works are not approved.
(b) Approval to proceed with concreting of a similar nature shall be held back.
(c) The Contractor shall be requested to provide proposals for rectifying the non-compliance.
This may involve resubmitting materials, creating new trial mixes, and revising the method
statement.
(d) The acceptance or rejection of any unapproved concrete work shall be referred to the
Engineer.
(e) Once satisfied with the measures taken to ensure future compliance, the Engineer will
confirm approval to continue with concrete works for permanent structures.
1.1.9.6.2 Non-compliance with Strength Requirements
(a) The specifications for concrete acknowledge the statistical possibility of cube failures and
therefore provide limits for mean values, standard deviations, and minimum strength
requirements. An isolated unsatisfactory cube result typically does not warrant rejection, and
the rejection criteria are defined in the Contract Agreement.
(b) In case of cube failures falling outside the Contract provisions, the non-compliance
procedures outlined in the specifications shall be adhered to. Furthermore, the following steps
shall be followed:
(i) Approval for concrete works of a similar nature shall be temporarily withheld.
(ii) A comprehensive review of all aspects related to concreting shall be conducted.
(iii) The root cause of the failure shall be identified, and corrective measures shall be
implemented.
(c) Repair and rectification procedures for commonly occurring defects are specified in the
tender specifications. The Contractor will be required to submit precise proposals for
rectification. It is imperative that any faulty work is rectified using approved methods and
subsequently retested and inspected.
(d) The details of non-compliance and the proposed rectification methods shall be
communicated to the Engineer for their review and opinion. This review will encompass:
(i) Assessment of the acceptability of the Contractor's proposal.

(ii) Consideration of further non-destructive testing, if deemed necessary.
(iii) Evaluation of acceptability in case strength is achieved at a later age (e.g., 90 days).
(iv) Determining acceptability at the level of strength achieved for the stress levels in the
relevant structural members.

Section 1 General
(v) In the event of non-compliance persisting, the option of rejecting the concrete.
1.1.9.6.3 Non-compliance with Finish Requirements

To avoid the occurrence of an unacceptable standard of finish, the formwork procedures
outlined in the specifications shall be meticulously adhered to. This may entail the
preparation of scaled mock-up trials if stipulated in the Contract or upon the Engineer's
request in cases where specific concerns arise.
If the desired finish is not achieved, the noncompliance procedure detailed in the
Specifications will be set in motion. Additionally, the subsequent steps will be taken:
(a) Authorization for similar formwork will be temporarily withheld.

(b) A comprehensive review of all formwork aspects will be conducted.
(c) The underlying reasons for the subpar finish will be identified and addressed.
1.1.9.7 Non-conformance in Works other than concrete in Bridges
1.1.9.7.1 Procedure
The procedure for accepting finished works involving formwork, reinforcement, coatings on
reinforcement, concrete materials, pre-stressing, and bridge finishing works is straightforward
and shall be executed as outlined below:
(a) Compliance or noncompliance will be determined through regular and special testing,
along with the logging of results and comprehensive inspections.
(b) In the event of noncompliance, the Contractor will be promptly notified both verbally and
in writing through the following means:
(i) The Request for Inspection Form will be returned, marked "not approved," accompanied
by a clear explanation of the reasons for rejection.
(ii) A Site Inspection, Site Works Order, or a letter will be issued, detailing the facts and
confirming that the works do not meet the criteria for inclusion in the permanent works.
(c) The Contractor will be requested to present specific proposals for rectification, ensuring
that the substandard work is rectified and subsequently retested or inspected based on the
Engineer's directives.
1.1.9.7.2 Admixtures
If material tests reveal non-compliance before their use, the entire material lot must be
promptly removed from the site. However, if the results become available after a specific
Admixture has already been utilized in the concrete, the Contractor is obligated to submit a
rectification methodology for approval by the Engineer before any corrective actions are
undertaken. This rectified structure may be subjected to non-destructive testing if deemed
necessary by the Engineer. In the absence of an acceptable remedial approach, the structural
components that incorporate the non-compliant material will be dismantled at no cost to the

Section 1 General
owner/client. For proprietary materials like Admixtures, Bearings, and Expansion Joints, it is
essential to consult the respective manufacturer to analyze the issues and explore potential
rectification measures.
1.1.9.7.3 Cement and other Materials

The process specified in section 1.1.9.7.1 is to be implemented.
1.1.9.7.4 Load Test on the Bridge

If the load test of the bridge does not meet the required criteria, the subsequent procedure is
as follows:
(a) The Contractor should propose a comprehensive plan for strengthening the bridge
components that fail to meet the test criteria.
(b) If satisfactory strengthening is not feasible, but it is determined that the bridge can still
function with a reduced load rating that is acceptable to the owner, this solution will be
pursued with prior written approval from the Owner/Engineer. A suitable penalty may be
imposed on the Contractor.
(c) If neither of the above conditions is applicable, the non-conforming bridge components
must be demolished and removed from the site at no additional cost to the owner.
1.1.9.7.5 Pile Foundation

The procedure for addressing non-compliance with construction materials of piles follows the
guidelines outlined in the aforementioned clauses. However, construction tolerances, unless
otherwise specified in the tender document, shall adhere to the definitions in Clause 116 of
MORTH Specifications for Road and Bridge Works. If the specified tolerances are exceeded,
the Contractor will be obligated to remove or abandon such piles or foundations at no
additional cost to the owner. In situations where it is deemed necessary to retain non-
compliant piles or foundations due to unavoidable circumstances, the Contractor shall
conduct a structural safety assessment. If all bridge components are confirmed to be safe,
these elements may be retained upon the payment of a suitable penalty by the Contractor to
the owner.
1.1.9.7.6 Well Foundations

The procedure for addressing non-compliant materials shall mirror the process outlined for
pile foundations as described previously. Well foundations often encounter common issues
related to tilt and shift. Should the tilt and/or shift of a well exceed the limits specified in
clause 1207.8 of MORTH Specifications for Road and Bridge Works, unless otherwise
specified in the tender document, the Contractor will be obligated to remove or abandon such
wells or foundations at no extra cost to the owner. In situations where it becomes necessary to
retain non-compliant well foundations due to unavoidable circumstances, a structural safety
assessment shall be conducted by the Contractor. If it is confirmed that all bridge components
remain safe, the well foundations may be retained after the Contractor pays a penalty as per
clause 1212 of MORTH Specifications for Road and Bridge Works, unless specified

Section 1 General
otherwise in the tender documents. Any additional costs incurred in this regard shall be the
responsibility of the Contractor.
1.1.9.7.7 Records
All deviations from the Specifications must be documented in writing to the Contractor,
ensuring the following:
(a) The Contractor is unequivocally informed.
(b) A record of non-compliance is established to provide a general reference for the
Contractor's performance.
The Quality Assurance Manager is responsible for summarizing the following information
for each category of work:
(a) The total number of inspections and tests.
(b) The number of "first-time" approvals, meaning the instances where material or
workmanship is approved on the initial test or inspection.
(c) The number of second, third, fourth, etc., inspections or tests of the same work required
before final approval.
(d) The percentage of first-time approvals, second, third, etc., over appropriate time intervals.
Based on this information, the Engineer shall assess the Contractor's supervision and take
necessary actions to make improvements when required. Changes in the number of first-time
approvals, whether an increase or decrease, allow for monitoring of the Contractor's
performance. Records of repairs, rectifications, retesting, inspections, and acceptances will be
retained as part of the "as-built" documentation, including records of all communication with
designers for opinions, rectifications, and approvals issued by them. Compliance with any
procedural or testing modifications, if any, shall be meticulously maintained.
1.1.10 Documentation
1.1.10.1 General
Following the conclusion of each Contract Section and the overall Project, several documents
must be compiled and presented to the Employer. As the project approaches its final stages, it
is imperative to verify the following with the Employer:
(a) The As-built drawings/plans
(b) The Final Take-off quantities and amounts
(c) Contract Documentation
(d) The Final Completion report
While the final documentation is officially submitted at the conclusion of the Contract
"Section" period, it is crucial to create and refine these documents progressively as the work
advances, ensuring they are ready for submission as the project nears completion.

Section 1 General
1.1.10.2 As-built Drawings

The Contract conditions comprehensively outline the necessary content and assign
responsibilities for "As-built Drawings." The duty of creating the As-built Drawings rests
with the Contractor. The oversight, monitoring, and validation of this process are the
responsibilities of the Resident Engineer.
To ensure a seamless procedure, the development of these drawings should occur

concurrently with the project's execution and should not be deferred until "substantial
completion." Surveying and drafting the drawings should proceed in tandem with the
project's ongoing construction.
1.1.10.3 Final Take-off of Quantities and Amounts

While the project progresses, monthly measurements are taken to certify the approved works.
Simultaneously, upon the completion of tasks, precise final measurements of the works must
be conducted. This survey data plays a crucial role in generating the Record (As-built)
Drawings.
It's essential to understand that the final payment quantification isn't a direct copy of the as-
built quantities; it involves assessing the specified works as outlined in the design drawings
(following any approved adjustments) and in accordance with the Specifications. For
instance, if the pavement concrete thickness is specified as 230 mm with a tolerance of +/-
5mm, the Contractor will receive payment for 230 mm when placing concrete between 225
mm and 235 mm. If it falls below 225 mm, the claim may be rejected or payment adjusted. If
it exceeds 235 mm, the payment will only cover the specified thickness (i.e., 230 mm).
Nonetheless, the As-built Drawings must accurately depict the actual thickness installed.

Section 2 Geotechnical Engineering
Section 2
Geotechnical Engineering

CHAPTER 1
2.1.0 Geotechnical Investigation for Roads and Bridges
2.1.1 Introduction
Geotechnical investigation for roads and bridges is an essential process in the design,
construction, stability, performance and maintenance of structures. It involves the collection
of informations about sub-soil profile, physical and mechanical properties of soil through the
sounding tests and geophysical investigations (field and laboratory tests/investigations),
which facilitate an engineer to design the safe foundation. The investigation generally
proceeds in stages. The interpretation of test results obtained from the field and laboratory
investigations provides the following informations (i) type and depth of foundation (ii) safe
bearing capacity of soil (iii) settlement of foundation (iv) ground water level (v) causes of
settlement (vi) construction methodology (vii) identification and solution of excavation
problems (viii) slope stability (ix) rehabilitation of existing foundations. The type and extent
of investigation shall be decided based on the nature of the project. The variations in strata
condition and the necessity of the input data required for the design and construction of
foundations or temporary support or deep excavation. However, the characteristics of the
subsurface strata and conditions are assessed in greater detail as the stages of investigation
proceed. In case of river locations, suitable working platform shall be required. It is also
necessary to carry out subsurface investigation in the borrow area from where the earth
material will be used for construction of earthen embankments, etc in accordance with
MORTH IRC 250 and IS 1892
The planning, method and execution of site investigations programme are indicated in flow
chart (Fig. 1.1)
2.1.2 Scope and Objectives of Investigations
The scope of investigation includes the following activities:

i. Review of existing geological and geotechnical data
ii. Field investigation comprising drilling of boreholes, sampling, and in-situ testing
iii. Laboratory testing of soil/rock samples
iv. Analysis of the geotechnical data and interpretation of results
v. Recommendations for foundation design, slope stability, and construction
methodology
The objective of site investigation includes the following

i. To prepare the sub soil profile includes nature and sequence of strata
ii. To indicate the ground water conditions at the site
iii. To evaluate the physical/mechanical properties of soil/rock
iv. To evaluate the safe bearing capacity of soil
v. To suggest the suitable construction methodology
vi. To predict the performance behavior
vii. To recommend the suitable remedial measures for strengthening

2.1.3 Desk Study and Planning of Investigation:

The desk study and planning of geotechnical investigations of road and bridges provides the
following informations like; geological description of the site, history of seismicity of the
area, seasonal fluctuations and chemical composition, any ground improvement/ treatment of
existing soil, suitability of earth as fill material, foundation system, either shallow foundation
or deep foundation and all other relevant informations to be collected in accordance with the
IS 1892.
2.1.4 Stages of Subsurface Investigation

The stages of subsurface investigation include the following investigations site
reconnaissance, preliminary investigation, detailed investigation, construction stage
investigation, and post-construction stage investigation and all the above investigations to be
done in accordance with the IS 1892.
2.1.4.1 Site Reconnaissance

Site reconnaissance would help in deciding future programme of field investigations, that is,
to assess the need for preliminary and/or detailed investigations. This would also help in
determining scope of work, methods of exploration to be adopted, in-situ tests to be carried
out and administrative arrangements required for the investigation.
2.1.4.2 Preliminary Investigation

The purpose of preliminary investigation is to assess the feasibility of a project. The
preliminary investigation includes determination of approximate depth, thickness, extent and
composition of sub-strata, ground water table and also to obtain approximate information
regarding strength and compressibility of the various strata. The preliminary investigation
comprises boreholes with standard penetration test (SPT), collection of disturbed samples
(DS), undisturbed samples (UDS), dynamic cone penetration test (DCPT), trial pits and
laboratory testing.
2.1.4.3 Detailed Investigation

The objective is to find the sequence of various layers, thickness of the layers, ground water
table and detailed engineering properties of each layer. Detailed investigation involves in-situ
(field) testing and laboratory testing. The in-situ tests are described in Laboratory testing on
soil/rock/water samples collected from the site is carried out to determine the index, physical,
engineering and chemical properties.
2.1.4.4 Construction Stage Investigation

During construction, there may be a requirement of additional investigation to overcome the
difficulties/modifying the foundation system due to change in subsoil/ground water
conditions. The type of test required shall be selected from those specified under detailed
investigation.

2.1.4.5 Post-construction Stage Investigation

At times, in order to study the behaviour/strengthening of substructure/foundation,
investigation may be required.
2.1.5 Field Investigations

A series of boreholes were drilled at representative locations along the road and bridge
alignment. Soil samples were obtained at regular intervals using various drilling techniques.
The investigation may carry out such test Geophysical Tests (Resistivity and GPR),
Disturbed and Undisturbed Soil Samples, Standard Penetration Test (SPT), Dynamic Cone
Penetration, Static Cone Penetration, Plate Load Test, Field Direct Shear Test and Field
Permeability Test. In addition, groundwater levels were measured to assess their impact on
construction.
2.1.5.1 Subsurface Explorations

The sub surface exploration includes the following and to be done in accordance with the IS
1892 (clause 5)
a) Geophysical Investigation
b) Trial Pits
c) Subsurface Soundings
d) Methods of drilling for Soil
e) Methods of drilling for Rock (Core drilling)

Flow Chart Illustrating the Steps Involved in a Soil Exploration Programme.
Soil Exploration
Collection of
information about
structure layout, type,
loading details etc
Study of
Geological
and Aerial
Maps
Direct Method : Indirect Method :

(i) Bore log of stratum (i) Location of bed rock and
change of strata
(ii) Engineering properties
(ii) Relative stiffeness of soils
Open pits Boring Vane Shear Plate Bearing Geophysical

with sampling Sampling Sounding
Test Test Methods
Auger Wash Percussion Rotary Static cone Standard Electrical Seismic

Dynamic cone penetration
Boring Boring Boring Boring Distributed Undisturbed penetration resistivity resistivity
penetration test test
samples, auger samples - thin test
samples, thick wall tube
wall tube samples samples
Classification,
Classification
shear,
tests in
consolidation and
laboratory
permeability tests
in laboratory

(a) Geophysical Tests (Resistivity and GPR)

These tests provide valuable information about the composition, thickness, and geometry of
subsurface materials, helping in various fields like environmental studies, archaeology,
geotechnical investigations, and mineral exploration. Let's explore each of these tests in more
detail:
Resistivity Test:
This standard lays down a summary of the best practice for geological exploration by
electrical resistivity method including equipment, field procedures, and interpretation of data
for measurement of the electrical properties of subsurface materials. Resistivity
measurements as described in this Code are applicable in geological, geotechnical,
environmental and hydrological investigations. Analysis of results shall be in accordance
with IS 15736. Electrical resistivity tests are also carried out to determine the earth resistivity
of the substrata for use in the design of earthing systems. Analysis of results shall be in
accordance with IS 3043 or IS 1892.
Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR):

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a tool to assess the presence of soil/rock strata and to
identify presence of buried objects such as pipeline, conduit, concrete, etc. This works on the
principle of reflection of the electromagnetic waves at the interface of two different materials.
The depth of penetration below the ground surface can be increased by reducing the
frequency as per IS 1892.
(b) Trial Pits

This method consists of excavating a pit at the site and thereby exposing the strata. This
enables visual inspection of the strata, collection of disturbed/undisturbed samples and
carrying out in-situ tests. Generally, trial pits are excavated up to 4 m depth below the ground
level. Minimum dimension of the pit shall be such that there is an adequate working space for
excavation and carrying out sampling/testing. Generally, the pits have planned dimensions
varying from 1 m × 1 m up to 3 m × 3 m depending on the depth required. After the pit is
excavated, the details of the strata shall be recorded with the description of each layer with
thickness and ground water table, if any. After collecting the samples/in-situ testing, the pit
shall be backfilled with the same excavated material. Arrangement shall be made for
dewatering below ground water table. Precautions shall be taken to prevent surface water
draining into the trial pit.
(c) Subsurface Soundings

Subsurface soundings provide quick means to get continuous resistance against penetration
indicating compactness of the strata. The following sounding tests are generally carried out:
a) Dynamic cone penetration test;
b) Static cone penetration test; and
c) Static cone penetration test using piezocone with pore water pressure measurement.
The limitation of soundings is that samples cannot be collected. In addition, strata having
stones, gravels, boulders, etc and stiff formations cannot be penetrated by sounding device.

(d) Methods of Drilling for Soil

The drilling of boreholes are follows and to be done in accordance with the IS 1892.
Auger Boring
An auger is either power or hand operated with periodic removal of cuttings. The bore profile
is prepared based on physical observation of the cut material removed from auger. The
process is slow in case of manual operation. Hand operated auger is generally used for boring
up to a depth of 6 m. Casing is not used in this method. The method is convenient considering
ease of mobilization. The auger is used in soil where borehole stands unsupported. Auger is
penetrated into the ground for a depth of about 300 mm to 600 mm, and the auger is
withdrawn for removing the cuttings. The auger is then reintroduced to extend the borehole.
Wash Boring
Wash boring is commonly used in difficult soil. To start with, the hole is advanced a short
depth by auger and then a casing pipe is pushed to prevent the sides from caving in. the hole
is then continued by the use of a chopping bit fixed at the end of a string of hollow drill rods.
A stream of water under pressure is forced through the rod and the bit into the hole, which
loosens the soil as the water flows up around the pipe. The loosened soil in suspension in
water is discharged into a tub. The soil in suspension settles down in the tub and the clean
water flows into a sump which is reused for circulation. The motive power for wash boring is
either mechanical or man power.
Percussion Boring
This method should only be used for drilling boreholes in bouldary and gravelly strata where
Other boring methods become ineffective. In this method, the formation is pulverized/ broken
by repeated blows using a bit or a chisel. Water should be added at the time of boring, and the
cuttings are baled out at intervals. The bit/chisel is suspended by a cable or rods from a hoist.
As this method involves repeated dropping of a heavy chisel and can disturb the strata
considerably, it is preferable that at least 0.5 m above the level of sampling/testing, the use of
percussion method shall be discontinued and the borehole advanced/cleaned with shell or any
other suitable method till the sampling depth has reached.
Rotary Boring
In this method, boring is advanced by the cutting action of a rotating bit which should be kept
in firm contact with the bottom of the hole. The bit is connected at the end of hollow, jointed
drill rods which are rotated by a suitable chuck. Water/stabilizing fluid like bentonite slurry is
pumped continuously down the hollow drill rods and the fluid returns to the surface through
the annular space between the rods and the side of the hole, and the casing may not be
generally required. This method can be used in all type of strata.
(e) Methods of Drilling for Rock (Core Drilling)

Core drilling in rock shall be carried out with rotary hydraulic rig using diamond-tipped bit in
accordance with the IS 5313. The core drilling equipment shall conform to IS 10208. Drilling
shall be carried out with NX/HX size diamond-tipped drill bits or impregnated diamond bit

depending on the type of rock formation. Double tube core barrel with core lifter shall be
used as specified in IS 1892. The diamond bit is attached to double tube core barrel with
reaming shell. The bit cuts an annular groove into the formation and the inner core formed by
the groove enters into the inner barrel as a core sample. The circulating fluid is injected
through the annular gap between the outer barrel and inner barrel and hence the fluid does not
come in contact with the core received in the barrel. This prevents damage to the core by
washing out of the loose particles in the joints (if any) and improves both core recovery and
rock quality designation (RQD). After advancing the core barrel, the barrel is withdrawn; the
rock cores are removed by detaching the core cutter, reassembled and introduced back in the
borehole for further coring. Indexing and storage of drill cores shall be in accordance with IS
4078. Tungsten carbide bit is generally used for rocks like, shale, siltstone and clay stone.
Drilling run should be 0.75 m in length. This can be increased up to 1.5 m run in case core
recovery is more than 50 percent in two successive 0.75 m drill runs. If the core recovery is
nil, then SPT shall be performed before commencing the next drill run. If at any time a
blocking of the bit or grinding of the core is indicated, the core barrel shall be immediately
withdrawn from the borehole regardless of the length of drill run completed.
Spacing and Depth of Boreholes

The spacing of borehole mainly depends on the type, size, and weight of structure as well as
the extent of variations in soil conditions. The guidelines for disposition of boreholes/trial
pits are given in Table 1.1. In case significant variation in stratification is observed,
additional boreholes/tests, as required may be carried out. The depth of investigation shall be
adequate enough to provide necessary data for estimating safe bearing capacity and
settlement. In general, the investigation shall be carried out to a minimum depth to which the
increase in stress level due to the foundation load is lesser than 10 percent of the in-situ stress
level. The depth of investigation also depends on the risk induced by the presence of weaker
formations below the influence zone to be stressed due to the proposed construction as per IS
1892 (Clause-5.6.2 or 5.6.3). However, the depth of the borehole may consider the 1.5 to 2
times the width of the building block or loaded area from the depth of foundation. The depth
of the borehole shall be 30-50m and 25-30 long span and short span bridge respectively. If
the geotechnical investigation is to carried out through the shallow depth of rock formation in
such case the depth of bore shall be 3m and 5m in hard and soft rock respectively.
Sometimes, the depth of borehole may extend further w.r.t frequent change in soil/rock
formations.
Table 1.1 Disposition of Borehole/Trial Pit (IS 1892 Clause-5.6.2)
Type of Structures Location of Borehole/Trial Pit

Linear Structure (Roads, railway, Boreholes at a spacing of 50 m to 500 m.
embankments, pipe lines, boundary wall, In highly erratic substrata, spacing may be
tunnels, retaining wall, transmission line suitably reduced in uniform substrata, the
etc.) spacing may be suitably increased

The following are the methods that are usually employed for sampling:
Nature of Type of Sample Method of Sampling

Stratum
Shovel, pick axe, etc

Disturbed Auger and shell boring
Split spoon sampler
Soil Block sample

Tube sampler
Undisturbed Piston sampler
Core cutter sampler
Continuous soil sampler
Disturbed Blasting
Rock Chiselling
Undisturbed Coring
2.1.5.2 Disturbed and Undisturbed Soil Samples

In order to identify the type of soil/rock and to determine the physical, chemical and
engineering properties of sub strata, samples of soil, rock and water, as applicable are
collected during the investigation. The samples are of the following two types:
a) Disturbed Sample — The sample in which natural structure of the material is disturbed.
The disturbed sample of soil is obtained during the course of excavation of trial pit, boring,
and after conducting standard penetration test. This sample can be used for testing of physical
and chemical properties. The disturbed sample of clay is also useful for determining shear
strength of remoulded sample.
b) Undisturbed Sample — The sample in which the natural structure of the material is not
disturbed.
The type of sample, quantity of sample and number of samples to be collected depends on the
purpose of investigation and the nature of the strata condition. The interval at which the
samples are collected depends on the type of strata variation of the profiles within the strata.
Generally, undisturbed samples (UDS) are collected at depth interval of 3.0 m or change of
strata, whichever is earlier. The SPT is generally conducted at 1.5 m in accordance with IS
2131.
In cohesive soils, it is possible to collect undisturbed samples for examination and testing. In
cohesionless soils below water table, undisturbed sampling is difficult with the samplers
other than piston sampler. Undisturbed sample is obtained from pits and boreholes in such a

manner that moisture content and structure do not get altered. This may be attained by careful
protection, packing and by the use of a correctly designed sampler.
Various methods of undisturbed sampling are as follows:
Block Sample: The block sample is generally collected in cohesive soils. A block of soil
shall be carefully removed with a sharp knife ensuring that the ground water is not in direct
contact with the soil. The sample shall be cut and trimmed to a suitable size not exceeding 0.3
m × 0.3 m × 0.3 m. A wooden frame of slightly larger size is placed on the block and the gap
between the block and the wooden frame is filled with molten wax. The wax is poured till the
top surface of the block is also covered up to the edge of the wooden frame. The top surface
is then sealed with a wooden plank nailed to the wooden frame. The entire block sample with
the wooden frame is then removed. The block is then placed upside down and the top surface
levelled and sealed with molten wax and wooden plank.
Tube Sample: This method for obtaining relatively undisturbed cohesive and c-ϕ soil
samples suitable for laboratory tests, using a thin walled metal tube. The sampling shall be
carried out in accordance with IS: 2132.
Piston Sample: In soft cohesive soil and very loose cohesionless soil especially below
ground water table, piston sampler is used to collect undisturbed soil sample. The procedure
of sampling shall be as per IS: 8763.
Rock Core Sample: Core sample is collected in core barrel during rock drilling. After
withdrawal of core barrel from drill hole, core is removed from the barrel and the cores are
placed in a tray and transferred into boxes specially prepared for the purpose. The boxes
should be made from seasoned timber or any other durable material and shall be indexed on
the top of the lid as per IS 4078. The cores shall be numbered serially and arranged in the
boxes in a sequential order. The description of the core samples shall be recorded as per IS
4464. Care shall be taken to maintain the direction of extrusion of sample same as to that
while coring. The continuous record of core recovery and RQD should be mentioned in the
core log as per IS 11315 (Part-11)
Sub-Soil Water Sample - Sub-soil water sample is collected for chemical analysis. In such a
case, the water in the borehole should be bailed out and allowed to rise from which the
sample should be taken. Method of water sampling should be as per IS 3025 (Part-1).
The quantity of soil sample required depends on the type of tests to be carried out. In case of
bulk samples for various tests, the quantity required is generally about 20 to 30 kg. However,
the soil sample required for various tests shall be in accordance with IS 2720 (Part-1) or the
relevant Indian Standard.

Table 1.2: Permissible Limits for Solids as per IS 456 (Clause 5.4)
Sl. Description Test as per Permissible

No. Limits (max)
1 Organic IS 3025 (Part-18) 200 mg/l
2 Inorganic IS 3025 (Part-18) 3000 mg/l
3 Sulphates (as So3) IS 3025 (Part-24) 400 mg/l
4 Chlorides (as Cl) IS 3025 (Part-32) 2000 mg/l
5 Suspended Matter IS 3025 (Part-17) 2000 mg/l
2.1.5.3 Standard Penetration Test (SPT):

This test shall be conducted in all types of soil deposits in a borehole to assess soil
characteristics. The test shall be conducted in accordance with IS 2131. However, it is
preferred to use automatic trip hammer in place of drop hammer as mentioned in IS 2131.
The depth interval between the bottom of the standard penetration test and next undisturbed
sampling/any other test shall not be less than 500 mm.
2.1.5.4 Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT):

Dynamic cone penetration test is a method of sub surface sounding, wherein a continuous
record of soil resistance is obtained from the ground to the depth below by driving a cone.
Dynamic cone penetration test shall be conducted either as per IS 4968 (Part-1) or as per IS
4968 (Part-2), as required. The test shall be conducted up to the required depth; however, in
order to avoid damage to the equipment, driving may be stopped when the number of blows
exceeds 35 for 100 mm penetration when the cone is driven dry [as per IS 4968 (Part-1)] and
20 for 100 mm penetration when the cone is penetrated by circulating slurry [as per IS 4968
(Part-2)]. The specification for the equipment and accessories required for performing this
test, procedure, field observations and reporting of results shall be in accordance with IS 4968
(Part-1) or (Part-2), as applicable. For gravelly deposits (gravel size 100 mm to 120 mm),
DCPT may be conducted as per IS 10042
2.1.5.5 Static Cone Penetration Test (SCPT):

Static cone penetration test is conducted to record the continuous in-situ penetration
resistance of soils below the ground level. The reporting of results shall be in accordance with
IS 4968 (Part-3).
2.1.5.6 Plate Load Test (PLT):

Plate load test shall be conducted to determine the load/settlement characteristics of the
substrata. The reporting of results shall conform to IS 1888. However, the same test is also
similar to Modulus of sub-grade reaction test and same shall be determined in accordance
with IS 9214.

2.1.5.7 Field Direct Shear Test:

This method for determination of shear strength of soil having maximum particle size of 4.75
mm, the test can be conducted in un-drained, consolidated un-drained and consolidated
drained conditions. NOTE - The un-drained test can be performed only for highly
impermeable clays .When silty clays and silts are involved, partial drainage is inevitable. This
fact should be recognized While interpreting the results shall be in accordance with IS 2720
(Part-13)
2.1.5.8 Field Permeability Test:

The Field Permeability Test is conducted to assess the permeability or the flow characteristics
of soils. It helps determine how easily water can flow through the soil mass, which is crucial
for drainage design and seepage analysis. Various methods can be employed for the field
permeability test, such as the constant head test or the falling head test. These tests involve
installing a permeameter (permeability test apparatus) in the ground and measuring the rate of
water flow through the soil sample under a specific hydraulic gradient. The test provides
information about the permeability coefficient (k) of the soil, which is vital for groundwater
flow modeling and drainage system design. The reporting of results shall conform to IS 5529
(Part-1) & (Part-2).
2.1.6 Laboratory Testing:

Soil and rock samples collected during the field investigation were subjected to laboratory
testing. The tests included Classification Tests, Moisture Content, Specific Gravity, Grain
Size Test, Liquid and Plastic Limits, Swelling Index, Compaction Test, Shear Strength Test
(Direct Shear and Triaxial), Consolidation Tests, Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS)
Test, Durability Test, Deleterious Content and Permeability Tests. These tests provided
crucial data for evaluation of bearing capacity of soil, designing the foundations and
assessing the stability of slopes.
2.1.6.1 Moisture Content Test:

The ratio expressed as a percentage of the weight of water in a given soil mass to the weight
of solid particles under a specified testing condition. The specification for the equipment and
accessories required for performing the test procedure, field observations and reporting of
results shall be in accordance with IS 2720 (Part-2).
2.1.6.2 Specific Gravity Test:

This method of test for the determination of the specific gravity of soil particle of fine grained
soils. The surface area per unit volume of soil particles To determine the specific gravity of a
given soil sample, by (i) Density Bottle Method and (ii) Pycnometer Method Analysis of
results shall conform to IS 2720 (Part-3/ Sec 1 & 2).
NOTE - The method may also be used for medium and a coarse grained soil if the coarse
particles are grained to pass 4.75-mm IS sieve before using.

2.1.6.3 Grain Size Distribution Test:

This method for the quantitative determination of grain sizes distribution in soil. Two
methods are given for finding the distribution of grain sizes larger than 75-micron IS sieve;
the first method, wet sieving shall be applicable to all soils and the second, dry sieving, shall
be applicable only to soils which do not have an appreciable amount of clay. Analysis results
shall be in accordance with IS 2720 (Part-4).
2.1.6.4 Liquid and Plastic Limits Tests:

This standard lays down methods of test for the determination of the liquid limit and plastic
limit of soils. Three methods, namely, mechanical method, one point method and the cone
method are given for the determination of liquid limit. Liquid limits over about 120 percent
shall be obtained by the procedure specified in clause 3 or 4 of IS 2720 (Part-5). The one
point method as specified by IS 2720 (Part 5) and cone penetration method shall not be used
for highly organic soils. The methods for calculating the indices as specified in IS 2720 like
Flow index (see clause 3.5.2), Plasticity index (see clause 8), Toughness index (see clause 9),
Liquidity index or water plasticity ratio (see clause 10 ), and Consistency index (see clause
11). Analysis of results shall be in accordance with IS 2720 (Part-5).
2.1.6.5 Swelling Index Test:

The swelling index test is performed to evaluate the potential swelling behavior of expansive
soils. It involves measuring the volume change of a soil sample as it goes through wetting
and drying cycles. The swelling index represents the percentage change in volume between
the dry and wet states and indicates the potential for soil swelling and shrinkage. The
reporting of results shall be in accordance with IS 2720 (Part-40).
2.1.6.6 Compaction Test:

The compaction test, often conducted using the Standard Proctor test or Modified Proctor
test, evaluates the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of a soil for a given
compaction effort. The test involves compacting soil samples at various moisture contents
and energy levels, and then measuring the resulting dry density. This test helps determine the
soil's compaction characteristics and assess its suitability for construction projects. Where
materials from more than one source are to be combined in the desired proportions, the test
should be carried out on the combined material. For new sources, test frequencies shall be at
least three tests for each source (average of three tests). The sample shall be taken at
representative locations and at mean depth of proposed excavation. The results shall be in
accordance with IS 2720 (Part-7 & 8).
2.1.6.7 Shear Strength Test (Direct Shear and Triaxial):

Shear strength tests, such as the direct shear test and triaxial test, evaluate the shear strength
properties of soils.
Direct Shear Test:

The shear strength of a soil mass is its property against sliding along internal planes within
itself. The stability of slope in an earth dam or hills and the foundations of structures built on

different types of soil depend upon the shearing resistance offered by the soil along the
possible slippage surface. Shear parameters are also used in computing the safe bearing
capacity of the foundation soils and the earth pressure behind retaining walls.
In a direct shear test, the sample is sheared along a horizontal plane. This indicates that the
failure plane is horizontal. The normal stress on this plane is the external vertical load divided
by the area of the soil sample. The shear stress at failure is the external lateral load divided by
the corrected area of soil sample. Analysis of results shall be in accordance with IS 2720
(Part-13).
Triaxial Compression Test:

A triaxial compression test is the most versatile test so far available for shearing testing of
soils. In this method a soil specimen, cylindrical in shape is subjected to direct stresses acting
in three mutually perpendicular directions. In the common cylindrical specimen tests, the
major principal stress is applied in the vertical direction and the other two principal stresses
are applied in the horizontal directions by the fluid pressure all around the specimen. The
tests are performed on cylindrical specimens of diameters 38, 50, 70 and 100 mm. the height
of the specimen should be equal to twice of its diameter. The ratio of diameter of the
specimen and the maximum size of particles in the soil specimen should not be less than 5.
The diameter of the soil specimen to be tested should be selected according to the nature of
the soil and the maximum size of the particle present in the sample. The specimen size should
also be decided taking into consideration the type of project e.g. earthen/rock fill dam
embankment, on-shore/off-shore structure etc. Generally, a diameter of 38 mm and length 76
mm is suitable for homogeneous fine grained soil. Analysis of results shall be in accordance
with IS 2720 (Part-11).
2.1.6.8 Consolidation Tests:

Consolidation of soil is the process of compression by gradual reduction of pores under a
steady applied pressure. The main purpose of the consolidation test is to obtain soil data
required for predicting the rate and amount of settlement of structures. The data can also be
used to develop void ratio (e) versus pressure (p) curve generally for cohesive soil. The object
of the test is to obtain the compressibility i.e. consolidation characteristics of a soil by one
dimensional consolidation using consolidometer apparatus. Analysis of results shall be in
accordance with IS 2720 (Part-15).
2.1.6.9 Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) Test:

The unconfined compressive strength test determines the strength of cohesive undisturbed,
remoulded or compacted soil, using controlled rate of strain in an un-drained condition in
accordance with IS 2720 (Part-10). It is the load per unit area at which an unconfined
cylindrical specimen of soil will fail in the axial compression test. It involves applying a
uniaxial compressive load to a cylindrical soil sample without any confining pressure. The
test measures the maximum compressive stress the soil can withstand before failure,
providing valuable information for engineering design and stability analysis. The
observations and reporting of results shall be in accordance with IS 2720 (Part-10).

The UCS test can also be used for evaluating the strength of stabilised pavement layers. The
soil stabilization in the broadest sense is the alteration of any inherent property of a soil to
improve its engineering performance. The classification of the methods of stabilization is
based on the treatment given to the soil (for example dewatering compaction etc) process
involved (for example thermal electrical etc) and on additives employed (for example asphalt
cement etc) The choice of a particular method depends on the characteristics of the problem
on hand for studying the effectiveness of a stabilization technique under investigation certain
standard methods of test are required. The specification for the equipment and accessories
required for performing the test procedure, field observations and reporting of results shall be
in accordance with IS 4332 (Part1-7).
2.1.6.10 Durability Test:

Durability tests assess the resistance of soil to degradation over time. Different tests can be
conducted depending on the specific durability concerns, such as freeze-thaw durability tests
for frost-susceptible soils or wetting-drying durability tests for soil stability under cyclic
wetting and drying conditions as well as reporting of results shall be in accordance with IS
4332 (Part-4).
2.1.6.11 Permeability Tests:
(a) In-situ Permeability Test (in Soil)

In-situ permeability test is conducted to determine the water percolation capacity of the sub
strata. This test is performed inside a borehole/trial pit at specified depths. The type of test
shall be either pump-in or pump-out test depending on the subsoil and ground water
conditions. Pump-in test is suitable for sub-strata with or without ground water; wherein
pump-out test is conducted for sub-strata with ground water.
Pump-in Test
Pump-in test is conducted in a borehole/trial pit by allowing water to percolate into the soil.
a) Constant head method (in borehole) — This test is preferred for soils with high
permeability. The testing shall be in accordance with IS 5529 (Part-1).
b) Falling head method (in borehole) — This method is preferred for soils with low
permeability. The testing shall be in accordance with IS 5529 (Part-1).
c) Percolation test (in trial pit) — Percolation test in trial pit shall be conducted as per IS
2470 (Part-1).
Pump-out Test
Pump-out test is conducted in a borehole by pumping out of water from sub-soil. The testing
shall be in accordance with IS 5529 (Part-1).

(b) In-situ Permeability Test (in Rock)

In-situ permeability test is conducted inside the drilled hole by pumping in water under
pressure to determine the percolation capacity of the rock stratum. The test may be conducted
by single packer method or by double packer method. The testing shall be in accordance with
IS 5529 (Part-2).
Single Packer Method

This method shall be adopted when the bottom elevation of the test section is the same as the
bottom of the drill hole and where it is considered necessary to know the permeability value
during drilling itself. This test shall be useful where the full length of the hole cannot stand
encased or un-grouted. The packer shall be fixed at the top level of the test section, such that
only the test section lies below the packer. Water shall then be pumped through a pipe into
the test section under a required pressure and maintaining it till a constant quantity of water
intake is observed. The amount of IS 1892 (Part-11) water percolating through the hole shall
be recorded at every 5 min intervals. The test shall be repeated by increasing the pressure at
regular intervals up to a pressure limit as specified in IS 5529 (Part-2). The details and
observations during the test shall be suitably recorded in a Proforma recommended in Annex
B of IS 5529 (Part-2).
Double Packer Method

This method shall be used when the permeability of an isolated section inside a drill hole is to
be determined. Packers shall be fixed both at the top and bottom of the test section such that
their spacing is exactly equal to the length of the test section.
2.1.7 Bearing Capacity of Soil

The bearing capacity of soil is needed for designing and dimensioning of foundation for any
kind of structure. Several methods are available for the determination of bearing capacity of
shallow foundations. The designer must therefore regard the methods as aids to design which
cannot replace the critical role of engineering judgement. Three types of failures namely (i)
general shear failure (ii) local shear failure and (iii) punching shear have been recognized in
soil and foundation. The depending upon the deformations associated with the load and the
extent of development of failure surface, the choice of which method of analysis is best suited
in a given situation is difficult to make, because only limited test data are available on full
sized foundations to verify the reliability of the computed bearing capacity.
Net Loading Intensity- The net loading intensity on the foundation is the gross intensity of
loading minus the weight of displaced soil above the foundation base.
Ultimate Bearing Capacity- The intensity of loading at the base or the foundation which
would cause shear failure of the soil support.
Safe Bearing Capacity- Maximum intensity of loading that the foundation will safely carry
without the risk of shear failure of soil irrespective of any settlement that may occur.

Safe Bearing Pressure or Net Soil Pressure for Specified Settlement- The intensity of loading
that will cause a permissible settlement or specified settlement of the structure.
Allowable Bearing Capacity- The net intensity of loading which the foundation will carry
without undergoing settlement in excess of the permissible value for the structure under
consideration but not exceeding net safe bearing capacity.
In general, bearing of the soil is computed on the basis of shear and settlement approach.
However, guidelines given in relevant clauses may be used for guidance. Wherever possible
bearing capacity calculations shall be made on the basis of shear strength parameters ‘c’ and
‘ϕ’ obtained from appropriate shear tests [see IS: 2720 (Parts XI and XIII)] or from plate load
test results as given in IS: 1888 or from static cone penetration resistance qo obtained from
static cone penetration test as given in IS: 4968 (Part III).
Based on the field and laboratory test results and depending upon the load, the different
foundations system is analysed. The safe bearing capacities of subsoil strata at different
depths are computed by using two approaches (i) Shear Failure Approach (ii) Settlement
approach. The first criterion for computation of bearing capacity of soil is Shear failure
criterion, in this first approach, the bearing capacity of soil is computed in accordance with
IS: 6403 and then in the second approach, the bearing capacity of soil as per ‘Settlement
Criterion’ is computed in accordance with IS: 8009 (part-1) and IS: 1904. The governing net
safe bearing capacity would be the least value obtained from the above two approaches. Due
to heavy rain fall or local stagnation, water may seep into the foundation zone and may affect
the foundation system. Hence, suitable water correction factor, w’ may vary from 0.50 to 1 to
be considered , However, as a worst case this correction equal to 0.50 may be considered in
computation of bearing capacity of soil.
2.1.7.1 Computation of Bearing Capacity as per Shear Failure Approach

The analysis of net safe bearing capacities of soil have been worked out for shallow
foundation against shear failure approach. If, the void ratio (e0) lies in between 0.55 to 0.75 in
such cases, interpolation method between local shear failure approach and general shear
failure has been used for bearing capacity factors which leads to computation of bearing
capacity of soil as per IS: 6403. Factor of safety equal to 2.50 has been considered throughout
in computation of bearing capacity of soil. The factors as given in the equivalent bearing
capacity, shape, depth and inclination factors to be considered as per IS 6403.
The following equations are used for computation of bearing capacity of soil:
General Shear Approach

qult = c Nc Sc dc ic+ q (Nq-1 ) Sq dq iq + 0.5 B  N S d i 

Local Shear Approach

qult = 2/3 c N’c Sc dc ic+ q (N’q-1 ) Sq dq iq + 0.5 B  N’ S d i 
Where,
Net ultimate bearing capacity : qult
Bearing capacity factors : (Nc , Nq, N) General, (N’c , N’q, N’) Local
Shape factors : Sc, Sq, S
Inclination factors : ic, iq, i
Depth factors : dc, dq, d
Water correction factor : 
Cohesion : c
Density of soil : 
Net Overburden pressure : q
2.1.7.2 Computation of Bearing Capacity as per Settlements Approach

If a structure settles uniformly, it will not theoretically suffer damage, irrespective of the
amount of settlement. But, the underground utility lines may be damaged due to excessive
settlement of the structure. In practice, settlement is generally non-uniform. Such non-
uniform settlements induce secondary stresses in the structures. Depending upon the
permissible extent of these secondary stresses, the settlements have to be limited.
Alternatively, if the estimated settlements exceed the allowable limits, the foundation
dimensions or the design may have to be suitably modified. Therefore, this code is prepared
to provide a common basis, to the extent possible, for the estimation of the settlement of
shallow foundations subjected to symmetrical static vertical loading. Catastrophic settlement
may occur, if the static load is excessive. When the load is not excessive, the resulting
settlement may consist of the following components:
a) Elastic deformation or immediate settlement of foundation soil,

b) Primary consolidation of foundation soil resulting from the expulsion of pore water,
c) Secondary compression of foundation soil, and
d) Creep of the foundation soil.
IS: 8009 (Part I) provides simple methods for the estimation of immediate and primary
consolidation settlements of shallow foundations under symmetrical static vertical loads.
Procedures for computing time rate of settlement are also given. This standard does not deal
with catastrophic settlement as the foundations are expected to be loaded only up to the safe
bearing capacity. Analytical methods for the estimation of settlements due to deterioration of

foundations, mining and other causes are not available and, therefore, are not dealt with.
Satisfactory theoretical methods are not available for the estimation of secondary
compression. However, it is known that in organic clays and plastic silts, the secondary
compression may be important and, therefore, should be taken into account. In such
situations, any method considered suitable for the type of soil met with may be adopted by
the designer.
2.1.8 Pile Foundations

Broadly, piles transfer axial loads either substantially by friction along its shaft and/or
substantially by the end bearing. Piles are used where either of the above load transfer
mechanism is possible, depending upon the subsoil stratification at a particular site. The
construction of pile foundations requires a careful choice of piling system, depending upon
the subsoil conditions, the load characteristics of a structure and the limitations of total
settlement, differential settlement and any other special requirement of a project. The
installation of piles demands careful control on position, alignment and depth and involve
specialized skill and experience.
This work shall consist of construction of all types of piles for structures in accordance with
the details shown on the drawings and conforming to the requirements of these Specifications
or as directed by the Engineer.
The permissible limits of total and differential settlements, unsupported length of pile under
scour, impact/entanglement of floating bodies and any other special requirements of project,
are also equally important criteria for selection of the piling system. The method of installing
the piles, including details of the equipment shall be submitted by the Contractor and got
approved from the Engineer before commencement of work as per IRC: MoRTH: 250.
2.1.8.1 Subsurface Investigations for Pile Foundations

The complete subsurface investigations of strata in which pile foundations are proposed shall
be carried out in advance along with in-situ pile tests. Borings should be carried up to
sufficient depths so as to ascertain the nature of strata around the pile shaft and below the pile
tip. Depth of boring shall not be less than (as specified in the MoRTH specifications and IRC
78 -Sub surface investigations for Bridges)
i) 1.5 times estimated length of pile in soil or 15 m below the proposed founding level
ii) 15 times diameter of pile in ordinary / jointed rock but minimum 15 m in such rock
iii) 4 times diameter of pile in hard rock but minimum 3 m in such rock
The subsurface investigations shall adequately define stratification of substrata including the
nature and type of strata, their variation, extent and specific properties. The investigations
shall be adequate for the purpose of selection of appropriate piling system and for estimating
design capacities for different diameters and length of piles.

Pressure meter tests may be used in the case of rock, ground or soil for direct evaluation of
strength and compressibility characteristics. Though these tests are of specialized nature, they
are more appropriate for difficult/uncertain substrata and especially for important projects.
For Piles Socketed into rock, it is necessary to determine the Uni-Axial Compressive Strength
(UCS) of the rock and its quality.
The investigations shall also include location of ground water table and other parameters
including results of chemical tests showing sulphate and chloride content and any other
deleterious chemical content in soil and/or ground water, likely to affect durability.

CHAPTER 2
2.2.0 Earthwork in Embankment
Embankment construction for highways involves the creation of raised earth structures to
support and elevate roads above the surrounding terrain. The embankments including sub-
grades, earthen shoulders and miscellaneous backfills with approved material obtained from
approved source, including material from roadway and drain excavation, borrow pits or other
sources. All embankments sub-grades, earthen shoulders and miscellaneous backfills shall be
constructed in accordance with the requirements of approved specifications and in conformity
with the lines, grades, and cross-sections shown on the drawings or as directed by the
Engineer in charge
2.2.1 Physical Requirements of Embankment Material

The physical requirements of embankment materials for highway construction are crucial to
ensure the stability, durability, and overall performance of the road embankment. The choice
of embankment materials depends on factors such as the specific location, soil conditions,
intended use of the highway, and engineering design. The materials used in embankments,
sub-grades, earthen shoulders and miscellaneous backfills shall be soil, moorum, gravel,
reclaimed material from pavement, fly ash, pond ash, a mixture of these or any other material
as approved by the Engineer. Such materials shall be free of logs, stumps, roots, rubbish or
any other ingredient likely to deteriorate or affect the stability of the embankment.
Here are some key physical requirements for embankment materials:
Particle Size and Gradation: Embankment materials should have a well-graded particle size
distribution to ensure proper compaction and stability. A mix of different particle sizes (such
as sand, silt, and clay) can help achieve good compaction characteristics.
Compaction Characteristics: Embankment materials should be capable of achieving high

compaction densities when subjected to compaction efforts. Proper compaction minimizes
settlement and increases the load-bearing capacity of the embankment.
Cohesion and Shear Strength: Embankment materials should possess adequate cohesion
and shear strength to resist internal and external forces. Cohesion helps prevent material from
crumbling, while shear strength prevents sliding or deformation.
Permeability: Embankment materials should have controlled permeability to allow water to

drain effectively and prevent water accumulation within the embankment. Proper drainage
helps prevent erosion, instability, and frost-related issues.
Erosion Resistance: Embankment materials should be resistant to erosion caused by wind,

water, or other environmental factors. Erosion control measures (such as geo-textiles or
vegetation) may also be used to enhance erosion resistance.

Density and Porosity: Embankment materials should be compacted to achieve a high

density, reducing voids and enhancing load-bearing capacity. Controlled porosity helps with
water movement and drainage.
Freeze-Thaw Resistance: In areas with freezing temperatures, embankment materials should

have good freeze-thaw resistance to withstand the expansion and contraction of water within
the material.
Compatibility with Adjacent Materials: Embankment materials should be compatible with

adjacent soil layers, sub-grades, and drainage systems to minimize differential settlement and
other potential issues.
Durability: Embankment materials should be durable and resistant to deterioration over time,
ensuring the long-term stability of the embankment.
Environmental Considerations: Embankment materials should have minimal

environmental impact and be compatible with the surrounding ecosystem.
The following types of material shall be considered unsuitable for embankment:

a) Materials from swamps, marshes and bogs;
b) Peat, log, stump and perishable material; any soil that classifies as OL, OI, OH or Pt in
accordance with IS 1498;
c) Materials susceptible to spontaneous combustion;
d) Materials in a frozen condition;
e) Clay having liquid limit exceeding 50 and plasticity index exceeding 25 (as per MORTH,
clause 305)
f) Materials with salts resulting in leaching in the embankment.
Expansive clay exhibiting marked swell and shrinkage properties “free swelling index”
exceeding 50 percent when tested as per IS 2720 (Part-40) shall not be used as a fill material.
Where expansive clay having “free swelling index” value less than 50 percent is used as a fill
material, sub-grade and top 500 mm portion of the embankment just below sub-grade shall be
non-expansive in nature.
Any fill material with a soluble sulphate content exceeding 1.9 grams of sulphate (expressed
as SO3) per litre when tested in accordance with BS 1377 (Part-3), but using a 2:1 water-soil
ratio shall not be deposited within 500 mm distance (or any other distance described in the
Contract), of permanent works constructed out of concrete, cement bound materials or other
cementitious material. Materials with a total sulphate content (expressed as SO3) exceeding
0.5 percent by mass, when tested in accordance with BS 1377, (Part-3) shall not be deposited
within 500 mm, or other distances described in the Contract, of metallic items forming part of
the Permanent Works.
The size of the coarse material in the mixture of earth shall ordinarily not exceed 75 mm
when placed in the embankment and 50 mm when placed in the sub-grade. However, the
Engineer may at his discretion permit the use of material coarser than this also if he is

satisfied that the same will not present any difficulty as regards the placement of fill material
and its compaction to the requirements of these Specifications. The maximum particle size in
such cases, however, shall not be more than two-thirds of the compacted layer thickness.
Ordinarily, only the materials satisfying the density requirements given in Table 2.1 shall be
employed for the construction of the embankment and the sub-grade.
Table 2.1: Density Requirements of Embankment and Sub-grade Materials
S. Type of Work Maximum laboratory dry unit weight

No. when tested as per IS 2720: 2020 (Part-8)
1) Embankments up to 3 m height, not Not less than 15.2 KN/cum
subjected to extensive flooding
2) Embankments exceeding 3 m height or Not less than 16 KN/cum
embankments of any height subject to
long periods of inundation
3) Sub-grade and earthen shoulders/ Not less than 17.5 KN/cum
verges/ backfill
Notes:
1) This Table is not applicable for lightweight fill material, e.g., cinder, fly ash, etc. 2) The
material to be used in sub-grade shall be non-expansive and shall satisfy design CBR at the
specified dry density and moisture content. In case the available materials fail to meet the
requirement of CBR, use of stabilization methods in accordance with Clauses 403 and 404 or
by any stabilization method approved by the Engineer shall be followed.
The material to be used in sub-grade shall conform to the design CBR value at the specified
dry density and moisture content of the test specimen. In case the available Earthwork,
Erosion Control and Drainage materials fails to meet the requirement of CBR, use of
stabilization methods in accordance with Clauses 403 and 404 or by any stabilization method
approved by the Engineer or by the IRC MORTH 250 Accreditation Committee shall be
followed.
It's important to note that the specific physical requirements may vary based on the
engineering design, regional conditions, and the intended use of the highway embankment.
Proper testing and analysis of soil samples are essential to determine the suitability of
embankment materials and ensure they meet the required physical properties for highway
construction. Consulting with geotechnical engineers and following established standards and
guidelines is critical to selecting and using appropriate embankment materials
The material to be used in high embankment construction shall satisfy the specified
requirements of strength parameters.
2.2.2 Moisture Density Relationship

The purpose of a laboratory compaction test is to determine the proper amount of mixing
water to be used, when the compacting the soil in the field and the resulting degree of

denseness which can be expected from compaction at optimum moisture content in

accordance with IS 2720 (Part-7) & IS 2720 (Part-8).
2.2.2.1 Standard Proctor Test: It is use for light compaction, IS 2720 (Part-7)
2.2.2.2 Modified Proctor Test: It is use for high compaction, IS 2720 (Part-8)
2.2.3 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

The determination of the California bearing ratio of soils in place for the evaluation of
strengths of sub-grade and bases for roads and runaway pavements The ratio of the force per
unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with a standard circular piston at the rate of I.25
mm/min to that required for corresponding penetration of a standard material in accordance
with IS 2720 (Part-31).
2.2.4 Density of Compacted Layer (Core Cutter Method)

The determination of the in-place density of fine-grained natural or compacted soils free from
aggregates using a core-cutter. For the purpose of the tests described in this standard, a soil
shall be termed as fine-grained soil if not less than 90 percent of it passes a 4.75-mm IS
Sieve. It shall be in accordance with IS 2720 (Part-29).
2.2.5 Density of Compacted Layer (Sand Replacement Method)

The determination, in-place, of the dry density (in g/cm3 or kg/m3) of natural or compacted
fine- and medium-grained soils for which a small sand-pouring cylinder is used. The method
it applicable to layers not exceeding 150 mm in thickness in accordance with IS 2720 (Part-
28).
2.2.6 Methods of Embankment Construction
2.2.6.1 Widening
Embankment widening projects can vary significantly based on the specific site, traffic
demands, and environmental considerations. It requires careful planning, engineering
expertise, and collaboration with various stakeholders to ensure the successful completion of
the project with minimal disruptions to the existing infrastructure and the environment. When
an existing embankment or sub-grade and its slopes are to be widened and also steeper than 1
vertical on 4 horizontal, continuous horizontal benches, each at least 300 mm wide, shall be
cut into the old slope for ensuring adequate bond with the fresh embankment/sub-grade
material to be added in accordance with IRC MORTH 250. The material obtained from
cutting of benches could be utilized in the widening of the embankment/sub-grade. However,
when the existing slope against which the fresh material is to be placed is flatter than 1
vertical on 4 horizontal, the slope surface may only be ploughed or scarified instead of
resorting to benching.
Where the width of the widened portions is insufficient to permit the use of conventional
rollers, compaction shall be carried out with the help of light weight vibratory roller, double
drum walk behind roller, vibratory plate compactor or vibratory tamper or any other

appropriate equipment approved by the Engineer. End dumping of material from trucks for
widening operations shall be avoided except in difficult circumstances when the extra width
is too narrow to permit the movement of any other types of hauling equipment.
2.2.6.2 Mixing
It's important to note that the choice of mixing method and materials depends on the specific
site conditions, soil properties, traffic requirements, and the intended use of the road and
bridge. Engineers and geotechnical experts carefully analyze the site and conduct laboratory
tests to determine the most suitable mixing approach for each project.
There are several mixing methods and materials used in embankment construction, depending
on the site's conditions and engineering requirements. Here are some common mixing
techniques (1) Soil Stabilization (2) Lime Stabilization (3) Cement Stabilization (4)
Mechanical Mixing (5) Geo-foam (6) Reinforced Earth and (7) Lightweight Aggregates
2.2.6.3 Thickness of Soil Layer

The thickness of soil layers in an embankment for a highway construction project can vary
based on several factors, including the specific design requirements, soil characteristics,
traffic loads, and engineering standards. The embankment and sub-grade material shall be
spread in layers of uniform thickness in the entire width with a motor grader. The compacted
thickness of each layer shall not be more than 250 mm when vibratory roller/vibratory soil
compactor is used and not more than 200 mm when 80-100 KN static roller is used. The
motor grader blade shall have hydraulic control suitable for initial adjustment and maintain
the same so as to achieve the specific slope and grade. Successive layers shall not be placed
until the layer under construction has been thoroughly compacted to the specified
requirements as in Table 2.2 and got approved by the Engineer. Each compacted layer shall
be finished parallel to the final cross-section of the embankment as per IRC 250.
2.2.6.4 Compaction
Before compaction begins, the embankment area should be properly cleared, graded, and
prepared. Any large rocks, debris, or vegetation should be removed. The Contractor shall
obtain representative samples from each of the identified borrow areas and have these tested
at the site laboratory following a testing programme approved by the Engineer. It shall be
ensured that the sub-grade material when compacted to the density requirements as in Table
2.2 shall yield the specified design CBR value of the sub-grade.

Table 2.2: Compaction Requirements for Embankment and Sub-grade
S. Type of work/material Relative compaction as percentage of

No. max. laboratory dry density as per IS
2720 (Part-8)
1) Sub-grade and earthen shoulders Not less than 97%
2) Embankment, Not less than 95%
3) Expansive Clays
a) Sub-grade and 500 mm portion just Not allowed
below the sub-grade
b) Remaining portion of embankment 90–95%
The contractor shall at least 7 working days before commencement of compaction submit the
following to the Engineer for approval:
(i) The value of maximum dry density and optimum moisture content obtained in accordance
with IS 2720 (Part-8), appropriate for each of the fill materials he intends to use.
(ii) A graph of dry density plotted against moisture content from which each of the values in
(i) above of maximum dry density and optimum moisture content were determined.
The maximum dry density and optimum moisture content approved by the Engineer or by the
IRC 250 shall form the basis for compaction.
2.2.6.5 Earthwork for Low Height Embankment

Only approved materials shall be utilized in the embankment. The work shall be so planned
and executed that the best available materials are saved for the top portion of the
embankment, i.e., sub-grade. where inevitable and earth has to be borrowed from land close
to the embankment, following principles regarding the location, depth and drainage of borrow
pits shall be adopted so that the ill effects of borrow pits are kept down to the minimum as
per IRC 36
2.2.6.6 Earthwork for High Embankment

The material for high embankment construction shall conform to Clause 305.2.1.7. In the
case of high embankments (more than 6 m), the Contractor shall normally use fly ash in
conformity with Clause 305.2.1.1 or the material from the approved borrow area as per IRC
250
2.2.6.7 Stability of Slopes

Failures may occur slowly or suddenly, and stability analysis is meant to determine whether
the proposed embankment slope will meet the safety requirements against failure arising from
shear stress exceeding the tolerable limits. The analysis is generally made for the worst
conditions which may occur during the service of the embankment. In this task, besides
knowledge of the analytical method, experience and judgment are essential. Stability of high
embankment depends on various factors like foundation profile, fill material quality, extent of
compaction, drainage arrangement both surface and sub-surface, and embankment geometry

like height of embankment, slope angle, ground profile etc., external factors like traffic or
earthquake load or presence of any water body by the side of the embankment or
development of pore water pressure due to infiltration from heavy rain. All these parameters
and conditions will make significant impact on overall stability of the embankment. Hence, it
is very important to understand and evaluate these site specific conditions and interpretation
of design parameters correctly before proceeding with design as per IRC 75.
2.2.6.8 Widening of Existing Road Embankment

When an existing embankment and/or sub-grade is to be widened and its slopes are steeper
than 1 vertical on 4 horizontal, continuous horizontal benches, each at least 300 mm wide,
shall be cut into the old slope for ensuring adequate bond with the fresh embankment/sub-
grade material to be added. The material obtained from cutting of benches could be utilized in
the widening of the embankment/sub-grade. However, when the existing slope against which
the fresh material is to be placed is flatter than 1 vertical on 4 horizontal, the slope surface
may only be ploughed or scarified instead of resorting to benching as per IRC 250.

CHAPTER 3
2.3.0 Drainage (Surface and Sub Surface Drain)
Adequate drainage is a primary requirement for maintaining the structural soundness and
functional efficiency of a road. Pavement structure including sub-grade must be protected
from any ingress of water; otherwise over a period of time it may weaken the sub-grade by
saturating it and cause distress in the pavement structure. That is why rapid dispersal of water
from pavement and sub-grade is a basic consideration in road design. Also, proper drainage
takes away the water from pavement surface quickly and reduces the chance of skidding of
vehicles. Because of inadequate surface and sub-surface drainage, the structural stability of
pavement is undermined by
1) Weakening of pavement structure and sub-grade through infiltration of water from the
top, and
2) Erosion of shoulders, verges and embankment slopes caused by water running off the
pavement.
Water in the asphalt surface can lead to moisture damage, modulus reduction, loss of tensile
strength and loss of stiffness.
The important measures to guard against poorly drained conditions are:
 Maintenance of transverse sections in good camber to reasonable cross fall so as to
facilitate quick runoff of surface water
 Provision of appropriate surface and sub-surface drains.
 Extension of granular sub-base over the entire formation width
 Provision of drainage layer
 Adequate height of formation level above HFL/ground level etc.
A road drainage system must satisfy two main criteria if it is to be effective throughout its
design life: It must drain surface and subsurface water away from the roadway and dispose it
in a way that prevents excessive collection of water in unstable areas and subsequent
downstream erosion.
If the water present in the surface course is not prevented from entering the road pavement by
means of impervious wearing and binder course or a completely impervious bond coat, water
will enter the road pavement from above and weaken it, even to the extent of resulting in
pavement failure.
Despite measurers for quick drainage of pavement surface as well as provision of fairly
watertight surface, water enters from top through cracks and travels through various
pavement layers and gets accumulated at the surface of sub-base/base course and subgrade
causing considerable functional problems. While in new road construction, this aspect is
usually taken care of by providing a drainage layer at this level, in the existing boxed type
pavement construction, this is an acute problem and special measures need to be taken as per
actual site requirements for draining out the locked water.
Also the road pavement itself must be constructed so that it will drain in the event of a failure
of the integrity of the surfacing layers, i.e. if water is able to enter the road pavement there

must be a path for it to exit. The internal drainage function of a road pavement is usually
performed by the GSB and drainage layer, and this layer must be drained in some way.
Following are the important factors which are required to be kept in mind before designing a
drainage system for a road:
i) Expected traffic, importance and configuration of the road (2-lane/4-lane/ 6-lane)
ii) Sources of water which may reach the road from above, sides and below
iii) Drainage catchment areas and existing drainage systems
iv) Geology, hydrologic and hydro-geologic conditions in the surrounding area of the
road
v) Geometric characteristics of the road (alignment, profile and cross-section)
vi) Presence of extreme gradients and cross slope, areas of excavation and land fill,
probability of frost formation
vii) Any limitations in and around the road which may affect the design of drainage
system
Reason for Damage to Road Pavement
i) Due to Hydraulic Pressure of Water inside Pavement Layers or Sub-grade

Once water has entered a road pavement, damage is initially caused by hydraulic pressure,
i.e. vehicles passing over the road pavement impart considerable sudden pressure on the
water present in the road pavement. This pressure forces the water further into the pavement
matrix and breaks it up. This process can be very rapid once it begins. Water that has entered
the pavement and is subject to the process of freezing (expansion) and thawing during the
winter also brings about the swift failure of the road pavement. Eventually the water will
descend to the subgrade layer below the pavement courses and weaken this layer, and deep
seated failure of the road will begin.
ii) Binder Stripping in Pavement Layers due to Water

Most aggregates have a greater affinity for water than they do for bitumen, and with the
presence of water and movement of the aggregate it is quite possible for the binder film on
the aggregate particle to be broken and water to come in contact with the aggregate surface.
Once the integrity of the binder layer has been broken it will depend upon the chemical
nature of the aggregate particle and the viscosity of the binder as to how long it will be before
stripping of the aggregate particles becomes an engineering problem. Depending on the
viscosity of the binder and the thickness of the binder film surrounding the aggregate the
stripping of the bitumen will occur hardly at all, fairly slowly or quite quickly.
The selection of type of drain to be constructed on a highway project section depends on

following situations:
i) For highway in cutting
ii) For highway in embankment
iii) For highway with hill on one side and valley/plain on the other side

Roads are constructed with Two Types of Drainage Systems

i) Surface Drainage
ii) Subsurface Drainage
2.3.1 Surface Drainage
a) Transverse Drainage
It is used to provide the continuity of natural water lines, intercepted by the road. It is
designed to avoid the flooding of the platform and surrounding areas. E.g. Aqueducts culvert
construction and cross drainage structures
b) Longitudinal Drainage
Used to gather and channelize the precipitated water on the road surface and from the side
slopes and nearby land thus avoiding its access to the road surface.
E.g. Unlined and lined drains, kerb channel drain
Side ditches, lined drains, catch-drains and network of cross-drainage structures are provided
as part of the overall surface drainage system.
This section discusses primarily surface drainage of road pavement, shoulders, side slopes,
medians, rotaries, junctions, high embankments etc. A flat pavement surface is not conducive
to flow of water and hence it has to be suitably profiled to help quick disposal of precipitated
water. Effect of Standing Water on Pavement Consequence of standing water differs from
pavement to pavement depending upon the type of surfacing provided. Effects of water on
flexible and rigid pavements are discussed separately.
i) Flexible Pavement
Standing water remaining on bituminous pavement for a long period of time is not desirable
as it tends to cause early deterioration of pavement. It can cause stripping of bitumen from
aggregates especially when they are prone to stripping in case of some stones like granite,
quartzite, quartz etc. If the bituminous mix is open-graded or poorly compacted or surface has
cracks/ potholes, the water seeps to lower layers and accelerates the process of stripping. This
water tends to migrate to lower layers of pavement and gets entrapped in granular base and
sub-base layers. If the base and sub-base layers are not permeable enough to drain away this
water laterally, it results in pavement resting on a waterbed leading to loss of aggregate to
aggregate contact thus reducing load dispersal capacity and eventually leading to premature
deterioration of pavement. Although bituminous pavement exhibits good skid resistance but it
does not readily help in rapid disposal of surface water. This is due to surface tension and
also due to pitted surface without continuity as in the case of textured surface of cement
concrete pavement.
ii) Concrete Pavement

A well compacted concrete pavement as such is generally impervious to water and does not
get affected by standing water. But joints, cracks and shoulders permit moisture to seep
through. Moisture enters through all joints including longitudinal joint formed with shoulder.
Full depth cracks are another source through which water seeps under. Seeped water in some

cases is ejected to the surface through joints under moving load bringing out fine soil
particles thus creating hollow pocket below pavement. This phenomenon is called as "mud
pumping". In due course pavement loses support leading to corner cracks. Such moisture can
also reach to lower granular layers saturating them thus weakening them leading to premature
failure of pavement. Concrete pavement surface is textured for improving the skid resistance
and also for facilitating quick surface drainage through tiny channels of texture. Tine and
brush textures are the two types of textures applied on concrete surface. It has been observed
that tine texture is more durable than brush texture. Brush texture tends to become bald faster.
Tine texture can be applied in both transverse and longitudinal direction but a school of
thought considers that tine texture in transverse direction is preferred to on account of its
better capacity to drain surface water quickly vis-a-vis in longitudinal direction although
noise pollution is said to be less in the latter case.
iii) Granular/Earthen Surface

Standing water on granular or earthen surface is not desirable as it seeps to lower layers.
Earthen surfaces become slushy making them unusable. Cross-slope of shoulder provided
should be steeper so that water can flow expeditiously on such surfaces. Requirement of
cross-slope in earthen shoulder, therefore, always has to be more than the paved surface.
Factors Affecting the Surface Drainage of Pavements

For quick surface drainage to take place the following features of pavement have to be
detailed suitably:
i) Geometric features of pavement like longitudinal and transverse slopes
ii) Kerbs and gutters/outlets provided
iii) Type of surface
iv) Texture of pavement
v) Median drains in divided carriageways
vi) Lane widths
Effect of Geometric Features of the Pavement
Longitudinal Gradient of the Pavement

With a view to facilitate quick removal of rain water, longitudinal profile of the road
normally is not designed flat. When the road is provided with kerbs as in the case of urban
scenario, flat surface can result in collection of large quantity of water on the road. To avoid
this situation a minimum longitudinal gradient of 0.3 percent is considered essential in most
conditions.
Pavement Cross-fall or Camber

By providing cross-fall or camber to the pavement, the runoff water gets cleared from the
surface rapidly. The cross-slope requirement differs for each pavement type. A mild cross-
slope is sufficient in dense surfaces like bituminous concrete surface or concrete pavement
but open-graded bituminous surfaces and granular/earthen surfaces require relatively steeper

cross-slope for facilitating rapid flow. But steeper cross-slope in the case of granular/earthen
surface may lead to erosion of surface.
Requirement of Camber in different Pavement Configuration
Non-kerbed Pavement
Camber requirement varies depending upon the geometric configuration of a road. In the case
of earthen shoulders, the water flowing on surface is guided away from the pavement
including in super elevated sections. Normally earthen or granular shoulders are provided
with 0.5 percent more cross-slope than the paved surface.
Disposal of Water from Kerbed Pavement Surface

In the case of kerbed pavements which are adopted by and large in urban sections where the
footpaths are paved, the surface water is guided towards road edge. The surface water thus
collected at road edge is disposed of through outlets provided in the kerbs. There are
situations where in super elevated sections in divided carriageway, provision of single
camber over entire width may be uneconomical due to increased earthwork. By having
staggered camber, earth work can be economised and disposal of surface water can be done
quickly through central median.
Types of Kerbs and Inlets Normally Provided/Embedded

The inlet design varies from place to place. In some cases an opening is provided in kerbs for
this purpose. A PVC or HOPE pipe of 150 to 200 mm dia is provided to carry the water to
side drain through this inlet. The inlets are provided generally with galvanised grating to
block the entry of foreign material.
Drainage of Shoulders
Black topped shoulders are durable and help in quick disposal of surface water. For
economizing cost of construction, shoulders are generally constructed with subgrade soil
even on highways in India. As surface water cannot flow freely on earthen surface and
camber is enhanced from 2.5 percent to 3 percent in normal cross-section.
Silt and clayey soil are generally susceptible to erosion, whereas good murrum/gravelly soil
is relatively less prone to erosion. Earthen or granular shoulders have to be periodically
maintained by levelling and compacting to avoid drop-off (depression at road edge), erosion
and consequential channelized flow of water in longitudinal direction. This operation
involves adding of fresh material to compensate for loss of soil due to erosion, vehicle
movement etc. and compacting the same after mixing necessary moisture to achieve MDD.
Treatment of Batter
The longitudinal edge where shoulder and side slope join is known as batter. This junction is
highly vulnerable to erosion especially in the case of earthen or granular surfaces. This is the
most neglected part of road. Therefore, for reducing erosion, rounding the sharp corner and
compacting it is helpful. As normal roller cannot compact such location, hand-held plate
compactors can be employed for compacting. As a long range measure it is helpful if a

concrete kerb or brick-on-edge is placed all along the edge. Even when shoulder is
blacktopped, kerb provided at batter helps in controlling breaking of edge.
Control of Erosion of Shoulder
Surfacing of Shoulder
On account of cost considerations shoulders in India are constructed normally with earth used
in sub-grade. But in the long run, earthen shoulders are expensive to maintain them
periodically. In some National Highways part of the shoulders is constructed with full-depth
pavement and in some cases thin black topping is done. In some States in India, parts of the
shoulders are provided with brick-edging which not only protects shoulders but also gives
lateral support to the pavement edge thus increasing its life. Width of brick edging can vary
from 0.3 m to entire width of shoulder depending on the availability of funds. In urban limits
use of concrete block pavement on shoulder lately has become increasingly common.
Construction of thin bituminous layer on shoulder is a good proposal to control erosion and
drop-off. Depending on the susceptibility of the surface to erosion suitable treatment has to
be provided. Shoulder surface can be of various types:
i) Paved shoulder with bituminous surface
ii) Paver block shoulder (in urban area mainly) with concrete surface
iii) Hard shoulder with grand surface or brick edging
iv) Earthen shoulder with soil surface
Grade and Level Control

Erosion of shoulder surface especially the unpaved types can be controlled by maintaining
proper grade and level. Adequate camber has to be maintained at all the times. Besides,
shoulder drop should not be allowed to occur as it causes not only damage to the shoulders
runoff ability but also permits water to infiltrate into the pavement through the shoulder edge.
Turfing
Turfing helps in controlling erosion of earthen shoulder provided it is periodically trimmed
and kept clean. Normally due to lack of maintenance, the turf grows to tall height and besides
decayed old grass raises the level and obstructs flow of water. There is a situation where
cuts/trenches have been made in the turfed shoulder to drain surface water as turf itself was
found obstructing flow of water. Some variety of grass which spreads horizontally and does
not obstruct flow of water must be selected for protection of shoulders and not the wild
variety. Use of a mini CC kerb or brick edging on batter helps in keeping shoulder edge
intact.
Use of Graded Material

Provision of brick edging at the junction of pavement and shoulder will eliminate drop-off.
Besides it will help in protecting pavement from edges breaks. Width of brick edging can
vary from 0.3 m to entire width of shoulder depending on the availability of funds.

Drainage of Side Slopes

Side slopes are again susceptible for erosion because of steeper slopes and higher velocity of
flow. This slope can be protected by providing turfing with Sods/Seeding & Mulching/ Jute
Netting/Coir Netting/Geo Netting etc. In high rainfall areas the slopes normally get covered
with wild vegetation or grass. Although it protects side slope from erosion, but permits wild
growth of vegetation and grass which are to be periodically trimmed and maintained to make
the area accessible for cleaning side debris/ditches.
Drainage of High Embankments

High embankments are vulnerable to erosion of side slopes on account water attaining high
velocity. In such cases special arrangement like flumes/chutes are provided at regular
intervals so the water collected from the shoulder is channelized to these chutes or flumes. As
water flows at high velocity through plain chutes with energy dissipater would be required at
the toe. But stepped chute is preferable as it is a self-energy-dissipating structure. The spacing
of Chutes depends on the intensity of precipitation, gradient and type of side slope surfacing
etc. The plain chutes are made either of semi-circular RCC pipes or in-situ/precast RCC
sections. They are set along the slopes on a concrete bed which should be anchored
intermittently to avoid sliding of chute. On both sides of the chutes stone pitching is normally
done over 1.0 m width. A filter bed, however, is to be provided under pitching. The rest of
the slope is normally covered with grass turfing or stone pitching as per the site condition.
Two-Dimensional/Three-dimensional erosion control mats or simple bio-engineering mats
like jute/coir can be spread for growing turf by using seeds. Selection of suitable erosion
control mats shall be made.
Drainage of Medians
Central medians are either raised or depressed. Both such arrangements have their advantages
and disadvantages as far as surface drainage is concerned. Earth filling must be flush with
kerb and with two-sided camber. If turf is provided on the top there is not much chance of too
much water infiltering to lower layers. But raised median is said to be safety hazards as per
experts. Depressed median, although safer, may lead to seepage of water to lower pavement
layers unless central drain is lined satisfactorily. If water stagnates in the median it can
seriously impair the longevity of the pavement due to seeped water laterally below pavement
layers. Such provision must be avoided where black cotton soil is encountered. When there is
divided carriageway with a raised central median, disposal of surface water of super elevated
section requires elaborate arrangement. Water can be diverted from one carriageway to other
by having an opening/channel in the median. These are provided at 10 m to 20 m intervals
depending upon the intensity of rainfall, road width etc. When both the carriageways are at
different levels, median drains have to be provided. An open drain or a buried pipe provided
for collecting surface water can be disposed of at a nearby cross drainage structure. When
pipes are used, RCC manholes have to be provided to collect water from pavement surface.

Drainage of Rotaries
Drainage of rotary requires special treatment as there is super elevation on the inner curve
which forces water to collect at the central island. The surface water is collected and disposed
of through gullies placed inside or outside of kerb-line of central-island.
Drainage of Intersections
Similar to rotaries, there are pockets at the edge of slip roads in intersections where water
gets accumulated on account of camber provided on all the merging roads. This water
normally has to be collected with the help of grated chambers and disposed of.
Maintenance of Side Drains, Medians and Culverts

Maintenance of side-drains and medians is important for satisfactory performance and long
life of road.
Side-drains
Side drains along the rural highways are normally not lined due to cost considerations. But
when the roads pass through towns they are required to be lined. Maintenance of unlined
drains especially prior to monsoon is essential. Depending upon the type of soil and the
rainfall intensity in the area, the drains get silted and clogged. Serious erosion of earthen
shoulder takes place in areas where silty soil is encountered which normally clogs the side
drains. In high rainfall areas, the growth of grass and vegetation in and around drain causes
obstruction to free flow of water and loss in conveying capacity of drain. Ponding of water in
side drains due to blockage can adversely affect the areas through which drain passes
especially the performance of road built on black cotton soil belt. Moisture can migrate to
clayey foundation of road leading to premature failure of pavement.
Medians
In divided carriageways the medians provided can be either raised with kerbs or depressed
type. The raised medians on highways, filled with earth, normally are cambered so that water
from precipitation which is not soaked by soil fills flows on the road surface. But in the case
of depressed medians chocking of water way should be avoided as it can cause ponding of
water. This should be avoided both in the case of unlined or lined drain.
Maintenance
As a policy, the drains and culverts have to be cleaned before and after the monsoon for their
satisfactory performance. As discussed in IRC: SP: 50, the maintenance can be classified into
three categories:
i) Continuous maintenance
ii) Periodic maintenance
iii) Special maintenance/repairs
Continuous maintenance involves inspection of side drains on regular basis and maintains
them by the Engineer in-charge of the road section.

Periodic maintenance can be taken up whenever the periodic maintenance of the road is taken
up.
Special maintenance will involve the repair of breached sections or improvements of the
waterway if found inadequate.
2.3.2 Subsurface Drainage

It is very important to release water trapped inside sub-grade and pavement layers. This is
because soil resistance to compression may drop substantially if its moisture content
increases. Increase in moisture content inside pavement beyond a limit (e.g. Liquid Limit)
results in reduction of the load carrying capacity of the road and premature failure and
distress of the pavement resulting in reduction in the design life of the pavement.
The changes in moisture content in the sub-grade and pavement layers occur because of
ingress of sub surface water change in water table, and ingress of water from top through
cracks, leaked joints etc.
Following two types of sub surface drains are constructed to dispense trapped water inside
the sub-grade and pavement layers:
a) Longitudinal interception drains
b) Longitudinal water table lowering drains
Alignment of the road can have a vital bearing on the problem of drainage. Therefore, in case
of new roads, surface drainage should be one of the criteria while fixing the alignment. For
example, locations parallel to large streams and running close to them are likely to give rise
to constant trouble besides the fact that several converging tributaries/ distributaries would be
needed to be crossed. An ideal alignment should avoid steep and heavy cuts/fills as these
situations have the potential of throwing up piquant problem of drainage and erosion control.
Problems of these types are often prominent in rolling terrain since alternate cuts and fills,
unless designed with an eye on the smooth dispersal of surface water, could play havoc with
the natural drainage of the area and give rise, among other difficulties, to subterranean flow
under and across the road. In each case where cutting is involved meticulous care is needed
right at the start to anticipate the volume of water flow so that necessary design measures to
avoid instability of the road can be taken. No doubt, surface drainage is just one among many
other considerations in road location but it warrants careful attention.
Normally in plain areas road sub-grade elevation in fill sections is so fixed that the top of the
sub-grade shall be at least 0.5 m above the original ground level - in non-flood area. The
bottom of the sub-grade shall be 0.5 m to 1.00 m above the HFL based on type of soil.
Survey and investigations is a basic necessity for designing a system fulfilling the above
objectives. The work may involve:
i) Preparation of alignment plan, longitudinal and cross sections and contour map
ii) Hydrological survey such as rainfall analysis and runoff estimation
iii) High flood statistical information for the region
iv) Hydraulic Design
v) Geotechnical investigation
Subsurface drainage is as important as surface drainage for long life and better performance
of pavement. The moisture which reaches lower layers of pavement from different sources

like pavement surface, seepage from shoulders, seepage from adjoining hills and capillary
rise of moisture from ground is termed as subsurface moisture. Disposal of this moisture
away from the pavement body is termed as subsurface drainage. Consequences of lack of
effective subsurface drainage system results in premature failure of pavement with formation
of cracks, settlement, rutting and boggy action in the case of bituminous pavement whereas
formation of crack, fragmentation and settlement of slab in the case of cement concrete slabs.
Sources from which Water/Moisture Reaches Lower Layers of Pavement

i) From poor quality bituminous mixes which are permeable
ii) From the cracks, potholes and joints
iii) From the failed joint seals of cement concrete pavement
iv) Through the longitudinal joint between pavement and shoulder
v) From earth filled medians and shoulders
vi) Seepage water from the adjoining high ground in the cut sections of hilly terrain or
from impounded water level higher than the road level in the abutting agriculture
fields (e.g. Paddy fields)
vii) From capillary rise of moisture when water-table is high.
Seepage from Hills

Seepage from hill sides in cut sections is a source from where embankment, sub-grade, and
base/sub-base get soaked. Roads are often damaged in stretches where there is excessive
seepage from hills in absence of adequate sub-surface drainage.
Capillary Action
Some soils like silt, clay, fine sand, chalk and pulverise fly ash (PFA) which are susceptible
to formation of capillary tubes, through which moisture migrates upwards due to surface
tension when water table is high. The effect of saturation of lower layers of pavement due to
above causes has to be prevented to protect the pavement from premature failure.
Effect of Infiltration, Seepage and Capillary Moisture on Pavement Layers

Trapped moisture from all sources in the pavement layers reduces the load taking capacity of
the structure thus causing loss of strength leading to premature cracks, rutting, potholes etc. A
soaked sub-grade does not affect the strength or CBR as pavements are designed based on
soaked CBR of sub-grade. But loss of aggregate to aggregate contact is a primary factor for
loss of strength. And sometimes the pavement exhibits 'boggy action' i.e. the pavement
behaves like a spring when moisture is trapped in foundation. Under the load, pavement
undergoes large deflection because of dispersal of moisture locally and after the release of
load, it bounces back leading to reversal of stress/strain causing premature cracks due to
fatigue. Such phenomenon is predominantly observed in clayey and silty soils.

Treatment of Subsurface Moisture
Drainage of Infiltrated Moisture from Pavement and Shoulder Surface

Subsurface moisture which infiltrates from the pavement surface or shoulders has to be
drained out to avoid loss of aggregate to aggregate contact so that load transference is not
affected. An upper granular sub-base layer called as Drainage Layer (DL) has been suggested
to drain this trapped water lately by both MORTH Specifications and IRC: 37. The drainage
layer is part of a pavement structure which is considered to perform the function of both
structural as well as a drainage layer. GSB layer can be constructed in two layers such that
one layer can serve the purpose of Drainage Layer (DL) and the other layer can serve as
Granular Sub-Base (GSB). The basic ingredients of both mixes are same but the difference
lies in percentage of fines passing in Drainage Layer and GSB mix. Regarding relative
placement of DL and GSB layer, both MORTH Specifications for Road and Bridge Works
and IRC: 37 have suggested that DL to be placed above GSB layer as explained below:
i) MORTH Specifications, has specified six grading for Granular Sub-base (GSB). But
out of that Grading III and IV have been proposed for use as lower sub-base and Grading V
and VI for using as sub-base-cum-Drainage Layer.
ii) Similarly IRC: 37 in Para 7.2.1.3 states that the sub-base should be composed of two
layers, the lower layer forms the separation/filter layer to prevent intrusion of sub-grade soil
into the pavement and upper GSB forms the drainage layer to drain any water that may enter
through surface cracks. The drainage layer should be tested for permeability and gradation
may be altered to ensure the required permeability. Filter and drainage layers can be designed
as per IRC: SP: 42 and IRC: SP: 50. Six gradings suggested by IRC: 37 in Annexure V are
extracts of AASHTO gradings. Coefficient of permeability 'k', of each grading has been given
for all six gradings given in Annexure V, Grading-2 mix has coefficient of permeability 'k' of
35 m/day is best suited for drainage layer.
iii) The basic reasoning for providing drainage layer is to dispose of seeped moisture due
to gravity from upper layers of pavement in lateral direction as quickly as possible instead of
allowing it to seep down to lower layers. Without an intercepting free-draining drainage layer
(DL), water has a tendency to migrate downwards due to gravity. If a dense GSB layer
provided below drainage of low permeability, it is helpful for forcing moisture to flow
laterally rather than moving towards downwardly direction. Moisture must not be allowed to
accumulate in base and sub-base layers as it can lead to loss of aggregate to aggregate contact
essential for load dispersal to lower layers.
Out of six grading of sub-bases given in MORTH Specifications and IRC: 37 two have been
selected for use in drainage layer. Grading-VI of MORTH Specifications and Grading-2 of
IRC: 37 are suggested for use in drainage layer. Coefficient of permeability k of the mix is
the physical properties of aggregate used shall comply with Clause 401 for granular sub-base
of MORTH Specifications. The loss Angeles abrasion value of aggregate should be less than
40 percent.

In lieu of aggregate drainage layer, Geo-synthetic drainage composite (drainage Geo-net

between two Geo-synthetic layers) can also be provided wherever it proves to be cost
effective and technically meeting the requirements. The Geotextile will act as a separator and
filter also. Drainage composite specifications shall be adopted as per MORTH 704.2 or IRC:
34, 4.6.2.
When this drainage and GSB layers are day-lighted i.e. extended up to side slopes, the coarse
aggregates in mix tend to get dislodged and roll down from side slope affecting slope
stability. To have a stable permeable edge, 0.5 m wide strip of both layers have been
suggested in IRC: 37 for treating with either 2.5 percent of bituminous emulsion or 2 percent
cement. Use of bitumen emulsion or cement will have implication on cost of project and has
to be introduced with caution. When there is a lined side drain, PVC or HDPE pipes can be
provided at regular interval to drain moisture from DL and GSB layers.
Granular Sub-base Layer (GSB)

The layer below the drainage layer shall be granular sub-base layer (GSB), which shall be
acting as separation/filter layer. The layer shall be constructed in conformity with Clause 401
of MORTH Specifications.
Use of Geotextile for Sub-surface Drainage

Geotextile are found to be extremely efficient as separation cum drainage layer and for
uniform distribution of load to sub-grade. For detailed specifications MORTH Section 700
shall be referred
Management of Seepage Moisture from Hills in Cut Sections

There are two situations where seepage moisture affects the performance of road. In the first
case when a road is close to a nallah or a channel and the HFL is high, the seepage water can
lead to saturation of foundation layers of pavement leading to boggy action especially when
there is clayey and silty soil. The other situation is when the road alignment passes through
the cut section in a hilly terrain where there is cultivation on hill tops. In both situations
intercepting seepage lines and disposing of moisture through subsurface drain is an
appropriate solution.
Seepage from an Adjoining Nallah or Channel

This condition can lead to premature failure of pavement and may even exhibit boggy action.
Solution to such situation rests by raising the road level so that side drains can intercept
seepage of moisture from sides thus protecting road foundation. Introducing sand layer below
sub-grade or replacing it partly with sand sometimes helps in controlling the premature
failure of road and boggy action.
Seepage from an Adjoining Hill in cut Sections

Seepage water is a serious problem in cut sections of hilly terrain especially when there are
farms uphill. During monsoon the problem further gets aggravated. Goo quantum of seepage
water can be collected in a side ditch of road in typical hilly terrain.

Surface Drains in Cut-sections of Hilly Terrain
Surface Water from Pavement

Management of surface water from pavement in cut sections of hilly terrain can be done by
providing suitable lined drains. If there are stone or precast concrete kerbs, openings have to
be provided for water to flow towards side drain.
Disposal of Surface Water from Hills

Surface runoff from hills should be intercepted due to following reasons:
i) Water can carry considerable quantity of soil and muck from hill and choke the side-
drains of road making it ineffective.
ii) The runoff water may seep into the hilly terrain and trigger landslides.
iii) Surface runoff flowing at high velocity may cause severe erosion unless it is
intercepted.
Depending upon the type of soil and area of the hill top, a couple of catch drains may have to
be provided parallel to each other.
Details of Subsurface Drain for Intercepting Seepage Water in Hilly Terrain

Intercepting seepage moisture in cut-sections in hilly terrain can be done effectively by
installing French drains at an appropriate depth to intercept seepage water reaching sub-grade
and lower layers. Normally the subsurface drain is extended up to hard strata. In plain terrain
subsurface drain can be provided on hill side from where seepage is likely to take place.
Whereas when there are hills on both sides, subsurface drain can be provided on both sides.
But when there is a steep longitudinal gradient in cut sections, there is a chance of water
seeping from higher ground along the middle of carriageway, and hence it is desirable to
intercept transverse or diagonal drains. Longitudinal subsurface drain is a French drain
comprising of a perforated HDPE/PVC pipe buried in graded aggregates. The subsurface
drain shall be constructed as per Clause 300.9 of MORTH Specifications gives details of
subsurface drain. Graded aggregates when placed in the trench surrounded by soil normally
will enter graded aggregates. Therefore, a geo-filter fabric is used for wrapping the aggregate
to function as separation and filter medium. Some details of aggregates, synthetic geo-filter,
perforated pipe and sand required for this work are explained in Clause 300.9 of MORTH
Specifications. Geo-filter shall conform to Clause 702 of MORTH Specifications.
Sinking of Hill Road due to Seepage of Water underneath the Road

Where sinking phenomenon of road is noticed in hills, depressing the side-drain toward the
hill and providing RCC Lining is one of the solutions. Water should not be permitted to seep
under the pavement layers. If necessary a couple of more cross-drainage structures should be
constructed at such locations.
RCC Box Drain to Serve as Surface cum Sub-surface Drain

It is possible to combine both surface and subsurface drains with the help of a RCC Box
section. The drain will have grated openings for collecting surface runoff from pavement and

at the same time it can intercept subsurface water like seepage water from cut section in hilly
terrain through well designed weep-holes.
Use of RCC Pipe for the Purpose of Side-drain to dispose of Surface Water
In a kerbed pavement use of RCC pipe (preferably NP-3 pipes) can be used for the purpose of
surface drainage. Manholes shall be constructed at a spacing of 10 to 20 m as per the
requirement of site condition so that the water collected at the edges is disposed from the
opening provided in kerbs.
Treatment of Capillary Rise of Water

Locations where water-table or high flood level is too high, it is likely to affect subgrade and
embankment and weaken them and hence the IRC: 37 recommends that road level should be
maintained such that the water table or high flood level should be such that the bottom of
subgrade should have a free board of not less than 0.6-1 .0 m above design HFL. If increasing
of road level is difficult or due to financial implication, a capillary cut-off should be
provided. Consequence of not providing capillary cut-off leads to the 'boggy action' i.e.
spring action which is common in roads near canals and nallahs especially where soil is
predominantly silty or clayey. In the absence of a cut-off layer the pavement fails
prematurely with cracks, rutting and potholes
Retrofitting of Subsurface Drainage System
Subsurface Drainage Arrangement

There are situations where old roads are found getting distressed due to lack of subsurface
drainage system. Where the longitudinal joints with shoulder have widened there will be
requirement of retrofitting subsurface drainage system or providing bituminous or concrete
shoulder which can be sealed. It does not help if the opened joint is filled with fresh soil or
granular mix.
Aggregate Drains
After completion of a pavement without subsurface drainage arrangement, if subsurface
moisture is trapped in granular base and sub-bases, aggregate drains suggested in Clause
309.3.7 of MORTH Specifications can be provided Two types of arrangements can be
provided; one with longitudinal drain along the road edge with laterally drains at regular
intervals of 5 to 10 m as per site conditions. The minimum width of drain can be 300 mm and
should be provided up to the depth of granular layers. Such drain can perform without getting
chocked if the aggregates are wrapped with geo-filter fabric.

CHAPTER 4
2.4.0 Ground Improvement
Ground improvement is the enhancement or alteration of engineering properties of existing
soil or ground by adding the suitable admixture/chemical or the controlled application of
technique suited to the subsoil conditions. This may be happed with the extraction of any
unsuitable matter from the ground. This is typically done to overcome challenges posed by
weak or problematic soil conditions at a construction site. Ground improvement techniques
aim to create a more stable and reliable foundation for various structures, such as buildings,
roads, bridges, and other infrastructure projects.
2.4.1 Need of the Ground Improvement

The foundation design shall be carried out on the basis of size, loading exerted by the
structure, bearing capacity and settlement analysis of soil of the sub soil. The ground
improvement is needed if the net loading intensity of the foundation exceeds the allowable
pressure computed as per IS 6403. The ground improvement is also indicated if even for
relative low loading intensities, the resultant settlement exceeds the acceptable limits as
specified in IS 1904. The cohesionless soil deposit in the seismic zones may be prone to
liquefaction during earthquakes especially under water table conditions. In such cases the
analysis should be carried out for establishing liquefaction potential of the sub soil. The
ground improvement is needed if the sub soil is prone to liquefaction. Similarly, the stability
of the slopes can be improved substantially by the use of soil reinforcement.
Following information shall be collected to establish the need for ground improvement:
The information shall be acquired by conducting soil investigations as per IS 1892. Subsoil
profile and soil characteristics up to a depth of about twice the width of the loaded area or up
to dense/hard strata if encountered earlier. Engineering properties of subsoil shall include
index properties, shear parameters, compressibility characteristics etc. Boreholes shall be
supplemented by conducting a suitable number of static/ dynamic cone penetration tests up to
the depth to be improved. In conjunction with selected boreholes these tests serve as an
economical and rapid method of establishing the state of subsoil before and after treatment.
Information shall be obtained with respect to nature of structure and area covered by it,
intensity and nature of loading, permissible distortions, the structure can withstand as per IS
13094.
2.4.2 Methods of Ground Improvements

The ground improvement can be done by following methods:
(a) Soil Densification
(b) Pre-Loading and stage construction
(c) Injection or Grouting
(d) Soil Reinforcement
2.4.2.1 Soil Densification or Surface Compaction

Soil compaction is the practice of applying mechanical compactive effort to densify a soil by
reducing the void space between soil particles. Compaction occurs when particles are pressed

together to reduce the space between them. Highly compacted soils contain very few spaces
resulting in soil with higher unit weight. Maximum density is achieved at optimum moisture
content (OMC). The process of compaction decreases the likelihood of settlement after a
building, roadway, runway or parking lot is constructed. Settlement could result in premature
pavement failure, costly maintenance or repairs.
The densification of cohesion less soils to increase the load-bearing capacity can be achieved
by imparting shocks or vibrations prior to construction. Granular soils such as sand can be
loaded directly; however, granular soil saturated with water can lose its strength and stiffness
in response to an earthquake or other rapid stress. This process, known as liquefaction, can
result in very serious damage. Re-arranging the soil particles into a denser state lowers the
risk of both settlement and liquefaction. The best compaction equipment for the job depends
mainly on the layer thickness of the sand. The ability to compact thicker layers saves money
and time.
2.4.2.1.1 Rapid Impact Compaction

To compact soils at intermediate depths of up to 6 meters, excavators deployed, fitted with
compaction hammers. This so called Rapid Impact Compaction (RIC) method drops a heavy
tamper from relative low height with high frequency. The impact causes the soil particles to
re-arrange and offer optimum performance. This technique makes HEIC a very cost-effective
compaction method.
Types of Compactors
Soil compaction rollers come in a variety of styles with different options such as single or
double drums, vibratory mechanisms or dozer blades.
 Smooth rollers use static pressure, sometimes in conjunction with vibration and
impact, to compact soil. Smooth rollers are not the only type of compactor utilized,
but more than likely used in the final compaction step to provide a smooth surface for
construction.
 Pad foot and Tamping foot rollers use manipulative force to break the natural bonds
between particles for better compaction, especially in cohesive soils. They have
tapered feet so they do not fluff the soil decreasing the ability of soil to absorb
additional moisture should it rain.
 On small to medium soil compaction jobs, pneumatic rollers use staggered rubber
tires with varying pressure where the surface of bladed granular base materials need
to be sealed.
 In confined zones a rammer can be used to densify soil.
2.4.2.1.2 Heavy Energy Impact Compaction

The heavy-duty roller compactors are used for the compaction of more shallow layers of up
to 2 meters. The rollers are shaped to deliver high-energy blows to the ground for
compaction. Deep Dynamic compaction is a ground improvement technique that uses a drop
weight to densify loose soils. Soil densification is carried out by the repeated, controlled
impact of a heavy weight (10-40 tons) on the ground surface. Vibrations are generated for a

considerable lateral distance. With this method, bearing capacity is improved, settlements are
reduced and liquefaction potential is diminished.
.
Figure 4.1: Smooth Rollers With Vibration Figure 4.2: Pad Foot and Tamping Foot
Rollers
Figure 4.3: Pneumatic Rollers Figure 4.4: Light Weight Compactor
Figure 4.5: Deep Dynamic Compaction
2.4.3 Lime and Soil Stabilization: Soil stabilization occurs when lime is added to a
reactive soil to generate long-term strength gain through a pozzolanic reaction. This reaction
produces stable calcium silicate hydrates and calcium aluminates hydrates as the calcium
from the lime reacts with the aluminates and silicates solubilised from the clay. The full-term
pozzolanic reaction can continue for a very long period of time, even decades -- as long as
enough lime is present and the pH remain high (above 10). As a result, lime treatment can
produce high and long-lasting strength gains. The key to pozzolanic reactivity and
stabilization is a reactive soil, a good mix design protocol, and reliable construction practices.

Method of Mixing Lime into Soil

The method of mixing lime into soil for stabilization contains following steps.
 The soil which needs stabilization is scarified and pulverized by suitable equipment.
 Now add some amount of lime to the pulverized soil either in powder form or in the
form of slurry and mix using suitable equipment. In general slurry is recommend for
better mixing.
 If lime powder is used, water should be sprayed all over the soil.
 Leave this mixture for 1 to 4 days since, lime-soil reaction is slow process and needs
some time.
 After that, add rest of the lime content and mix it for the final time.
 Spread the soil to required grade and compact it using rollers. compaction should get
required maximum dry density.
 The compacted lime-soil layer is allowed for moist curing for 1 week.
 Field tests are conducted to check water content and maximum dry density of
compacted soil.
Scarification and Initial Pulverization: After the soil has been brought to line and grade,
the sub-grade can be scarified to the specified depth and width and then partially pulverized.
It is desirable to remove non-soil materials larger than 3 inches, such as stumps, roots, turf,
and aggregates. Scarification is done because a scarified or pulverized sub-grade offers more
soil surface contact area for the lime at the time of lime application.
Preliminary Mixing and Watering: Preliminary mixing is required to distribute the lime
throughout the soil and to initially pulverize the soil to prepare for the addition of water to
initiate the chemical reaction for stabilization. During this process or immediately after, water
should be added to ensure the complete hydration and a quality stabilization project. Some
Factors Affecting Lime-Soil Stabilizations are Lime Type, Lime Content, Compaction,
Curing, Additives.
Figure 4.6: Scarification and Initial Figure 4.7: Spreading Lime

Pulverization

Figure 4.8: Adding Water After Dry Lime Figure 4.9: Compacting and Mixing Lime-
Application Soil
2.4.4 Grouting is the process to inject grout into the ground. Hence, the volume of the
ground ready to accept grout is the primary consideration before any other considerations.
Grout can be defined as a solution, an emulsion or suspension in water, which will harden
after a certain time interval.
2.4.4.1 Cement Grouting

Cement grouting is a process used in construction and civil engineering to fill voids or
cavities in concrete structures, soil, rock, or other substrates using a fluid cement-based
material. Grouting is commonly used for various purposes, such as improving the stability of
foundations, repairing cracks in concrete structures, and strengthening the ground. The
process involves injecting a mixture of cement, water, and often additives (such as
accelerators or retarders) into the voids or spaces. The grout material is usually prepared to
have a specific consistency that allows it to flow easily and penetrate the target area. Once
injected, the grout hardens over time, effectively filling the void and providing additional
structural support. There are different types of cement grouting techniques, including:
Pressure Grouting: In this method, grout is injected under pressure into voids or fissures to
improve the strength of soil or rock, or to fill gaps in concrete structures.
Injection Grouting: This technique involves injecting grout into cracks, joints, or gaps in
concrete structures to repair them and prevent further deterioration.
Compaction Grouting: Used for soil improvement, this method involves injecting low-
mobility grout in controlled quantities to densify and stabilize loose or weak soils.
Permeation Grouting: This technique is used to reduce the permeability of soils or rock by
injecting low-viscosity grout, which penetrates the substrate and reacts to form a solid mass.
Curtain Grouting: Often used to control groundwater flow, this method involves creating a
barrier by injecting grout into the soil or rock to block the movement of water.

Void Filling: Grouting is also employed to fill voids, such as abandoned underground
structures or mine workings, to prevent collapse and subsidence.
The selection of grout materials, equipment, and techniques depends on the specific project
requirements, the characteristics of the substrate, and the desired outcome. It's important to
consider factors such as grout mix design, injection pressure, curing time, and environmental
conditions to ensure the effectiveness and long-term stability of the grouted area.
2.4.4.2 Compaction Grouting; Compaction grouting is a soil injection with low

workability cement paste that remains homogeneous without entering in the soil pores. The
cement mass extends, soil is moved and finally compacted. Using compaction grouting leads
to significantly enhance parameters of the entire mass of improved soil this kind of
improvement can be used both under foundations of newly designed and existing buildings
Figure 4.10
a) Replacement Jet Grouting b) Mixing Jet Grouting
Figure 4.11: Compaction Grouting

2.4.4.3 Jet Grouting; Applications of the jet grouting system fall into three broad
categories: underpinning or excavation support, stabilization of soft or liquefiable soils,
groundwater or pollution control. The method consists of soil injection of a mixed fluid at
high pressure forming jets that erode and replace the existing soil with the injection mixture.
In general this method begins by drilling small-diameter holes (90-150 mm) up to the final
injection depth. Cement mixture is injected into the soil with a metal rod that runs a rotational
and withdrawal motion whilst. This technology is useful to underpinnings of existing
foundations, to support excavations in cohesive less soil, to control the groundwater
migration and to improve the strength of liquefiable soil
2.4.5 Soil Reinforcement

Rods, strips or fabrics incorporated within soil mass to impart resistance to tensile, shear and
compressive forces. Reinforcement introduced into the soil mass causes marked improvement
in stiffness and consequently load carrying capacity and stability of soil mass.
Reinforcements may be in the form of dense granular materials in the form of stone columns.
These are used where the primary requirement is increased in capability to carry vertical
loads. Reinforcements may also be in the form of horizontal or vertical strips and membranes.
These reinforcements serve significantly to increase the capacity of soil to withstand tensile,
shear and compression loads and contribute towards improvement of stability of soil mass. It
is done with the accordance of IS 13904.
2.4.5.1 Stone Column

The design methodology as well as the construction techniques for installation of stone
columns particularly for wide spread loads, such as tanks, embankment and fills. The
parameters required for design are also included. The scope is limited to the computation of
allowable loads and settlements for wide spread loads.
For the purpose of this standard the following definitions shall apply.
Displacement/Non-displacement Type of Installation Process — If the soil is laterally

displaced while making the hole due to driving of a tube or a casing, it is the displacement
type of boring. When the soil is taken out during boring, it is non displacement type of
installation,
Ground Improvement — To improve the load bearing capacity of the loose or soft soil to
the required depth by some practical methods
Sensitivity of Clay — The ratio of the unconfined compressive strength of clay at its natural
state to the remoulded condition.
Working Stone Column — A stone column forming part of a foundation system of a

structure.
Initial Test Column — Columns, which are not working columns, but are installed for
assessing the load carrying capacity of a stone column, such columns may be tested either to

its ultimate load capacity or to at least 1.5 times the design load. The test is called initial load
test.
Routine Test Column — The column that is selected for load testing and is subsequently
loaded for the purpose. The test column may form a working column itself, if subjected to
routine load test with loads upto 1.1 times the safe load. This testis called routine load test.
Ultimate Load — The maximum load which a column can carry before failure of ground or
column material, whichever is lower.
Safe Load — Load derived by applying a factor of safety on the ultimate load capacity of the
column or as determined by the column load test.
Factor of Safety — Ratio of the ultimate load capacity of a column to the safe load capacity
of the stone column.
Allowable Load — The load which may be applied to a stone column after taking into
account its ultimate load capacity, column spacing, allowable settlement, etc.
Working Load — The load assigned to a column as per design.

For further information takes as per IS 15284 (Part 1)
2.4.6 Chemical Stabilization

Chemical stabilization is a ground improvement technique used to modify the properties of
soils by introducing chemical additives. The goal is to enhance the soil's engineering
characteristics and make it more suitable for construction purposes. This technique is
commonly employed to improve soil strength, reduce compressibility, control swelling and
shrinkage, increase load-bearing capacity, and enhance durability. Chemical stabilization can
be particularly useful for projects involving foundations, roads, embankments, and other
infrastructure where the existing soil properties are inadequate.
Lime: Lime, usually in the form of quicklime (calcium oxide) or hydrated lime (calcium
hydroxide), is mixed with soil to improve its plasticity, increase cohesion, and reduce
swelling. Lime reacts with clay minerals in the soil, causing flocculation and improving
overall stability.
Cement: Portland cement is mixed with soil to create a cement-treated base. The cement
binds soil particles, creating a stronger and more stable material with improved load-bearing
capacity and reduced permeability.
Fly Ash: Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion and can be used to stabilize soils. It
reduces plasticity, increases strength, and enhances durability while reducing the risk of
shrinkage and swelling.

Bitumen: Bituminous materials are added to soil to create bituminous soil mixtures. This
technique enhances the soil's water resistance and improves load-bearing capacity,
particularly in road construction.
Chemical Polymers: Polymers can be added to soil to improve its mechanical properties,
such as strength and cohesion. These polymers create bonds between soil particles, leading to
enhanced stability.
Sodium Silicate: Also known as water glass, sodium silicate can be injected into the soil to
chemically stabilize it. It reacts with the soil's minerals to increase cohesion and reduce
permeability.
The chemical stabilization process typically involves mixing the chosen chemical additive
with the soil either in situ (on-site) or in a controlled environment. The mixture is then
compacted and cured to allow the chemical reactions to take place and the desired changes in
soil properties to occur.
Benefits of chemical stabilization include:
- Improved Engineering Properties: Chemical stabilization enhances soil properties,

making it better suited for construction and load-bearing purposes.
- Cost and Time Savings: This technique can often reduce the need for extensive
excavation, transportation of replacement materials, and construction time.
- Versatility: Chemical stabilization can be applied to a wide range of soil types and project
scenarios.
However, it's important to consider the potential environmental impacts of using certain
chemical additives. The choice of chemical agent and the dosage should be based on careful
site investigations, laboratory testing, and consideration of local environmental regulations.
Overall, chemical stabilization is a valuable tool in geotechnical engineering for transforming
poor-quality soils into stable, usable materials for construction projects.

CHAPTER 5
2.5.0 Earth Retaining Structure
For roads and bridges, the choice of earth retaining structures depends on various factors
including the site's geotechnical conditions, space constraints, aesthetic considerations, and
budget. Here are some commonly used earth retaining structures for roads and bridges:
Gravity Wall
RCC Wall
Gabion Wall
Reinforced Earth Wall
 Retained Fill
 Reinforced Fill
 Wall Fascia
 Reinforcing Material
 Construction Details
It's important to note that the design and construction of earth retaining structures for roads
and bridges should follow relevant engineering standards and guidelines. Detailed
geotechnical investigations, analysis, and proper construction techniques are essential to
ensure the safety and long-term stability of these structures.
2.5.1 Gravity Wall

A gravity wall is a type of earth retaining structure that relies on its own weight and mass to
resist the lateral pressure of soil or other materials behind it. These walls are commonly used
in civil engineering and construction to retain soil, provide stability to slopes, and create level
surfaces in various applications such as roads, highways, bridges, and landscaping projects.
Key characteristics and features of gravity walls include:
1. Design Principles: Gravity walls are designed based on the principle that their self-weight
provides the necessary resistance against the lateral forces exerted by the retained material.
The weight of the wall resists the tendency of the soil to slide or overturn.
2. Materials: Gravity walls can be constructed using a variety of materials, including

concrete, masonry blocks, stone, and even wood. The choice of material depends on factors
such as aesthetics, design requirements, and budget.
3. Shape and Profile: Gravity walls typically have a trapezoidal or triangular profile, with
the base of the wall wider than the top. This shape helps distribute the weight of the wall
more effectively and provides stability.
4. Stability and Mass: The stability of a gravity wall is achieved through its mass and the
proper distribution of the retained material. The wall's weight creates friction and resistance
against soil movement. The height of a gravity wall is limited by its self-weight and the
strength of the materials used.

5. Construction: Gravity walls are constructed by placing heavy materials in layers to build
up the desired height and shape. Proper compaction of the backfill material behind the wall is
crucial to ensure stability.
6. Drainage: Adequate drainage behind the wall is important to prevent water build-up that
could lead to increased pressure and potential instability. Drainage systems, such as gravel
backfill and perforated pipes, may be incorporated into the wall design.
7. Aesthetics: While gravity walls are primarily functional, their appearance can be enhanced
by using decorative facing materials, textures, and colors that complement the surrounding
environment.
8. Applications: Gravity walls are commonly used for retaining embankments along roads,
highways, and bridges. They can also be employed in landscaping projects to create terraced
gardens or level surfaces on sloping terrain.
It's important to note that the design of a gravity wall should be performed by qualified
engineers, taking into consideration factors such as soil properties, site conditions, loading
conditions, and safety requirements. Proper construction practices, including compaction,
drainage, and reinforcement (if necessary), are essential to ensure the long-term stability and
effectiveness of the gravity wall.
2.5.2 RCC Wall

An RCC (Reinforced Concrete) wall is a structural element made of concrete that is
reinforced with steel bars or mesh to enhance its strength and durability. RCC walls are
commonly used in construction for various purposes, including load-bearing, retaining, and
partitioning. Here's a more detailed explanation of RCC walls:
Composition and Construction:
1. Concrete: RCC walls are primarily composed of concrete, which is a mixture of cement,
aggregates (such as sand and gravel), and water. The concrete mixture is designed to achieve
the desired strength and durability.
2. Reinforcement: Steel reinforcement is incorporated within the concrete to provide

additional tensile strength, which concrete lacks. This reinforcement typically consists of
steel bars (rebars) or steel mesh, strategically placed within the wall to resist bending and
cracking under load.
Types of RCC Walls:
1. Load-Bearing Walls: These walls support the vertical load of the structure and transfer it
to the foundation. They play a crucial role in maintaining the structural integrity of buildings.

2. Retaining Walls: RCC retaining walls are used to hold back soil and prevent erosion,
especially in areas with changes in elevation. They are commonly employed in landscaping
and road construction.
3. Shear Walls: These walls are designed to resist lateral forces, such as wind or seismic
loads, and contribute to the overall stability of the structure. Shear walls are particularly
important in high-rise buildings.
4. Partition Walls: RCC partition walls are non-load-bearing walls that divide interior
spaces. They provide privacy and help in organizing the layout of a building.
Advantages of RCC Walls:
1. Strength: The combination of concrete and steel reinforcement makes RCC walls strong
and capable of withstanding various loads and forces.
2. Durability: RCC walls are resistant to fire, weathering, and deterioration, making them
suitable for long-lasting structures.
3. Versatility: RCC walls can be molded into different shapes and sizes, allowing for a wide
range of architectural designs.
4. Cost-Effectiveness: Compared to some other construction methods, RCC walls offer a

cost-effective solution, especially for large-scale projects.
Construction Process:
1. Design: Engineers design RCC walls based on structural requirements, considering factors
like load, height, and purpose. They specify the dimensions, reinforcement details, and
concrete mix design.
2. Formwork: Formwork is set up to define the shape of the wall during construction. It is
usually made of wood, steel, or other materials and provides support for the wet concrete
until it cures.
3. Reinforcement Placement: Steel reinforcement is placed within the formwork according

to the design specifications. The reinforcement is tied together to form a sturdy framework.
4. Concrete Pouring: Fresh concrete is poured into the formwork, encapsulating the steel
reinforcement. Care is taken to ensure proper compaction and elimination of air pockets.
5. Curing: Once the concrete is poured, it needs time to cure and gain strength. Curing is
usually done by keeping the concrete moist and protected from rapid temperature changes.

6. Formwork Removal: After the concrete has cured sufficiently, the formwork is removed.
This reveals the finished RCC wall.
7. Finishing: Depending on the intended use and aesthetics, the surface of the RCC wall may
be finished with treatments such as plaster, paint, or other decorative elements.
RCC walls are fundamental components of modern construction, offering strength, durability,
and versatility for a wide range of architectural and structural applications.
2.5.3 Gabion Wall

A Gabion structure is prepared from pre-assembled rectangular cages made of double twisted
steel woven wire mesh filled with rocks/ boulders. It is a simple gravity retaining structure,
which retains soil with its weight. These types of structures are in use in highways, bridges,
canal linings, buildings, shore protection works, etc. The porosity of gabions prevents the
pore-water pressure development behind the walls which, is one of the major advantages of
these kinds of systems. These structures blend with the surroundings and allow vegetation to
take roots through the structure which enhances the life of the structure. Reduced carbon foot
prints are also a noticeable feature when compared to conventional solutions. Design
principles and installation methodology for Gabion and Revet Mattresses for use in highway
and bridge structures. It is done in the accordance with IRC SP 116
Foundation and Backfill Soil Properties

The value of cohesion ‘c’ and angle of internal friction ‘Φ’ vary for different backfill and
foundation materials. These values shall be determined by carrying out tests in laboratory. In
case of absence of the soil properties, values given in IS 14458 (Part-2) may be used.
2.5.3.1 Retained Fill

The type of materials to be used for filling behind abutments and other retaining structures
should be selected with care. A general guide for section of filling material of group has been
given in Table 5.1 as per IS 1498.
Table 5.1: Classification and Identification of Soils
Sr. No. Soil Group Unit Dry Weight(g/cm3 )

1 GW 2.00-2.16
2 GP 1.84-2.00
3 GM 1.92-2.16
4 GC 1.84-2.08
5 SW 1.76-2.08
6 SP 1.60-1.92
7 SM 1.76-2.00
8 SC 1.68-2.00
9 ML, MI 1.52-1.92

2.5.3.2 Reinforced Fill

The fill in the reinforced soil zone shall have drained or effective angle of friction not less
than 30°, measured in accordance with IS 2720 (Part-13), by conducting a drained direct
shear test. In case the fill material has 25 percent or more particles of 4.75 mm or larger,
drained shear test using large shear box may be conducted IS 2720 (Part-39). The gradation
of fill soil shall be as per following limits.
Table 5.2 The Gradation of Fill Soil
Sieve Size Percentage Fine

75 mm 100 %
425 micron 60-90
75 micron <15
PI ≤ 6
Materials with more than 15 percent passing 75 micron sieve, but less than 10 percent of
particles smaller than 15 microns are acceptable provided PI is less than 6 and angle of
friction is not less than 30 degree. In many applications where the retained fill such as
Clayey / Sandy Gravel (residual soil) locally called as ‘murram’, classified as GC, GM or
GC-GM may be used provided the fines content (defined as combined percentage of silt and
clay) does not exceed 20 %. It is done by the accordance of IRC SP 116
2.5.3.3 Wall Fascia

Reinforced Soil (RS) wall / slope facia can be built with a stepped or vertical face, with or
without a batter. These RS structures are designed for sites and situations where it is 17 IRC:
SP: 116 necessary to reconstitute the soil mass and where stone filling is scarce or expensive
to obtain. Vertical facing RS wall and slope shall be designed as per and IRC: SP: 102 and
BS 8006. It is done by the accordance of IRC SP 116
2.5.3.4 Reinforcing Material

Mechanically woven double twisted steel wire mesh units used for soil reinforced and slope
consolidation. For structures with vertical facing units are made with a hexagonal wire mesh
continuous base panel for the reinforcement and facing portion of the structure.
Mechanically woven double twisted steel wire mesh unit and continuous base panel is
divided into two cells by means of a diaphragm positioned at approximately 1 m centers. The
diaphragm shall be secured in position to the base so that no additional lacing is necessary at
the jobsite. The facing section of the unit is formed by connecting the back panel and a
diaphragm to the main unit. Mechanically woven double twisted steel wire mesh units are
combined with high strength geogrid when only mesh tensile strength is not sufficient to
resist forces. Vertical facing units are combined with high strength geogrid which act as
primary soil reinforcement and continuous base panel act as secondary reinforcement with
friction. Vertical facing RS unit is held by friction between the facia and primary
reinforcement. Structure shall be designed based on results of pullout test as per ASTM D

6638. In case, facia is connected to reinforcement using mechanical connection, a reduction

factor for joint strength must be included. The test procedure to be followed is a sustained
ASTM D5262 test. Note that this test is to be conducted for 1,000 hours at a minimum as
mentioned in GRI Standard Practice GG4 (b). The connection between the facia and the
reinforcement shall provide for 100 % of the long term design strength of the reinforcing
element in continuity. It is done by the accordance of IRC SP 116
2.5.3.5 Construction Details

Gabion structure is a simple flexible gravity retaining structure, which retains soil with its
weight. Gabion walls are designed on the same principle as gravity mass wall. The gabion
structure should be designed in such manner that gabion mesh can hold the rock within with
limited deformation which does not affect aesthetics and internal stability. Limit state
principles are used for design of gabion walls. Based on the requirement at the site, the
gabion walls can be designed with several configurations such as (a) with stepped outside or
(b) as stepped inside or (c) offset. The latter is preferable from economy, but site constraints
predominate.
The gabions are designed as the gravity retaining structures and analysed as follows. Before
the design of the gabion structure, the important parameters which are basic for the design
have to be worked out. These include: a) Foundation soil properties b) Retained soil
properties c) Drainage requirements d) Rock (to fill gabions) properties e) Base width f)
Embedment depth g) Batter angle h) Loading i) Extent of backfill j) Seismic loading k)
Porosity of Gabion. It is done by the accordance of IRC SP 116
2.5.4 Reinforced Earth Wall (Accordance with IRC SP 102)

The design and construction of approaches retaining soil/fill leading to the open spans of
bridges, flyovers, roads, over-bridges crossing railways and retaining walls of high fills for
road embankments are covered in these Guidelines. Reinforced soil improves the load
carrying capacity and reduces compressibility under the load. Technical details of such
applications are outside the scope of the Guidelines. The use of RS Walls as abutment to
carry the loads from open spans is not covered by these guidelines. Reinforced Soil
Structures with slope angle of less than 70 degrees to the horizontal are not covered by these
guidelines.
The coverage of Guidelines includes, but is not limited to:
• Materials and properties of reinforcement as well as the soil used in its construction
• Types of reinforcements, fills, and facings
• Testing of materials
• Design methods
• Broad method of construction to realise desired properties and behavior of RS Walls
• Overview of non-conventional ground improvement methods used in RS Walls.
This processor is done in accordance with IRC: SP: 102

2.5.4.1 Retained Fill

The retained fill in case of 2 lane and 4 lane highway projects where the total width is not
very significant shall be of same specification as reinforced fill. However, in the case of six
lane projects or four lanes with slope surcharge it is experienced that large quantity of fill is
required. In case the retained fill is not available in requisite quantity, fill meeting the criteria
mentioned below may be used.
a) Recommended properties:
i) Angle of internal friction (ϕ) ≥ 25°
ii) Plasticity Index ≤ 20
Retained soil can be natural or borrowed. Properties of the retained soil are essential to
determine the lateral earth pressure. In case configuration as per Fig. 2A is adopted the earth
pressure acting on the reinforced fill will be a function of angle of friction of retained fill.
The friction value of the retained fill in this arrangement will be lesser than that of the
reinforced fill. Hence the earth pressure acting on reinforced soil mass will be more than the
earth pressure compared to the case where the fill material in both zones is identical. Another
possible configuration of retained fill is shown in Fig. 2B. In this arrangement since the
retained fill is extended up to conventional Rankine's failure zone, the earth pressure acting
on the reinforced zone is same as per the properties of reinforced fill. Properties of the
retained soil/fill like grain size distribution, angle of internal friction (under drained and un-
drained conditions), Atterberg’s limits, density, and permeability should be determined
before proceeding with design. If a retained fill is not permeable, drainage should be ensured
by providing a drainage bay between the retained and reinforced fill as well as the retained
soil and the founding soil, if required.
For the retained soil, the value of phi considered in design should be arrived at using a
similar approach for the reinforced soil as outlined in the subsequent sections. It is done in
accordance with IRC: SP: 102
2.5.4.2 Reinforced Fill

The reinforced soil/fill is essentially borrowed. Properties of this soil play crucial role in the
performance of the RS structure. The soil is borrowed from quarries, river beds etc .It is
essential to know if the material borrowed would be consistent with reference to the quantity
required and if not, what levels of variations are likely. Besides performance, the cost of the
RS structure is also sensitive and dependent on the properties of the reinforced soil. It is
desirable that the reinforced fill be free draining with majority of the shear strength
component derived from internal friction. The desirable gradation of the reinforced fill is
shown in Table 5.3. The gradation proposed would ensure that the fill is well graded; free
draining and has adequate shear strength once it is compacted. Properties of the reinforced
soil like grain size distribution, Atterberg’s limits, drained shear strength (peak as well as
residual value), permeability, maximum dry density and OMC as obtained from a Heavy
Compaction Test (corresponding to Modified Proctor Test) or relative density (whichever
applicable), compactibility should be determined before proceeding with design with great
care.

Table 5.3 Desirable Gradation for Reinforced Soil Fill
Sieve Size Percentage Finer (in %)

75 mm 100
4.75 mm 85-100
425 micron 60-90
75 micron < 15
The backfill should also have Plasticity Index, PI ≤ 6 and Cu > 2.

Soil/Fill with more than 15 percent passing 75 micron sieve, but less than 10 percent of
particles smaller than 15 microns are acceptable provided PI is less than 6 and angle of
friction is not less than 30°.
As a result of recent research on construction survivability of geo-synthetics and epoxy
coated reinforcements, it is recommended that the maximum particle size for these materials
be reduced to ¾ - in. (19 mm) for geo-synthetics, and epoxy and PVC coated steel
reinforcements unless construction damage assessment tests are or have been performed on
the reinforcement combination with the specific or similarly graded large size granular fill.
Pre qualification tests on reinforcements using fill materials should be conducted before
proceeding with design. It is performed as per IRC SP 102
2.5.4.3 Wall Fascia

The facing is provided to prevent spilling/falling over of the fill and also to provide firm
anchorage to the reinforcement. Facings should be tough and robust. Facing also provides an
aesthetic architectural finish to the RS structure.
The facing system shall be one of the following (Refer MORTH specifications -2013)
a) Precast reinforced concrete panels
b) Precast concrete blocks and precast concrete hollow blocks
c) Gabion facing
d) Wrap around facing using geo-synthetics
e) Metallic facing, prefabricated in different shapes including welded wire grid and woven
steel wire mesh
f) Other proprietary and proven systems
The facing should be designed to withstand the stresses it is subjected to. Typically the
normal stresses arising would be due to the panels/blocks above it and forces and moments
arising due to connections to reinforcement. It is done in accordance with IRC SP 102
2.5.4.4 Reinforcing Material

Different types of reinforcements used in reinforced soil walls are:-
- Metallic elements like bars, strips, plates etc.
- Metallic reinforcement in form of mesh
- Polymeric elements like strips, grids, rods, mesh etc.
All types of Reinforcements are taken beyond the Rankine zone into the resistant zone to

ensure sufficient bond and anchorage.

Reinforcement used to resist lateral loads can be metallic (typically inextensible) or
polymeric (typically extensible). Polymers are visco-elastic materials. Strength of polymeric
reinforcement is therefore largely affected by temperature and time (creep). Evaluation of
strength should account for these two important factors. The tensile strength should be
evaluated by conducting a wide width tensile test (ISO 10319 or ASTM D 6637 or EN
10223-3 for woven steel wire mesh). Ail tests related to the reinforcement should be
performed in an independent accredited laboratory which is accredited by a competent
authority. This process is done by IRC SP 102
2.5.4.5 Construction Details

The performance of the RS structure hinges not only on design but to a larger extent on the
care and accuracy to which the construction is carried out. Construction of Reinforced soil
structures should be therefore given due importance especially since it involves layer wise
construction. The responsibility of the construction of a RS Wall will solely lie with the main
contractor. Steps involved in construction are described below in the following section.
Placing and Fixing of Reinforcement and Facing Elements with Backfill

1) Foundation treatment, if required, shall be first completed to ensure that design parameters
are attained. It should be noted that use of RS Wall structures does not imply that "no
foundation treatment is required."
2) The plan of the structure shall be marked on ground as per approved drawings.
3) Excavate and compact the base the ground to the embedment depth and required width, to
a dry density of 95 percent of the Modified Proctor Density.
4) The trench shall be backfilled using reinforced fill, levelled and well compacted to
achieve
95 percent Modified Proctor Maximum Dry Density.
5) An initial levelling pad of 150 mm thick using (minimum) M15 plain cement concrete
having suitable width to be placed below the first row of fascia layer.
6) The first layer of face block or element on the base and level envisaged in the drawing.
7) The alignment of the block/facing element must be checked regularly to make sure the
wall is straight or curve as per drawing.
8) The required thickness of drainage material shall be placed at the back facing block/panel
and in the hollows effacing block. The drainage material shall be compacted with
vibratory plate compactor and within the block cavities. No heavy compaction equipment
should be allowed to operate within 1.5m of the back of face panel.
9) Placing the reinforced soil backfill behind the drainage zone and compacting to a
minimum of 95 percent Modified Proctor density/80 percent Relative Density. The
backfill should be placed and compacted in layers. The compacted thickness of each layer
shall not exceed 200 mm. At no stage of construction the compaction or any other
equipment shall be allowed to operate directly on the reinforcement.
10) When in direct contact, the backfill material and the drainage material shall be separated
using permeable non-woven geotextile.

11) The successive face element shall be placed as per required line and level. In several
cases outward movement has been observed due to poor connection of reinforcement
with face element. Provisions given in Section 3.4 of IRC: SP: 102- 2014 should be
followed for details of connections. The same procedure shall be repeated until the final
layer of reinforcement is reached.
12) Before placing the drainage material and backfill, the reinforcement should be cut to
length and placed on top of the face block. The reinforcement should be stretched to
ensure that there are no wrinkles and the reinforcement istaut.
13) Care should be taken to ensure that geogrid is slightly away from the external junction of
outside face of fascia block. This will ensure that the geogrid does not protrude out of
the wall and is prevented from UV ray exposure.
14) Second layer of facia block is laid over the geogrid, so that geogrid is completely
interlocked between the blocks. The above procedure is repeated for subsequent geogrid
layers.
15) Where panels are used, the reinforcement should be connected to connector embedded in
the panel. The connection envisaged should be clearly indicated in the approved design
and outlined in the "good/fit for construction drawings". At no stage of construction the
details envisaged in design should be changed.
16) When panels are used it is desirable to keep an initial inward better. It should be in
accordance with MoRTH 3106.3 which states that it may be necessary to set facing unit
at an additional batter than as provided in the drawings since there is a tendency for
initially positioned units of facia to lean outward as the fill material is placed and
compacted. Care and caution shall be taken to accommodate this phenomenon. At the
end of the construction, the face may have a slight residual inward batter.
17) Where the retained fill is borrowed and is different from the reinforced fill the
construction should progress simultaneously. It is desirable that face of the blocks be
profiled to have an inward batter of 2-4 degrees. Analysis of results shall be in
accordance with the IRC: SP: 102

CHAPTER 6
2.6.0 Landslide Investigation and Mitigation Measures
The investigation and characterization of surface as well as subsurface conditions form the
core of landslide studies. The success of mitigation and management agenda of any landslide
depends upon the quality of investigation carried out on that particular landslide site.
In case of new roads/corridors, the emphasis is on planning, at a stage where there is an
opportunity to choose the most favourable location for the alignment involving lowest overall
hazards and risk. The evaluation of terrain through investigations will lead to predict the
problems or hazards which may likely to occur after construction and consequently suitable
schemes or plans for mitigation and management of the indentified trouble areas can be taken
up. But for an existing road network, the focus on effective slope maintenance programme,
i.e. maintain the slopes at minimal economic cost and identifying slopes most at risk, and
providing remedial measures to minimize or eliminate risk. The investigation should be
comprehensive enough that appropriate corrective measures can be taken. So investigation is
the first step towards understanding the phenomena
Landslide investigations should be designed with reference to four basic guidelines that have
evolved over many years of experience:
 Most landslides or potential failures can be predicted if proper investigations are
performed in time;
 The cost of preventing landslides is less than the cost of correcting the affected
elements, except for small landslides that can be handled by normal maintenance
procedures;
 Massive landslides that may cost many times the cost of the original facility should be
prevented and
 The occurrence of initial slope movement can lead to additional unstable conditions
and movements.
2.6.1 Investigation Phases

The investigations of landslides have different phases. As already mentioned there are two
different conditions (virgin areas i.e. where roads are planned but not constructed and non-
virgin areas i.e. existing roads which are already affected due to landslides) requiring
investigation. The purpose of investigation is different for planned and existing roads,
although some primary phases of investigation are similar in both the cases
 For the virgin areas, in case of proposed road construction, the susceptibility of terrain
to landslides and probability of recurrence of such processes is determined.
 While in case of existing landslides on highways, investigation leads to identification
of the factors, causes, mechanisms, etc; and design of preventive measures preferably
innovative and cost-effective. It would also cover probability of recurrence of existing
landslides and susceptibility of the terrain to new landslides in future.

2.6.1.1 Preliminary Investigation

The purpose of the preliminary site investigation is to establish the geological/geotechnical
feasibility of the site and to determine the extent and precision of detailed surface/subsurface
investigation required to obtain information needed for design and construction of control/
preventive mitigation measures. The preliminary investigation consists of two parts:
a) Desk Study
The availability of desk study information, together with its scale and level of details, will
determine the extent to which desk studies can advance feasibility studies prior to embarking
on detailed fieldwork. The scope of desk study will depend on the availability and quality of
available information’s.
b) Reconnaissance Survey
The site reconnaissance may include both site inspection and local enquiries concerning
existing and proposed features on and adjacent to the site. With an approximate
understanding of the overall topographic feature and knowledge of the distinction(s) of
movement and aerial extent of the slide, a detailed field investigation plan can be developed
to delineate the aerial extent and a general direction of movement of the landslide zone,
assess the geology and geologic structure, estimate the cause(s) of the sliding, and predict
future movement.
2.6.1.2 Detailed Field Investigations and Mapping

The field investigation is the central and decisive part of a study of landslides and landslide
prone areas. With an approximate understanding of the overall topographic feature and
knowledge of the distinction of movement and the extent of the sliding blocks, a detailed
field investigation plan can be developed to delineate the aerial extent and a general direction
of movement of the landslide zone, assess the geology and geologic structure, estimate the
causes of the sliding, and predict future movement. A detailed investigation plan can be
drafted to delineate the:
 Type of landslide, its size and mechanism
 Aerial extent of the slide, identification of the direction of deformation
 Location and shape of slide plane(s)
 Nature of landslide block(s)
 Possibility of further or future movement on slopes above the existing slide
 Distribution of ground water
 Type of soil in the site area
i) Some Signs of Slope Movement

a) Tension Cracks on Roadway or on Slope above the Roadway
b) Escarpments in or above the Roadway
c) Sunken guardrail
d) Dips in Grade
e) Debris on Roadway
f) Bulge above, on, or below Roadway

ii) Landslide Hazard Inventory, Susceptibility, Zonation and Risk Assessment

In landslide investigation use of inventory, susceptibility and zonation maps can cut the cost
of road maintenance to a great extent. The utilization of these maps allows understanding the
degree of vulnerability the terrain is having for landslide hazard and the location of existing
landslides. This can help in optimizing the loss of construction of road, reduction in cost and
time for maintenance after construction; reduce risk to life and property etc.
iii) Investigation of Surface Deformation

The investigation of surface deformation is conducted to define the boundaries of the
landslide, size, level of activity and direction(s) of the movement, and to determine individual
moving blocks of the main slide. Instrumentation used for the surface deformation
investigation includes extensometers, ground tilt meters, and movement determination by
survey methods including transverse survey, grid survey, laser survey from the opposite
bank, movement determination by aerial photographs, and G.P.S.
During this phase, a detailed identification of terrain conditions, geologic formations, buried
stream beds, soil and rock formations need to be carried out with extensive use of aerial
photography and remote sensing and other types of mapping like topographical maps,
geological maps, geomorphological maps etc.
iv) Geotechnical Investigation

In order to conduct slope stability analyses and to design appropriate control measures for
landslides, physical properties such as strength of slide plane, location and depth of slide
plane and stable ground areas must be determined. The following tests are generally
performed;
 Physical tests
 Soil mechanic tests
v) Subsurface Investigation
Generally there are five types of field subsurface investigation methods:
1) Disturbed Sampling: Disturbed samples are generally obtained to determine the soil
type, gradation, classification, consistency, density, presence of contaminants, stratification,
etc.
2) Undisturbed Sampling: These samples are used to determine the in-place strength,
compressibility, natural moisture content, unit weight, permeability, discontinuities, fractures,
fissures of subsurface deposits.
3) In-situ Investigation: In situ methods can be particularly effective when they are used in
conjunction with conventional sampling to reduce the cost and time for field work. In-situ
tests are used to provide field measurements of soil and rock properties.

vi) Geophysical Investigation

Geophysical methods are used for prospection of landslide bodies, detection of
discontinuities and shear surfaces, as well as for investigation of hydrological regimes.
However gaps exist and wider application of geophysics in landslide research have been
hindered for two reasons: geophysical methods provide images of geophysical parameters
which are not directly linked to geological parameters required by geotechnical engineers and
geo-morphologists; and the overestimation of the quality and reliability of results among
some geophysicists. The development of 2D and 3D geophysical techniques has aroused a
growing interest for assessing the landslide volume, characterizing the physical properties of
the landslide material and locating the groundwater flows within and around the slide
Methodology for the measurement of subsurface conditions by seismic refractions and
planning of the survey is given in IS:15681
a) Laboratory Testing for Soils: The geotechnical engineer should conduct sufficient in
situ and/or laboratory testing to characterize the physical geotechnical parameters of the earth
materials affecting the proposed development.
b) Laboratory Testing for Rocks: Table 5 of BS 5930 gives the standard practice for
laboratory tests on rock. Also Table 9 of BS 5930 gives a guide for identification of rocks for
engineering purposes. Reference should be made to Section 6 BS 5930 of chapter: Laboratory
test on samples. The following codes of practice are given for laboratory testing of rocks.
vii) Ground Water Investigation

Investigation of ground water, which is a driving force of sliding, includes determining
ground water level, pore water pressure, ground water logging, ground water tracing test,
pumping test, water quality analysis, electricity survey, geothermal survey, and geophysical
logging (electric logging and radioactive logging). Based on the results of the above
measurements and tests, ground water control works can be planned and designed.
2.6.2 Enforcing Remedial/Control Measures

Identifying, the need for corrective works and remediation procedures is a critical component
of any investigation report in order to prevent the initiation of future landslide from the
unstable and weak geometry of the Relic of the slide. Measures should be provided in order
to stabilize the slide and prevent the formation of other slides in the disturbed areas.
2.6.3 Technology for Landslide Prevention and Remediation

The key of successful landslide management strategy is to design workable and economically
viable schemes of mitigation/preventive measures. The promotion of innovative and modern
technologies based on proven workability becomes the unavoidable choice.
The thumb rule says that slope failure occurs due to imbalance in the driving and resisting
forces of slope under the effect of gravitational forces. But the triggering factor/factors which
cause such imbalance are different at different incidence of landslides, greatly depending
upon the local conditions and hence this hazard is so varied in type and size. So it is essential
to identify potentially hazardous slopes and control their instability by providing suitable

remedial measures. For prevention and remediation of such consequences of landslides there
are a number of effective remedial measures which can avoid or minimize their adverse
effects. The slope can be stabilized by a single method or concomitant methods of prevention
totally depending upon the nature, size, location, causative factors of the landslide. The
effectiveness, acceptability and durability of remedial measures, to a large extent depend
upon the quality of investigation carried out for identified correct problematic factors of the
landslides
2.6.3.1 Slope Instability and their Stabilization

Landforms are the products of the local balance between weathering, erosion and deposition
and are continuously evolving. Slopes that are too steep for the weathered material to remain
stable are subject to periodic failure. Instability may be associated with moderate to steeply
sloping terrain or with land, which has been disturbed by man. Natural slopes that have been
stable for years may suddenly fail because of construction activities on hill slope and also
other causes.
Brief List of Remedial Measures for Unstable Slope is Tabulated as Under:
1.Modification of Slope Geometry

1.1 Removing material from the area driving the landslide (with possible substitution by
lightweight fill)
1.2 Adding material to the area maintaining stability (counter weight berms or fill)
1.3 Reducing general slope angle
2. Drainage
2.1 Surface drains to divert water from flowing onto the slide area (collecting ditches and
pipes)
2.2 Shallow/deep trench drains filled with free draining geo-materials (coarse granular
fills and geo-synthetics)
2.3 Buttress counter forts of coarse-grained materials (hydrological effect)
2.4 Vertical (small diameter) boreholes with pumping or self draining
2.5 Vertical (large diameter) wells with gravity draining
2.6 Sub-horizontal or sub-vertical boreholes
2.7 Drainage tunnels, galleries or adits
2.8 Vacuum dewatering
2.9 Drainage by siphoning
2.10 Electro-osmotic dewatering
2.11 Vegetation planting (hydrological effect)
3. Retaining Structures
3.1 Gravity retaining walls
3.2 Crib-block walls
3.3 Gabion walls
3.4 Passive piles, piers and caissons
3.5 Cast-in situ reinforced concrete walls
3.6 Reinforced earth retaining structures with strip/sheet - polymer/metallic reinforcement
element
3.7 Buttress counter forts of coarse-grained material (mechanical effect)

3.8 Retention nets for rock slope faces

3.9 Rock fall attenuation or stopping systems (rock trap ditches, benches, fences and
walls)
3.10 Protective rock/concrete blocks against erosion
4. Internal Slope Reinforcement
4.1 Rock bolts
4.2 Micro piles
4.3 Soil nailing
4.4 Anchors
4.5 Grouting
4.6 Stone/lime cement columns
4.7 Heat treatment
4.8 Freezing
4.9 Electro osmotic anchors
4.10 Vegetation planting (root strength mechanical effect)
As per the understanding, the roads under MPPWD are not affected by landslides. However,
in case of requirement at any specific location, Different types of landslide protection
measures may be referred in IRC: SP: 106.

CHAPTER 7
2.7.0 Slope Protection Measures
2.7.1 Natural Slopes
Cut Slopes in Soils Prone to Erosion

The slopes mainly composed of cohesionless soil, mainly sand and gravel, making them
susceptible to erosion due to surface runoff and rainfall. This erosion can lead to rockfalls,
minor surface failures, and debris buildup. It is advisable to implement erosion protection
measures and a surface drainage system to address this issue, rather than flattening the slopes.
The objective is to effectively divert all surface runoff from the entire slope, starting from the
shoulder and extending to the base. It is particularly important to minimize infiltration of
runoff from the shoulder. Additionally, creating a designated space at the slope's base to
accumulate debris is crucial to prevent it from directly affecting the road in the event of a
collapse.
Cut slopes in rocks susceptible to weathering

Certain rocks exhibit weak weathering resistance due to specific characteristics like slaking
and swelling. When these rocks are exposed to cutting and undergo repeated wet-dry cycles
on the surface, they gradually deteriorate and take on the properties of loose soil, reducing
their strength and erosion resistance compared to their original state. This decomposition
process leads to surface failures, gully erosion, overhang formation, and foot erosion due to
differential slope erosion. These conditions can also result in toppling and additional surface
failures, particularly in areas with numerous joints and cracks. To prevent such failures, it is
essential to incorporate the following precautions into the cut slope design:
 To ensure slope stability, it's important to design gradients that can withstand rock
weathering over time. The use of berms is recommended to restrict the spread of slope
failures.
 To minimize the effects of weathering, it is advisable to avoid exposing the surface of
the cut slopes. Protective measures should be employed to cover the surface unless
there is an expectation of groundwater seepage or springs on the slope. Specific
treatments are needed to manage drainage and protect the slope surface when seepage
or springs are present.
Cut slopes in intensely jointed and fractured rocks

Rocks with significant jointing and fractures are prone to dip slope or wedge failures. The
extent and characteristics of these joints and fractures directly influence the stability of slopes
in such rock formations. Therefore, conducting a comprehensive assessment of the conditions
within these geological features is crucial. This assessment should encompass geological field
surveys, drilling, laboratory tests, seismic exploration, coefficient of fissures analysis, and
reviewing disaster records from nearby slopes.

Slopes with abundant groundwater

Slopes with significant groundwater springs or high groundwater levels tend to be inherently
unstable. In such cases, it is advisable to design gentler slope gradients, irrespective of the
geological characteristics. Prioritizing groundwater drainage systems is essential for slopes
where abundant groundwater is anticipated rather than solely focusing on reducing the slope's
steepness.
Construction of retaining and protective structures

The following types of retaining structures are generally provided.
• Gravity retaining wall
• Gabion retaining walls
• Cantilever retaining wall
• Counterfort / Buttressed retaining wall
• Anchored retaining wall
• Piled retaining wall
• Reinforced soil structures
• Rip-rap rock buttress
• Diaphragm walls
• Crib retaining wall
For the selection of retaining walls for hill area, refer to IS 14458 Part-1, design and
construction of various retaining walls (Design of retaining/breast walls, Construction of dry-
stone walls, and Construction of cement stone walls); reference shall be made to IS 14458
Part 2-Part 5. For construction and design of RCC & timber crib walls, refer to IS 14458 Part
7 & 8. For further specifications for steel sheet piling sections, reference shall be made to IS
2314.
Erosion protection of slopes using vegetation

Erosion often becomes a concern when steep slopes lack sufficient protective cover or rely on
long-term vegetation-based drainage channels for erosion control. Vegetation offers an ideal
erosion control solution due to its cost-effectiveness and aesthetic appeal. Various methods
can be employed to protect slopes using vegetation, including simple vegetative turfing,
transplanting mature turfs or grass, mulch application, the use of vetiver grass, coir and jute
mats, 2D synthetic geogrids/netting, three-dimensional erosion control mats, and preformed
polymer geocells or webs, among others. Additional guidance can be found in IRC 56 and
MoRTH 700.
Seeding with grasses and legumes helps reduce surface erosion, as prolonged erosion can
eventually trigger landslides. Planting shrubs increases vegetative cover and stronger root
systems, enhancing slope stability.
Different types of vegetating methods for erosion control

There are several methods for slope erosion control, each suitable for different situations:
Dry Seeding: Dry seeding involves using rotary disks and air-blown seeders. These cost-
effective methods are best suited for rough soil surfaces and gentler slopes. However, until

vegetation is established, slopes remain vulnerable to erosion. In such cases, a protective

cover on the soil is necessary to resist erosion, retain runoff, and aid in vegetation
establishment. These protective systems can be broadly categorized into Rolled Erosion
Control Products (RECP) and Hydraulically Applied Erosion Control Products (HECP).
Rolled Erosion Control Products (RECP): RECPs include biodegradable mats like coir and
jute geotextile, Erosion Control Blankets (ECB), and 3D Geosynthetic Mats (Turf
Reinforcement Mats - TRM). ECBs are suitable for very gentle soil slopes with low rainfall,
while TRMs are recommended for steeper slopes subjected to heavy rainfall. Proper grading
of the soil surface is crucial to ensure the effective performance of RECPs. Selection
guidelines can be found in MoRTH 700, and construction procedures are outlined in IRC: 56.
Hydraulic Applied Erosion Control Products (HECP)/Hydro-Seeding/Hydro-Mulching:
HECP involves mixing seeds, fertilizer, and other additives with water and hydro-seeding
mulch to create slurry, which is then sprayed evenly over the prepared ground. This method
requires less soil preparation and is efficient for larger projects, rocky or uneven soils, or
hard-to-access sites. When relying solely on vegetation growth is unpredictable or unreliable,
root-reinforcing geosynthetic systems can be used in addition to HECP.
Slope Protection using Geocells: Geocells are three-dimensional cellular confinement
systems made from HDPE strips. They are expandable on-site to form cellular structures that
help prevent soil slippage and encourage vegetation growth. Geocells are particularly useful
on natural slopes where establishing vegetation is challenging. The system reduces water
runoff velocity and can be filled with coarse granular material in areas with difficult
vegetation growth.
Slope Erosion Protection using Gabions and Mattresses: Gabions and mattresses can
effectively protect both gentle and steep slopes, especially near water bodies. These porous
gravity weights sustain eroding slopes, preserve their natural appearance, and not require tree
cutting or root removal. They are eco-compatible and provide free-draining solutions in areas
prone to heavy erosion.
Stabilization in Rock fall

Rock fall can encompass a range of sizes, from small fist-sized rocks to large cliff sections
and boulders. Depending on their size and shape, these rocks can roll, bounce, and travel
considerable distances down slopes, posing a significant hazard. Below are discussed
methods for stabilizing, retaining, and protecting rock slopes:
Stabilization Measures
• Removal of Potentially Unstable Rock: Stabilizing rock slopes often involves the
removal of rocks that have the potential to become unstable. This approach is
generally preferred because it completely eliminates the hazard, requiring no ongoing
maintenance. However, rock removal should be employed only when it is certain that
the newly exposed face will remain stable, and there is no risk of undermining the
upper portion of the slope. This method ensures long-term safety by eliminating the
source of instability.

Figure 7.1: Trimming of potentially unstable soil/rock slope

• Reinforcing rock slope with anchors/bolts/nails
Another way to enhance rock slope stability is by reinforcing them with anchors, bolts, or
nails. These steel components such as rods or cables are used to strengthen and interconnect
the rock face, thereby improving its stability. Here are the key details:
Anchors: Anchors are typically longer, post-tensioned members employed to support large
blocks of rock within the slope. They provide essential reinforcement to hold these larger
masses securely in place.
Bolts: Bolts are shorter than anchors and are used to support surface rocks. They effectively
stabilize loose or potentially unstable rock masses on the slope.
Nails: Nails are similar to bolts but are not post-tensioned. They are used to secure rocks and
prevent them from dislodging or falling.
This approach effectively improves the slope's overall stability by providing structural
support and preventing the movement of rocks that could pose a hazard.
Figure 7.2: Rock anchor on a rock face

• Drainage systems
Water within a rock slope is a common factor contributing to slope instability. Excessive
water, in the form of pore pressure, exerts forces on the rock mass, reducing shear strength
along any existing discontinuities. Water also plays a role in rock degradation and the
expansion of fractures, particularly during freeze-thaw weathering. To enhance slope stability
and mitigate these issues, installing drainage systems is a practical solution. These systems
often include horizontal weep drains and can be categorized as either surface or subsurface
drainage. Proper drainage helps alleviate pore pressure, reduces the risk of erosion, and
ultimately improves the overall stability of the rock slope.
• Buttresses
In cases where a rock falls or weathering has created a cavity in the slope face, it may be
necessary to construct a concrete buttress within the cavity to prevent further instability. The
concrete buttress serves two primary functions:

Retaining and Protecting Weak Rock Areas: The buttress is designed to stabilize and
safeguard sections of the rock slope that are inherently weak or prone to further erosion. It
acts as a protective barrier to prevent further deterioration of these vulnerable areas.
Supporting Overhang: Additionally, the buttress provides structural support for any
overhanging rock or material that could potentially detach and pose a hazard. It helps to
counteract the forces exerted by the overhang and maintain stability.
The design of these concrete buttresses should consider that the thrust direction from the rock
supports the buttress in compression. This ensures that the buttress effectively resists the
forces generated by the surrounding geological conditions and rock formations. Properly
designed and constructed concrete buttresses play a crucial role in maintaining the safety and
stability of the rock slope.
Figure 7.3: Buttress

Retention Measures
• Secured drapery
A secured drapery system employs simple mesh, reinforced mesh, cable panels, and ring nets
as a protective layer on the slope's surface. Additionally, bolts and anchors are used to
reinforce the loose top surface of the rock mass along the slope's length. The primary purpose
of secured drapery systems is to contain rockfalls within the mesh system, especially in
situations where no catchment or storage area is available at the base of the slope.
Figure 7.4: Secured drapery for rock fall mitigation

• Shotcreting and Grouting

Shotcrete and grout are specialized types of concrete used for stabilizing and reinforcing
unstable rock faces. Here are some key details about these materials and their applications:
Shotcrete:
Definition: Shotcrete is a comprehensive term encompassing spraying concrete or mortar
directly onto a surface. It can be applied using either a dry-mix or a wet-mix process.
Purpose: Shotcrete is a rapid and relatively straightforward method commonly employed to
reinforce the surface between rock blocks and minimize weathering and surface scaling.
Aggregate: Shotcrete typically contains aggregate particles up to 20mm in size.
Layer Thickness: The thickness of shotcrete layers usually ranges from 70mm to 100mm.
Surface Preparation: Before shotcreting, it's essential to thoroughly remove loose rock pieces
from the surface to ensure proper adhesion.
Steel Wire Mesh: A steel wire mesh is sometimes bolted to the slope face before shotcrete
application to enhance stability.
Drainage: Installing pipes into the soil-rock slope is advisable to provide drainage and
prevent pore water pressure buildup after shotcreting.
Grouting:
Purpose: Grouting improves weathered slopes where rocks or boulders may be at risk of
falling.
Selection: Choosing the appropriate type of grout and ensuring safe injection pressure are
critical factors in the grouting process.
Quality Control: Rigorous quality control measures are essential for monitoring mix
proportions, water content, grout pressure, and other parameters during the grouting
operation.
Both shotcrete and grouting play vital roles in stabilizing and reinforcing rock faces,
enhancing slope safety, and minimizing erosion and weathering. Proper application
techniques and adherence to relevant standards are essential for the successful
implementation of these methods.
Figure 7.5: Shotcreting

Protection Measures
The measures described do not prevent the detachment of rocks but rather guide and control
the falling rocks, ensuring they do not pose a hazard to areas below. These protection
structures are characterized by their ability to absorb the energy of detached rocks, either by
stopping them over a certain distance or deflecting them away from vulnerable areas. Some
common measures used for rockfall mitigation are:
Berms/Benching in Rock Slopes: Berms and benches are highly effective in reducing the
energy of rockfalls and are frequently applied on permanent slopes. These structures provide
a means of dissipating the energy of falling rocks and preventing them from reaching
sensitive areas.
Ditches: Ditches or trenches are engineered and placed at the base of the slope to contain
falling rocks and prevent them from reaching lower areas. Sufficient available space is
critical to consider before implementing ditches as a permanent rock fall mitigation system.
Proper design and placement are essential to ensure that the ditches effectively capture and
redirect falling rocks, minimizing the risk to people and property below.
Figure 7.6: Rock fall Ditch

• Rock fall embankment
Rock fall embankments are commonly used to safeguard infrastructure and roads situated at
the base of natural cliffs or in areas where complete slope protection is not feasible, often due
to factors like slope length or the presence of vegetation. These embankments also serve as
protective measures in regions prone to debris flows, mudflows, or landslides. To effectively
protect against rock fall hazards, it is recommended to employ flexible systems that can
absorb the kinetic energy and impact of falling rocks.
Rock fall embankments play a critical role in minimizing the hazards posed by rockfalls,
debris flows, mudflows, and landslides, and their design should be carried out in accordance
with established standards and guidelines for optimal protection.

Figure 7.7: Reinforced rock fall embankment

• Rock sheds
In regions characterized by extreme rockfall hazards, where the cost of slope stabilization
would be prohibitively high, constructing a rock shed or even relocating a highway into
tunnels may be warranted. Rock sheds are engineered structures typically made of reinforced
concrete or steel, designed to withstand the most severe impact loading from falling rocks.
The design of a rock shed must also consider the stability of its foundations, especially for the
outer columns, which are often situated at the top of steep slopes.
Rock sheds are a robust solution for protecting infrastructure from extreme rockfall hazards
and are designed to withstand the most severe conditions. Proper design and construction,
following established standards and guidelines, are essential to ensure the safety and
functionality of these protective structures.
Figure 7.8: Rock shed

• Simple drapery system
Flexible rockfall barriers, such as mesh or panels, are strategically draped or laid over a slope.
They are anchored, typically at the top with the option of bottom anchors, to allow for
controlled rockfall between the slope and the barrier. These barriers guide falling rocks into a
catchment area at the base of the slope or at the terminus of the mesh or panel.
• Rockfall barriers – concrete, earthern, flexible
Rockfall barriers serve as crucial interceptors, effectively halting the descent of falling rocks
and boulders down a slope. Their design considers various factors, including the size of the

boulders, slope parameters, rockfall simulations, and site-specific ground conditions. A

fundamental requirement for all rockfall barriers is flexibility upon impact.
These barriers are designed to absorb the energy of impact by deforming, which is a key
feature in their effectiveness. Systems with high impact energy capacity are both flexible and
constructed with materials capable of withstanding the impact of sharp rocks without
sustaining significant damage. This flexibility and robustness ensure that the barriers can
successfully intercept and stop falling rocks, thereby minimizing the potential hazards and
protecting people and infrastructure from rockfall-related risks.
Figure 7.9: Flexible rock fall barrier
2.7.2 Man-made slopes
For permanent reinforced soil slopes, ensuring the durability of the facing material is crucial.
When woven or welded steel wire mesh elements are used in a wrap-around form, it's
essential to provide a suitable filter behind them. In regions with steeper slopes, high rainfall
intensity, and/or high seismicity, a combination of woven and welded steel wire mesh
elements with additional stiffening elements and filter material should be utilized to achieve
flexibility, erosion prevention, and stiffness requirements.
When geosynthetics are employed as the facing for permanent reinforced slope structures, it's
important to protect the outer facia elements from UV degradation caused by sunlight
exposure. If vegetation is used as the facia cover, the facing should provide a suitable
medium like coir, jute, or synthetic mats to establish and sustain vegetation growth.
Reinforced soil systems can be categorized into Reinforced Soil Walls (RSW) and
Reinforced Soil Slopes (RSS). Appropriate facing is necessary for both steep and flatter
slopes to secure the reinforcement and protect the slope from local instability and erosion
near the face. Various types of facia are commonly used, including deformable facing units
(such as semi-elliptical steel units, steel welded/woven wire mesh units, and gabion facing
units) and soft facing units (like wrapped facing and bagged facing units).
To ensure proper alignment and construction within specified vertical and horizontal
alignment tolerances the facing must perform effectively over the design life. The facing

system should meet functional requirements such as rigidity, flexibility, aesthetics, and
environmental considerations, depending on the structure's location, purpose, and use.
For geosynthetic facings, protection against UV degradation is essential. When vegetation is
used as the facia cover, several factors need consideration, including climate, water
requirements of plants, water availability, site location aspects, altitude, precipitation amounts
and frequency, exposure, facing type, and erosion resistance capabilities. These factors
ensure the establishment and maintenance of permanent vegetative cover throughout the
design life. If the backfill soil lacks the necessary characteristics to support vegetation,
suitable topsoil material may be placed at the front face, separated from the fill by an
appropriate separator, or hydroseeding may be considered as an alternative solution.
Ultimately, the choice of facing and its design should be based on site-specific conditions and
the desired performance and longevity of the reinforced soil slope. Properly designed and
constructed facings are essential for the stability and functionality of these structures.
2.7.3 Soil Nailing

Soil nailing is one of the ground improvement methods, which have been widely used for the
stabilization of existing natural and manmade slopes. This is a quite simple technique for
ground improvement which became popular in the last few decades due to its various
advantages. Soil nailing consists of reinforcing the soil mass by the introduction of a series of
thin elements or metallic bars into the existing soil mass called nails to resist tension, bending
and shear forces which restrain the soil displacements and limit decompression during and
after excavations. The design of soil-nailed systems has been traditionally done using slope-
stability analysis methods. Slope stability analysis is generally conducted to evaluate the
global stability in terms of factor of safety (FOS) of the virgin ground soil or soil nailed
mass, taking into account the effect of the available shear resistance of the passive
reinforcements, tension, or pull-out resistance developed on the interface of soil-nail surface
on the probable potential rupture surface.
2.7.3.1 Method of Construction of Nailed Structure

The construction methodology for a typical nailed wall is described in four steps,
(i) Excavation or dressing of slope (ii) Positioning of facing material (iii) Drilling, Nailing &
Grouting (iv) Nail tightening.
2.7.3.2 Components of Nailed Structure
Excavation: Excavation work for soil nailed wall is usually carried out in steps from top to
bottom by conventional earth removing equipments. The inclination of slope mainly depends
on design of nailed structure; however, the depth of excavation for each step is usually kept
as 1 m to 1.5 m. If the site conditions are not favorable, then either the depth of exaction is
reduced or any suitable temporary ground improvement system is adopted. If any seepage is
encountered at the slope, proper drainage system should be adopted prior to excavation of
slope.

Facing: The facing in soil nailing structure protect the excavation or slope surface with nails
and facing elements. Facing is provided for the short and long term stability to the slope. It
also gives aesthetic appearance and prevents moisture loss from the face of the excavated
soil. In case of cohesionless soil, the apparent cohesion factor (which governs the stability)
reduces if the moisture is lost below its optimum moisture content (OMC) limits. Normally,
shotcrete is provided as a wall facing for soil nailing technique. The thickness of the
(shotcrete) facing varies between 50 to 150 mm which is laid over one or two steel meshes as
per design requirements. Steel fiber reinforced shotcrete (SFRS) is also gaining popularity
these days.
Nails: Nails are either solid or hollow metallic bars, capable of resisting tensile, shear stress
and bending moments. Nails are generally closely placed in a soil nailed wall. At least one
driven nail and one grouted nail are provided per 1m2 and per 4m2 area respectively in nailed
wall. Nails are generally placed at 0º to 20º with the horizontal. With the advancement of
technologies, heavy duty machines are now available for installation of grouted nails and
launched soil nails. Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) and Geo nails are having high tensile
strength (usually three times steel strength), low modulus, low unit weight and very high
corrosion resistance. But its cost is high as compared to conventional steel.
Centralizers: PVC/circular metal ring (perforated washer)/ metal stand is used as centralizer,
which is fixed to the soil nail to ensure that the soil nail is centrally placed in pre-drilled hole
for soil nailed walls.
Grout: Grout is injected in the pre-drilled borehole after the nail is placed to fill up to the
annular space between the nail bar and the surrounding ground. Grout transfers stress from
the ground to the nail and acts as corrosion protection to the soil nail. Generally, cement sand
mortar or special grout material having some admixtures are used to fill the borehole as a
grout.
Drainage: A suitable drainage system is very much important in soil nailed structures for
preventing the development of excessive hydrostatic pressures on the wall facing when the
seepage points exist on slope. Drainage system protects the facing from deterioration due to
contact with water and helps to avoid frost or ice action behind the facing in cold regions.
The continuous presence of water weakens the soil nails interface resistance by reducing
frictional forces (in case of driven nails) as well as the bond between the cement concrete and
nails (in case of grouted nails). The presence of pore water pressure reduces the effective
stresses and also affects the performance of nailed structure. The following methods are
generally adopted by various researchers as drainage measures; (i) shallow and deep drains,
for preventing accumulation of water behind the facing, (ii) catch water drains to discharge
water into a collector drain at the foot and at the top of the wall or slope (iii) vertical
geocomposite strip drains placed prior to application of the temporary facing and connected
with catch water drains.

Connection between Nail and Facing (Nail Head): The connection between the nail and
the facing is important for transmitting the forces at the nail head to the facing. The nail head
is the threaded end of the soil nail tightened with nut and bolts system which is extended
slightly from the wall facing. A square steel plate with a central hole (through which it is
placed in the nail through its threaded end) with minimum size as 200 mm x 200 mm x 25
mm (L x B x T) is generally used above which nut is placed. The torque applied to the bolt
and nut system is of the order of 5 kN to each nail in order to maintain contact of the facing
against the soil. All the components involved in any nailed structure are shown in Figure
7.10.
Nail Head
Drainage System
Facing
Grout sleeve
Centralizer
G.L
Nail
Figure 7.10: Components of Nailed Structure
2.7.3.3 Types of Soil Nails

Different types of soil nails are described as below:
Grouted Nail: These nails are placed in pre-drilled boreholes with the help of centralizers.
The grouted nail in soil nailing system generally varies from a diameter of 75 mm up to 150
mm. After placing nails well within the centre of borehole, grout material is pumped into
borehole. Grouted nails are generally placed to get the high pull out strength as compared to
the driven nails.
Driven Nail: These nails are directly fired manually or mechanically into the soil mass
Driven nail is generally provided for temporary purposes and it does not have a good
corrosion protection layer. In collapsible soil where borehole cannot stand without casing
pipe, the driven nails could be a viable solution. It is also sometimes regarded to as ‘ground
glucose’. The driven nail is fast in construction as compared to other nails. The diameter of
driven nails generally varies from diameter 20 mm up to 50 mm.
Self-drilling Soil Nail: In this type of nail, hollow bar or pipe nail is inserted during drilling
and grout is injected through the hollow bar just after nail reaches its desired location. This

method is faster than the grouted nailing and it has higher degree of corrosion protection than
the driven nail.
Jet-grouted Soil Nail: In jet grouted nails, grout material is filled in a manner similar to
grouted nails in pre-drilled bore holes and a high pressure is applied to the grout material with
jet grouting machine, which simultaneously increases the density of the grout. Due to
increase in pressure, the soil boundary of borehole dilates which in turn decreases the void
ratio of surrounded soil mass resulting in increase in pull out capacity of nail.
Launched Soil Nail: The steel bars are “launched” directly into the existing soil with very
high speed using firing mechanism which is controlled by compressed air attached with
launching machine. This method of installation is very fast. However sometime it may be
difficult to insert the designed length of the nail in the system due to soil stratum.
2.7.3.4 Advantages of Soil Nailing

Soil nailing has several advantages over other earth retaining structures which are described
below:
i. Soil nailing requires less number of equipments and also requires light weight equipments
for installation. Therefore in remote areas also, it is easy to be adopted.
ii. Soil nailing stabilizes almost all kinds of slopes for roads, buildings, multilevel parking, and
transmission lines and also for rail/road underpasses (under live loading conditions).
iii. Soil nailing is relatively faster than other earth retaining techniques
iv. It is less disruptive to traffic and causes less environmental impact than any other
construction techniques.
v. Soil nailing technique is relatively flexible than other techniques, whenever any obstruction
like boulder or underground utilities is encountered the same can be easily adjusted at site.
vi. Soil nail walls have performed well during seismic conditions also (Gosavi et al.).
vii. Soil nail walls are more economical than conventional concrete gravity walls (Mittal).
viii. Soil nailing saves 10 to 30 percent cost as compared to tieback walls.
ix. Shotcrete facing is less expensive than the structural facing required for other wall systems.
2.7.3.5 Disadvantages of Soil Nailing

Some of the potential disadvantages of soil nail walls are listed below:
i. The soil nailing system requires soil to deform to certain extent for mobilizing interface
resistance on the surface of nails. However, the post tensioning of soil nails improves the
shortcoming related to soil deformations but it increases the cost of the project
simultaneously.
ii. Soil nail walls require special care and precaution for ground having high groundwater table
which might create problems during drilling and excavation, due to seepage of ground
water. Moreover, the corrosion in driven nails and change of water cement ratio during
installation of grouted nails may occur, unless the continuous dewatering is done.
iii. The designed inclination and length of nails require some deviation if any obstruction is
caused by the underground utilities such as buried water pipes, underground cables and
drainage systems. Sometime this change may not be possible depending on site conditions.

iv. The construction of soil nailing system requires specialised and experienced man power.
v. Sometimes the nail driving may not be feasible in soils containing boulders and most hard
residual soils
2.7.3.6 Field Pull-Out Test on Soil Nails

In-situ or field pullout testing of soil nails is identified as the appropriate method for studying
the nail-soil interaction and assessing the performance of soil nail walls. The soil-nail
interface (pull out) strength is required for designing the scheme of soil nailing and
performance assessment for strengthening the existing slope. In order to determine the
apparent coefficient of friction (f*) between in-situ soil and nail for design of vertical nailed
cut, the in-situ pull-out tests are conducted at the site in close vicinity to the slope.

CHAPTER 8
2.8.0 Geo-synthetic Highway Construction
2.8.1 General Requirements

Geo-synthetics are planar products manufactured from a polymeric material used with soil,
rock, or other geotechnical-related material, to improve its performance. They encompass a
range of products, including geo-textiles, geo-grids, geo-membranes, geo-nets, geo-
composites, etc., serving specific functions such as reinforcement, separation, filtration,
drainage, erosion control, containment, etc. The polymers used for geo-synthetic manufacture
include but are not restricted to polypropylene, polyester, polyethylene, polyamides,
polystyrene, and polyvinyl chloride. Geo-fabrics made from natural fibers such as jute and
coir can be referred to as natural geo-textile. Geo-synthetics enhance civil engineering
projects' performance, durability, and stability while often providing cost-effective and
environmentally sustainable solutions.
There are several types of geo-synthetics, each with its specific functions:
Geo-textiles: These are permeable fabrics made from synthetic fibers. The geo-textile fabric
shall be woven, non-woven or knitted fabric made of polypropylene, polyethylene or
polyester, or any combination thereof. They are used for soil separation, filtration, drainage,
and erosion control. Geo-textiles are often placed between different soil layers to prevent
them from mixing and allow water to pass through while retaining soil particles.
Geo-grids: Geo-grids are made from polymer materials that are designed to reinforce soil
structures. Geo-grids have relatively high strength, high modulus, and low creep-sensitive
polymers with apertures varying from 10 to 100 mm in size or more. The openings in geo-
grids are either ellipses, near squares with rounded corners, squares, or rectangles. They are
used to increase the strength of soil layers and improve load distribution in applications like
retaining walls, embankments, and roadways. Geo-grids can be classified according to the
following:
(a) Manufacturing process: woven, knitted, bonded, welded, extruded
(b) Directional behavior: uniaxial, biaxial, etc.
(c) Bonding between ribs
(d) Polymer: polypropylene (PP), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), and polyester (PET)
etc.
Geo-membranes: Geo-membranes are impermeable sheets made from synthetic materials

like high-density polyethylene (HDPE), PVC, or other polymers. They are used for
containment purposes, such as in landfill liners, reservoirs, and ponds, to prevent the leakage
of fluids and chemicals into the surrounding environment.
Geo-nets: Continuous polymeric ribs at acute angles to one another usually form Geo-nets.
They are used in combination with other types of geo-synthetics. They manage water flow in
various applications such as landfill liners, slope stabilization, and drainage systems.

Geo-composites: Geo-composites are combinations of different geo-synthetic materials,

often used to combine the benefits of multiple functions. For example, a geo-composite might
combine a geo-textile and a geo-membrane to provide filtration and containment in a single
product.
Geo-cell: Geo-cell consists of interconnected cells or chambers that are filled with soil,
aggregate, or other infill materials. These cells are typically arranged in a grid-like pattern
and can be made from various materials, such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE) or other
polymers.
Photographs of different geo-synthetic materials are shown in Figure 8.1, 8.2, 8.3 and 8.4.
The primary functions of various geo-synthetics are marked in Table 8.1.
Figure 8.1: Geo-textiles
Figure 8.2: Geo-grids
Figure 8.3: Geo-membrane Figure 8.4: Geo-cell

Various Geo-synthetic Products
Table 8.1: Primary Functions of different Geo-synthetics
Impermeable
Reinforceme
Separation
Filtration
Drainage
Type of Geo-
Erosion
Control
Barrier
synthetic
nt
Geo-textile
Geo-grid
Geo-membrane
Geo-nets
Geo-cell
Geo-composite
2.8.2 Testing of Geo-synthetics

Testing geo-synthetics involves evaluating their physical, mechanical, and chemical
properties to ensure they meet specific requirements for different engineering and
construction applications. These tests help determine geo-synthetic materials' suitability,
durability, and performance in various conditions. Geo-synthetics shall be tested in
accordance with tests prescribed by BIS. In absence of IS codes, tests prescribed by ASTM,
EN, BS or ISO shall be conducted. Here are some common types of tests conducted on geo-
synthetics:
Tensile Strength Tests: These tests measure the material's resistance to stretching or pulling
forces. They include tests like grab tensile strength, wide-width tensile strength, and
elongation.
Puncture Resistance: This test evaluates the material's ability to withstand penetration by
sharp objects. It is important for applications such as geo-membranes used in containment
systems.
Tear Resistance: Tear tests assess a material's resistance to tearing or propagation of a tear.
This is especially relevant for geo-textiles and other materials subjected to tearing forces.
Bursting Strength: This test measures the pressure to burst a geo-synthetic material. It's used
to assess the material's ability to withstand internal pressures.
Permeability Tests: These tests determine the flow of liquids through geo-synthetics, which is
crucial for drainage and filtration applications. Permeability tests include constant head,
falling head, and gradient ratio methods.
UV Resistance: Geo-synthetics exposed to sunlight can degrade over time. UV resistance
tests assess how well a material can withstand the effects of ultraviolet radiation.
Chemical Compatibility: Geo-synthetics need to be tested for compatibility with specific
chemicals or liquids they might come into contact with for applications involving chemical
exposure.
Interface Shear Strength: This test evaluates the frictional resistance between geo-synthetic
layers and soil or other materials, which is important for reinforcement applications.

Durability Tests: These tests simulate long-term exposure to environmental conditions, such
as temperature variations, moisture, and chemical exposure, to assess the material's long-term
performance.
Seam Strength: Geo-synthetics are often joined or seamed together to create larger panels.
Seam strength tests evaluate the strength of these seams.
Table 8.2: Geo-textile
Strength Requirement
Strength Property Requirement (MARV)
Grab Tear
Burst Strength
Strength Strength Puncture Strength (N)
(N)
(N) (N)
Installation Condition
ASTM
ASTM
D4632 / IS: IS: 13162 ASTM ASTM S3786 /
D4533 / IS:
13162 Part Part 4 D6241 IS: 1966
14293
5
Elongation at Failure
<50 %
>50 %
<50 %
>50 %
<50 %
>50 %
<50 %
>50 %
<50 %
>50 %
Type
Harsh I 1400 900 500 350 500 350 2800 2000 3500 1700
Moderate II 1100 700 400 250 400 250 2250 1400 2700 1300
Less
III 800 500 300 180 300 180 1700 1000 2100 950
Severe
Table 8.3: Ultraviolet Stability Requirement
Sl. No. Properties of Fabric Requirements

1. Grab Strength
2. Tear Strength Retained strength shall not be less than 70%
3. Puncture Strength after 500 hours of exposure.
4. Burst Strength
Table 8.4: Subsurface Drainage
In-situ passing Permittivity (per sec) Maximum Apparent Opening Size

0.075mm sieve (%) ASTM D4491 / IS: 14324 (mm) ASTM D4751 / IS: 14294
<15 0.5 0.43
15 to 50 0.2 0.25
>50 0.1 0.22

Table 8.5: Separation
Requirement
Sl.
Geotextile Property Sub-grade soaked Sub-grade soaked
No.
CBR>3 CBR≤3
-1
1. Permittivity (sec ), ASTM D4491 0.02 0.05
2. Maximum Apparent Opening Size 0.6 0.43
(mm), ASTM D4751
Table 8.6: Erosion Control
In-situ passing Permittivity (per sec) Maximum Apparent Opening Size (mm)
0.075mm sieve (%) ASTM D4491 ASTM D4751
<15 0.7 0.43
15 to 50 0.2 0.25
>50 0.1 0.22
Geo-grid
Erosion Control
 Minimum tensile strength = 4 kN/m (ASTM D5035)
 Minimum aperture opening size = 20 mm x 20 mm
 Minimum average grid thickness = 1 mm
 Ultraviolet stability = 70 % after 500 hr exposure (ASTM D4355)
Table 8.7: Sub-base Reinforcement
Property Test Method Requirement

Stiffness @ 0.5% ISO-10319 ≥350 (Machine & cross-machine direction)
strain (kN/m)
Tensile strength @ 2% ASTM D6637 ≥15% of Tult (Machine & cross-machine
strain (kN/m) direction)
Tensile strength @ 5% ASTM D6637 ≥20% of Tult (Machine & cross-machine
strain (kN/m) direction)
Junction efficiency for GRI0GG2-87 or 90% of rib ultimate tensile strength
extruded geogrids (%) ASTM-WK 14256
Ultraviolet stability ASTM D4355 70% after 500 hrs exposure

Geo-composite
Table 8.8: Geotextile / Filter Requirements
In-situ passing Permittivity (per sec) Maximum Apparent Opening Size

0.075mm sieve (%) ASTM D4491 / IS: 14324 (mm) ASTM D4751 / IS: 14294-1995
<15 0.5 0.43
15 to 50 0.2 0.25
>50 0.1 0.22
Table 8.9: Geo-net / Core Requirements

Tensile Strength (kN/m) EN ISO-10316 16
CBR Puncture Resistance (N) EN ISO-12236 3000
Mass per unit area (g/m2) EN ISO-9864 710
Thickness of composite (mm) EN ISO-9863 4.5
In-plane Hydraulic gradient i=1 @ 100kPa EN ISO-12958 0.55
permeability Hydraulic gradient i=1 @ 200 kPa 0.45
(l/m/s)
Table 8.10: Prefabricated Vertical Drain

Composite Drain
Width (mm) ≥100
Thickness (mm) ASTM D5199 ≥4
Tensile Strength (kN) ASTM D4595 >2
Elongation at break (%) ASTM D4595 >35
Discharge capacity (m3/s), i=1 @ 300 kPa ASTM D4716 >1.5 X 10-5
Core
Material Polypropylene/polyethylene
Structure Corrugated, filament, dimpled, studded
etc.
Filter
Material Polyester/polypropylene
Structure Nonwoven
Mass per unit area (g/m2) ASTM D5261 >120
Tensile Strength (N) ASTM D4632 >500
Elongation at break (%) ASTM D4632 >45
Trapezoidal tear strength (N) ASTM D4533 >150
Permeability (m/s) ASTM D4491 >5 x 10-6

Geo-cell
Erosion Control

Shall contain cells with a nominal opening: 450 to 1250cm2
 Perforation in cell wall: 11 to 16 %
 Cell depth: 75 to 100 mm
Table 8.11
Property Test Method Min. Required Value

Density (g/cm3) ASTM D1505 0.9
Environmental stress ASTM D1693 3000
crack resistance (hours)
Carbon black content (% 1.5 to 2
by weight)
Cell wall thickness (mm) ASTM D5199 1.2
Seam Peel-Strength Test 350
(N PER 25mm of cell
depth)
Creep Rupture Strength ASTM D2990 Creep rupture load at 10,000 hours shall be
1kN minimum obtained from the 95%
prediction interval at 10,000 hours considering
a logarithmic time/creep rupture model.
2.8.3 Geo-textile Application for Separation and Erosion

Geo-textiles are used for separation and erosion control in civil engineering and construction
projects. Their unique properties make them effective solutions for these applications.
Separation
Geo-textiles prevent the mixing of different soil layers, particularly when there's a need to
separate coarse and fine-grained materials. This separation function helps maintain the
integrity and stability of the soil layers, preventing them from intermixing and potentially
compromising the structure's performance.
Erosion Control
Geo-textiles control soil erosion caused by water flow and other natural elements. They
stabilize the soil and protect it from erosion, helping to maintain the integrity of slopes,
embankments, and other surfaces. Applications include:
Slope Stabilization: Geo-textiles can be placed on the surface of slopes to protect them from
rainfall and runoff-induced erosion, allowing vegetation to establish and grow.
Channel Protection: Geo-textiles protect riverbanks and shorelines from water flow erosion,
preventing the soil from being washed away.
Storm water Management: Geo-textiles are integrated into storm water management systems
to filter sediment from runoff water before it enters drainage systems, preventing
sedimentation and pollution downstream.

Re-vegetation: Geo-textiles can be used to support vegetation growth on slopes and

embankments, stabilizing the soil and reducing erosion.
In separation and erosion control applications, selecting the appropriate type of geotextile and
its proper installation are crucial for achieving the desired results. Different geotextile
materials have varying properties, such as permeability, strength, and durability, which
should align with the project’s specific requirements. Additionally, adherence to engineering
guidelines and best practices is essential to ensure the geo-textiles perform effectively over
the long term.
Two Dimensional Synthetic Geo-grids/Netting

The peak tensile strength or tensile strength at 10 percent strain, whichever is lower, of the
polymeric geogrid to be used for erosion control should not be less than 4 kN/m when tested
as per ASTM D 5035 (minimum average roll value in machine direction). Geogrid mesh shall
be stabilised against ultraviolet ray degradation for continuous exposure of about 10 years
(defined as retaining 75 percent of its original strength after 10 years of exposure) using
finely divided carbon black (ASTM D 4355 - 500 hour exposure).
Figure 8.5: Geo-synthetic Grid for Vegetation Promotion
Three Dimensional Erosion Control Mat

3-D Mats can also be made using biodegradable natural fibres such as straw, jute, coir or
wood shavings (used individually or in combination) stuffed into polymeric or organic
nettings on either side to form a mat or blanket like structure. The three dimensional mat
solutions protect the soil surface by:
• Providing immediate protection of exposed areas from direct effects of wind and
rainfall impact.
• Protecting seeded topsoil from washing out before vegetation has established.
• Creating an environment that enhances the growth of vegetation through the mat.
• Reinforcing the root system of plants, further binding the soil surface and increasing
shear resistance of the surface.
• Reducing the velocity and volume of runoff flow by increasing water percolation into
the soil.
• The steel wire mesh (optional) helps in the retention of gravel sized particles and also
acts as an additional reinforcement.

Following general specifications can be taken as guidance for the selection of 3-D mat for
erosion control.
Table 8.12: 3-D Mat Properties
3-D Mat Property Test Method Specified Value

Minimum tensile strength (kN/m) ASTM D5035/1505081 2
UV Stability (Minimum percent ASTM D4355 (500 hour 80
tensile strength retention) exposure)
Minimum thickness (mm) ASTM D6525/1509863 6.5
Minimum Mass per unit area (g/m2) ASTM D3776/509864 250
Polymer Geo-cells
Geo-cells are 3-dimensional honey combed structures. They are usually made by a single
continuous extrusion process. They can be expanded or collapsed. When expanded, they
present a unique cellular arrangement. In very steep slopes exceeding 1:1 gradient,
particularly in waterfront, placement of top soil in these cells enables retention of soil veneer.
The geo-cells prevent the soil from slippages and thereby encourage vegetation growth. Geo-
cells placed on the slope are secured to adjoining cell at suitable intervals by using a clip
arrangement and these expanded cells should be secured to the slope using steel staples. Geo-
cells can be used where heavy runoff or channel scouring is anticipated. Geo-cells filled with
concrete can be used to protect bridge aprons, guide bunds and pier areas, abutting waterfront
as revetment as an alternative to conventional stone/boulder pitching.
Figure 8.6: Geo-cell for Slope Protection
2.8.4 Improvement of Bearing Capacity by Geo-grid

Geo-grids are designed with open apertures or openings that allow soil particles to interlock
with the grid structure. When geo-grids are placed within the soil, they create an

interconnected system that redistributes applied loads more evenly. This interlocking
mechanism increases the friction and shear resistance between soil particles and the geogrid,
resulting in improved load-bearing capacity. Geo-grids distribute loads over a wider area by
extending the reinforcement effect throughout the soil mass. This prevents localized failures
and reduces the risk of settlement or subsidence under heavy loads. By distributing the loads
more evenly, geo-grids can help prevent the formation of ruts or depressions in pavements
and other structures.
Embankments on soft soil may fail due to failure of soft subsoil in shear (failure in bearing
capacity), sliding of embankment fill and underlying soft subsoil (failure along a slip circle),
and excessive settlements and lateral displacements. Geo-synthetic reinforcement at the base
of the embankment, often called basal mattress, stabilizes an embankment over soft ground
by preventing lateral spreading of the fill, extrusion of the foundation, and rotational failure.
This stabilizing force is generated in the reinforcement by shear stresses transmitted from the
foundation soil and fill, which place the reinforcement in tension. The design of geo-synthetic
reinforced embankment shall be done as per IRC 113.
Figure 8.7: Embankment Reinforced with Geo-synthetics
The design tensile strength shall be calculated by applying the specified reduction factors to
the ultimate tensile strength of the reinforcement. Thus the long-term tensile strength of the
reinforcement, which has an ultimate tensile strength Tult, is obtained as follows:
Where
Tal = tensile strength of the reinforcement (long term strength) in kN/m
Tult = ultimate tensile strength (also called short-term strength/characteristic strength) from a
standard in-isolation wide-width tensile test in kN/m
RFID = Reduction factor for installation damage
RFCR = Reduction factor for creep
RFCH = Reduction factor against chemical/environmental effects
RFW= Reduction factor to allow for weathering during exposure before installation or of
permanently exposed material
fs= Factor for the extrapolation of data

The table below gives a typical range of tested values for geo-synthetic reduction factors
made from commonly used polymers.
Table 8.13: Typical Ranges of Certified Values of Reduction Factors
Selection of Geo-synthetic Material

The geo-synthetic, used for basal reinforcement, has the main function of reinforcing the soil.
The different modes of failure for the geo-synthetics used as basal reinforcement are – failure
by rupture, failure in bond and failure by excessive strain in the reinforcement. Consequently
the requirements to be satisfied by the reinforcement are as follows:
 The reinforcement should have adequate long-term design strength.
 The reinforcement should develop a sufficient bond with the soil to prevent the
embankment's sliding along the reinforcement's surface.
 The maximum strain in the reinforcement should not exceed 5% for short-term
applications and 5% to 10% for long-term applications.
 Reinforcement needs to have high strengths in the transverse (width of embankment)
direction, with minimum possible strength in the longitudinal (length of embankment)
direction for holding the longitudinal elements and easy handling.

CHAPTER 9
2.9.0 Use of Industrial Wastes and Marginal Materials for Road Construction
2.9.1 Introduction
Considering the magnitude of the road infrastructure projects carried out in the country, there
is a stress on natural resources which are depleting very fast. Restrictions on quarrying also
have increased the lead distances, increasing significantly the total cost of road construction.
The availability and need of suitable construction materials are very significant and accounts
to about 30-40% of the total cost of construction. In this context, the cost of road projects
currently planned can significantly come down, with the utilization of locally available
waste/marginal material, also recognised as “Industrial By-Products”.
There are several Industrial waste materials in the country viz. fly ash, copper slag, jarofix,
phosphor-gypsum which have been studied in the CSIR-CRRI laboratory as well as in the
field and found suitable for road construction. However, some of the waste/marginal
materials are studied in the CSIR-CRRI laboratory only and have potential for application in
road construction namely Foundry sand; Granulated Blast Furnace slag; Red mud; Chrome
slag; Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW), Soft aggregate.
Considering the environmental safety, it is mandatory as per CPCB/MoEF & CC guidelines
to evaluate the leachate characteristics of all the waste materials proposed to be used in Road
construction. Levels of all heavy metals and any other toxic substances should be below the
regulatory limits as specified in MoEF & CC. The material is then considered as a non-
hazardous and safe material for its utilization in road construction.
These manual provides salient details regarding available alternative Industrial waste material
resources, their typical engineering characteristics, construction methodology and quality
control tests based on CSIR-CRRI studies.
2.9.2 Fly Ash
2.9.2.1 Production and Utilisation

Fly ash is a fine residue that results from the combustion of grounded or powdered coal at
temperatures (1300 to 1450o C) at thermal power stations. When pulverised coal is burnt in
the furnace of the power stations, about 80 per cent of the ash produced is very fine. This part
gets carried along with flue gases and is collected by using either electro-static precipitator or
cyclone precipitator. This is called fly ash. The remaining ash sinters and falls at the bottom
of the furnace. This is known as bottom ash. Fly ash may be disposed of in dry form in ash
mounds or through water slurry in a pond. When fly ash and bottom ash are mixed and
disposed of in the form of water slurry into the ash ponds, it is called pond ash. For
embankment construction, either pond ash, bottom ash or mound ash can be used. The
production of fly ash in India from both captive/NTPC and state-owned power stations is
about 180-200 million tonnes at present and may continue to increase with the set up of more
number of thermal power stations in the country.

2.9.2.2 Physical/Chemical/Geotechnical Characteristics

Typical values for Physical/Chemical/geotechnical properties of fly ash are given in Table
9.1. The chemical characteristics indicate that fly ash mainly consists of silica, alumina and
iron oxide. Though there may be a presence of Pb, Cd, Cr, Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn and Ni in fly ash
samples, several research studies have indicated that there is very less possibility of
underground water pollution due to leaching of these heavy metals. Also, as fly ash is used in
the core of the embankment and with the pavement above, deep groundwater level, there is
very less possibility of saturation and reaching of leachate into groundwater.
Table 9.1: Typical Physical/Chemical/Geotechnical Characteristics of Fly Ash
Sl.No. Physical/Chemical Geotechnical Characteristics

Characteristics
Parameter Value Test Value
1 Specific Gravity 1.90-2.55 Grain Size Clay size fraction 1 -10
Distribution (% of Silt size fraction 8 - 85
materials) Sand size fraction 7 - 90
Gravel size fraction 0 - 10
2 LOI 0.5-7.2 Plasticity Non-Plastic
3 Specific surface 250 to 850 Maximum Dry 0.9 -1.6
area m2/kg Density (gm/cc)
4 SiO2 40-60 Optimum Moisture 38.0 - 18.0
Content (%)
5 Al203 14-33 Cohesion (kN/m2) Negligible
6 Fe2O3 2-17 Angle of Internal 30°- 40°
Friction (degree)
7 CaO (Lime) 1-24 Coefficient of 1.75 x 10-5 to 2.01 x 10-3
Consolidation Cv
(cm2/sec)
8 MgO 0-5 Compression index 0.05-0.4
Cc,
9 SO3 1-3 Permeability 8x10-6 to 7 x 10-4
(cm/sec)
2.9.2.3 Design Specifications and Application Potential.
a) Embankment
Fly ash is a silt size material; its behavior is similar to sand and has many advantages for its
use in road embankment construction. It possesses several desirable characteristics as
compared to conventional soils, such as lightweight, ease of compaction, a faster rate of
consolidation, good permeability etc. It has low compressibility and shows negligible post-
construction settlements. Hence, spreading and compaction of fly ash can be started much
earlier in comparison to the soil after rainfall. Fly ash has better shear strength characteristics
(c and Φ) as compared to conventional soil. Also, fly ash would be a preferred material for

the construction of embankments over weak subsoil because of its lightweight. However, one
of the disadvantages of using fly ash in embankment construction is its erodibility nature.
b) Approaches to Fly Over

There is a huge requirement of good earth in the range of 3000 m3 to 4000m3 for the
construction of a flyover approach embankment both in urban and rural areas. Fly ash is a
good alternative to conventional soil for both retained and reinforced back fill in RE wall
flyover approach construction. The use of fly ash as a reinforced/retained fills/ is not only
economically beneficial but also helps to preserve the environment.
Fly ash used for reinforced fill shall be clean, free-draining and shall have PI<6 and Cu>2. It
is recommended to use fly ash having MDD > 1gm/cc for reinforced fill to prevent the
pullout failures of top layers. The minimum angle of friction of fly ash shall be 300. Though
the fly ash material does not meet the criteria of backfill/reinforced material (Passing 75
micron shall be less than 15% as per IRC SP 102), the criteria need to be relaxed considering
its high shear strength, good permeability characteristics and experience gained during the
construction of some flyovers in the country. This reduces the number of layers of geo-
synthetic material economizing the cost of flyover construction. During the construction,
every care should be taken by the contractor, for proper drainage of the reinforced fill portion
and it shall be ensured that there is no movement of particles of fly ash through the joints in
the facing panel. For design and other construction details IRC SP 102 may be followed.
c) As a Basal Mattress
Fly ash reinforced with geo-synthetic materials can be used as a basal mattress below the
embankments or Reinforced earth walls constructed over weak sub-soils. Fly ash with its
good permeability and high angle of internal friction becomes a suitable material for the basal
mattress. The reinforcement may be laid in single or multi-layers as required. Its provision
prevents differential settlements; bearing failures; and also provides resistance against lateral
extrusion of foundation soil as well as slip failure of embankments. Apart from these benefits,
Reinforced fly ash basal mattress also act as drainage blanket below the embankment. Fly ash
reinforced mattress shall be laid below the entire base width of the embankment or below RE
wall approach embankment. The thickness of the basal mattress depends on the drainage and
design requirements and shall vary between 0.4 - 0.6 m. The detailed design of the basal
mattress of embankment shall be carried out as per IRC 113.
d) Design and Construction Methodology

Construction of embankment using fly ash should be as a composite structure where fly ash
will be in the core and soil will be as both side covers. For embankment up to 1m height (In
general in Rural Roads), the compacted cover thickness of 0.3m-0.5 m (measured
horizontally) shall be provided. For embankments greater than 1m height, the compacted
thickness of side cover shall be increased to 1-2m (measured horizontally) and shall be
decided based on site conditions.
The same soil used for cover soil may be used as an intermediate layer. An intermediate layer
of compacted thickness 150 (Rural Road)/200mm (National Highway) is proposed after
every 2m rise in the height. This has been proposed for ease of construction and to provide

adequate confinement for the fill material. This would also protect the fly ash material from
erosion during possible rainfall during construction.
The specification of cover soil shall meet the plasticity, dry density and swelling criteria as
specified in MoRD/MoRTH specifications for embankment construction. The side cover
should be regarded as a part of the embankment for design analysis. The minimum factor of
safety from the stability analysis shall not be less than 1.25. Settlement analysis shall also be
carried out to meet the criteria as per IRC: SP: 75. Further details for design and construction
methodology can be referred to in IRC: SP-132.
1. After clearing and grubbing, the ground shall be stripped to a depth of 150mm, the soil of
which may be used as cover soil. The stripped ground shall be compacted to achieve 95%
of MDD determined as per IS: 2720 (Part 8) (305.3.4cl. of MoRTH) or as per
(301.5.4 cl. MoRD) before laying of the first layer of fly ash embankment.
2. The side soil cover of required width shall be provided along with the core and
mechanically compacted as the embankment progresses upwards. The addition of side
cover after the construction of the core is prohibited.
3. Moisture content of the fill material shall be checked at the site of placement before the
commencement of compaction. The moisture content of fly ash laid for compaction shall
normally vary from OMC (determined as per IS: 2720 (Part 8/7) to OMC ± 2per cent.
Fly ash can be compacted using vibratory or static rollers.
4. When fly ash is used in fly over’s either in the retained fill or reinforced fill, compaction
methodology is similar to that of fly ash embankments. However, in the case of reinforced
fill, care shall be taken to compact the fly ash laid within a width of 1m from the facing
with a plate vibrator. This would reduce the lateral stresses on the facia and helps in
maintaining the design inclination of the facia.
2.9.3 Copper Slag
2.9.3.1 Production
Copper slag is produced in India at a rate of about (6-6.5million ton/year) and its total
accumulation till date is more than 10 million tons during extraction of copper from its ore.
With limited usage, the excess waste material is dumped haphazardly on a costly land near
the slag producing Industry. There are two types of copper slag produced in the Industry viz.
Fine and coarse types depending on the process of smelting adopted.
2.9.3.2 Physical and Chemical Characterisation of Copper Slag

Copper slag (coarse and fine) is a blackish material, similar to coarse sand/fine sand. A
typical physical properties/chemical composition and geotechnical characteristics of copper
slag are summarised in Table 9.2.

Table 9.2: Typical Physical/Chemical/Geotechnical Properties of Copper Slag
Property/Elements Value Geotechnical Characteristics

Specific gravity 3.2 - Grain Size Analysis
3.6
Loss on ignition Nil Gravel (%) 0-2 0
Fe2O3 40-45 Sand (%) 98-100 25-65
Al2O3 (%) 3-5 Silt (%) 0 28-70
SiO2 (%) 28-35 Clay (%) 0 5-7
SO2 (%) 0.5-1.5 PI, % NP NP
CaO (%) 2-5 MDD (kN/m3) 21-24.5 19-22
MgO (%) 1-3 OMC (%) 7-11 11-17
CuO (%) 0.4 c (kN/m2) 0 0
 (degree) 35-39 20-36
Permeability (m/sec) 1.7 x 10-4 1.9X10-6
CBR (%) 35-50 14-21
2.9.3.3 Design Specifications and Application Potential
a) Embankment
Geotechnical characteristics of copper slag viz. Maximum Dry Density (MDD); high
frictional characteristics; High permeability characteristics indicated its suitability for Road
embankment construction. However, the construction of road embankment using 100%
copper slag alone would not be feasible as these materials are cohesionless. Mechanical
stabilization techniques i.e. mixing with soil/fly ash or other local materials shall be adopted
to make it practically feasible for construction of road embankment. However, the
mechanically stabilized copper slag shall meet the specification criteria as per
MoRTH/MoRD. Copper slag can be mixed in general in the range 10-75% with soil/fly-ash.
The optimum proportion of mixing shall be arrived based on laboratory studies and satisfying
the plasticity, swelling and dry density criteria as per MoRD (Section 301) and MoRTH
(Section 305) specifications as required.
b) Mixing of Fine and Coarse Copper Slag

Depending on the availability of both fine and coarse copper slag in a particular industry,
both can be mixed in different proportions for its improvement in gradation, dry density,
shear strength and CBR characteristics. Detailed laboratory characterization needs to be
carried out for optimizing the mix. The optimum proportion of mixing shall be arrived based
on laboratory studies and satisfying the plasticity, swelling and dry density criteria as per
MORD (Section 301) and MoRTH (Section 305) specifications as required. Table 9.3
summarizes typical geotechnical characteristics of copper slag (fine/coarse)-soil and copper
slag (fine/coarse)-fly ash mixes, Coarse + fine copper slag mixes. The plasticity, compaction,
shear strength and permeability characteristics indicated their suitability in embankment
construction.

Table 9.3: Typical Geotechnical Characteristics of Copper Slag-Soil/Fly Ash Mixes,

Copper Slag (Coarse + Fine)
Property Copper Slag + Copper Slag + Copper Slag
Soil Fly Ash (Fine +
Coarse)
Atterberg limit test (PI) NP-14 NP NP
MDD (kN/m3), ) (IS:2720 20-25 15-24 22-25
(Part 8)-1983)**
OMC (%)** 6-13 7-30 5-12
Direct shear test
( saturated )
c (kN/m2) 10 0 0
 (degree) 30-34 25-37 30-38
Permeability (m/sec) 2x10-6 7x10-6 1.2x10-6
CBR (%) 10- 80 8-65 22-65
c) Earth Cover and Intermediate Layers for Protection of Slopes

Intermediate soil and cover soil layers have to be used only when low plastic mechanically
stabilized copper slag-fly ash /soil mixes (PI<10) are used for embankment construction.
Earth cover is needed to prevent erosion of copper slag-soil/fly ash stabilized layer. Cover
thickness and properties of cover soil should be provided as explained in the fly ash section
7.2.3.4.

The site on which copper slag embankment is constructed should be investigated for its in-
situ characteristics at least for a depth of 2 times the height of copper slag embankment.
Apart from in-situ characteristics, hydrological data may also be collected which would be
very useful for drainage design and evaluation of slope stability of copper slag embankment.
Stability analysis needs to be carried out by limit equilibrium methods as per IRC: 75. The
factor of safety shall be more than 1.25. Settlement analysis shall also be carried out for the
design section and shall meet the criteria as per IRC: 75.
Copper slag can also be used in sub-grade/shoulder and as a drainage layer. However, these
mixes shall be confined with good earth to prevent possible erosion during the monsoon.
When copper slag-soil mix is used as an embankment material, the same shall form the sub-
grade material. Black cotton soil and other expansive soils shall be used in sub-grade
construction judiciously considering the swelling characteristics of such soils. However,
when copper slag-fly ash is used as an embankment fill material, a separate sub-grade of
thickness 300/500 mm of good earth/copper slag + soil shall be laid.
Initially clearing and grubbing, setting out and dewatering of foundation of embankment shall
be carried out as per prevalent MoRTH/MoRD specifications. The ground shall then be
stripped to a depth of 150mm, the soil of which may be used as cover soil. The stripped
ground shall be compacted to achieve 95% of MDD determined as per IS: 2720 (Part 8)

(305.3.4cl. of MoRTH) or shall be compacted as per (301.5.4 cl. MoRD) before laying of the
first layer of copper slag-fly ash/soil embankment. If fly ash is used for mixing, it shall be
dried in the sun till the ash becomes suitable for mixing. The totally dry Fly ash may be
conditioned with 1-2% moisture before laying and mixing to avoid air pollution and dust
nuisance.
An appropriate methodology of mixing may be adopted in the nearby site as discussed below.
i) Mixing near the Site by Dozers/Rotavator: Mixing of copper slag and fly ash/soil shall
be carried out on weight (converted to volume as required) depending on the proportion
arrived in the laboratory. A stack (cum) of fly ash/soil shall be laid in large spread area and
copper slag (cum) is then laid over it. Dozers/Rotavator may be used for thorough mixing. It
should be noted that no pockets of unmixed copper slag/fly ash/soil shall be visible in the
entire volume. The average compaction characteristics of this mix shall be evaluated in the
laboratory and the value should be used for quality assessment in the field. . The mixed
sample is then laid in the field and with the addition of moisture (OMC± 2per cent), this can
be compacted as per conventional equipment/procedures as per MoRTH/MoRD
specifications.
ii) Plant Mix Stabilization: Pug mill system/WMM plant can be used for mixing of copper
slag with fly ash/soil as per the required designed proportions. The plant mixing ensures
uniform homogenous mixing of the materials as per requirement. The wet mix (after addition
of moisture at OMC ± 2 per cent) can then be transported to the place of construction/spread
and compacted by conventional equipment/procedures.
iii) In-situ Mixing: After preparation of the ground supporting the embankment, conditioned
fly ash/dry soil shall be spread using dozers/graders to the required loose thickness. The
copper slag is then spread over the same to the required loose thickness. The loose
thicknesses of each of the fill materials have to be determined for the specified proportion (by
weight) and for achieving a compacted thickness of 150/200mm (as per MoRD/MoRTH) as
required. The side soil cover of specified width (as per drawing) and loose thickness shall be
spread along with the copper slag-soil/fly ash fill material (the core of the embankment). The
addition of side earth cover after the construction of the core is prohibited. The loose layers
of copper slag and soil/Fly ash are then dry mixed using a tractor towed tiller or Rotavator till
a uniform mix is achieved. 2-3 passes of tiller in either direction (perpendicular) may be
sufficient to achieve uniform mixing. The required amount of water is then added as per the
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) obtained from the Standard/Modified Proctor compaction
tests. Water shall be sprinkled from a water tanker fitted with a sprinkler capable of applying
water uniformly without any flooding. The moisture content may vary within the range of
+1% and -2% of OMC. Wet mixing is then carried out using the same equipment. The
number of passes shall be the same as in dry mixing. However, the number of passes for both
dry and wet mixing shall be determined by an experimental field study or as per the decision
of the site engineer. The wet mix material shall then be spread by mechanical means, finished
by the motor grader. Compaction shall be carried out preferably by vibratory rollers of dead
weights of 8 to 10 ton to achieve a compacted thickness of 150/200mm as required. The

cover soil has to be simultaneously compacted along with fill material as the embankment
progress upwards. This would provide confinement to copper slag/soil/Fly ash mix. The
method of mixing (a, b, c) may be decided by Engineer in charge depending on technical
requirements and economical considerations.
2.9.4 Jarofix
2.9.4.1 Production
Jarosite is a waste material produced during the extraction of zinc from its ore and after
mixing with 2 % lime and 10 % cement, it becomes stable material and called as Jarofix.
Hindustan Zinc Ltd. (HZL), Rajasthan and Binani Zinc Limited, Kerala are the major
producers of Jarofix. At present, the accumulated Jarofix at dumpsites maintained by HZL is
about 10 lac tons, while the annual production in the country is about 3.4 lacs tons.
2.9.4.2 Physical, Chemical and Geotechnical Characteristics

Jarofix is yellowish and is a fine-grained material. A typical physical, chemical characteristic
are given in Table 9.4.
Table 9.4: Chemical and Geo-technical Properties of Jarofix
Chemical Composition Range (%) Geotechnical Characteristics

NMC, % 30-37 Grain Size Analysis Gravel =2-5%,
Sand =2-20 %
Silt = 65-85 %
clay =10-12 %
G 2.4 Plasticity Index PI = 7-17 %
LOI, % 7 Free swelling index 10-12
So3 19-31 Specific gravity 2.3-2.40
MgO 1-4 Proctor compaction MDD =11-16
3
test kN/m OMC
=48-22 %
Al2O3 2-12 CBR (%) 6-7.5
FeO 35-50 Strength parameters C= 5-14 kN/m2
φ= 22-270
SiO2 12-35
CaO 4-18
a) Road Embankment
The typical geotechnical characteristics of Jarofix material viz. plasticity characteristics, dry
density and free swelling characteristics indicate that the material satisfied both the MoRTH

and MoRD criteria for use as an embankment material. Sometimes, due to variation in the
lime content (during neutralization/stabilization of Jarosite), the specific gravity/Maximum
dry density (MDD) may be slightly lower than as required as per MoRTH and MoRD. There
is no need to add additional moisture before field compaction because of the presence of a
high amount of in-situ moisture content. If the moisture content is above OMC, it shall be
dried in the natural sun to achieve the OMC requirement before compaction. However,
erosion control measures shall be taken up with Turfing/Seeding mulching techniques as
discussed in section 307 and section 308 of MoRTH specifications.
b) Sub-grade
The Maximum Dry Density (MDD) of Jarofix does not meet the MoRTH and MoRD
minimum criteria for use in the sub-grade layer of road pavement. Jarofix can be
mechanically stabilized with local soil or other waste/local materials in the designed suitable
proportion to achieve the specification requirement.
c) Approaches to Fly Over as Retained Back Fill Material

Jarofix + Zinc slag mix (zinc slag available in the same industry, mix optimized in the
laboratory) has also been successfully utilised as a retained fill in many flyover approach
embankments along Udaipur-Chittorgarh four to six-lane highway project. The mixing was
carried out considering the Maximum Dry Density criteria (MDD) and other requirements as
per MoRTH specifications. However, based on its performance observations for highway
embankment, it is recommended that 100% Jarofix without mixing can be used successfully
for construction of retained fill of flyover approaches.

Jarofix embankment can be designed similar to that adopted for conventional soil
embankment. Stability analysis needs to be carried out by limit equilibrium method as per
IRC: 75. The minimum factor of safety shall be more than 1.25. Settlement analysis shall also
be carried out for the design section and shall meet the criteria as per IRC: 75.
Construction of Jarofix embankment/sub-grade/retained fill can be carried out using
conventional methods and equipment as per section 305.3 of MoRTH/301.5 of MoRD
specifications.
Initially clearing and grubbing, setting out and dewatering of foundation of embankment
shall be carried out as per prevalent MoRTH/MoRD specifications. The ground shall then be
stripped to a depth of 150mm, the soil of which may be used as cover soil. The stripped
ground shall be compacted to achieve 95% of MDD determined as per IS: 2720 (Part 8)
(305.3.4cl. of MoRTH) or shall be compacted as per (301.5.4 cl. MoRD) before lying of the
first layer of Jarofix embankment.
The moisture content of the Jarofix material shall be checked at the site of placement before
the commencement of compaction. The moisture content of Jarofix laid for compaction shall
normally vary from OMC to OMC ± 2per cent (determined as per lS: 2720 (Part 7/Part 8).
The layer can be compacted using vibratory or static rollers as found feasible to achieve the
degree of compaction.

In case of utilisation of Jarofix for sub-grade construction, as discussed earlier Jarofix has to
be mixed with local soil or waste / marginal materials (as per availability) to meet the
Maximum dry density (MDD) criteria as per MoRD/MoRTH specifications. Mixing of
jarofix/slag/soil may carry out similar to copper slag-soil-pond ash.
2.9.5 Phosphogypsum
2.9.5.1 Production
Phosphogypsum is a waste generated from fertilizer industry during the preparation of
phosphoric acid. The production of phosphogypsum is about 12-13 million tons/year in the
country from different fertilizer industry. The bulk utilization of phosphogypsum in road
embankment and sub-grade would not only ease the disposal problem, provides an alternative
to good quality earth and also results in the protection of the environment.
2.9.5.2 Physical/Chemical and Geo-technical Characteristics

Neutralized Phosphogypsum is grey and it is a fine-grained silty material. Typical physical
and chemical and Geotechnical characteristics have been summarized in Table 9.5. The
natural moisture content varies in the range of 16-20%. This moisture is close to optimum
moisture content (OMC) of phosphogypsum waste. This is an added advantage for using
phosphogypsum in Road embankment construction.

Table 9.5: Typical Physical/Chemical/Geotechnical Characteristics of Phosphogypsum
Sl.No. Physical and Chemical Geotechnical Characteristics

Characteristics
Characteristic Values Test Value
1 Specific gravity 2.3-2.5 Grain Size Analysis Sand =16 %
Silt = 77 %
Clay =7%
2 Natural moisture 17-19% Atterberg limit test Non-plastic
content
3 CaO 29-31 Free swelling index Non-expansive
test
4 SO4 50-53 Specific gravity test 2.50
5 SiO2 5-10 Proctor compaction MDD =14.8
3
test kN/m OMC
=17 %
7 P2O5 0.7-1.3 CBR test 26%
8 Fe2O3 0.1-0.2 Direct Shear Test c= 8 kN/m2
φ= 330
9 Al2O3 0.1-0.3 Permeability, m/s 1.1×10-7
10 pH 2.8-7.4
11 Chloride mg/kg 20-24
12 Calcium (Ca) mg/kg 952-1144
13 Magnesium (Mg) 24-360
14 Cadmium (Cd) mg/kg 0.03-0.26
15 Chromium (Cr) NT
16 Copper (Cu) mg/kg 0.05-0.12
17 Nickel (Ni) mg/kg 0-0.11
18 Lead (Pb) mg/kg 0.1-0.19
19 Zinc (Zn) mg/kg 0.08-0.48
a) Embankment
The geotechnical characteristics of phosphogypsum material viz. plasticity, free swelling and
good frictional characteristics indicated its suitability for construction of road embankment.
However, due to variation in the lime content, the specific gravity/Maximum dry density
(MDD) may be slightly lower than as required as per MoRTH specifications. The field
performance studies have shown its feasibility for embankment applications. Because of the
presence of a high amount of in-situ moisture content, the requirement of additional moisture
may be less. However, if the moisture content is above OMC, it shall be dried in the natural
sun to achieve the OMC requirement before compaction.

b) Sub-grade
Though the phosphogypsum material does not meet the minimum density criteria as specified
in MoRTH specifications, the material is having high CBR value and can be suitably used as
sub-grade material.
c) Design and Construction Methodology

The embankment is designed as a composite structure with Phosphogypsum in the core and
earth cover on the sides. Earth cover is needed to prevent erosion of slope of the
phosphogypsum layer. For embankment up to 1m height (In general in Rural Roads), the
compacted cover thickness of 0.3m-0.5 m (measured horizontally) shall be provided. For
embankments greater than 1m height, the compacted thickness of side cover shall be
increased to 1-2m (measured horizontally). The specification of cover soil shall meet the
plasticity, dry density and swelling criteria as specified in MoRD/MoRTH for embankment
construction.
adequate confinement for the fill material. This would also protect the Phosphogypsum
material from erosion during possible rainfall during construction.
Phosphogypsum embankment can be designed similar to that adopted for conventional soil
embankment. Stability analysis needs to be carried out by limit equilibrium method as per
IRC: 75. The minimum factor of safety shall be more than 1.25. Settlement analysis shall also
be carried out for the design section and shall meet the criteria as per IRC: 75.
Construction of Phosphogypsum embankment and sub-grade can be carried out using
conventional methods and equipment as per section 305.3 of MoRTH/301.5 of MoRD
specifications.
2.9.6 Marble Dust
2.9.6.1 Production
Around 4000 marble mines and 1100 marble processing units spread over 16 districts of
Rajasthan generate huge quantity of marble slurry dust (MSD), during processing and
slabbing of marble stones, which is about 8 million tons/year. Indiscriminate disposal of
marble slurry dust (MSD), mostly on roadsides is causing problems of drainage, air pollution
and damage to agriculture land. Typical geotechnical characteristics of marble dust have been
summarized in Table 9.6.

Table 9.6: Typical Geotechnical Characteristics of Marble Dust
Sl.No. Properties Marble Dust

1 Grain Size Analysis 100% passing 75
microns IS sieve.
2 Atterberg limit test PI=7
3 Free swelling index test Non-expansive
4 Specific gravity test 2.7
5 Proctor compaction test MDD =18.2 kN/m3
OMC =12.5 %
6 CBR test (%) 4
8 Direct Shear Test C= 20 kN/m2
φ= 320
a) Embankment
Typical geotechnical characteristics of marble dust viz. Plasticity; swelling; Maximum Dry
Density (MDD) values indicated that it satisfied all the requirements as per MoRTH and
MoRD criterion for its use in road embankment construction. The material also has good
shear strength characteristics. A road embankment can be suitably constructed using 100%
MSD waste material using conventional equipment and methodologies. However,
considering its erodibility characteristics, the constructed embankment has to be covered with
a suitable good earth.
b) Sub-grade
Marble slurry dust material is having a low CBR value, indicating its 100% usage is
uneconomical. However, studies have indicated that marble dust can be mixed with local
soils in a suitable proportion to achieve the design CBR for pavement design/construction.
The optimum proportion of mixing shall be arrived based on laboratory studies to achieve the
required design CBR and also the mix shall satisfy the plasticity, swelling; dry density
criteria as per MORD (Section 301) and MoRTH (Section 305) specifications.
c) Design and Construction Methodology

The embankment is designed as a composite structure with marble dust in the core and with
earth cover on the sides. Earth cover is needed to prevent erosion of slope of the marble dust
layer. For embankment up to 1m height (In general in Rural Roads), the compacted cover
thickness of 0.3m-0.5 m (measured horizontally) shall be provided. For embankments greater
than 1m height, the compacted thickness of side cover shall be increased to 1-2m (measured
horizontally). The specification of cover soil shall meet the plasticity, dry density and
swelling criteria as specified in MoRD/MoRTH for embankment construction.

adequate confinement for the fill material. This would also protect the marble dust material
from erosion during possible rainfall during construction.
However, the cross-sections for field implementation shall be finalized based on marble dust
geotechnical characteristics, moisture variations, seismic and traffic loading conditions. The
minimum factor of safety from the stability analysis shall not be less than 1.25. Settlement
analysis shall also be carried out to meet the criteria as per IRC: 75.
Construction of marble dust embankment/sub-grade can be carried out using conventional
methods and equipment as per section 305.3 of MoRTH/301.5 of MoRD specifications.
Mixing of MSD and local soil may carry out similar to copper slag-soil-pond ash.
2.9.7 Foundry Sand

Foundry sand is an industrial waste material generated from the foundry industries spread all
over the country. Natural sand is used as a moulding material in the ferrous and nonferrous
metal casting industries. This sand is typically recycled and reused through many production
cycles; however, about 5-10% is generated as waste each year. After several cycles, it is not
suitable for the industry and this piles up as a waste material, called as foundry sand. The
total production of foundry sand is about 3 million tons annually. A literature review
indicates that Foundry sand was successfully used for the construction of road embankment
abroad and its performance was comparable to conventional soil. CSIR-CRRI in association
with M/s The Institute of Indian Foundry men investigated foundry sand samples collected
from 10 different industries in the country and concluded about its potential for Road
embankment and sub-grade construction. Typical geotechnical characteristics of foundry
sand have been summarized in Table 9.7.
Table 9.7: Typical Geotechnical Characteristics of Foundry Sand
Sl. No. Properties Foundry Sand

1 Grain Size Analysis Sand=76-96%,
silt=4-13%,
Clay=1-10%
2 PL Non-plastic
3 Free swelling index 0-43%
4 Specific gravity 2-2.63
5 Proctor compaction MDD =16-19 kN/m3
OMC =11-15 %
6 CBR test (%) 23-35
8 Direct Shear Test C= 6-19 kN/m2
φ= 26-370

2.9.7.1 Application Potential Embankment and Sub-grade

Typical geotechnical characteristics of foundry sand viz. Plasticity and swelling
characteristics; Maximum Dry Density (MDD), and CBR values indicated that it satisfied all
the requirements as per MoRTH and MoRD criteria for its use in road embankment and sub-
grade construction. A road embankment and sub-grade can be constructed using 100%
foundry sand; however, considering its erodibility characteristics, the constructed
embankment/sub-grade may be confined/ covered with the suitable good earth.
2.9.8 Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS), is an industrial waste generated in the steel plants
during the extraction of iron from iron ores, and they are normally dumped in and around the
plant occupying costly land. The slag is produced when the molten slag is rapidly
quenched/suddenly cooled in water during the iron manufacturing process. The slag
resembles the cohesionless granular material with predominantly sand-size particles. The
quantity of different types of steel slag produced in the country is around 10-12 MT per year,
of which GBFS forms a substantial part. 100% GBFS and stabilized GBFS (mechanical and
chemical) could be successfully used for sub-base and base layers of road pavement,
replacing the conventional granular layers. Literature also indicated that granulated blast
furnace slag material can also be used for mechanical stabilization of weak soil, and their
optimized mixes can be used for the construction of highway embankment and sub-grade.
Typical chemical and geotechnical characteristics of Granulated Blast Furnace Slag are given
in Table 9.8.
Table 9.8: Chemical and Geotechnical Characteristics of GBFS
Chemical Characteristics Geotechnical Characteristics

Constituents % Characteristics Value
CaO 30-40% Grain Size Analysis Sand= 99%, Silt &
clay=1%,
SiO2 15-35% Atterberg limit test Non plastic
Al2O3 15-40% Water absorption test 2-4%
MgO 8-11% Specific gravity test 2.45-2.65
FeO 5%max. Proctor compaction MDD =12-14 kN/m3
test OMC =8-12 %
MnO 2%max Direct Shear Test c= 2-5kPa
-400

The non-plastic, high shear strength characteristics nature of GBFS material indicated its
potential for embankment construction. GBFS can be mechanically stabilized with local soil
in the required design proportion for use in sub-grade construction. However considering its
erodibility characteristics, the constructed GBFS/GBFS-soil mix, and embankment needs to
be confined/covered with suitable good earth of design thickness. The designed GBFS-soil

mix can also be used as the sub-grade. Chemically stabilized GBFS mix can be effectively
used for the construction of sub-base and base layers of road pavement
2.9.9 Red Mud

Red mud is a waste generated during refining of bauxite, to produce alumina (aluminium
oxide). Red mud mixed with water disposed off in lean slurry form to the ponds. In India,
about 4 million tons of red mud is produced annually without having much usage. Some of
the major alumina refineries in India are viz. Vedanta Aluminium Ltd, Lanjigarh (Odisha),
BALCO, Korba (Chhattisgarh), NALCO, Damanjodi (Odisha), HINDALCO, Renukoot (U.P)
and Belgaum (Karnataka), INDAL, Muri (Jharkhand) and MALCO, Mettur (Tamilnadu).
Typical chemical and geotechnical characteristics of Red Mud are given in Table 9.9. Red
mud mainly consists of Iron oxide (Fe2O3) and Aluminum oxide (Al2O3).
Table 9.9: Chemical and Geotechnical Characteristics of Red Mud

Fe2O3 30-60% Grain Size sand =28 %
Analysis silt = 49 %
clay =23%
Al2O3 10-20% Atterberg limit Non-plastic
test
TiO2 0-25% Free swelling 5
index test
Na2O 2-10% Specific gravity 3.3
test
SiO2 10-20% Proctor MDD =18.6 kN/m3 OMC =19 %
compaction test
CaO 2-8% CBR test (%) 26
Direct Shear C= 11 kN/m2
Test φ= 270
Permeability, 3.7×10-7
m/s
However, there may be a presence of heavy metals and other toxic elements in the red mud;
its Neutralization/stabilization is required at the source. The responsibility of
neutralization/stabilization lies with the Industry. The quantity of heavy metals and other
toxic elements shall be within the regulatory limits as specified in MoEF&CC (2016 and
revised guidelines, if any). Typical geotechnical characteristics of Red mud have been
summarized in Table 9.5


Typical geotechnical characteristics of red mud viz. Plasticity; swelling; Maximum Dry
Density (MDD), CBR values indicated that it satisfied all the requirements as per MoRTH
and MoRD criteria for its use in road embankment and sub-grade construction. A road
embankment and sub-grade can be constructed using 100% red mud; however, considering
its erodibility characteristics, the constructed embankment/sub-grade may be confined/
covered with the suitable good earth.
2.9.10 Chrome Slag

Chrome slag is one of the waste materials, produced during the extraction of chrome from its
concentrate ore. The production of chrome slag is about 2 lace ton per year. Presently, it is
utilized in limited quantity in civil construction, land filling etc. Typical chemical and
geotechnical characteristics of chrome slag are shown in Table 9.10. Chrome slag mainly
consists of oxides of Mg, Si, Al, Cr and traces of Ca, Fe.
Table 9.10: Chemical and Geotechnical Characteristics of Chrome Slag

Cr2O3 Grain Size Gravel=41%
10 - 12 Analysis Sand=57%
Silt=2%
FeO 1- 2 PL Non-plastic
SiO2 Free swelling Non-swelling
28-30
index
Al2O3 22 - 24 Specific gravity 3.2
Relative density Max. dry Density =22.8 kN/m3,
CaO 6-8
parameters Min dry density=19.1 kN/m3
MgO 26 - 28 CBR test (%) 16
Direct Shear Test C= 10 kN/m2
φ= 400
Permeability, m/s 8x104

Typical geotechnical characteristics viz. Non-plastic and Non-swelling nature; and the values
of Maximum Dry Density (MDD) and CBR indicated that it satisfied all the requirements as
per MoRTH and MoRD criteria for its use in road embankment and sub-grade construction.
A road embankment and sub-grade can be constructed using 100% chrome slag; however,
considering its erodibility characteristics, the constructed embankment/sub-grade may be
confined/ covered with the suitable good earth.

2.9.11 Municipal Solid Waste

The rapid growth of population, industrialisation and urbanisation during the last few decades
has resulted in a generation of huge quantity of Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW) in different
cities. Different constituents of this waste dump include; groceries, food scraps, vegetable
remains, packing materials, paper, remains of used coal, ash, wood, metals, plastics,
ceramics, cloth, glass etc and even the construction demolition (C&D) wastes. In India, about
60 million tonnes of MSW has generated annually and is disposed of in identified landfills in
different cities. These landfills are affecting the health, hygiene, sanitation and aesthetics of
the surrounding area. If these wastes are not properly disposed of, this can prove a perilous
and environmental hazard. 60-75% of the landfill wastes can be suitably used in embankment
construction.
2.9.11.1 Process of Segregation

The Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) from the landfill is a heterogeneous material and cannot
be used as such in embankment construction. It has large size plastics, clothes and even
boulder size C&D waste. MSW needs to be dried and segregated/separated into different
suitable sizes, by using segregation plants installed near the landfill. The segregated materials
need to be tested for its toxicity/leachate characteristics before using in road embankment
construction. The segregated wastes also needs to be evaluated for their geotechnical
characteristics; suitably designed; also needs to be evaluated for slope stability/settlement
analysis, especially when used for high MSW embankments. Conventional methods and
equipments may be used for compaction in the field.
2.9.11.2 Characteristics of MSW

The segregated MSW waste, proposed to be used for embankment construction, needs to be
tested for the presence of heavy metals viz. Zn, Cd, Pb, Hg, Co, Cr etc. The environmental
requirement as discussed in section 1.2 needs to be strictly adhered to before using the
material for Road embankment construction. Typical geotechnical characteristics of
Segregated MSW have been summarized in Table 9.11.

Table 9.11: Typical Geotechnical Characteristics of Segregated Municipal Solid Wastes
Sl. Properties Municipal Solid

No. Waste
1 Grain Size Analysis Gravel= 31-39%,
Sand =30-37 %
Silt = 24-27% %
Clay =4-5%
2 Atterberg limit test Non-plastic
3 Free swelling index test 12-24
4 Specific gravity test 1.8-2.23
5 Proctor compaction test MDD =15-18 kN/m3
OMC =15-19 %
8 Direct Shear Test C= 10-25 kN/m2
φ= 28-380
9 Permeability, m/s 1.2×10-8 – 2×10-9
10 Compression index, Cc 0.14-0.19
2.9.12 Soft Porous Aggregate

Soft porous aggregate which is available in plenty, where the roads miserably failed when
used in granular layers such aggregates have high water absorption (9%), High impact value
(50%) and high crushing value (55%). It was tried to improve their properties by immersing
in cement slurry (Water cement ratio=0.45). After 7 days of immersion, the water absorption
reduces to 5%, AIV to 39% and crushing value to 49%. The improved soft aggregates were
tried for use in bituminous mixes. Marshall Samples were prepared at 5% and 7% Bitumen
content as per standard procedures. The specimens indicated very low stability values (2.2 to
3.2 kN and), very high flow value (8-10%). It was concluded that these samples are
unsuitable for use in bituminous mixes. Considering the unsuitability of these aggregates in
granular and bituminous mixes, it was decided to crush the aggregates to size less than 4.75
mm and investigate its feasibility in embankment and sub-grade construction by evaluating
their geotechnical characteristics. It was concluded that crushed soft material has good shear
strength, low compressibility, and good permeability and CBR characteristics. The material
can be tried for embankment and sub-grade construction. Geotechnical characteristics have
been summarized in Table 9.12.

Table 9.12: Chemical and Geotechnical Characteristics of Soft Aggregate
Sl. No. Properties Soft Aggregates

(After Crushing)
1. Grain size analysis, % Passing 75micron IS Sieve 16%
2. Plasticity index Non plastic

3. Free Swell Index (%) NIL
4. Specific gravity 2.70
5. Classification of the soil SM
3
6. Maximum Dry Density (MDD) (kN/m )
20.9
Optimum Moisture Content OMC (%) 11.7
7. Coefficient of permeability (cm/sec) -
8. Cohesion, c (kN/m2) 36
Angle of internal friction,  (degree) 26

9 Compression index, Cc (m2/kN) 0.05
10. California Bearing Ratio, % 28
2.9.13 Quality Control Tests
2.9.13.1 Control Tests

These wastes may have to be collected from different locations on the mound or different
mounds, as per the availability. Different quality control tests viz. dry density; moisture
content etc needs to be carried out in the borrow area as per BIS specifications. Tests and
their frequency should be as per MoRTH o MoRD.
2.9.13.2 Acceptance Criteria for Field Compaction

Field dry densities of compacted wastes can be evaluated either by core cutter or sand
replacement method. The number of tests to be conducted and acceptance criteria for both
National Highways and Rural Roads shall be as per MoRTH Specifications for Road and
Bridge Works, Section 900 or MoRD specifications, section 1803.2.2.

Section 3 Flexible Pavement
Section 3
Flexible Pavement

CHAPTER 1
3.1.0 Introduction
A pavement should be designed and constructed to carry the traffic loads imposed on it by the
wheels of the vehicles moving over it both safely and economically.
Based on the structural behaviour, pavements are broadly classified into flexible and rigid
pavements. In case of flexible pavements, the loads are transferred to the soil through grain-
to-grain contact, whereas for rigid pavements the load is resisted by the bending action of the
slab.
The details about the quality control aspects of flexible pavements are provided in the
subsequent chapters, which are listed below:
(1) Chapter 1 - Introduction

(2) Chapter 2 – Bitumen
(3) Chapter 3 - Aggregates
(4) Chapter 4 – Mix design of Bituminous Mixes
(5) Chapter 5 – Construction and Supervision of Bituminous layers
(6) Chapter 6 – Equipments needed for construction of bituminous layers

CHAPTER 2
3.2.0 Bituminous Binders
3.2.1 Bitumen
Bitumen - A black or dark brown non-crystalline solid or viscous material having adhesive
properties, derived from petroleum or crude oil either by natural or refinery processes and
substantially soluble in carbon disulphide. The production of bitumen involves following
processes –
Production Process
Crude Oil Distillation - Bitumen is a by-product of crude oil refining. Distillation of crude
oil in refinery is the first step in production process. Crude oil is heated in distillation column
due to which the various hydrocarbon fractions are separated based on their boiling points.
Bitumen is obtained from heaviest fraction that has highest boiling point.
Refining – After extraction of crude oil, it is been sent to refinery for further processing. In
refining process, the various components of crude oil are been separated based on their
boiling points.
Vacuum Distillation – After initial distillation, the leftover bottom of distillation column
known as bottoms contains the heavy components, including bitumen. Vacuum distillation is
performed to further separate the bitumen from other fractions, and this is been performed at
lower pressures and highest temperatures. This process helps to prevent the thermal cracking
of bitumen. Usually, this is done through fractional distillation, in which the crude oil is
heated in a distillation tower, and different fractions (such as gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, and
bitumen) are collected in different height of tower.
De-asphalting – The residue obtained from the vacuum distillation process still contains
impurities and heavy hydrocarbons. So de-asphalting unit is used to further purify the
bitumen. This procedure involves combining the vacuum residue with a solvent that can
dissolve the lighter components, leaving the solid asphaltene behind. The solvent is then used
to extract the asphaltene from the combination.

Blending and Quality Control - To achieve specific properties suitable for various
applications, the purified bitumen may be blended with additives, which may include
polymers, rubber, or other materials to improve its performance. Quality control checks are
carried out throughout the production process to guarantee that the final product meets the
desired specifications.
Packaging and Distribution - The bitumen is normally kept fluid and kept from solidifying
in heated tanks after manufacturing and quality control inspections are finished. It is then
packed and delivered to various markets and building sites in specialized vehicles, such as
tankers or drums.
3.2.2 Paving Grade of Bitumen

Bitumen that is graded on the basis of viscosity at 60C as per (Kisan & Sangathan, 2013)
Paving grade bitumen, also known as paving asphalt or asphalt cement, is a specific type of
bitumen that is used in the construction of roads, highways, airport runways, and other
asphalt pavements. It is a sticky, black, and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of
petroleum and it is the primary binder material used in asphalt concrete or hot mix asphalt
(HMA) paving. Bitumen shall be classified into four grades based on the viscosity, and
suitability recommended for maximum air temperature as given below:
Table 2.1: Four Grades of Bitumen Based on Viscosity
Grade Suitable for 7-day Average Maximum Air

Temperature
(1) (2)
VG10 <30
VG20 30-38
VG30 38-45
VG40 >45
NOTE — This is the 7-day average maximum air temperature for a period not less than 5
years from the start of the design period.

Requirements for Paving Bitumen

The paving bitumen binder shall be homogenous and must not foam on heating at 175C.
The various grade of bitumen shall follow the requirements as shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Requirements of Paving Bitumen
SI Characteristics Paving Grades Method of

No. test
Ref to
VG10 VG20 VG30 VG40

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
i Penetration at 25°C, 100 g, 5 s, 0.1 80 60 45 35 IS 1203

mm, Min
ii Absolute viscosity at 60°C, Poises 800- 1600- 2400- 3200- IS 1206
1200 2400 3600 4800 (Part 2)
iii Kinematic viscosity at 135°C, cSt, 250 300 350 400 IS 1206
Min (Part 3)
iv Flash point (Cleveland open cup), 220 220 220 220 IS 1448 [P
°C, Min : 69]
v Solubility in trichloroethylene, 99.0 99.0 99.0 99.0 IS 1216
percent, Min
vi Softening point (R&B), °C, Min 40 45 47 50 IS 1205
vii Tests on residue from rolling thin
film oven test:
a) Viscosity ratio at 60°C, Max 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 IS 1206
(Part 2)
b) Ductility at 25°C, cm, Min 75 50 40 25 IS 1208

The numbers of containers to be selected for testing the requirements are selected at random
and shall depend upon the size of the lot as shown in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Scale of Sampling
SI No. Lot size Number of containers

(1) (2) (3)
i Up to 50 3
ii 51-150 5
iii 151-500 7
iv 501 and above 10
3.2.3 Modified Bitumen:
3.2.3.1 Polymer Modified Bitumen (PMB) - Polymer Modified Bitumen (PMB) is a type
of bitumen that has been enhanced with the addition of polymer materials to improve its
performance characteristics. The incorporation of polymers enhances the physical properties
of bitumen, making it more resilient, durable, and better suited for a wide range of road
construction and pavement applications.
Specification- Any suitable viscosity grade bitumen conforming to IS 73 or a feed stock

compatible with additives may be used (as per provisions of Clause 6.1 of IS 15462). Various
grades of PMB are as follows
Grades a) Grade PMB 64-10, and/or

b) Grade PMB 70-10, and/or
c) Grade PMB 76-10, and/or
d) Grade PMB 82-10, and/or
e) Grade PMB 76-22

Basic test required are as follows:
(A) Test to be carried out on original binder
i) Softening point (Ring and Ball method) IS 1205
ii) Elastic recovery of half thread in IS 15462

ductilometer at 15°C.
iii) Flash point, Cleveland open cup IS 1209
iv) Viscosity at 150°C Rotational Viscometer ASTMD 4402
v) Complex modulus (G*) divided by Sin delta IS 15462

(G*/sin δ) as Min 1.0 kPa, 25 mm Plate, 1
mm Gap, at 10 rad/s, Dynamic Shear
Rheometer (DSR)
vi) Phase Angle (δ), degree, Dynamic Shear IS 15462

Rheometer (DSR)
vii) Separation, difference in softening point

(Ring & Ball)
viii) FRAASS breaking point IS 9831
(B) Tests to be Carried out on Rolling Thin Film

Oven (RTFO) Residue
i) Loss in mass Is 9832
ii) Complex modulus (G*) divided by Sin delta Annex B IS 15462

(G*/sin δ)
iii) MSCR TEST, Dynamic Shear Rheometer

(DSR)
(C) Tests to be Carried out on Pressure Aging Annex D IS 15462

Vessel (PAV) Residue
i) Complex modulus (G*) multiplied by Sin Annex C IS 15462

delta (G*sin δ)

3.2.3.2 Rubber Modified Bitumen (RMB) - Rubber Modified Bitumen (RMB) is a type of
bitumen that has been enhanced by the addition of recycled rubber materials, such as ground
tire rubber (GTR) or crumb rubber. This modification process improves the properties of
bitumen, making it more flexible, durable, and better suited for various road construction and
pavement applications.
Specification - Any suitable viscosity grade bitumen conforming to IS 73 or a feed stock

(short residue) compatible with additives may be used.
Types and Grade a) Type A - Natural Rubber and SBR Latex

based (NRMB)
(i) Grade NRMB 70, and/or
(ii) Grade NRMB 40 And/or
b) Type B - Crumb Rubber/ treated crumb

based (CRMB)
(i) Grade CRMB 55, and/or
(ii) Grade CRMB 60

The specifications required for the rubber modified bitumen. The tests are been categorized
for the different types of rubber modified bitumen. IS codes are also mentioned for all the
tests.
(A) Test to be carried out on Test methods as Remark

original binder per IS
i) Penetration at 25C IS 1203 For type A and B
ii) Softening point (Ring and Ball IS 1205 -do-

method)
iii) Flash point, Cleveland open IS 1209 -do-

cup
iv) Elastic recovery of half thread IS 15462 -do-

in ductilometer at 15°C
v) Complex modulus as (G*/sin δ) IS 15462 For type B only

as Min 1.0 kPa, 25 mm Plate, 1
mm Gap, at 10 rad/s, Dynamic
Shear Rheometer (DSR)
vi) Separation, difference in IS 17079 For type A and B

softening point (Ring & Ball)
vii) Viscosity at 150°C Rotational IS 1206 (Pt. 2) -do-

Viscometer
(B) Thin Film Oven test and

Residue
i) Loss in mass Is 9832 For type A and B
ii) Change in softening point IS 1205 -do-
iii) Reduction in penetration of IS 1203

residue at 25°C
iv) Elastic recovery of half thread IS 17079 -do-

in ductilometer at 25°C, percent
v) Complex modulus as (G*/Sin) IS 15462 For type B only

as Min 2.2 kPa at 10 rad/s

3.2.3.3 Multi Grade bitumen - This section covers the requirements for physicochemical
properties of different grades of multi-grade bitumen for use in the construction of
bituminous pavements related to highways, expressways, airfields, rural roads and other
allied construction and maintenance works. It is been classified on the basis of viscosity at
60C. Below table shows the types of multi grade bitumen.
Grade Designation Penetration, 0.1 mm, max Absolute Viscosity, at 60c,

min
MGB 500 (Hard) 60 5000
MGB 200 (Soft) 100 2000

Requirements
 The multi-grade bitumen shall be homogeneous and shall not foam when heated to
175°C.
 The various grades of multi-grade bitumen shall conform to the requirements
prescribed in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4
SI Multi grade Bitumen

Characteristic Method of test,
No. (3) (4)
(2) Ref to IS (5)
(1) MG 500 MG 200
Penetration at 25C, 100

i 30-60 70-100 1203
gm, 5s
Softening point (Ring and

ii 55 45 1205
Ball method)
FRASS breaking point, C,

iii -10 -15 9381
max
Flash point, Cleveland

iv 230 230 1209
open cup, C, Min
v Ductility, 15C, cm, min 25 50 1208
vi Penetration index >0.2 >0.0
vii Penetration ratio 45 40
Absolute viscosity, 60C,

viii 5000 2000 1206 (Part 2)
poise, min
ix Viscosity at 135C, Max 1000 500 1206 (Part 3)
x Aging index, max 3.5 4 See note 1-3
Notes:
1. Penetration index may be calculated from the penetration value at two different
temperatures (25°C and 4°C) using following equations
Penetration Index =
Where A =

2. The penetration ratio may be calculated from the penetration value at 2 different
temperatures (4°C and 25°C) using following relationship:
Penetration ratio =
3. Aging index can be calculated by dividing viscosity value at 60°C of residue from
thin film oven test by the viscosity value of neat bitumen at 60°C.
3.2.4 Emulsion Bitumen - Emulsion is a mixture of bitumen (asphalt) and water,

stabilized by an emuls
3.2.5 Identifying agent. It is a colloidal suspension in which tiny droplets of bitumen are
dispersed in water. The emulsifying agent helps prevent the bitumen droplets from
coalescing and keeps them uniformly distributed throughout the water phase.
Cationic emulsion - The bitumen particle interface of an emulsion in which the cation of the
emulsifier is present; an emulsion in which the particles are positively charged and it has an
acidic aqueous phase. Emulsions in these are broken occurs through charge neutralisation.
Grades – Emulsified bitumen shall be of following five grades
Grade
Rapid setting-1 RS-1
Rapid setting-2 RS-2
Medium setting MS
Slow setting-1 SS-1
Slow setting-2 SS-2
Requirements
i. A homogenous bitumen emulsion is required. After full mixing, it must not exhibit
any un-dispersed bitumen within a year of the production date.
ii. The physical and chemical requirements of all the grades of emulsion shall comply
with the requirements as shown in Table 2.5.

Table 2.5
Method of
Grade of Emulsion
SI Test, Ref to
N Characteristic Annex
IS
O. (2) RS-1 RS-2 MS SS-1 SS-2 of this
No.
(1) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Standar
(8)
d (9)
Residue on 600
micron
1 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 -- B
IS sieve, percentage
by mass, Max
Viscosity by
saybolt furol 3117
viscometer,
2 -- 20-
seconds: -- -- 30-150 --
100- 100
1) At 25C 20-100 50-300 --
300 --
2) At 50C
Coagulation of
3 emulsion at low Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil -- C
temperature
Storage stability
4 after 24 h, percent, 2 1 1 2 2 -- D
Max
Weak
Positiv
5 Particle charge Positive Positive Positive Positi E
e
ve
Coating ability and
water resistance
-+-++--Coating dry
-- -- Good -- --
aggregate
1) Coating,
6 -- -- Fair -- --
after spraying
2) Coating,
-- -- Fair -- --
wet aggregate
3) Coating,
-- -- Fair -- --
after spraying
Stability to mixing
with cement
7
(percentage -- -- -- 2 2 -- G
coagulation), Max
No No No No
Miscibility with
8 coagula coagula coagula coagul H
water
tion tion tion ation
Test on residue 60 57 65 50 60
A) Residue by
9 evaporation, 60 J
percent, Min
B) Penetration2

5°C/ 100g/ 80-150

5 sec 80-150 80-150 60-150 60- 60-120 1203
C) Ductility 350
27° C/cm, Min
D) Solubility: 50 50 50 50 1208
In 50
trichloroethylene, 98 98 98 98 1216
percent by mass, 98
Min
Distillation in
percent, by volume
at: 20-55
-- -- -- -- --
10 A) 190°C 30-75
-- -- -- -- --
B) 225°C 40-90
-- -- -- -- --
C) 260°C 60-
-- -- -- -- --
D) 315°C 100
Water content,
11 percent by mass, -- -- -- 20 -- --
Max
3.2.5 Cutback Bitumen - This standard covers the physical and used with aggregates
containing practically chemical requirements of cutback bitumen produced by fluxing
bitumen with distillates of following designations: petroleum or coal tar for use in road
construction.
Types and Grades

Cutback bitumen classified in three types
 Rapid curing (RC),

 Medium curing (MC),
 Slow curing (SC).
These three types of bitumen are classified into grades on the basis of initial kinematic
viscosity and designated as follows:
A) Rapid curing (RC) - These shall be used with aggregates containing practically no
fine aggregates passing through 2.36 mm sieve and shall be classified into four grades
and as following designations:
a. RC 70
b. RC 250
c. RC 800, and
d. RC 3000.

B) Medium curing (MC) - These shall be used with aggregates containing less than 20
percentage of fine aggregates passing through 2.36 mm sieve and shall be classified
into five grades:
a. MC 30
b. MC 70
c. MC 250
d. MC 800, and
e. MC 3000.
Note - MC 30 shall be used as primer.
C) Slow curing (SC) - These shall be used with aggregates containing more than 20
percentage of fine aggregates passing through 2.36 mm sieve and shall be classified
into four grades:
a. SC 70
b. SC 250
c. SC 800
d. SC 3000.
Requirements
1) Rapid curing should follow the requirements as specified in Table 2.6.

2) Medium curing should follow the requirements as specified in Table 2.7.
3) Slow curing should follow the requirements as specified in Table 2.8.

Table 2.6: Requirement for Rapid Curing
SI Characteristics RC 70 RC 250 RC 800 RC 3000 Method

No. of test,
Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Ref to
1 Kinematic viscosity 70 140 250 500 800 1600 3000 6000 IS 1206
at 60 C, cSt (part 3)
2 Flash point, Pensky 26 -- 26 -- 26 -- 26 -- IS 1209

Martens closed cup,
C
3 Distillate volume IS :
percent of total 1213
distillate up to
360°C.
a Up to 190C 10 -- -- -- -- -- -- --
b Up to 225C 50 -- 35 -- 15 -- -- --
c Up to 260C 70 -- 60 -- 45 -- 15 --
d Up to 315C 85 -- 80 -- 75 -- 70 --
4 Residue from 55 -- 65 -- 75 -- 85 --
distillation up to
360C, percentage
by volume (by
difference)
5 Tests on residue
from distillation up
to 360°C
Viscosity at 60C, 600 2400 600 2400 600 2400 600 2400 IS 1206
Poise (Part 3)
Ductility at 27 C, 100 -- 100 -- 100 -- 100 -- IS 1208
cm
Matter soluble in 99 -- 99 -- 99 -- 99 -- IS 1216
trichloroethylene,
percent by mass
6 Water content, -- 0.2 -- 0.2 -- 0.2 -- 0.2 IS 1211
percentage by mass

Table 2.7: Requirements for Medium Curing
SI Characteristics M 30 M 70 M 250 MC 800 M 3000 Met

N C C C C hod
o. Mi Ma Mi Ma Mi Ma Min Max Mi Max of
n x n x n x n test
,
Ref
to
1 Kinematic 30 60 70 140 25 500 800 1600 30 6000
viscosity at 60 C, 0 00
cSt
2 Flash point 38 -- 38 -- 65 -- 65 -- 65 -
Pensky Martens
closed cup, C
3 Distillate
volumes percent
of total distillate
up to 360%.
a) Up to 225 -- 25 -- 20 -- 10 -- -- -- --
C
b) Up to 260 40 70 20 60 15 55 -- 35 -- 15
C
c) Up to 315 75 93 65 90 60 87 45 80 15 75
C
4 Residue from
distillation up to
36O”C, percent 50 -- 55 -- 67 -- 75 -- 80 --
volume by
difference
5 Test on residue
from distillation
up to 360°C. 30 120 30 120 30 120 300 1200 30 1200
a) Viscosity 0 0 0 0 0 0 -- 0 --
at 6O”C, Poises -- -- -- 100
b) Ductility 10 10 10 -- 10 --
at 27”C, cm 0 -- 0 -- 0 -- 99 0
c) Solubility
in 99 99 99 0.2 99 0.2
trichloroethylene 0.2 0.2 0.2 --
, percent
d) Water -- -- -- --
content, percent
by mass

Table 2.8: Requirement for Slow Curing
S Characteristics SC 70 SC 250 SC 800 SC 3000 Method

No. of test,
Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Ref to
1 Kinematic viscosity 70 140 250 500 800 1600 3000 6000 IS:
at 60 C, cSt 1206
(Part
1978)
2 Flash point Pensky 65 -- 79 -- 93 -- 107 --

Martens closed cup,
C
3 Total dilute at 360 10 30 4 20 2 12 -- 5
4 Kinematic viscosity 4 70 8 100 20 160 40 350
on distillation
residue up to 60C,
stokes
5 Test on residue from
distillation up to
360°C.
a) Residue of
100 50 -- 60 -- 70 -- 80 --
penetration
percent
b) Ductility of
100
penetration
residue at
100 -- 100 -- 100 -- 100 --
27’C, cm
c) Solubility in
trichloro
ethylene,
percent
99 -- 99 -- 99 -- 99 --
6 Water content % by -- 0.5 -- 0.5 -- 0.5 -- 0.5

mass

CHAPTER 3
3.3.0 Road Aggregate
Road aggregates are essential materials used in the construction of roads, highways, and other
transportation infrastructure. They play a crucial role in providing strength, stability, and
durability to the road surface. Road aggregates are granular materials used in the construction
of road bases, sub-bases, and surface layers. They include materials such as crushed stone,
gravel, sand, and various types of natural and synthetic aggregates. Aggregates provide the
necessary load-bearing capacity to support the weight of vehicles and traffic loads. They
distribute the load over a larger area along with a reduction of traffic-induced stresses on the
underlying soil.
The overall stability of the pavement structure enhances considerably through appropriate
aggregates. They resist deformation and rutting caused by repeated traffic loads, preventing
the road surface from becoming uneven and hazardous. Furthermore, the properly graded
aggregates facilitate efficient drainage by allowing water to flow through the road layers and
into the underlying soil. This prevents water accumulation on the road surface, which can
lead to erosion, potholes, and other damage. Aggregates with suitable surface texture provide
the necessary friction for vehicle tires, ensuring better traction and reducing the risk of
accidents due to skidding, especially in wet or icy conditions. High-quality aggregates
enhance the longevity of the road. They resist wear and tear caused by traffic, weather, and
environmental factors, leading to a longer service life for the road. The proper use of
aggregates can reduce the maintenance and repair costs associated with roads. Durable and
well-designed road surfaces with quality aggregates require fewer repairs and replacements
over time. Using locally available aggregates in road construction reduces transportation
costs and environmental impact. Additionally, recycling and reusing aggregates from
demolished structures can be a sustainable practice. Aggregates used in the surface layer of
roads can enhance the aesthetic appeal of the road while still meeting functional
requirements. N summary, road aggregates are fundamental to the construction and
performance of roads, providing strength, stability, drainage, and other essential properties.
Proper selection, grading, and placement of aggregates are critical for building safe, durable,
and cost-effective transportation infrastructure.
3.3.1 Desirable Properties of Aggregates

There are several properties of aggregates that need to be evaluated through specific tests.
These properties include strength, hardness, toughness, and shape, adhesion with bitumen,
durability, and freedom from deleterious particles. Let's discuss each property and the
corresponding test in detail:

3.3.1.1 Strength
The strength of aggregates is determined by conducting a crushing test. This test measures
the aggregate's ability to bear a load without failure. The aggregate crushing value test
provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under a gradually applied compressive
load. It involves subjecting the specimen to a compression test under standard load
conditions. A lower crushing value indicates higher strength and better performance of the
aggregate.
3.3.1.2 Hardness
The hardness of aggregates is tested through an abrasion test, specifically the Los Angeles
abrasion test. This test evaluates the aggregate's ability to resist wear and tear caused by
constant rubbing or abrasion due to moving traffic. The aggregate sample is subjected to the
rubbing action of steel balls in a rotating drum. The percentage weight loss after a specified
number of revolutions determines the aggregate's hardness.
3.3.1.3 Toughness
Toughness refers to the resistance of aggregates to impact. The aggregate impact test is
conducted to evaluate this property. In this test, the aggregate sample is subjected to a
specified number of blows from a metal hammer. The impact value is determined by sieving
the crushed aggregate and expressing the percentage passing through a sieve. A lower impact
value indicates a higher resistance to impact.
3.3.1.4 Shape of Aggregates

The shape of aggregates is an important consideration in pavement construction. Aggregates
should not contain flaky and elongated particles, as they can affect the stability and
performance of the pavement. The flakiness index test measures the percentage by weight of
aggregates whose least dimension is less than 0.6 times their mean dimension. The elongation
index test measures the percentage by weight of particles whose greatest dimension is 1.8
times their mean dimension. Both tests help determine the shape characteristics of aggregates.
3.3.1.5 Adhesion with Bitumen

Aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have good adhesion with bitumen. The
bitumen adhesion test determines the stripping value of bitumen from the aggregate. It
involves immersing the coated aggregate in water and checking for any stripping of the
bituminous coating. The stripping value should not exceed a certain percentage to ensure
proper adhesion between the aggregate and bitumen.

3.3.1.6 Durability
The durability of aggregates is determined through a soundness test. Aggregates are subjected
to weathering conditions, including the physical and chemical action of rainwater,
groundwater, impurities, and atmospheric factors. The soundness test evaluates the resistance
of aggregates to weathering. It involves subjecting the aggregates to cycles of wetting and
drying in a saturated solution of sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate. The weight loss of
the aggregates after a specified number of cycles determines their durability.
3.3.1.7 Freedom from Deleterious Particles

Aggregates should be free from deleterious substances and particles that can adversely affect
the performance of the pavement. For bituminous mixes, aggregates should be clean, tough,
and free from excess flat or elongated pieces, dust, clay balls, and other objectionable
materials. Similarly, aggregates used in Portland cement concrete mixes should be clean and
free from substances such as clay lumps, chert, silt, and organic impurities.
3.3.2 Different Tests of Road Aggregates

Aggregates play a vital role in the construction of pavement, as they have the capability to
transfer loads to the subgrade soil. It is crucial to ensure that aggregates meet the necessary
requirements for strength, durability, shape, and adhesion with the binding medium used. In
this article, we will explore the significance of testing aggregates for pavement construction
and discuss various tests and properties of aggregates.
Before using aggregates in construction, it is essential to conduct thorough testing to ensure

their quality and suitability. The quality of aggregates directly impacts the load transfer
capability of pavements and slabs. Aggregates should not only possess strength and durability
but also have the proper shape and size to ensure the monolithic behaviour of the pavement.
Testing aggregates helps in determining their properties and ensures the longevity and
performance of the pavement.
3.3.2.1 Sieve Analysis

The gradation test, also known as the sieve analysis, is a standard method used to determine
the particle size distribution of aggregates. This test is essential in evaluating the suitability of
aggregates for various construction purposes, including road construction. It is a pre-requisite
to analyze the distribution of particle sizes in an aggregate sample, which is crucial for
designing well-graded mixes that provide adequate strength, stability, and compaction
characteristics in construction.

i) Testing Procedure
Obtain a representative sample of the aggregate from the source or construction site. The
sample should be large enough to yield accurate results and should be taken using proper
sampling techniques to ensure representativeness.
Prepare a set of standard sieves with varying mesh sizes, typically in accordance with
relevant standards or specifications. Common sieve sizes used in gradation tests include
20mm, 10mm, 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600μm, 300μm, and 150μm. It would be followed
by setting up a sieve shaker, mechanical or hand-operated, to facilitate the sieving process.
Stack the sieves with the largest mesh size (e.g., 20mm) at the top and the finest mesh size
(e.g., 150μm) at the bottom. Place a collecting pan at the bottom of the stack to catch the
material passing through the finest sieve.
After sieving, carefully remove each sieve from the stack, one by one, and weigh the material
retained on each sieve. Record the weight retained on each sieve, as well as the weight of the
material passing through the finest sieve and collected in the pan.
Calculate the percentage of material passing through each sieve and the cumulative
percentage passing for each sieve using the following formulas:
The Cumulative Percentage Passing can be calculated by summation of the percentages

passing up to the current sieve.
Plot the cumulative percentage passing on the y-axis and the sieve sizes (in logarithmic scale)
on the x-axis to create a gradation curve, also known as a particle size distribution curve.
ii) Results Interpretation

Analysing the gradation curve helps in assessing the overall distribution of particle sizes in
the aggregate sample. A well-graded aggregate has a curve that is relatively smooth and falls
within specified limits. Different types of aggregates, such as fine aggregates (sand) and
coarse aggregates (crushed stone), will have different gradation curves based on their
intended use in the construction process. The gradation test results are crucial for selecting
appropriate proportions of aggregates in mix designs for various construction applications.
Whether its road base, concrete, asphalt, or other construction materials, a well-graded
aggregate mix ensures good compaction, stability, and load-bearing capacity, contributing to
the overall quality and performance of the construction project.

3.3.2.2 Los Angeles Abrasion Test

The Los Angeles Abrasion Test, also known as the L.A. Abrasion Test or simply the Abrasion
Test, is a standard method used to assess the abrasion resistance and durability of coarse
aggregates used in construction, particularly for road and pavement applications. This test
helps evaluate how well aggregates can withstand the effects of wear and tear caused by
traffic, weather, and other environmental factors. It is required to be conducted for
determining the resistance of coarse aggregates to abrasion and degradation, which is
important for assessing the suitability of aggregates for use in road construction.
Obtain a representative sample of the coarse aggregate, typically a minimum of about 5,000
grams is recommended.
Thoroughly dry the sample in an oven to ensure there is no moisture content.
Set up the Los Angeles Abrasion testing machine, which consists of a hollow cylindrical
drum with a set of abrasive steel balls and an interior shelf.
Place the dry aggregate sample and a specified number of steel balls inside the drum. Secure
the cover of the drum.
Set the machine to rotate the drum at a speed of 30-33 revolutions per minute (rpm) for a
specific number of revolutions (usually 500 or 1000 revolutions).
After the prescribed number of revolutions, stop the machine. Remove the aggregate from the
drum and thoroughly wash and dry it. Weigh the aggregate to determine the loss in weight
due to abrasion.
L.A. Abrasion Value = ((Weight before abrasion - Weight after abrasion) / Weight before
abrasion) * 100

The Los Angeles Abrasion Value represents the percentage of weight loss due to abrasion. A
lower L.A. Abrasion Value indicates higher resistance to abrasion, meaning the aggregate is
more durable and suitable for use in road construction. Conversely, a higher L.A. Abrasion
Value indicates that the aggregate is more susceptible to abrasion and may not be ideal for
high-traffic or heavy-load road surfaces. Aggregate specifications may have specific limits
for the L.A. Abrasion Value, and the acceptance or rejection of an aggregate for a particular
application depends on whether it meets these requirements. The Los Angeles Abrasion Test
provides valuable information for selecting aggregates that will contribute to the longevity
and performance of road surfaces, helping to ensure safe and durable transportation
infrastructure.

3.3.2.3 Aggregate Impact Test

The aggregate impact test, also known as the Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) test, is a
standard method used to assess the impact resistance or toughness of aggregates used in
construction, particularly for road and pavement applications. This test helps determine the
ability of aggregates to withstand sudden impacts, which can occur during transportation,
compaction, or under traffic loads. The AIV test is required to be performed for evaluating
the impact resistance and toughness of coarse aggregates, which is important for assessing the
suitability of aggregates for use in road construction.
Obtain a representative sample of the coarse aggregate, usually a minimum of about 14 kg is
recommended.
Thoroughly dry the sample in an oven to ensure there is no moisture content.
Set up the aggregate impact testing machine, which consists of a cylindrical steel cup, an
impact hammer, a metal base, a tray, and a balance.
Place the dried aggregate sample in the steel cup of the impact testing machine. Fix the cup
firmly onto the base.
Allow the sample to fall freely into the cup from a specified height (typically 380 mm) using
the impact hammer.
Repeat this process for a specific number of blows (usually 15 blows) and ensure that the
sample is uniformly compacted in the cup after each blow.
After completing the impact test, remove the aggregate from the cup and sieve it using a set
of standard sieves. Weigh the material retained on each sieve.
Calculate the Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) as a percentage of the original sample weight:
Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) = ((Weight of material passing through a 2.36mm sieve /
Initial sample weight) * 100)

The Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) represents the percentage of material passing through a
2.36mm sieve after the impact test. A lower AIV indicates higher impact resistance, meaning
the aggregate is tougher and more suitable for use in road construction. Conversely, a higher
AIV indicates that the aggregate is more susceptible to fragmentation under impact, which
may not be ideal for high-impact applications. Aggregate specifications may have specific
limits for the AIV, and the acceptance or rejection of an aggregate for a particular application
depends on whether it meets these requirements. The Aggregate Impact Test provides

essential information for selecting aggregates that can withstand impact forces and contribute
to the overall durability and performance of road surfaces, helping ensure safer and longer-
lasting transportation infrastructure.
3.3.2.4 Shape Test

The shape test on aggregates is a crucial assessment that determines the angularity, flakiness,
and elongation characteristics of coarse aggregates. The shape of aggregates significantly
impacts the overall stability, workability, and performance of concrete and asphalt mixes used
in road construction. The shape test will lead to assessing the shape and texture of coarse
aggregates, which influences the interlocking properties, workability, and performance of the
aggregate in road construction materials.
Obtain a representative sample of the coarse aggregate, ensuring it is sufficiently large to
yield meaningful results.
Thoroughly clean and dry the sample to remove any dirt or contaminants.
Flakiness Index Test
Select a subset of the aggregate sample, typically using a quartering or splitting method.
Measure the dimensions (length, width, and thickness) of a representative sample of particles
from this subset.
Calculate the Flakiness Index using the formula: Flakiness Index (%) = (Total length of flat
particles / Total length of all particles) * 100
Elongation Index Test
Measure the dimensions (length, width, and thickness) of the same representative sample of
particles used for the Flakiness Index test.
Calculate the Elongation Index using the formula: Elongation Index (%) = (Total length of
elongated particles / Total length of all particles) * 100

A lower flakiness index is desirable because it indicates a higher percentage of particles with
more regular shapes, which enhances the stability of the mix. Flat and elongated particles can
lead to reduced workability and lower strength in concrete mixes. A lower elongation index is
preferable, as it indicates a higher percentage of particles with more compact shapes.
Excessively elongated particles can hinder compaction and reduce the overall quality of the

aggregate mix. Aggregate specifications may have specific limits for the flakiness and
elongation indices, and the acceptance or rejection of an aggregate for a particular application
depends on whether it meets these requirements. Considering the shape test results helps in
selecting aggregates that can contribute to the optimal performance, durability, and longevity
of road surfaces.
3.3.2.5 Specific Gravity Test

The specific gravity and water absorption tests are fundamental procedures used to determine
the characteristics of aggregates, particularly fine and coarse aggregates, which play a critical
role in construction materials such as concrete and asphalt. These tests provide valuable
information about the density and porosity of the aggregates, helping assess their suitability
for various construction applications, including road construction. The purpose of the specific
gravity test is to determine the specific gravity (relative density) of aggregates, which is
essential for mix design calculations and assessing the overall density and strength of
construction materials.
Obtain a representative sample of the aggregate, ensuring it is dry and free from
contaminants.
The sample should be large enough to provide accurate results, typically around 500-1000
grams.
Weigh the dry sample (W1) and record the weight.
Completely immerse the sample in water for a specific period (usually around 24 hours) to
ensure saturation.
Remove the sample from water, allow excess water to drain, and weigh it in water (W2)
while submerged.
Calculate the specific gravity (G) of the aggregate using the following formula: Specific
Gravity (G) = (W1 / (W1 - W2))
The specific gravity value provides information about the density of the aggregate compared
to the density of water (which has a specific gravity of 1). It can help in determining the
volumetric properties of concrete mixes and assessing the overall quality of the aggregate.
On the other hand, the purpose of the water absorption test is to measure the water absorption
capacity of aggregates, which helps evaluate their porosity and potential for moisture-related
problems in concrete mixes or road construction.
Use the same representative sample as in the specific gravity test, ensuring it is dry and clean.

Weigh the dry sample (W1) and record the weight.
Completely immerse the sample in water for a specific period (usually around 24 hours) to
ensure saturation.
Remove the sample from water, allow excess water to drain, and weigh it again (W2) in its
saturated condition.
Calculate the water absorption (%) using the following formula: Water Absorption (%) =
((W2 - W1) / W1) * 100
The water absorption value provides information about the porosity of the aggregate,
indicating how much water it can absorb. Aggregates with high water absorption may result
in reduced workability and increased porosity in concrete mixes. In road construction,
aggregates with high water absorption may be prone to moisture-related issues, such as frost
damage or reduced durability.
3.3.2.6 Soundness Test

The soundness test, also known as the Aggregate Soundness Test or Sodium Sulphate
Soundness Test, is a standard method used to evaluate the resistance of aggregates to
disintegration and weathering caused by repeated cycles of wetting and drying. This test is
particularly important for aggregates used in road construction, as it helps assess their ability
to withstand the effects of moisture, which can lead to deterioration, cracking, and reduced
durability. The test aims to determine the soundness of aggregates by simulating the effects of
repeated wetting and drying, helping assess their resistance to weathering.
Obtain a representative sample of the aggregate, ensuring it is dry and free from
contaminants.
The sample size may vary based on testing standards and specific requirements.
Set up a soundness testing apparatus, which typically includes a sodium sulphate solution, a
container (often called a "soundness test sieve"), an oven, and a balance.
Place the dry aggregate sample in the soundness test sieve.
Immerse the sample and sieve in a saturated solution of sodium sulphate (Na2SO4). The
solution concentration and soaking duration depend on testing standards but often involve a
5% sodium sulphate solution and a 5-hour soaking period.
Remove the aggregate from the sodium sulphate solution and allow excess solution to drain.

Place the sieve and aggregate in an oven at a specified temperature (often around 110 to
120°C or per testing standards) for a specific period (usually around 16 to 18 hours) to dry
the sample.
After drying, remove the sample from the oven and weigh it.
Calculate the percentage of loss in weight due to disintegration using the formula:
Soundness (%) = ((Initial weight - Final weight) / Initial weight) * 100

The soundness test results provide information about the resistance of the aggregate to
disintegration. A low percentage of loss in weight indicates good soundness, meaning the
aggregate can withstand repeated cycles of wetting and drying without significant
disintegration or deterioration. In contrast, a high percentage of weight loss indicates poor
soundness, suggesting that the aggregate may be susceptible to weathering and may not be
suitable for road construction, particularly in areas with significant moisture exposure. The
soundness test helps in selecting aggregates that contribute to the overall durability and long-
term performance of road surfaces, ensuring they can withstand the effects of environmental
factors.
3.3.2.7 Coating Test

The coating test is a method used to assess the degree of bitumen or asphalt binder coverage
on the surface of aggregates in asphalt mixtures. Proper coating of aggregates is essential for
ensuring good adhesion between the binder and the aggregates, which is crucial for the
overall performance and durability of the asphalt pavement in road construction. A lack of
adequate coating can lead to issues such as reduced resistance to moisture damage, lower
stability, and poor overall performance of the asphalt mix. The test helps to evaluate the
extent of bitumen or asphalt binder coverage on the surface of aggregates in an asphalt
mixture, ensuring proper adhesion and the overall quality of the mix.
Prepare a representative sample of the asphalt mixture, which includes aggregates and the
bituminous binder.
The sample should accurately represent the mix design used for road construction.
Extract the bitumen from the asphalt mixture using a solvent such as trichloroethylene or
another suitable solvent.

The extraction process aims to remove the bitumen from the aggregates while keeping the
aggregates intact.
After the extraction, assess the amount of residual bitumen on the surface of the aggregates.
This assessment can be done visually or by weighing the extracted aggregates and comparing
the weight with the initial weight of the aggregates before extraction.
The percentage of residual bitumen or the degree of coating is calculated based on the weight
difference.

A high percentage of residual bitumen or a higher degree of coating indicates that the
aggregates are well-coated, which is a positive sign of proper adhesion between the bitumen
binder and the aggregates. This suggests that the asphalt mix is more likely to resist moisture
damage and maintain its integrity under traffic loads. Conversely, a low degree of coating or a
low percentage of residual bitumen suggests inadequate coverage, which can lead to poor
adhesion, lower stability, and reduced durability of the asphalt mix. This may require
adjustments to the mix design or the use of additional additives to improve coating and
adhesion properties. Proper coating of aggregates is essential to ensure the overall quality and
performance of asphalt mixes used in road construction. The results of the coating test can
guide decisions regarding mix design adjustments, binder selection, and overall quality
control measures to enhance the durability and longevity of the asphalt pavement.
3.3.3 Conclusion
Testing road aggregates is essential to ensure their suitability for pavement construction. The
various tests, including the crushing test, abrasion test, impact test, soundness test, shape
tests, specific gravity and water absorption test, and bitumen adhesion test, provide valuable
information about the strength, durability, and performance of aggregates. By conducting
these tests, engineers can select the most appropriate aggregates for different pavement
construction works, ensuring the longevity and integrity of the roads.

CHAPTER 4
3.4.0 Mix Design for Bituminous Mixes
Marshall Mix Design was originally developed by Bruce Marshall of the Mississippi
Highway department at a year of 1939 and then revised by U.S Army. The marshall method
seeks to select the asphalt binder content at a desired density that satisfies minimum stability
and range of flow values.
3.4.1 Mix Design

The bituminous Mix design is determination of the properties of bitumen, filler, fine
aggregates and coarse aggregates to produce a mix which is workable, strong, durable and
economical. Bituminous mixes are designed to withstand heavy traffic loads under adverse
climate conditions and also to fulfill the requirement of structural and pavement surface
characteristics.
3.4.1.1 Objectives of Mix Design
 Resistance to fatigue
 Resistance to permanent deformation
 Resistance to low temperature cracking
 Durability
 Resistance to moisture induced damage
 Skid Resistance
 Workability
3.4.2 Marshall Mix design procedure

These are six basic steps followed by Marshall Mix design
1. Aggregate Evaluation
2. Evaluation of Bitumen
3. Marshall sample preparation
4. Marshall stability and flow test
5. Analysis and test results
6. Determination of optimum Binder content.
3.4.2.1 Aggregate Evaluation

The aggregates should be tested as per IS 2386 (part 1-6) and should satisfy laid down for the
mix in respect of the following Table 4.1.

Table 4.1
Property Test Requirement Test method
Cleanliness Grain size analysis Max. 5% passing IS: 2386 Part 1

0.075mm
Strength Los Angles Abrasion Max. 35% IS :2386 Part 1

Test
Aggregates Impact BC-Max. 24% IS: 2386 Part 4

Value
Others-Max. 27%
Polishing Polished stone value Min. 55 IS: 2386 part 4
Durability Soundness ( either sodium or magnesium)- 5 cycles
Sodium Sulphate Max. 12% IS: 2386 part5
Magnesium Sulpahte Max. 18% IS: 2386 part5
Water absorption Water absorption test Max 2% IS: 2386 part3
Stripping Coating and Min. Retained IS: 6241

stripping of bitumen Coating 95%
Aggregates Mixtures
Fuller’s maximum density curve,
Where,
P= percent passing on sieve size d
D= maximum size of aggregates.
Fuller and Thompson found the value of n = 0.5
Proportioning of Aggregates
 Normally, the aggregates from the quarry are available in 3-4 nominal sizes, (i.e., 20mm,
10mm, 6mm and 2.36 (Grit and dust)).
 Aggregates are to be mixed to get the specified gradation to be obtained.

Methods of Proportioning
 Trial and Error Method

 Analytical Method
 Graphical Method or Rothfutch’s Method.
Using any of the suitable method, the gradation of aggregates is made as per MORTH 5 th
Revision.
Table 4.2
Specification DBM SDBC BC
Grading (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2)
Nominal maximum 13.2mm

37.5mm 26.5mm 13.2mm 9.5mm 19mm
aggregate size
50-
Layer thickness 75-100mm 40mm 25mm 19mm 13.2mm
75mm
IS Sieve size(mm) Cumulative percent by weight of total aggregate passing
45 100
37.5 95-100 100
26.5 63-93 90-100 100
19 - 71-95 100 90-100 100
13.2 55-75 56-80 90-100 100 59-79 90-100
9.5 - - 70-90 90-100 52-72 70-88
4.75 38-54 38-54 35-51 35-51 35-55 53-71
2.36 28-42 28-42 24-39 24-39 28-44 42-58
1.18 - - 15-30 15-30 20-34 34-48
0.6 - - - - 15-27 26-38
0.3 7-21 7-21 9-19 9-19 10-20 18-28
0.15 - - - - 5-13 12-20
0.075 2-8 2-8 3-8 3-8 2-8 4-10
Bitumen content (Min) 4.0% 4.5% 4.5% 5.0% 5.2% 5.4%

3.4.2.2 Evaluation of Bitumen

i. Select the binder grade based on geographical location and climatic condition of the
site as per IRC 37.
ii. Test the guidelines for physical and Rheological properties as per guidelines of IS 73
or IS 15462.
iii. Plot viscosity temperature data to determine mixing and compaction temperature.
iv. Mixing temperature for viscosity range 170 ± 20 cSt.
v. Compaction Temperature 280 ± 30 cSt.
Figure 4.1: Mixing and Compaction Chart
3.4.2.3 Marshall Specimen Preparation

i. Approximately 1200g of dry mix of aggregates and filler is heated to a temperature of
150º C to 170º C.
ii. The compacted mould assembly and hammer are cleaned and kept preheated to a
temperature of 100 º C to 145 º C.
iii. The bitumen is heated to a temperature of 150º C to 165º C and the required quantity
of the first trial percentage of bitumen is added to the heated aggregates and
thoroughly mixed.
iv. The mix is placed in the mould and compacted by a rammer with about 75 blows on
each side.
v. The weight of hammer is 4.54 Kg and height of fall is 45.7 cm.
vi. The Compaction Specimen should have a thickness of 63.5 ± 3.0 mm.
vii. The compacted specimens are extracted using a sample extractor after the curing time.
viii. Three specimens should be prepared at each bitumen content which may be varied at
0.5% increments from 4.5% to 6.5 %.

3.4.2.4 Volumetric Properties

The volumetric analysis of bituminous mixes plays a critical role in ensuring its satisfactory
strength and durability at the field. It focuses on the accurate calculation of the characteristics
including the bulk specific gravity (Gmb) of the bituminous mix, its theoretical maximum
specific gravity (Gmm), percentage air void content in the mix (Va), voids in mineral
aggregate (VMA), and voids filled with bitumen (VFB). These components are shown in the
phase diagram of the bituminous mix displayed in Figure
Figure 4.2
a) Bulk Specific Gravity of Bituminous Mix (Gmb)
Bulk specific gravity of the compacted bituminous mix corresponds to the mass of specimen
(including the mass of aggregates and bitumen) divided by the volume of sample (including
effective volumes of aggregates, bitumen, and air voids), multiplied by the unit mass of
distilled water (Asphalt Institute, 2014). Since bituminous concrete specimen has water
absorption value less than or equal to 2% of its volume, its Gmb can be calculated as per the
saturated surface dry method specified in ASTM D2726. The formula for the calculation of
Gmb is
Where,
= dry mass of specimen in air
= saturated surface dry mass of specimen in air
= mass of specimen in water at 25⁰C

b) Theoretical Maximum Specific Gravity of Bituminous Mix (Gmm)

The theoretical maximum specific gravity of the loose bituminous mix corresponds to the
mass of loose mix (including the mass of aggregates and bitumen) divided by the volume of
mix (including sum of the effective volumes of aggregates and bitumen), multiplied by unit
mass of distilled water. The Gmm of bituminous mix is determined according to the
procedure specified in ASTM D2041 specification which involves following steps (Asphalt
Institute, 2014). The warm loose bituminous mix is prepared and separated into individually
coated aggregates. The loose mix is prepared by gently heating the sample in an oven, until it
can be easily broken apart. After determining the weight in air of sample, it is placed in a
calibrated vacuum container and immersed with water. The container is then connected to a
vacuum pump, and vacuum pressure of about 27.5 mm Hg should be applied. The gentle
agitation is given to the container at regular intervals to remove the air from sample. The
vacuum is then carefully released, the container is filled with water to the calibration mark,
and weight of the container, specimen, and water determined. The theoretical maximum
specific gravity of the specimen is calculated using following formula:
Where,
= mass of oven-dry specimen in air
= mass of container filled with water up to the calibration mark
= mass of container with specimen filled with water up to the calibration mark
OR
And are the proportions of CA, FA, Filler and , and bitumen in the
mix and are their respective specific gravities.
c) Effective Specific Gravity ( ):

The effective specific gravity is the ratio of the oven dry mass of a unit volume of aggregate
(including both the solid volume of the aggregate and the water permeable voids not filled
with absorbed asphalt as shown in Figure 3.8) to the mass of the same volume of water.
When only one Gmm is conducted in the laboratory, the designer should select a binder
content that is equal to or greater than the anticipated design binder content in order to assure
thorough coating and minimize water intrusion into the aggregate during vacuum testing.
After finding the average of two Gmm samples at single binder content (or if desired, at
every trial binder percentage), Gse can be calculated using the following equation:
Where,
= percent bitumen by weight of mix
= specific gravity of bitumen
Figure 4.3
d) Calculate Total Air Voids in the Mix
e) Total Volume of Bituminous Binder in the Mix
f) Voids in Mineral Aggregates (VMA)

g) Voids Filled with Bitumen (VFB)
3.4.2.5 Stability and Flow Test

Marshall Stability of a test specimen is the maximum load required to produce failure when
the specimen is preheated to a prescribed temperature placed in a special test head and the
load is applied at a constant strain (50.8 mm per minute). While the stability test is in
progress dial gauge is used to measure the vertical deformation of the specimen. The
deformation at the failure point expressed in units of 0.25 mm is called the Marshall Flow
value of the specimen.
NOTE: Total time between removing the specimen from water bath and the test <60 seconds.
Stability Correction:
It is possible while making the specimen the thickness slightly vary from the standard
specification of 63.5 mm. Therefore, measured stability values need to be corrected to those
which would have been obtained if the specimens had been exactly 63.5 mm. This is done by
multiplying each measured stability value by an appropriated correlation factors as given in
Table 4.2 below.

Table 4.2: Corrected Stability Values
Volume of Approximate Thickness of Specimen

Correlation Ratio
Specimen, cm3 mm________ in.________
200 to 213 25.4 1 5.56
1/16
214 to 225 27.0 1 5.00
1/8
226 to 237 28.6 1 4.55
3/16
238 to 250 30.2 1 4.17
1/4
251 to 264 31.8 1 3.85
5/16
265 to 276 33.3 1 3.57
3/8
277 to 289 34.9 1 3.33
7/16
290 to 301 36.5 1 3.03
1/2
302 to 316 38.1 1 2.78
9/16
317 to 328 39.7 1 2.50
5/8
329 to 340 41.3 1 2.27
11/16
341 to 353 42.9 1 2.08
3/4
354 to 367 44.4 1 1.92
13/16
368 to 379 46.0 1 1.79
7/8
380 to 392 47.6 1 1.67
15/16
393 to 405 49.2 1 1.56
406 to 420 50.8 2 1.47
11/16
421 to 431 52.4 2 1.39
1/8
432 to 443 54.0 2 1.32
3/16
444 to 456 55.6 2 1.25
1/4
547 to 470 57.2 2 1.19
5/16
471 to 482 58.7 2 1.14
3/8
483 to 495 60.3 2 1.09
7/16
496 to 508 61.9 2 1.04
1/2
509 to 522 63.5 2 1.00
9/16
523 to 535 65.1 2 0.96
5/8
536 to 546 66.7 2 0.93
11/16
547 to 559 68.3 2 0.89
3/4
560 to 573 69.8 2 0.86
13/16
574 to 585 71.4 2 0.83
7/8
586 to 598 73.0 2 0.81
15/16
599 to 610 74.6 2 0.78
611 to 1625 76.2 3 0.76
Notes:
1. The measured stability of a specimen multiplied by the ratio for the thickness of the
specimen equals the corrected stability for a 63.5 mm (2.5 in.) specimen.
2. Volume thickness relationship is based on a specimen diameter of 101.6 mm (4 in.)

Prepare Graphical Plots:

The average values of the above properties are determined for each mix with different
bitumen content and the following graphical plots are prepared:
1. Asphalt content versus corrected Marshall Stability

2. Asphalt content versus Marshall Flow
3. Asphalt content versus percentage of void (V v) in the total mix
4. Asphalt content versus voids filled with bitumen (VFA)
5. Asphalt content versus unit weight (Gm)
6. Asphalt content versus volume of mineral aggregates (VMA)
Graph 4.1
3.4.2.6 Determination of Optimum Bitumen Content
Determine the optimum binder content for the mix design by taking average value of the
following three bitumen contents found form the graphs obtained in the previous step.
 Binder content corresponding to maximum stability

 Binder content corresponding to maximum bulk specific gravity (Gm)
 Binder content corresponding to the median of designed limits of percent air voids
(Vv) in the total mix (i.e. 4%)
Mixes with very high stability value and low flow value are not desirable as the pavements
constructed with such mixes are likely to develop cracks due to heavy moving loads.

Figure 4.3: Phase Diagram of the Bituminous Mix
Role of Volumetric Parameters of Mix

Bitumen holds the aggregates in position, and the load is taken by the aggregate mass through
the contact points. If all the voids are filled with bitumen, the one to one contact of the
aggregate particles may lose, and then the load is transmitted by hydrostatic pressure through
bitumen, and hence the strength of the mix reduces. That is why stability of the mix starts
reducing when bitumen content is increased further beyond a certain value. During summer
season, bitumen softens and occupies the void space between the aggregates and if void is
unavailable, bleeding is caused. Thus, some amount of void is necessary in a bituminous mix,
even after the final stage of compaction. However excess void will make the mix weak from
its elastic modulus and fatigue life considerations. Evaluation and selection of aggregate
gradation to achieve the specified minimum VMA is the most difficult and time-consuming
step in the mix design process.
Step 1: Aggregate Gradation (Sieve Size analysis)
 Densely graded aggregates offers

High frictional resistance
Greater area of load transfer
 The gradation that results in maximum density would offer high stability to the
final mix
 Theoretical gradations could be used as a starting point to arrive at the required
gradation by trial and error method.

Table 4.3: Aggregate Grading and Bitumen content
Specification DBM SDBC BC

Grading 1 2 1 2 1 2
Monianl maximum 37.5 mm
aggregate size
Layer thickness 75-
100mm
IS Sieve size (mm) Cumulative percent by weight of total aggregate passing
45 100
37.5 95-100 100
26.5 63-93 90-100 100
19 - 71-95 100 90-100 100
13.2 55-75 56-80 90-100 100 59-79 90-100
9.5 - - 70-90 90-100 53-72 70-88
4.75 38-54 38-54 35-51 35-51 35-55 53-71
2.36 28-42 28-42 24-39 24-39 28-44 42-58
1.18 - - 15-30 15-30 20-34 34-48
0.6 15-27 26-38
0.3 7-21 7-21 9-19 9-19 10-20 18-28
0.15 5-13 12-20
0.075 2-8 2-8 3-8 3-8 2-8 4-10
Bitumen content (Min) 4% 4.5% 4.5% 5% 5.2% 5.4%
Step 2: Evaluation of Bitumen
 Select the binder grade based on geographical location and climatic condition of site
as per IRC 37.
 Test the guidelines for physical and Rheological properties as per guidelines of IS 73
or IS 15462.
 Plot viscosity temperature data to determine mixing and compaction temperature.
 Mixing temperature for viscosity range 170cst ± 20cst.
 Compaction Temperature 280cst ± 30cst.
Graph 4.2: Mixing and Compaction Temperature Chart

Table 4.4 Specimen Correlation Ratio
Volume of Approximate Thickness of Specimen

Correlation Ratio
Specimen, cm3 mm________ in.________
200 to 213 25.4 1 5.56
1/16
214 to 225 27.0 1 5.00
1/8
226 to 237 28.6 1 4.55
3/16
238 to 250 30.2 1 4.17
1/4
251 to 264 31.8 1 3.85
5/16
265 to 276 33.3 1 3.57
3/8
277 to 289 34.9 1 3.33
7/16
290 to 301 36.5 1 3.03
1/2
302 to 316 38.1 1 2.78
9/16
317 to 328 39.7 1 2.50
5/8
329 to 340 41.3 1 2.27
11/16
341 to 353 42.9 1 2.08
3/4
354 to 367 44.4 1 1.92
13/16
368 to 379 46.0 1 1.79
7/8
380 to 392 47.6 1 1.67
15/16
393 to 405 49.2 1 1.56
406 to 420 50.8 2 1.47
11/16
421 to 431 52.4 2 1.39
1/8
432 to 443 54.0 2 1.32
3/16
444 to 456 55.6 2 1.25
1/4
547 to 470 57.2 2 1.19
5/16
471 to 482 58.7 2 1.14
3/8
483 to 495 60.3 2 1.09
7/16
496 to 508 61.9 2 1.04
1/2
509 to 522 63.5 2 1.00
9/16
523 to 535 65.1 2 0.96
5/8
536 to 546 66.7 2 0.93
11/16
547 to 559 68.3 2 0.89
3/4
560 to 573 69.8 2 0.86
13/16
574 to 585 71.4 2 0.83
7/8
586 to 598 73.0 2 0.81
15/16
599 to 610 74.6 2 0.78
611 to 1625 76.2 3 0.76
Notes:
1. The measured stability of a specimen multiplied by the ratio for the thickness of the
specimen equals the corrected stability for a 63.5 mm (2.5 in.) specimen.
2. Volume thickness relationship is based on a specimen diameter of 101.6 mm (4 in.)

Step 3:
 Bitumen content versus

 Stability
 Flow
 Bulk density
 Air voids
 VMA
 VFB
Graph 4.3
Step 4:
Method-1 NAPA (National Asphalt Pavement Association)
Binder content for 4% air voids.

CHAPTER 5
3.5.0 Construction and Supervision of Bituminous Layers
3.5.1 Prime Coat

According to ASTM D8 "Standard Terminology Relating to Materials for Roads and
Pavements", a prime coat is defined as follows:
“An application of low-viscosity asphalt material to an absorptive surface, designed to

penetrate, bond, and stabilize this existing surface and to promote adhesion between it and the
construction course that follows”. As per IRC:16, priming is spraying of low viscosity liquid
bituminous materials on the surface of non-bituminous granular base course preparatory to
the superimposition of bituminous treatment.
The main function of a prime is to partially penetrate the (granular) layer to which it is
applied while leaving a small residue of binder on the surface. The objectives of priming a
granular surface are as under (IRC 16):
(a) To coat and bond loose material particles on the surface of the base
(b) To harden or toughen the base surface to provide a work platform for construction
equipment
(c) To plug capillary voids, about 8 – 10 mm depth, in the granular layer to prevent migration
of moisture
(d) To provide adhesion between the base course and the succeeding course
Figure 5.1: Schematic of Emulsion Penetration on the Granular Layer

Material for Prime Coat Application

(a) Cationic bitumen emulsion SS-1 grade conforming to IS:8887 / ASTM D2397 shall be
used as primer
(b) Medium curing cutback bitumen conforming to IS 217 shall be used as primer, only for
sub-zero conditions or emergency applications. The cutback should not be prepared in the
field.
Application Rate for Prime Coat

The quantity of bitumen emulsion as primer for various surface types is given in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Quantity of Bitumen Emulsion as Primer for Various Surface Types
Sl. No. Type of Surface Rate of Spray

(kg/10 m2)
1. WMM / WBM 7 - 10
2. Mechanically stabilized soil base, lime / cement 9 – 12

stabilized soil and lime cement base
The quantity of bitumen emulsion as primer for various surface types is given in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2: Type and Quantity of Cutback Bitumen as Primer for Various Surface Types
SI. Type of Surface Cutback Type Rate of Spray

No. (kg/10 m2)
1. WMM / WBM MC 30 6-9
2. Mechanically stabilized soil base, lime / MC 70 9 – 12

cement stabilized soil and lime cement base
The appropriate quantity of the primer shall be decided by the Engineer and shall be such that
it can be absorbed by the surface without causing run-off of excessive primer and to achieve
desired penetration of about 8 to 10 mm.

Construction and Application of Prime Coat
Equipments for Priming

(a) All the equipments should be in good working condition.
(b) Bitumen emulsion storage tank at the site shall have arrangements like circulation pump
for ensuing proper mixing before withdrawal from tank and transfer to browser.
(c) Pouring of primer using perforated can is not permitted
(d) Pressure distributor, either self-propelled or towed, shall be used for spraying the priming
material uniformly at the specified rates and temperature.
(e) Hand spraying, using pressure hand sprayer, is permitted only for small areas where the
distributor is not accessible or for priming narrow strips (less than 3m width) of granular
surface.
Weather and Seasonal Limitations

(a) Primer shall not be applied if the weather is foggy, rainy or windy.
(b) Primer should not be applied during dust storm
(c) Ambient temperature during priming by bitumen emulsion should be above 10°C.
(d) Cutback bitumen shall be applied only on dry surface. It should not be applied on a damp
or wet surface
(e) Priming with bitumen emulsion may be applied on damp surface. Surface shall be just
wet with very light sprinkling of water.
Surface Preparation
(a) The surface to be primed shall be made clean by power brooms or mechanical sweepers
and made free from dust. All loose material on the surface shall be removed completely.
(b) Soil or moorum used in the WBM layer shall be removed using a brush, to a depth of
about 2 mm, so as to achieve good penetration and bond.
Application of Primer and Traffic Arrangements

(a) The primer shall be applied at a uniform rate using a bitumen pressure sprayer at the rate
specified.

(b) The Contractor shall establish the capacity of the equipment to be used in the project for
priming by a field trial.
(c) The temperature of cutback bitumen shall be high enough to achieve a uniform and
specified rate of prime on the surface.
(d) No heating or dilution of SS1 bitumen emulsion is permitted at site.
(e) A primed surface shall be allowed to cure for at least 24 hours so as to allow for the
moisture/volatiles to evaporate before the bituminous mix is placed.
(f) A primed surface shall not be opened to traffic other than necessary construction vehicles
for laying next layer.
(g) Any excess primer shall be blotted with a light application of sand.
(h) During the construction period, appropriate arrangements for traffic diversion shall be
made as per IRC SP 55 for preventing any possible damage of the primed surface.
Do’s and Don’ts
S. No. Do’s Don’ts
1. Use slow setting emulsion (SS-1) and Do not apply primer when the
restrict the use of cutback to subzero atmospheric temperature in shade is
temperature conditions or emergency less than 10 C or when the weather
operations is foggy, rainy or windy
2. Use only pressure sprayers Do not allow pouring of primer using

perforated cans
3. Preferably lay a trial section Do not allow traffic on primed

surface
4. The contractor need to demonstrate a Do not apply bituminous material to a

spraying trial to ensure that the equipment wet surface
is capable of producing a uniform spray
Quality Control
The quality control tests to be carried out prior to construction shall be as given in Table 5.3.
These tests shall be carried out on the priming material (Emulsion/Cutback) brought on the
site by the Contractor for use in the work.

Table 5.3: Quality Control tests during Construction for Prime Coat
S. No. Type of Test Minimum Frequency
1. Quality of Binder Number of samples per lot and tests as per

IS:8887 (for Emulsion) and IS:217 (for
cutback) as applicable
2. Temperature of primer (Emulsion / At regular close intervals

Cutback) for application
3. Rate of Spread of Binder At least three tests per day
4. Curing of Primer Before any subsequent treatment
3.5.2 Tack Coat

According to ASTM D8 "Standard Terminology Relating to Materials for Roads and
Pavements", a tack coat is defined as follows:
“An application of bituminous material to an existing relatively non-absorptive surface to

provide a thorough bond between old and new surfacing” As per IRC: 16, tack coat is a very
light application of low viscosity liquid bituminous material to an existing bituminous,
cement concrete or primed granular surface to ensure a bond between the surface being paved
and the overlaying course.
The tack coat material is not expected to penetrate into pavement and for this reason, the
applications should be very light to provide adequate bond between the two layers.
Material for Tack Coat Application

(a) Cationic bitumen emulsion RS-1 grade conforming to IS: 8887 / ASTM D2397
(b) Low viscosity paving bitumen VG10 grade conforming to IS: 73
(c) Rapid curing cutback bitumen (RC-70) (for cold climate) conforming to IS 217 shall be
restricted only for sub-zero conditions (i.e. where atmospheric temperature at the time of
application reaches below 0 C) or for emergency applications. The cutback should not be
prepared in the field.
Application Rate for Tack Coat

The rate of application of tack coat for various surface types is given in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4: Rate of Application of Tack Coat for Various Surface Types
SI. Type of Surface Rate of Spray Rate of Spray

No. (Emulsion)
(VG10 Bitumen)
2
(kg/10 m )
(kg/10 m2)
1. Bituminous Surface 2–3 3–4
2. Granular Surface treated with primer 2.5 – 3 3.5 – 4.5
3. Cement Concrete Pavement 3 – 3.5 4–5
Note: The quantity of cutback, when used as tack coat, will be same as that of emulsion
Construction and Application of Tack Coat

(a) Tack coat shall not be applied if the weather is foggy, rainy, and windy or if the
temperature in the shade is less than 10°C. However, if emulsion is used, the surface may
be slightly damp. If cutback bitumen is used for tack coat, the surface shall be dry.
(b) The tack coat shall be applied at a uniform rate using a bitumen pressure sprayer at the
rate specified. Hand spraying may be permitted in small areas or narrow strips where the
sprayer cannot be used.
(c) The surface on which the tack coat is to be applied shall be clean, free of dust, dirt and
any other extraneous matter.
(d) The granular or stabilized surfaces shall be primed before the application of tack coat.
(e) Immediately before the tack coat is applied, the surface shall be swept clean with a
mechanical broom and high pressure air jet.
(f) No heating or dilution of RS1 bitumen emulsion is permitted at site.
(g) If paving bitumen is used for tack coat, it shall be heated in boilers to appropriate
temperature to achieve a viscosity less than 2 poise
(h) The spraying temperature for bitumen emulsion is 20°C to 70°C and for cutback is 50°C
to 80°C.
(i) The Contractor, by a field trial, shall establish the capacity of the equipment to be used
for applying the tack coat.
(j) The tack coat shall be allowed to cure till all the volatiles are evaporated before any
subsequent layer is placed. No plant or vehicles other than those required for the
subsequent layer work shall be allowed over the tack coat.

Do’s and Don’ts
1. Plan the work so that no more than the Do not apply tack coat when
necessary tack coat for the day’s operation atmospheric temperature is less than
is placed on surface 10 C or when weather is foggy, rainy
or windy
2. Handle bituminous cutback carefully to Do not apply tack coat on a wet

avoid fire mishap surface
3. Do not allow any equipment or

vehicles on tack coat
Quality Control
The quality control tests to be carried out prior to construction shall be as given in Table 5.5.
These tests shall be carried out on the priming material (Emulsion/Cutback) brought on the
site by the Contractor for use in the work.
Table 5.5: Quality Control tests during Construction for Tack Coat

2. Temperature of primer (Emulsion / At regular close intervals

Cutback) for application
3. Rate of Spread of Binder At least three tests per day
3.5.3 Bituminous Macadam (BM)

This includes construction either in a single layer of 50 mm to 100 mm thickness or in
multiple layers. As BM is an open graded mix, there are chances that it may trap water or
moisture vapour within the pavement system. So, it is required that the shoulders should have
proper drainage to prevent moisture induced damage to the BM layer. The construction shall
be done in accordance with IRC: 27 and Clause 504 of MoRTH Specifications (5th Revision).

Materials
(a) The bitumen shall be viscosity grade paving bitumen meeting the requirements of IS: 73
or as specified in the contract. The type and grade of bitumen to be used would depend
upon the climatic conditions and the traffic.
(b) Coarse aggregates shall consist of crushed rock, crushed gravel or other hard material
retained on 2.36 mm sieve. The physical properties of coarse aggregates shall satisfy the
requirements given in Table 5.6.
(c) Fine aggregates shall consist of crushed or naturally occurring mineral material, or a
combination of two, passing 2.36 mm sieve and retained on 75 micron sieve.
Table 5.6: Physical Properties of Coarse Aggregates for BM
Property Test Requirement Test Method
Cleanliness Grain Size Analysis Max 5 % passing 0.075 IS:2386 (Part I)

mm
Particle Shape Combined Flakiness Max 35 % IS:2386 (Part I)

and Elongation Index
Strength Loa Angeles Abrasion Max 40 % IS:2386 (Part IV)

Value (LAAV)
Or
Aggregate Impact
Max 30 % IS:2386 (Part IV)
Value (AIV)
Durability Soundness (Sodium or 5 cycles

Magnesium)
Sodium Sulphate
Max 12 % IS:2386 (Part V)
Magnesium Sulphate
Water Absorption Water Absorption Max 2 % IS:2386 (Part III)
Stripping Coating and Stripping Min. Retained Coating IS:6241

of Bitumen Aggregate 95 %
Water Sensitivity Retained Tensile Min 80 % AASHTO 283

Strength
Note: If the minimum retained tensile strength falls below 80 percent, use of anti-stripping
agent is recommended to meet the minimum requirements

Gradation Requirements
The grading requirements are provided in Table 5.7.
Table 5.7: Aggregate Grading Requirements for BM
Grading 1 2
Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size* 40 mm 19 mm
Layer Thickness 80 – 100 mm 50 – 75 mm
IS Sieve Size (mm) Cumulative % by Weight of Total Aggregate

Passing
45 100 --
37.5 90 – 100 --
26.5 75 – 100 100
19 -- 90 – 100
13.2 35 – 61 56 – 88
4.75 13 – 22 16 – 36
2.36 4 – 19 4 – 19
0.3 2 – 10 2 – 10
0.075 0–8 0–8
Bitumen content (percent by mass of 3.3** 3.4**

total mix)
Note:
(1) Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size is the largest specified sieve size upon which any of
the aggregate material is retained.
(2) Bitumen content corresponds to specific gravity of aggregate being 2.7. For aggregates
with specific gravity more than 2.7, bitumen content can be reduced proportionately.
Construction of BM
 Prepare the base on which bituminous macadam layer is to be laid and shape to the
specified lines, grade and cross-section.

 Apply tack coat over the base preparatory to lay the bituminous macadam.
 Bituminous macadam should be prepared in a Hot Mix plant of adequate capacity.
 Transfer the mixed material quickly to site of work and lay by means of an approved self-
propelled mechanical / sensor paver.
 Commence initial rolling with 80-100 kN rollers (three-wheel or tandem type), beginning
from the edge and progressing towards the centre longitudinally. On super elevated
portions, rolling should progress from lower to upper edge parallel to centre line of
pavement. Thereafter, do intermediate rolling with vibratory or pneumatic tyred road
rollers. This should be followed by final rolling while the material is still workable.
 Any high spots or depressions noticed after the roller has passed over the whole area once
should be corrected by removing or adding premixed material. Rolling should
recommence thereafter. Each pass should have an overlap of at least one-third of the track
made in the preceding pass. Rolling should be continued till all roller marks have been
eliminated.
 For single lane roads no longitudinal joint is required, while for double-lane roads
longitudinal joints may be required depending on the paver width.
 For making longitudinal or transverse joint, cut the edges of the bituminous layer laid
earlier to their full depth so as to expose fresh surface and apply a thin coat of binder. Lay
adjacent new layer and compact flush with the existing layer.
 Cover the bituminous macadam with the wearing course within a period of 48 hours. If
there is any delay in providing wearing course the bituminous macadam surface should be
covered with a seal coat before opening to traffic.

Do’s and Don’ts
S. Do’s Don’ts
No.
1. Ensure that stone aggregates conforms to the Do not undertake the work in foggy,
physical requirements and grading rainy or windy weather or when the
requirements and are dry and clean atmospheric temperature in the shade
is less than 10 C
2. If aggregate has poor affinity to bitumen, Do not allow the difference in

use anti-stripping agent with the approval of temperature of binder and aggregate
Engineer to increase beyond 14 C at any time
3. While transporting the mixture from hot mix Do not allow the premix material to
plant to the site, it should preferably be adhere to the roller wheels. (Do not
covered by tarpaulin to reduce heat loss use excess water for the purpose.
Light sprinkling should do)
4. Rolling operations should be completed Do not use lubricating oil on the

before the mix becomes unworkable wheels of the roller to prevent mix
from adhering
5. Maintain strict control on temperature while Do not allow traffic until the mix has
mixing and rolling been covered with a wearing course
6. Regulate the rate of delivery of material to Do not move roller at a speed more
paver to enable it to operate continuously than 5 km/h

Quality Control
The quality control tests to be carried out shall be as given in Table 5.8.
Table 5.8: Quality Control tests during Construction for BM

2. Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) or One test per 200 cu.m. of each source and
Los Angeles Abrasion Value (LAAV) whenever there is change in the quality of
aggregate
3. Combined Flakiness and Elongation One test per 350 cu.m. for each source
Index
4. Stripping Value One test for each source and whenever

there is change in the quality of aggregate
5. Water Absorption of Aggregates One test for each source and whenever
6. Water Sensitivity of Mix One test for each source and whenever
7. Grading of Aggregates Two tests per day
8. Soundness (Sodium Sulphate / One test for each source and whenever
Magnesium Sulphate) there is change in the quality of aggregate
9. Percentage of fractured faces One test per 100 cu.m. of aggregate
10. Bitumen Content Two tests per day per plant
11. Control of temperature of binder and At regular intervals

aggregate for mix and of the mix at
the time of laying and rolling
12. Density of Compacted layer One test per 700 sq.m. area
13. Rate of Spread of Mixed Material At regular intervals

3.5.4 Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM)

This includes construction either in a single layer of 50 mm to 100 mm thickness or in
multiple layers of DBM for use mainly, but not exclusively, in base/binder and profile
corrective courses. The construction shall be done in accordance with IRC: 111 and Clause
505 of MoRTH Specifications (5th Revision).
Materials
or as specified in the contract. The type and grade of bitumen to be used would depend upon
the climatic conditions and the traffic.
(d) Filler shall consist of finely divided mineral matter such as rock dust, hydrated lime or
cement, duly approved by the Engineer. The filler should meet the gradation requirements
given in Table 5.10.

Table 5.9: Physical Properties of Coarse Aggregates for DBM

mm


Value (LAAV)
Or
Aggregate Impact
Max 27 % IS:2386 (Part IV)
Value (AIV)

Magnesium)
Sodium Sulphate
Magnesium Sulphate


Strength
The grading requirements for mineral filler are given in Table 5.10.

Table 5.10: Grading Requirements for Mineral Filler
IS Sieve (mm) Cumulative Percent Passing by Weight of Total Aggregate
0.6 100
0.3 95 – 100
0.075 85 – 100
Table 5.11: Aggregate Grading Requirements for DBM
Grading 1 2
Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size* 37.5 mm 26.5 mm
Cumulative % by Weight of Total Aggregate

IS Sieve Size (mm)
Passing
45 100 --
37.5 95 – 100 100
26.5 63 – 93 90 – 100
19 -- 71 – 95
13.2 55 – 75 56 – 80
4.75 38 – 54 38 – 54
2.36 28 – 42 28 – 42
0.3 7 – 21 7 – 21
0.075 2–8 2–8
Bitumen content (percent by mass of

Min. 4.0** Min. 4.5**
total mix)
Note:

(2) Bitumen content (to be determined from Marshall Mix design) corresponds to specific
gravity of aggregate being 2.7. For aggregates with specific gravity more than 2.7, bitumen
content can be reduced proportionately.
(3) The combined aggregate grading shall not vary from the low limit on one sieve to the
high limit on the adjacent sieve.
Mix Design for DBM mixes

The bitumen content required shall be determined following the Marshall Mix design
procedure contained in IRC: SP: 135.
The filler – bitumen ratio should be in the range of 0.8 to 1.0. Higher filler binder ratio
stiffens the mix, and lower filler-binder ratio affects the strength parameter.
Apart from conformity with the grading and quality requirements for individual ingredients,
the mixture shall meet the requirements set out in Table 5.12.

Table 5.12: Requirements for DBM
Properties Viscosity Grade Modified Bitumen Test Method

Paving Bitumen
Hot Climate Cold Climate
Compaction Level 75 blows on Each Face of the Specimen
Minimum stability 9.0 12.0 10.0 AASHTO

(kN at 60 C) T245
Marshall flow 2–4 2.5 – 4 3.5 – 5 AASHTO

(mm) T245
Marshall Quotient 2–5 2.5 – 5 ASTM D2041

(Stability / Flow)
% air voids 3–5
% Voids filled with 65 – 75

Bitumen (VFB)
Coating of 95 % minimum IS : 6241

aggregate particle
Tensile Strength 80 % minimum AASHTO

Ratio (TSR) T283
% Voids in Mineral Minimum percent voids in mineral aggregate (VMA) are set out in
Aggregate (VMA) Table 5.13
Table 5.13: Minimum Percent Voids in Mineral Aggregate (VMA)
Nominal Maximum Minimum VMA Percent Related to Design Percentage Air Voids
Particle Size (mm)
3.0 4.0 5.0
26.5 11.0 12.0 13.0
37.5 10.0 11.0 12.0
Note: Interpolate minimum voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA) for designed percentage
air voids values between those listed.
When the maximum size of the aggregate is more than 26.5 mm, the modified Marshall
method using 150 mm diameter specimen as per ASTM D5581 shall be used. When modified
Marshall Test is used, the specified minimum stability values given in Table 5.12 shall be
multiplied by 2.25, and the minimum flow shall be 3 mm.

Construction of DBM
 Prepare the base on which DBM layer is to be laid and shape to the specified lines, grade
and cross-section.
 Apply tack coat over the base preparatory to lay the DBM.
 DBM should be prepared in a Hot Mix plant of adequate capacity using a suitable job mix
formula.
should be corrected by removing or adding premixed material. Rolling should
recommence thereafter. Each pass should have an overlap of at least one-third of the track
made in the preceding pass. Rolling should be continued till all roller marks have been
eliminated.
 For single lane roads no longitudinal joint is required, while for double-lane roads
longitudinal joints may be required depending on the paver width.
 For making longitudinal or transverse joint, cut the edges of the bituminous layer laid
earlier to their full depth so as to expose fresh surface and apply a thin coat of binder. Lay
adjacent new layer and compact flush with the existing layer.
 Cover the bituminous macadam with the wearing course within a period of 48 hours. If
there is any delay in providing wearing course the bituminous macadam surface should be
covered with a seal coat before opening to traffic.

Do’s and Don’ts
S. Do’s Don’ts
No.


from adhering

Quality Control
Table 5.14: Quality Control tests during Construction for DBM

IS:73, or IRC:SP:53, IS:15462
aggregate
Index and whenever there is change in the
quality of aggregate
6. Sand equivalent test One test for each source and whenever
7. Plasticity Index One test for each source and whenever
8. Percentage of fractured faces One test per 350 cu.m. of aggregate when
crushed gravel is used
9. Mix grading One set for individual constituent and
mixed aggregate from dryer for each 400
tonnes of mix subject to minimum of two
tests per day per plant
10. Stability and voids analysis of mix Three tests for stability, flow value,
including theoretical maximum density and void contents for each 400
specific gravity of loose mix tonnes of mix subject to minimum of two
11. Moisture Susceptibility of mix One test for each mix type whenever there
(AASHTO T283) is change in the quality or source of
coarse or fine aggregate
12. Temperature of binder in boiler, At regular intervals
aggregate in dryer and mix at the
time of laying and compaction
13. Bitumen Content One set for each 400 tonnes of mix
subject to minimum of two tests per day
per plant
15. Rate of Spread of Mixed Material After every 5th truck load

3.5.5 Bituminous Concrete (BC)

This includes construction of Bituminous Concrete (BC), for use in wearing and profile
corrective courses. The layer may be constructed in a single layer of bituminous concrete on a
previously prepared bituminous bound surface. A single layer shall be 30 mm / 40 mm or 50
mm thick. The construction shall be done in accordance with IRC: 111 and Clause 507 of
MoRTH Specifications (5th Revision).
Materials
The bitumen shall be viscosity grade paving bitumen meeting the requirements of IS: 73 or as
specified in the contract. The type and grade of bitumen to be used would depend upon the
climatic conditions and the traffic.
(a) Coarse aggregates shall consist of crushed rock, crushed gravel or other hard material
(b) Fine aggregates shall consist of crushed or naturally occurring mineral material, or a
(c) Filler Shall consist of finely divided mineral matter such as rock dust, hydrated lime or
Table 5.15: Physical Properties of Coarse Aggregates for BC

mm
Value (LAAV)
Or
Aggregate Impact Max 24 % IS:2386 (Part IV)
Value (AIV)
Magnesium)
Sodium Sulphate Max 12 % IS:2386 (Part V)
Magnesium Sulphate Max 18 % IS:2386 (Part V)
Polishing Polished Stone Value Min. 55 BS:812-114
Strength

Is Sieve (mm) Cumulative Percent Passing by Weight of Total Aggregate
0.6 100
0.3 95 – 100
0.075 85 – 100
Table 5.17: Aggregate Grading Requirements for BC
Grading 1 2
Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size* 19 mm 13.2 mm
Layer Thickness 50 mm 30 – 40 mm
IS Sieve Size (mm) Cumulative % by weight of total aggregate passing
26.5 100 --
19 90 – 100 100
13.2 59 – 79 90 – 100
9.5 52 – 72 70 – 88
4.75 35 – 55 53 – 71
2.36 28 – 44 42 – 58
1.18 20 – 34 34 – 48
0.6 15 – 27 26 – 38
0.3 10 – 20 18 – 28
0.15 5 – 13 12 – 20
0.075 2–8 4 – 10
**
Bitumen content (percent by mass of Min. 5.2 Min. 5.4**
total mix)
Note:

Mix Design for BC mixes

The filler – bitumen ratio should be in the range of 0.8 to 1.0. Higher filler binder ratio
stiffens the mix, and lower filler-binder ratio affects the strength parameter.
Table 5.18: Requirements for BC

Paving Bitumen Hot Climate Cold Climate
(kN at 60 C) T245
Marshall flow 2–4 2.5 – 4 3.5 – 5 AASHTO
(mm) T245
Marshall Quotient 2 – 5 2.5 – 5 ASTM D2041
(Stability / Flow)
% air voids 3–5
Bitumen (VFB)
aggregate particle
Ratio (TSR) T283

Particle Size (mm)
3.0 4.0 5.0
19 13 14 15
13.2 12 13 14
Construction of BC
 Prepare the bituminous base on which BC layer is to be laid and shape to the specified
lines, grade and cross-section.
 Apply tack coat over the bituminous base preparatory to lay the BC. Before applying tack
coat, ensure that all the nozzles and valves of sprayer nozzle bar are thoroughly cleaned to
get uniform distribution of tack coat.
 BC should be prepared in a Hot Mix plant of adequate capacity using a suitable job mix
formula.
should be corrected by removing or adding premixed material. Rolling should recommence
thereafter. Each pass should have an overlap of at least one-third of the track made in the
preceding pass. Rolling should be continued till all roller marks have been eliminated.
 Bituminous material with a temperature greater than 145 C shall not be laid or deposited
on bridge deck waterproofing systems, unless precautions against heat damage have been
approved by the Engineer.
 When laying the wearing course approaching an expansion joint of a structure, machine
laying shall stop 300 mm short of the joint. It shall be laid manually.

Do’s and Don’ts
S. Do’s Don’ts
No.


from adhering

Quality Control
Table 5.20: Quality Control tests during Construction for BC

IS:73, or IRC:SP:53, IS:15462
aggregate
per plant

3.5.6 Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA)

This includes construction of single or multiple layer of fibre-stabilized SMA for use as
wearing course / binder course on a previously prepared bituminous bound surface. The 13
mm SMA shall be used for wearing course with nominal thickness of 40 to 50 mm. The 19
mm SMA shall be used for binder (or intermediate) course with nominal layer thickness of 45
to 75 mm. The construction shall be done in accordance with IRC: SP: 79 and Clause 515 of
MoRTH Specifications (5th Revision).
Materials
upon the climatic conditions and the traffic. The modified bitumen shall meet the
requirements of IS: 15462 and IRC: SP: 53.
(d) Filler shall consist of finely divided mineral matter such as stone dust and / or hydrated
lime. Fly ash shall not be permitted filler. The filler should meet the gradation
(e) Pelletized cellulose fibres shall be utilized as stabilizer additive. The dosage rate for
cellulose fibres is 0.3 percent minimum by weight (on loose fibre basis) of the total mix.
The dosage rate shall be confirmed so that the bitumen draindown does not exceed 0.3
percent when the designed mix is tested in accordance with ASTM D6390. The cellulose
fibres to be used in pellets shall meet the following requirements :
- Maximum fibre length - 8 mm
- Ash content – maximum of 20 percent nonvolatile
- Oil absorption – more than 4 times of the fibre weight
- Moisture content – less than 5 percent by weight
The Contractor shall ensure to protect the cellulose from moisture and contamination prior to
incorporating into the SMA.

Table 5.21: Physical Properties of Coarse Aggregates for SMA
Cleanliness Grain Size Analysis < 2 % passing 0.075 IS:2386 (Part I)

mm


Value (LAAV)
Or
Aggregate Impact
Max18 % IS:2386 (Part IV)
Value (AIV)

Magnesium)
Sodium Sulphate
Magnesium Sulphate
Polishing Polished Stone Value Min. 55 BS:812-114
Note: Polishing requirement does not apply when the coarse aggregate is used for
intermediate (binder) course
0.6 100
0.3 95 – 100
0.075 85 – 100

Table 5.23: Aggregate Grading Requirements for SMA
SMA Designation 13 mm SMA 19 mm SMA
Course where used Wearing Course Binder

(Intermediate)
Course
Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size* 13 mm 19 mm
IS Sieve Size (mm) Cumulative % by weight of total aggregate passing
26.5 -- 100
19 100 90 – 100
13.2 90 – 100 45 – 70
9.5 50 – 75 25 – 60
4.75 20 – 28 20 – 28
2.36 16 – 24 16 – 24
1.18 13 – 21 13 – 21
0.6 12 – 18 12 – 18
0.3 10 – 20 10 – 20
0.075 8 – 12 8 – 12
Note: The combined aggregate grading shall not vary from the low limit on one sieve to the
Mix Design for SMA mixes

The SMA mixture will be designed using AASHTO MP8, Standard Specification for
Designing Stone Matrix Asphalt and AASHTO PP 41, Standard Practice for designing Stone
Matrix Asphalt. The SMA mixture shall be compacted with 50 blows on each side suing the
Marshall Procedure given in the Asphalt Institute MS-2.

Table 5.24: Requirements for SMA
Mix Design Parameters Requirement
Number of Blows 50 on each face of the specimen
Air Void content, percent 4.0
Bitumen content, percent 5.8 Min.
Cellulose fibres 0.3 percent minimum by weight of total mix
Voids in mineral aggregate (VMA), 17 Min.

percent
Voids in Coarse Aggregates (VCA) Less than VCA (dry rodded)

mix, percent
Asphalt drain down, percent ASTM 0.3 Max.

D 6390 (Annex C of IRC:SP:79)
Tensile Strength Ratio (TSR), 85 Min.

percent AASHTO T283 (Annex E of
IRC:SP:79)
Quality Control
Table 5.25: Quality Control tests during Construction for SMA

IS:73, or IRC:SP:53, IS:15462
aggregate
4. Soundness Test (Sodium and One test for each source and whenever
Magnesium Sulphate) there is change in the quality of aggregate

8. Polished Stone Value One test for each source and whenever
11. Air voids and VMA analysis of mix Three tests per day
including theoretical maximum
specific gravity of loose mix
per plant
3.5.7 Semi Dense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC)

This includes construction in a single layer of 25 mm thick Semi Dense Bituminous Concrete
(SDBC) for use mainly as wearing course. The construction shall be done in accordance with
IRC: 111 and Clause 509 of Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) Specifications, 2014.
Materials
upon the climatic conditions and the traffic.
(d) Filler shall consist of finely divided mineral matter such as rock dust, hydrated lime or

Table 5.26: Physical Properties of Coarse Aggregates for SDBC

mm
Value (LAAV)
Or
Aggregate Impact Max 27 % IS:2386 (Part IV)
Value (AIV)
Polishing Polished Stone Value Min. 55 IS:2386 (Part IV)
Magnesium)
Sodium Sulphate Max 12 % IS:2386 (Part V)
Magnesium Sulphate Max 18 % IS:2386 (Part V)
Strength
0.6 100
0.3 95 – 100
0.075 85 – 100

Table 5.28: Aggregate Grading Requirements for SDBC
Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size* 9.5 mm
Layer Thickness 25 mm
IS Sieve size (mm) Cumulative Percent by weight of total aggregate

passing
13.2 100
9.5 90 – 100
4.75 35 – 51
2.36 24 – 39
1.18 15 – 30
0.3 9 – 19
0.075 3–8
Bitumen content (percent by mass of Min. 5.0**

total mix)
Note:
Mix Design for SDBC mixes


Table 5.29: Requirements for SDBC

Paving Bitumen
Hot Climate Cold Climate
(kN at 60 C) T245
Marshall flow 2 – 4 2.5 – 4 3.5 – 5 AASHTO
(mm) T245
Marshall Quotient 2 – 5 2.5 – 5 ASTM D2041
(Stability / Flow)
% air voids 3–5
Bitumen (VFB)
aggregate particle
Ratio (TSR) T283
Particle Size (mm)
3.0 4.0 5.0
9.5 14 15 16
Construction of SDBC
 Prepare the base on which SDBC layer is to be laid and shape to the specified lines, grade
and cross-section.
 Apply tack coat over the base preparatory to lay the SDBC.

 SDBC should be prepared in a Hot Mix plant of adequate capacity using a suitable job
mix formula.
should be corrected by removing or adding premixed material. Rolling should recommence
thereafter. Each pass should have an overlap of at least one-third of the track made in the
preceding pass. Rolling should be continued till all roller marks have been eliminated.
Do’s and Don’ts
1. Ensure that stone aggregates conforms to Do not undertake the work in foggy,
the physical requirements and grading rainy or windy weather or when the

use anti-stripping agent with the approval temperature of binder and aggregate
of Engineer to increase beyond 14 C at any time
3. While transporting the mixture from hot Do not allow the premix material to
mix plant to the site, it should preferably adhere to the roller wheels. (Do not
be covered by tarpaulin to reduce heat loss use excess water for the purpose.

from adhering
5. Maintain strict control on temperature Do not allow traffic until the mix has
while mixing and rolling been covered with a wearing course

Quality Control
Table 5.31: Quality Control tests during Construction for SDBC

IS:73, or IRC:SP:53, IS:15462
2. Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) or One test for each source and whenever
Los Angeles Abrasion Value (LAAV) there is change in the quality of aggregate
3. Combined Flakiness and Elongation One test for each source and whenever
Index there is change in the quality of aggregate
per plant

CHAPTER 6
3.6.0 Equipments Needed For Construction of Bituminous Layers
3.6.1 Bitumen Distributor

The purpose of Bitumen pressure distributor is to spray thin, uniform and accurately
measured quantity of binder under pressure. The rate of spray of binder should be kept
uniform. This is achieved by driving the pressure distributor at uniform speed. It is used for
tack coating and also for prime coat purpose. It is classified into two categories:
(a) Self Propelled Bitumen Pressure Distributor (Figure 6.)
(b) Tractor Towed Bitumen Pressure Distributor (Figure 6.)
Figure 6.1: Self Propelled Bitumen Pressure Distributor
Figure 6.2: Spray bar in Operation in Tractor Towed Bitumen Pressure Distributor

A typical self-propelled bitumen distributor consists of the following:

(i) Heated insulated bitumen storage tank (of capacity 5,000 to 20,000 litres)
(ii) Spray bar with spray jets (or nozzles)
(iii) Pump for delivering bitumen to spray bar
(iv) Spray bar (plus a hand held spray to attend to difficult areas and corners where the
bitumen distributor cannot reach)
(v) A dial type of thermometer fitted on the body to indicate the bitumen temperature
(vi) An accurate tachometer capable of measuring travel speed and a locking device
for fixing the desired speed
(vii) An electronic control device that will control the quantity of bitumen sprayed as
well as the parameters of spraying (e.g., number of nozzles, speed of truck,
temperature of the fluid etc.)
Though, heated bitumen distributors can also be used for emulsions, specially designed
emulsion distributors are available. The following points need to be given adequate attention
in using bitumen distributors.
(i) The spray bar and nozzles should be cleaned regularly to ensure flow of jets.
(ii) The height of the spray bar above the road surface must be correctly adjusted and
kept constant throughout the operation
(iii) The rate of application depends upon sped of travel and the operator should have a
calibration chart that relates proper rate of application at any given point of time
(iv) The uniformity of application should be checked periodically by a tray test
(v) Fire extinguishers should be kept in readiness for emergency use
(vi) Suitable arrangements of side flaps should be installed for protecting kerbs and
side-walks from getting sprayed
(vii) The operator and helper operating the bitumen distributor should be trained
personnel.
For further details, MORTH Pocket book may be referred to.
3.6.2 Hot Mix Plant

A central mixing plant used for producing the hot bituminous mixes (such as bituminous
macadam, dense bituminous macadam, bituminous concrete etc.) is called a hot mix plant.
It has provisions for:

(i) Controlled feeding and blending of aggregates of different sizes in the specified
proportion
(ii) Drying of aggregates and heating them to the specified temperature
(iii) Uniform heating of bitumen at the specified temperature
(iv) Controlled feeding of bitumen and filled in the specified proportion
(v) Forced / positive mixing of all the ingredients to produce a consistent, uniform,
homogeneous mix at the specified temperature and as per the job mix formula.
Hot mix plant may be classified based on methodology of preparation of hot mix as follows:
(a) Continuous / Drum Type Hot Mix Plant

In this type of plant, aggregates, fines and bitumen are continuously fed into pug mill / drum
mix in desired proportion and hot mix is discharged without interruption. The typical
capacities of drum mix plant used in the road construction sector are 40-60 TPH, 60-90 TPH
and 90-120 TPH.
The hot mix plant of capacity 40-60 TPH specifies that the output of plant shall be 40 TPH at
6 % moisture content present in aggregates and 60 TPH at 2 % moisture present in the
aggregates.
Figure 6.3: Continuous / Drum Type Hot Mix Plant

(b) Batch Type Hot Mix Plant

In batch type plant, hot bitumen is added with the batch of hot aggregates and filler (if
necessary) at required temperature in desired proportion in mixing unit and the hot mix is
prepared in batches. The typical capacities of batch mix plant used in the road construction
sector are 120 TPH, 160 TPH, 200 TPH, 240 TPH and 320 TPH.
Generally, Batch type Hot Mix Plant should be preferred for the works involving hot
bituminous mix owing to better gradation control.
Figure 6.4: Batch Type Hot Mix Plant

Hot Mix Plants may be classified based on direction of flow of aggregates and hot gases in
dryer drum as – counter flow type and parallel flow type
Based on mobility, hot mix plants are classified as – stationary type and mobile type. Mobile
plant is preferred where quantum of work is small and plant requires frequent shifting.
Essential Features of Hot Mix Plant (Common for both Durm and Batch Type Plants)
(i) Cold Aggregate Storage and Supply Unit with minimum four bins having belt
conveyor arrangement for initial proportioning of aggregates from each bin in the
required quantities. The bin containing fines is fitted with a bin vibrator to ensure free
flow of fines. Each bin has easily adjustable bin gate and Low Level / No Flow
warning device.
(ii) Variable speed drive below each bin to control belt speed and, thus vary aggregate
proportion. An electronic load sensor on the main conveyor measures the flow of
aggregates.
(iii) Rejection unit for oversized aggregate for preventing damage to dryer flights / blades.
(iv) Dryer unit having properly designed and arranged dryer flights with automatic burner
(i.e. auto flame failure detection and auto ignition system) capable of heating the
aggregate to the required temperature without any visible unburnt fuel or carbon
residue on the aggregate and reducing the moisture content of the aggregate to the
specified minimum.
(v) The plant is fitted with suitable type of thermometric instruments at appropriate places
so as to indicate or record the temperature of heated aggregates, bitumen and mix.
(vi) Bitumen storage and supply unit capable of heating, measuring and spraying of
bitumen at specified temperature with automatic synchronization of bitumen and
aggregate feed in the required proportion.
(vii) A mineral filler system capable to feed filler material into the mix in the correct
quantity wherever required.
(viii) Pollution / dust control system for the dryer unit to prevent the exhaust of fine dust
into atmosphere for environmental control and recycle permissible fines into the mix.
(ix) Arrangement for storage of hot mix, if necessary.
(x) Centralized control panel capable of presetting, controlling / synchronizing all

operations starting from feeding of cold aggregates to the discharge of the hot mix to
ensure proper quality of mix. It should have indicators for any malfunctioning in the
operation.

Essential Features of Hot Mix Plant (For Batch Type Plants)

1) Secondary gradation of aggregates, in hot condition, is carried out in screening unit.
Screening (Gradation Control) unit has multi-deck vibratory screen or rotary screening drum
for heating and accurate sizing of hot aggregates and storing them in separate hot bins.
2) The plant has a separate mixer unit (pug mill) for producing homogeneous mix unlike
drum mix plant (where heating of aggregates as well as preparation of mix takes place in the
same dryer drum).
For Hot in Plant Recycling, the plant must have suitable provision for addition of RAP
(Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement) / RBP (Reclaimed Bituminous Pavement) in required
proportion in the mixer / dryer drum.
For more information on Hot Mix Plant, Please refer IRC: 90.
3.6.3 Paver Finisher

A Paver Finisher is used in bituminous road construction for laying non-bituminous as well as
bituminous mixes. Following are the main functions of a Paver Finisher:
(i) To lay and spread the mix to attain specified surface.
(ii) To facilitate the attainment of specified surface quality and correct grade/level/
finish to meet the road design specifications for a safe and comfortable ride.
(iii) To achieve specified camber and super elevation.
(iv) To achieve required thickness, uniform degree of compaction, homogeneous

quality of mix during laying and uniform bearing capacity over the entire surface.
Figure 6.5: Paver Finisher

The Classification of Paver Finishers is given in Table 6..
Table 6.1: Types of Paver Finishers
SI. No. Basis Types
1. Control of Screed Extension and Control (a) Mechanical Paver

Mechanism for Screed Elevation via tow point
(b) Hydrostatic Paver
Mounting / Actuation
2. Type of Traction (a) Wheeled Paver

(b) Track Chain Paver
In case, paving width requirement is 8 m and above, use of track chain paver is recommended
for better control over traction and pavement quality.
The Paver Finisher consists of two units – tractor unit and screed unit. The tractor unit is the
front part of the paver and houses the prime mover, pushing rollers, receiving hopper, feeding
conveyors, spreading augers, hydraulic system, operator’s cabin and driving system. The
primary function of the tractor is to propel the tipper truck, to convey and distribute the
paving material through the augers and tow the screed. The screed unit is the rear part of the
paver and consists of levelling screed, tow arms and mat thickness adjustment mechanism.
The screed is of ‘floating, self-levelling’ type and is free to rise and fall, thereby seeking its
own angle of attack and establish the desired mat thickness. The key to the levelling
performance of the screed is to fill in low spots and decrease the influence of high spots, thus
acting as an averaging device.
There is a need to maintain a constant head of material in front of the screed to maintain
correct depth of the mat, which is facilitated by proper setting of the flow gates and augers on
the paver.
Typical range of specifications for paver finishers used in medium and large road projects is
given in Table 6..

Table 6.2: Specifications for Paver Finishers used in Medium / Large Road Projects
SI. Specifications Wheeled Paver Track Chain Paver

No.
1. Basic Paving Width 2.5 m to 3.0 m 2.5 m to 3.0 m
2. Hydraulically Extendable Width Upto 6.0 m Upto 6.0 m
3. Max. Paving width with Bolt Upto 8.0 m Upto 16 m

Extension
4. Paving Thickness 10 to 300 mm 10 to 500 mm
5. Laying Capacity 300 – 700 TPH 600 – 1600 TPH
6. Paving Speed 0 – 45 m/min 0 – 24 m/min
7. Travel Speed 0 – 20 km/hr 0 – 4.5 km/hr
For laying bituminous mixes on highway projects, self-propelled hydrostatic paver finisher
with electronic sensing instrument is used for automatic levelling and profile control.
For more information on Paver Finishers, refer to IRC: SP: 86.
3.6.4 Roller
A roller is a compactor used to compact embankment, sub-grade, GSB, DLC or bituminous
mixes. Selection of the roller depends on the type of application, thickness of the layer and
the properties of the material to be compacted.
Rollers are broadly classified into the following types depending on their utility in different
situations:
(i) Static Roller [Three Wheeled type and tandem (two-wheeled) type]
(ii) Sheepsfoot Roller
(iii) Padfoot Roller (static padfoot roller is called tamping roller)
(iv) Pneumatic Tyred Roller
(v) Vibratory Roller (Single Drum and Double Drum types)

Figure 6.6: Static Three Wheel Roller
Figure 6.7: Sheepsfoot Roller
Figure 6.8: Pneumatic Tyred Roller

Figure 6.9: Single Drum Vibratory Roller
Figure 6.10: Double Drum Vibratory Roller

Compaction mechanisms available in different types of rollers are indicated in Table 6.3
Table 6.3: Rollers and their Compaction Mechanisms
Type of Roller Type of Compaction Mechanism
Impact Pressure Vibration Kneading
Static 
Vibratory   
Pneumatic  
Sheepsfoot  
Tamping Foot  

Selection of roller is based on type of activity as indicated in Table 6.4
Table 6.4: Selection of Roller based on Type of Activity
Layer Remarks Type of Roller

Bituminous Initial or Breakdown Rolling Static Roller (8 – 10 tonne)
Layer (BM. Intermediate Rolling Static Roller (8 – 10 tonne)
DBM, BC etc.)
OR
Vibratory Roller (8 – 10 tonne)
OR
Pneumatic Tyred Roller (12 – 15 tonne)
Finish Rolling Tandem Static Roller (6 – 8 tonne)
Rollers should move at uniform speed. The speed should not exceed 5 km/hr for static roller
and 6.5 km/hr for pneumatic tyred roller.
Speed of a vibratory roller will depend upon operating frequency and desired impact spacing
(determined by the number of impacts per metre). For example, a vibratory roller operating at
a frequency of 60 Hz can provide 39 impacts per metre at a speed of 5.5 km/hr. The impact
spacing should be such that it allows the entire surface to be impacted as the roller travels in
vibratory mode. Since drum diameter controls the length of arc of drum contact with the
pavement surface, impact spacing can be adjusted narrower or wider depending upon the
drum diameter.
The general thumb rule for optimal impact spacing in case of bituminous compaction is 33 –
46 impacts per metre, with the higher value suited for smaller drum diameter (up to 1 m) and
the lower value suited for larger drum diameter (1.2 – 1.4 m).
Intelligent Compaction
Intelligent Compaction (IC) involves adjusting the vibration amplitude and frequency of the
roller drums based on measured material stiffness obtained through auto-feedback systems.
IC rollers are equipped with instrumentation fed to a documentation and feedback control
system. This system processes the data in real time for the roller operator. Compaction meters
or drum accelerometers monitor applied compaction effort, frequency, and response from the
material being compacted. The readings from this instrumentation determine the effectiveness
of the compaction process, primarily through a stiffness or modulus value.
IC rollers are designed to offer real-time pavement quality measurement with no negative
impact to production. They can measure 100% of the base area and determine areas of
adequate compaction and the location of softer areas where additional compaction may be
needed. Global Positioning Systems (GPS) coupled with continuous compaction readings are
able to “map” the stiffness values of the entire area using color coding. IC technology is
considered moderately complex to operate in the field, as it requires a real-time data

interpretation and correction to achieve desired stiffness. The methodology to calculate

material response to compaction is often proprietary.
For more information on rollers, plate compactor and rammer, refer to IRC: SP: 97.

Section 4 Pavement Maintenance
Section 4
Pavement Maintenance

CHAPTER 1
4.1.0 Introduction
The timely maintenance of bituminous surfacing offers numerous benefits for the
preservation of road assets. The timely maintenance helps in the reduction in rate of
deterioration and improvement in life of road. This also results in the reduction in Vehicle
Operation Costs (VOC), rate of accidents and pollution due to reduced fuel consumption on
well-maintained pavement surface. Proper maintenance of pavements can lead to huge
savings in budgetary expenditure of restoration/ reconstruction. The first step towards
planning of maintenance operations is the evaluation of the existing pavement surface in
terms of its physical condition as well as structural capacity. For this purpose, pavement
condition surveys may be undertaken by the visual assessment of the surface by identifying
type, location and magnitude of the distress. Apart from visual surveys, functional evaluation
of pavement based on riding quality (i.e. road roughness), deflection and skid resistance
should also form the basis for taking maintenance decisions in case of highways and urban
roads. For roads in poor condition, structural evaluation also needs to be performed to
identify the rehabilitation strategy. This document provided the necessary details of distresses
in flexible pavements, the methods for functional and structural evaluation, and the different
maintenance measures to be adopted.
The Chapter 1 is a brief introduction of this document. Chapter 2 of the current
document provides a brief overview of the various types of distresses occurring in a flexible
pavement, their symptoms and remedial measures. Chapter 3 details the concept of Pavement
serviceability and the factors affecting pavement serviceability such as roughness, friction
and pavement structural capacity. Various methods and equipment for the measurement of
roughness, friction and structural capacity are also discussed in this chapter. Chapter 4
discusses the pavement condition surveys and pavement condition index. The determination
of PCI based on the existing Indian guidelines is discussed in detail. Chapter 5 of the
document describes the various maintenance strategies for flexible pavements such as
routine, preventive and period maintenance. The details of the materials used for rectification
of distress on bituminous pavements have been discussed in this chapter.

CHAPTER 2
4.2.0 Overview of Flexible Pavement Distresses
4.2.1 Background
The types of defects in bituminous surfacing are grouped under four categories.
i) Surface Defects: These include fatty surfaces, smooth surface, streaking, and
hungry surface
ii) Cracks: These include all types of cracks, viz., hair-line cracks, alligator cracks,
longitudinal cracks, edge cracks, shrinkage cracks, and reflection cracks
iii) Deformation: These include rutting, corrugations, shoving including those

caused by layer slippage, shallow depressions, settlements and upheavals etc.
iv) Disintegration: These include stripping, loss of aggregates, raveling, potholes,

and edge breaking
The location and, severity of distress are important to select appropriate maintenance
treatments, materials and technique.
4.2.2 Surface Defects: These are confined to surfacing and may be due to inappropriate
quality and quantities of bitumen.
4.2.2.1 Bleeding (Fatty surface)

Symptoms: A surface having a thin film of excess or free bituminous binder on it, which
creates a shiny, glass like reflecting surface tending to become soft in hot weather and
slippery in cold and wet weather, eventually developing low skid resistance.
Location: Generally, such defect develops along the wheel path but sometimes these are
restricted to isolated locations and specific lanes.
Causes: Excessive binder in hot mix due to faulty mix design or lapses in quality control,
lower voids in hot mix, use of softer grade binder, too heavy tack coat or prime coat, loss of
cover aggregates in surface dressing, excessive application of binder or non-uniform
spreading of cover aggregate or flaky/elongated cover aggregate in surface dressing.

Severity Levels: The severity of fatty surface and bleeding may be classified as low, medium
and extensive. The isolated spots measuring less than 5 m2 area in a lane km and restricted to
only specific lane with total area less than 1% may be considered of low severity. Sometimes
bleeding/fatty surface is confined to entire lane along with wheel path. In case the area is in
the range of 1 to 5%, it may be treated as fatty surface/ bleeding of medium severity.
Extensive bleeding and fatty surface showing initiation of shoving shall be treated as fatty
surface of “High Severity”. Figure 2.1 (a, b, c) indicate low, medium and high severity level
of bleeding and fatty surface respectively.
(a) Low severity (b) Medium severity (c) High severity

Figure 2.1: Bleeding (Source: IRC 82)
Treatment
a) Low Severity: Minor bleeding / low severity fatty surface can be corrected by applying
heated coarse sand (passing 1.18 mm) to blot up excess bitumen in affected area followed by
light rolling.
b) Medium Severity: Medium severity bleeding and fatty surface may be corrected by
application of pre-coated chips; Passing 4.75 mm and retained over 1.18 mm using 1 %
bitumen and generally applied in a single layer followed by light rolling.
c) High Severity: The affected portion shall be milled out and repaired with mix of desired
quality. The milled material i.e. Recycled Asphalt Pavement (RAP) mixed with fresh
aggregates may be laid followed by application of slurry seal/micro surfacing treatment. An
open-graded premix carpet with low bitumen content can also be applied to absorb the excess
binder. In the case of large areas of fatty surface, having irregularities, removal of the

affected layer and replacing it with a layer having a properly designed mix, may be
necessary.
4.2.2.2 Smooth surface (Low skid resistance Surface)
Symptoms: A smooth surface has a very low skid resistance and becomes very slippery
when it is wet. Such a condition invites safety hazards, especially on gradients, bends, and
intersections. Figure 2.2 indicate a smooth surface.
Figure 2.2: A View of Smooth Surface

Location: Smooth surface may be restricted to a lane/carriageway.
Causes: A primary cause for a smooth surface is the polishing of aggregates under traffic.
Excessive binder can also contribute to formation of smooth surface.
Severity Levels: The severity level of smooth surface may be defined by skid number. A
surface with skid number in the range of 30 to 40 indicates low severity smooth surface while
skid number below 30 indicates high severity smooth surface.
Treatment: The rectification consists of resurfacing with a surface dressing course or a

premix carpet or microsurfacing depending upon type of existing surface. A slurry seal can
also be used to impart anti-skid texture on a smooth surface.
4.2.2.3 Streaking
Symptoms: Streaking is characterized by the appearance of alternate lean and heavy lines of
bitumen either in longitudinal or in transverse direction. Figure 2.3 shows streaking.

Figure 2.3: Streaking of Bituminous Pavement (Source: IRC 82)

Location: Streaking may occur in a lane or carriageway.
Causes: Streaking occurs due to non-uniform application of bitumen across the surface,
mechanical faults, improper or poor adjustment and careless operation of bitumen
distributors, applying the bituminous binder at too low temperature; a temperature at which
bitumen is not fluid enough to achieve uniform smooth flow from the nozzles on the spray
bars.
Severity Levels: Not applicable
Treatment: The satisfactory repair for longitudinal and transverse streaking is to remove the
streaked surface and apply a new surface.
4.2.2.4 Hungry surface
Symptoms: Hungry surface is characterized by the loss of fine aggregates from the surface or
the appearance of dry surface with fine cracks; Figure 2.4 indicate a dry and hungry surface.
Figure 2.4: View of Dry and Hungry Surface (Source: IRC 82)
Location: Hungry surface may be in full lane or carriageway.

Causes: Use of less bitumen in the surfacing or use of absorptive aggregates in the surfacing.
Treatment: Fog seal / liquid rejuvenating materials may be used for correction of dry and
hungry surface. Slurry seal or micro-surfacing may also be used as a repair measure, when
applied in an average thickness of 2-4 mm.
4.2.3 Cracking
Cracking of bituminous surfacing is a common distress seen on majority of roads in India
(with the passage of time). Immediate attention must be given for sealing of cracks, and
prevention of their further widening as ingress of water through cracks is detrimental to
pavement structure and performance of bituminous surfacing.
4.2.3.1 Hairline Cracks

Symptoms: Hairline cracks are present in narrow area and their width is less than one mm
(Figure 2.5). Hairline cracks are generally not interconnected. These appear as short and fine
cracks at close intervals on the surface.
Figure 2.5: Hairline Cracks (Source: IRC 82)

Location: These cracks may be at isolated places or in a lane/carriageway.
Causes: These cracks develop due to either insufficient bitumen content, excessive filler,
improper compaction, oxidation of bitumen in surface or sometimes excessive moisture in
granular layers.

Treatment: These cracks may be treated by fog seal, application of liquid rejuvenating
agents, slurry sealing and micro surfacing.
4.2.3.2 Alligator and Map Cracking
Symptoms: Alligator or map cracking is characterized as a series of interconnected cracks,

having small irregular blocks in pavement surface which resemble the skin of an alligator.
The size of irregular shape blocks of cracks vary from less than 30 cm to more.
Location: Alligator or map cracks are normally appearing along the wheel path.
Causes : Excessive deflection of pavement surface normally at wheel path, inadequate

pavement thickness, weakening of sub-grade or lower layers of the pavement due to ingress
of excessive moisture to pavement and saturation, overloading of heavy commercial vehicles,
brittleness of binder due to ageing of binder and lowering of surface temperature due to
weather conditions or stripping of underlying bituminous courses.
Severity level: Alligator cracking may be classified as low severity, medium severity and
high severity (Figure 2.6).
Low Severity: Low severity cracks are characterized by an area of cracking with very narrow
cracks with almost no additional deterioration of the surface. The depth and width of such
cracks is in the range of 1 to 3 mm.
Medium Severity: Medium severity-cracking is characterized by interconnected cracks
forming a small area similar to the skin of alligator. The depth and width of such cracks lies
between 3 to 6 mm.

Figure 2.6: Alligator Cracks (Source: IRC 82)

High Severity: High Severity alligator cracking is characterized by an area of moderate to

severely spalled interconnected cracks creating a full pattern of cracking similar to skin of
alligator. The width and depth in this case may be more than 6 mm.
Treatment: Cracks sealing by bitumen emulsions, Crack sealing by rubberized and modified
bitumen, Milling and surface recycling. In case of a pavement being structurally inadequate
or weak, a properly designed overlay based on evaluation shall be provided
4.2.3.3 Longitudinal Cracking
Symptoms: Cracks that appear parallel to the centerline or along the road are called
longitudinal cracks (Figure 2.7).
a) Low severity b) Medium severity c) High severity

Figure 2.7: Longitudinal Cracking (Source: IRC 82)
Location: These cracks may appear at joints between two paving lanes or pavement and
paved shoulders.
Causes: Longitudinal cracks in bituminous pavement are usually caused by alternate wetting
and drying beneath the shoulder surface or by improper/weak joint between adjoining layers
of pavement.
Severity Level: Severity of longitudinal cracks may be defined as low, medium and high.
The low severity is assigned to 1-3 mm wide and infrequent cracks medium severity is
assigned to 3-6 mm wide cracks. High Severity is assigned to cracks, greater than 6 mm wide
and are frequent (numerous).
Treatment: Treatment for longitudinal cracks depends upon the severity and extent of the
cracking:

a) Low and medium Severity Cracks: Crack sealing, preferably using rubberized
bitumen
b) High Severity Cracks: Remove and replace the cracked pavement layer with fresh
overlay.
4.2.3.4 Transverse Cracks

Symptoms: These cracks appear in the transverse directions or as interconnected cracks
forming series of large blocks perpendicular to the direction of the road (Figure 2.8).

Figure 2.8: Transverse Cracks (Source: IRC 82)
Location: Transverse cracks may occur at isolated locations or in a lane/carriageway.
Causes: Transverse cracking may occur due to reflection of crack or joint in an underlying
pavement layer. The low temperature brittleness or oxidation of bitumen and also structural
failure at concrete base course are also causes of such cracking. Transverse cracks are usually
formed due to shrinkage of bituminous mix on account of low temperature.
Severity level: Severity of transverse may be defined as low, medium and high. The low
severity is assigned to 1-3 mm wide and infrequent cracks. Medium severity is assigned to 3-
6 mm wide cracks. High Severity is assigned to cracks greater than 6 mm wide and is
frequent (numerous).
Treatment: Transverse cracks may be treated using slurry seal or rubberized bitumen.

4.2.3.5 Edge Cracking
Symptoms: Edge cracking is defined as cracks which develop parallel to outer edge of the
pavement.
Location: The location of edge cracking is normally 0.3 to 0.5 m inside of pavement edge. P
Figure 2.9 (a, b & c) shows edge cracking at different severity levels.

Figure 2.9: Edge Cracking (Source: IRC 82)
Causes: Lack of lateral support from shoulder, settlement underlying the bituminous layers,
inadequate surface drainage, shrinkage in sub-grade soil, inadequate pavement width near
curves, inferior quality material in shoulders and thinner bituminous surface at edge of the
pavement and wet sub-grade are some of the reasons for edge cracking.
Severity Level: The severity levels of edge cracks are low, medium and high. Low severity
is with no breakup or loss of material, medium severity is with some breakup and loss of
material (up to 10% of the affected length) while high severity is with considerable breakup
and loss of material (more than 10% of the affected length).
Treatment: Promote good drainage along the edge of the road, remove the dirty, poor
draining shoulder material and replace it with a more permeable material, if truck traffic is
substantial, place a structural overlay on the road surface of the order of 75-100 mm of hot
mix to provide adequate support for heavier vehicle loads.

4.2.3.6 Reflection Cracking
Symptoms: Reflection cracks (Figure 2.10) are the sympathetic cracks that appear in the
bituminous surfacing over joints and underneath cracked pavement. The pattern may be
longitudinal, transverse, diagonal or block.
Figure 2.10: Reflection Cracking

Location: Reflection cracking occurs most frequently in bituminous overlays on cement
concrete pavements, or on cement soil bases. They may also occur in overlays or surfacing on
flexible pavements where cracks in the old existing pavement have not been properly
rectified. Another condition is when a pavement is widened. The location of the cracks will
then be exactly on the junction between the old pavement and the widened portion.
Causes: Differential movement across the underlying crack or joint is responsible for
development of reflection cracking. For joint reflection cracking, this is movement of the
cement concrete slab beneath the bituminous surface because of the thermal and moisture
changes.
Treatment: In case the pavement is structurally sound, then the cracks should be filled with a
bituminous binder having a low viscosity so that it can be poured and worked into the cracks.
If the cracks are wide enough a slurry seal or sand bituminous premix patching can be used to
seal the cracks. Stress Absorbing Membrane (SAM) or Stress Absorbing Membrane
Interlayer (SAMI) may be used to seal reflection cracking and prevention of occurrence.
4.2.4 Deformation
A change in the original shape of the pavement surface is known as deformation.

4.2.4.1 Slippage
Symptoms: Slippage is the relative movement between the wearing course and the layer
beneath the bituminous surface, as shown in Figure 2.11. It is characterized by the formation
of crescent shaped cracks that point in the direction of the thrust of the wheels on the
pavement surface.
(a) Low (b) High

Figure 2.11: Slippage of the Bituminous Wearing Coat
Location: Slippage of bituminous surface normally occurs along the wheel path of heavy
vehicles.
Causes: Slippage is caused by unusual thrust of wheels in a specific direction due to

omission or inadequacy of tack coat, failure or lack of bond between the wearing coat and the
lower layer caused by a layer of fine dust, moisture or both.
Severity level: Slippage may be classified as low severity and high severity slippage. In case,
slippage is at isolated locations in a lane, it is classified as low severity slippage. In case,
slippage is along the wheel path in entire lane or carriageway, it is classified as high severity
slippage.
Treatment: Rectification consists of removing the surface layer around the area affected up
to the point where good bond between the surfacing and the layer underneath exists and
patching the area with premix material after a tack coat.
4.2.4.2 Rutting
Symptoms: Rutting is longitudinal depression or groove in the pavement along the wheel
path. Figure 2.12 shows rutting in bituminous surfaces.

(a) Low severity (b) High severity

Figure 2.12: Rutting in Bituminous Surface
Location: Rutting generally appears along the wheel path.
Causes : Heavy channelized traffic and overloading of vehicles, inadequate compaction of

the mix during construction, improper mix design, lacking in stability to support the traffic,
weak pavement due to poor sub grade and inadequate design, use of soft bitumen or intrusion
of sub grade clay into granular base course or use of plastic filler in GSB/WBM/WMM.
Severity: Low severity rutting is 4-10 mm deep and high severity rutting is when it is more
than 10 mm depth.
Treatment: The rectification consists of filling of ruts with premix (open-graded or dense-
graded) patching materials and compacting to the desired levels.
4.2.4.3 Corrugation
Symptom: Corrugation is the formation of regular undulations (ripples) across the

bituminous surface. These are usually shallow (about 25 mm) and the spacing of the waves is
2-3 m (Figure 2.13).
Figure 2.13: Corrugation of Bituminous Surface (Source: IRC 82)

Location: Corrugations may occur near wheel path or in entire lane or carriageway.
Causes: Lack of stability in the mix (excessive binder, high proportion of fines, too round or
too smooth textured coarse or fine aggregate, too soft binder), oscillations set up by the
vehicle springs can cause alternative valleys and ridges, faulty laying of surface course,
insufficient rolling/rolling a tender mix, braking action of vehicles on grade especially near
intersections.
Severity: Not applicable
Treatment: If the surface is thin, the same is scarified; including some portions of the
underlying base, and the scarified material is re-compacted. A new surfacing layer is then
laid. Cutting of high spots with a blade with or without heating and addition of leveling
course materials can also be resorted to. Spreading of sand bituminous premix with a drag
spreader with its blade adjusted to just clear the high spots can also be an effective way to
make up the corrugation. The area is then thoroughly rolled.
4.2.4.4 Shoving
Symptoms: Shoving is a form of plastic movement within the bituminous layers resulting in
bulging of the pavement surface. Figure 2.14 shows shoving of bituminous layers.
Figure 2.14: Shoving of Bituminous Surface

Location: Shoving occurs characteristically at points, where traffic starts and stops
(intersections, bus-stops); on hills roads or where vehicles accelerate or brake on grades and
on sharp curves. The first indication of shoving appears in the form of slippage cracks which
are crescent shaped cracks.
Causes: Lack of stability in the mix (excessive binder, high proportion of fines, soft binder)
in the bituminous surface or base course, lack of bond between bituminous surface and
underlying layer, heavy traffic movement involving negotiation of curves and gradients.

Severity level: Not applicable

Treatment: The rectification consists of removing the material in the affected area down to a
firm base and laying a stable premix patch.
4.2.4.5 Shallow Depression
Symptoms:
Shallow depressions are isolated low areas of limited size, dipping about 25 mm or more
below the profile, where water will normally become stagnant (Figure 2.15).
Figure 2.15: Shallow Depression in Bituminous Surface

Location: Shallow depressions are generally restricted to wheel path/heavy traffic lanes.
Causes: Shallow depressions are caused by isolated settlement of lower pavement layers due
to pockets of inadequately compacted sub grade or subsequent pavement layers.
Severity level: Not applicable
Treatment: Filling with premix materials, open graded or dense graded, and compacting to
the desired profile as the surrounding pavement.
4.2.4.6 Settlements and Upheaval
Symptoms: Settlements and upheavals are characterized by relatively large deformations of

the pavement compared to shallow depressions. Settlements and upheavals are shown in
Figure 2.16 (a) and (b), respectively

Figure 2.16: (a) Settlement (b) Upheaval in bituminous surfacing
Location: Settlement may be along the wheel path or at isolated locations in a lane
carriageway.
Causes: Inadequate compaction of the fill at locations behind bridge abatements, over utility
cuts, etc., excessive moisture in sub-grade and permeable layer of sub-base and base caused
by capillary action or poor drainage or inadequate pavement thickness
Severity: Not Applicable
Treatment: If settlements and upheavals indicate any inherent weakness in the fill, it may be
necessary to excavate the defective fill and do the embankment afresh under properly
controlled conditions. Material having good drainage qualities should be preferred. Under-
drains may become necessary in locations where lack of drainage has been identified as the
cause of failure. Where the cause of deformation is inadequate pavement thickness, then
properly designed pavement shall be provided.
4.2.5 Disintegration
There are some defects which if not rectified immediately, result in the disintegration of the
pavement into small and loose fragments. Disintegration, if not arrested in the early stages,
may necessitate complete reconstruction of the pavement.
4.2.5.1 Stripping
Symptoms: This defect is characterized by the separation of bitumen film from the surfaces
of the aggregate particles, due to the presence of moisture (Figure 2.17). This may lead to
loss of bond between bitumen and aggregate.

Figure 2.17: Stripping of Bituminous Surface

Location: Stripping is either localized or extended to lane or entire carriageway.
Causes: Use of hydrophilic aggregates, continuous contact of water with the coated
aggregate, presence of dust or moisture on aggregate surface when it comes in contact with
the bitumen, occurrence of rain or dust storm immediately after construction, higher
concentration of salt in soil and rain water, use of improper grade of bitumen or ageing of the
bitumen leading to the embrittlement of the binder film.
Treatment : In the case of surface dressing, hot coarse sand heated to at least 150°C and
spread over the affected areas, may be used to replace the lost aggregates. After spreading, it
should be rolled immediately so that it will be seated into the bitumen. If aggregates are only
partially whipped off, a liquid seal may be the solution. In other cases, the existing
bituminous mix should be removed and a fresh one laid.
4.2.5.2 Ravelling
Symptoms: Ravelling is defined as progressive separation and dissociation of fine aggregate

particles and binder from the bituminous surface. Normally, fine aggregates wears away first
followed by coarse aggregates. The raveling process generally starts from the surface
downward or from the edge inward. Pavement surface lead to rough and jagged appearance
after occurrence of raveling. Raveling differs from fretting that it involves plucking out of
surface aggregate by traffic without loss of cohesion.
Location: Raveling may occur on any part of a lane or carriageway.

Causes: Ravelling is likely to occur due to inadequate bitumen content in a mix, overheating
of bitumen during mixing process, inadequate compaction during construction, stripping of
bitumen from aggregate due to water at interface, construction during cold and wet weather,
use of inferior quality aggregate, use of absorptive aggregates, excessive ageing of binder,
improper filler / bitumen ratio, high intensity hydrostatic pressure due to combined effects of
traffic and water, development of inclement weather (moisture, freezing) immediately after
construction or traffic stresses exceed breaking strength of mix.
Severity Level: Ravelling may be classified to three severity levels, viz., low severity,
medium severity and high severity (Figure 2.18: a, b and c). Low severity is when some loss
of fines is associated with initial stage of binder wearing out, medium is when loose particles
exist with some loss having binder wearing out to a rough surface and high severity is when
surface is too rough with loss of aggregates.

Figure 2.18: View of Ravelling (Source: IRC 82)
Treatment: The treatment of raveled surface shall depend upon severity of Raveling.
a) Low severity raveling: The low severity raveling may be corrected by application of
fog seal, sand seal or seal coat, slurry seal and micro-surfacing
b) Medium severity raveling: This may be corrected by application of seal coat slurry
seal or micro-surfacing treatment in affected area
c) High severity raveling: Depending upon condition of raveled surface and specification
of existing surface. The high severity raveling may be corrected by single or multiple
applications of liquid seal coat, slurry seal, micro-surfacing and surfacing of thin
overlay of appropriate mix specification like mix seal surfacing or open graded
premix carpet.

4.2.5.3 Potholes
Symptoms: Potholes are bowl shaped cavities of varying sizes in a bituminous surface or
extending into the binder/base course, caused by localized disintegration of material. Figure
2.19 shows potholes.
(a) Small (b) Medium (c) Large

Figure 2.19: Potholes of Different Severity (Source: IRC 82)
Location: Potholes may occur in any part of road surface.
Causes: The most common cause of pothole formation is loss of adhesion in bituminous
wearing coat due to the ingress of water into the pavement or due to higher voids in surface.
The pavement gets weakened as a result of loss of cohesion, and under the action of traffic.
The formation of pothole is aggravated due to use of plastic filler in granular base. If not
attended to timely and properly, aggregates in the surface get progressively loosened to result
in a pothole. Lack of proper bond between the bituminous surfacing and the underlying water
bound Macadam base layer can also cause formation of potholes. Insufficient bitumen
content in localized areas of the surfacing layer can also cause formation of potholes. A thin
bituminous surface, which is unable to withstand the heavy traffic, can also cause formation
of potholes, when associated with improper or inadequate camber. In dense-graded mixtures,
potholes can be caused by too much fines or too few fines.
Pothole unit: The extent of potholing can be expressed in terms of ‘pothole units. Each
pothole unit has a surface area of 0.1 m2, i.e., approximately 300 mm in diameter and
therefore can be adequately estimated by reference to a person’s foot. For estimating
maintenance requirements in HDM-4, the depth of a pothole unit has been assumed to be 100
mm i.e. a volume of 10 liters (Ref: Manual of HDM-4, Volume 6). Therefore, number of
potholes shall be estimated based on ‘pothole unit’ with surface area of 0.1 m2.

Treatment: The rectification consists of filling potholes with open graded or dense graded
premix. Potholes can be repaired by various methods
1. Mixes (cold mixed/hot mixed) for immediate use
2. Storable cold mixes (cutback/emulsion Based)
3. Ready mixes
4. Cold mixes by Patching machines
Patch Fill-Pothole Repair Solution for Bituminous Roads

Patch-fill solution developed by CRRI (Figure 2.20) is useful for faster filling of potholes in
bituminous roads without causing any environmental pollution and hindrance to roads users.
Potholes filled by Path-fill shall be long lasting. It can produce 75 kg cold mix for pothole
repair in 3 minutes. The capacity of machine is 1 tonne mixture/hour. It can repair potholes of
all sizes. The power Consumption by machine is 5.5 kW per hour with zero GHG emissions
and low cost of faster repair. The major raw materials include bitumen emulsion, mineral
aggregate, additives and cutback bitumen. Major plant equipment and machinery include
compressor, pneumatic controller and plate vibrator. The repair cost of repairing potholes
using Patch-fill machine is comparatively less than imported machine/ conventional methods
in shorter period. Technology package includes machine for spraying, mixing, compaction
and formulation of mixture.
Figure 2.20: Patch Fill-Pothole Repair Machine

4.2.5.4 Patch/Patch Deterioration
Symptoms: Patching is the process of repairing damaged or excavated areas of bituminous

pavement to stop further degradation and expensive pavement repairs.
Severity Levels: Distresses in the patched area affect the severity level of the patch. Also,
any distress in the boundary of the patch is included in rating the patch. The low severity
level of a patch is defined if it in good condition, performing satisfactorily and there is no loss
of patching material. In medium severity level, patch has moderate severity distress of any
type and in case of High Severity; patch is badly deteriorated and affects riding quality
significantly.
Treatment: Applications of sealant without aggregate are not to be recorded as patches. A

full-depth or deep patch is a permanent repair; in contrast, a thin surface patch (less than 25
mm deep) is typically only temporary. There are several choices for repairing, including hot
mixes, bituminous emulsion mixes, stockpile patching mixes, and bespoke patching mixes
with special combinations of aggregate and modified binders. Full-depth patching involves
the removal of the whole pavement surface layer, regardless of thickness, over the repairing
region. Deep patching is the removal of 100 mm or more of the pavement surface course
appropriate for bituminous pavements. Figure 2.21 shows patch.
Figure 2.21: Patch
4.2.5.5 Edge-Breaking
Symptoms: In edge breaking, the edge of the bituminous surface gets broken in an irregular
way. Figure 2.22 shows this type of defect.

Figure 2.22: Edge Break-up (Source: IRC 82)
Location: Distress is restricted to edges up to 30 cm from edge.
Causes: Infiltration of water which makes the foundation layers weak, worn out shoulders
resulting in insufficient side support to the pavement, inadequate strength at the edge of the
pavement due to inadequate compaction, lower layer of pavement being wider than upper
layers, too narrow width.
Treatment: The shoulder and the pavement materials in the affected area should be entirely
removed to a regular section with vertical sides. The pavement and the shoulders should be
built up simultaneously with thorough compaction. A bituminous surface similar to that in the
adjacent reach should be laid. The shoulder should have adequate slope to drain away water.
In order to prevent the edges from getting broken again, the maintenance operations should
include periodic inspection of the shoulder condition and replacement of worn out shoulder
material with adequate compaction. In sandy areas where the soil is likely to be eroded by
wind and rain, it may be advantageous to have brick paving at least for some width to protect
the edges. Surface and subsurface drainage, wherever deficient, should be improved.

CHAPTER 3
4.3.0 Pavement Serviceability
4.3.1 Background
Pavement serviceability refers to the overall condition and performance of a pavement
surface in meeting the needs and expectations of road users. It is a measure of how well a
pavement serves its intended purpose, considering factors such as smoothness, safety,
comfort, and durability. The evaluation of pavement serviceability is crucial for
transportation agencies and road maintenance organizations to make informed decisions
regarding pavement maintenance, rehabilitation, or reconstruction.
4.3.2 Concept of Present Serviceability Index

The Present Serviceability Index (PSR) is a pavement performance measure developed as a
result of the research performed during the original AASHO road test and published by the
Highway Research Board. The PSR is a rating on a scale of 0 (impassible) to 5 (smooth) that
represents the qualitative ride quality of the pavement from the user point of view to evaluate
and quantify the overall condition and serviceability of a pavement. It provides a standardized
measure that allows for comparisons and assessments of different pavements over time. The
PSR forms the basis of the Present Serviceability Index (PSI), which is the basis of the
AASHTO empirical design guides. The PSI was developed to relate measurable pavement
characteristics to the PSR. The relationship between the PSI and PSR is shown as Equation
3.1, and the relationship between the PSI and pavement characteristics is shown as Equation
3.2 for asphalt-surfaced pavements. The PSI is commonly used by transportation agencies
and pavement engineers to monitor the condition of road surfaces and prioritize maintenance
and rehabilitation efforts. The Pavement Serviceability Index is typically based on the
collection and analysis of various pavement distress data, such as cracking, rutting,
roughness, and surface irregularities. The PSI is typically expressed as a numerical value
between 0 and 5, with 5 representing a pavement in excellent condition and 0 indicating a
pavement in very poor condition.
3.1
Where, ε is a prediction error associated with predicting PSR, generally assumed as zero.
3.2
Where,
SV = slope variance of the pavement,
RD = mean rut depth of the pavement (in.),
C = area of cracking (ft2 per 1000 ft2), and

P = area of patching (ft2 per 1000 ft2).

The factors affecting serviceability and the methods of measurement are given in the
following.
4.3.3 Roughness
Surface evenness/roughness of a road is an important parameter for the evaluation of surface
condition of road and hence forms an important input into any Pavement Maintenance
Management System (PMMS) towards deciding upon the optimal maintenance strategies to
be applied within the given budget. Road roughness is the deviations of the pavement surface
from a true planar surface with characteristic dimensions that affect vehicle dynamics, ride
quality, dynamic loads, and drainage, for example, longitudinal profile, transverse profile,
and cross slope (IRC SP 16). A slightly different definition might be as follows: the distortion
of the road surface that imparts undesirable vertical accelerations and forces to the vehicle or
to its riders and thus contributes to an undesirable, uneconomical, unsafe, or uncomfortable
ride.
4.3.3.1 Roughness Measurement Methods
4.3.3.1.1 Profilometric Systems

Systems that measure or base their measurements on the profiles of road are, generally
termed as profilometric system. When profile is measured, the continuous representation of
the road can be inspected to identify local defects, or processed to yield roughness numeric
adapted to specific applications
4.3.3.2.1 Response Type Road Roughness Measuring System (RTRRMS)

In these systems, the suspension stroke of the vehicles as a measure of roughness. The
vehicle is a passenger car, a van, a light truck, or a special trailer. A road meter which is a
transducer measures the accumulated suspension motions. The roughness measure obtained is
“meters” of accumulated suspension stroke, normalized by the distance travelled reported
with engineering units such as meter/kilometer (m/km). The various equipment such as Fifth
Wheel Bump Integrator or Automatic Road Unevenness Recorder (indigenously developed
by CRRI, India), Car Axle Mounted Bump Integrator and Accelerometer based systems falls
under this category.

4.3.3.2 Equipment for Road Roughness Measurement
4.3.3.2.1 Class 1: Precision Profilers

Precision profilers are the instruments that provide the highest standard of accuracy for
calculating IRI and records a series of accurately measured elevation points, closely spaced
along the section (i.e. with a short sampling interval). The elevations are measured at
sampling intervals not more than 250 mm with a precision of less than 0.5 mm on very
smooth pavements using walking speed profilometers. However, for high speed road profilers
such as Laser Profilometer (ASTM E950 Class-1 Compliance) the longitudinal sampling
interval is ≤ 25 mm with a vertical measurement resolution of ≤ 0.1 mm.
Roughness Measurement using Automated Road Survey System (ARSS)/ Network

Survey Vehicle (NSV)
In a Network Survey Vehicle, roughness is measured using Laser Profilometers. The Laser
Profilometer beam is installed in the front or back of the survey vehicle. This system is based
on the measurement of vertical displacements using Laser Rays. Two lased sensors installed
at both ends of Laser Profilometer are used to collect road profile along left and right wheel
path of road for computation of the left IRI and right IRI (International Roughness Index).
This equipment has self-calibration mechanism. A typical view of Laser Profilometer
installed in a NSV is shown in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Typical View of a Laser Profilometer in a NSV

4.3.3.2.2 Class 2: Other Profilometer Methods

An instrument not capable of meeting the Class 1 requirements for precision, or sampling
interval, may meet the criteria for Class 2. The Class 2 sampling intervals are set at a
maximum of 500 mm with a precision on smooth roads of below 1 mm for using walking
speed profilometers. However, for high speed road profilers the longitudinal sampling
interval is > 25 mm to 150 mm with a vertical measurement resolution of > 0.1 mm to 0.2
mm.
4.3.3.2.3 Class 3: Response Type Measurements

All Response Type Road Roughness Measuring Systems (RTRRMS) belongs to this category
of roughness measurement. RTRRMS measure the dynamic response of vehicles to the road
surface by using either mechanical or accelerometer devices. The estimation of roughness
index for RTRRMS is made using correlation equation after calibration with Class-1 road
profiler. Some of the widely used RTRRMS includes the following.
a. Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator (FWBI)/Automated Road Unevenness
Recorder(ARUR)
b. Car Axle Mounted Bump Integrator (CAMBI)
c. Accelerometer Based (AB) Equipment
4.3.3.3 Units for Measuring Roughness
4.3.3.3.1 Roughness Index (RI)

The pavement surface roughness is expressed as Unevenness or Roughness Index (in
mm/km) measured through Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator or Car Axle Mounted Bump
Integrator.
4.3.3.3.2 International Roughness Index (IRI)

It is the reference average rectified slope, which expresses the ratio of the accumulated
suspension motion of a vehicle, divided by the distance travelled during the test. The
recommended unit of IRI is m/km.
4.3.3.3.3 Correlation between IRI and RI

For correlation with RI values obtained from RTRRMS equipment such as Fifth Wheel
Bump Integrator and Car Axle Mounted Bump Integrator, the following Eq. 3.3 may be used
for IRI
< 17 (Paterson, 1990):

3.3
Where, RI = Roughness Index in mm/km and IRI = International Roughness Index in m/km
4.3.3.4 Roughness Norms

The roughness norms as specified in IRC SP 16 for different types of roads are given in
Tables 3.1 to 3.3.
Table 3.1: Maximum Permissible Values of Roughness for Expressways, NH and SH

(source: IRC: SP 16)
S. No. Type of Condition of Road Surface
Surface Good Fair Poor
RI IRI RI IRI RI IRI
1 Bituminous <1800 <2.55 1800- 2.55- 2400 3.30
(BC, SMA, 2400 3.30
SDBC)
2 Cemented <2000 <2.81 2000- 2.81- 2400 3.30
2400 3.30
Note: In case of four lane divided and above corridors, roughness measurements shall be
carried out using Class 1 equipment. For other corridors, the roughness measurements shall
be carried out using Class 1/Class 2 or Class 3 equipment depending upon survey speed/
geometric suitability.
Table 3.2: Maximum Permissible Values of Roughness for MDR and ODR
(Source: IRC: SP 16)
S. Type of Surface Condition of Road Surface
No. Good Fair Poor
1 Surface Dressing <3000 <4.03 3000-3800 4.03-4.98 >3800 >4.98
2 Open Graded Premix <2800 <3.79 2800-3500 3.79-4.62 >3500 >4.62
Carpet
3 Mix Deal Surfacing <2600 <3.55 2600-3200 3.55-4.27 >3200 >4.27
4 Semi Dense <2200 <3.05 2200-3000 3.05-4.03 >3000 >4.03
Bituminous Concrete
5 Bituminous Concrete <2000 <2.81 2000-2600 2.81-3.55 >2600 >3.55
6 Cement Concrete <2200 <3.05 2200-2600 3.05-3.55 >2600 >3.55
Note: Roughness measurements shall be carried out using Class 1/Class 2 or Class 3
equipment on these categories of roads depending upon survey speed/geometric suitability

Table 3.3: Maximum Permissible Values of Roughness for Village Roads

(Source: IRC: SP 16)
S. Type of Surface Condition of Road Surface
No. Good Fair Poor
1 Surface Dressing <3200 <4.27 3200-3800 4.27-4.98 >3800 >4.98
2 Open Graded Premix <3000 <4.03 3000-3500 4.03-4.62 >3500 >4.62
Carpet
3 Mix Deal Surfacing <2800 <3.79 2800-3200 3.79-4.27 >3200 >4.27
4 Semi Dense <2400 <3.30 2400-3000 3.30-4.03 >3000 >4.03
Bituminous Concrete
5 Cement Concrete <2200 <3.05 2200-2600 3.05-3.55 >2600 >3.55
4.3.4 Pavement Skid Resistance
4.3.4.1 General
Skid resistance, affects the braking ability of vehicles, hence it is the main safety-related
attribute of pavement surface condition. Pavement skid resistance depends on factors such as
the texture (micro and macro texture) of the pavement surface, the tread of a tire, the presence
of water at the interface between the two, and the amount of slippage between them.
Aggressive tire treads and lack of surface water improves skid resistance. Texture is
differentiated into micro texture (wavelengths in the range of 1 μm to 0.5 mm) and macro
texture (wavelengths in the range of 0.5 mm to 50 mm). Micro texture contributes to skid
resistance at low traffic speed, while macro texture governs skid resistance at high speed.
IRC: 134 provide guidelines on skid resistance of pavement surfacing.
Static measurements are performed through British Pendulum Tester in accordance with
ASTM E303-93 and IRC: 134. Dynamic measurements can be made through devices such as
dynamic friction tester, locked wheel skid tester and SCRIM (Sideway-force Coefficient
Routine Investigation Machine). An index value is assigned (skid score) based on
measurements taken with a locked-wheel skid trailer towed behind a specially designed truck.
The trailer administers a water spray to the pavement in front of the left tire. Smooth-treaded
trailer tires are used. Testing is accomplished at 50 mph by locking the trailer’s left wheel at
periodic intervals while a metered amount of water is sprayed on the pavement surface.
Scores generally range from 10 to 40, with the higher number indicating greater skid
resistance.

4.3.4.2 British pendulum tester (BPT)

The British Pendulum Tester (BPT) is a friction device used to measure the skid resistance of
a surface for new construction and in-service evaluations. The skid resistance is evaluated
using a swinging pendulum and measuring the energy lost to friction when the pendulum
contacts the surface at the base of its swing.
The system consists of a frame, a swinging pendulum arm, rubber sliders, an interface box,
and an on-board computer for data collection and storage. The pendulum attaches to the
center of the frame such that the rubber slider mounted on the pendulum head just contacts
the test surface at the base of its swing. One side of the frame has a clamp to hold the
pendulum arm before it is released, while the other side has a scale to measure the pendulum
test value. The value measures the skid resistance based on the energy lost to friction when
the rubber slider contacts the surface. If allowed to swing freely without touching the test
surface, the pendulum arm should swing to its mirror position on the other side of the frame,
corresponding to value of 0. This is due to the fact that no energy is lost to friction from
contacting the surface. During testing, the rubber slider will contact the surface at the base of
the swing and the pendulum will lose energy to this resistance. The pendulum will swing
partially up the other side, but not to the mirror of its start position. The distance below the
zero mark that the pendulum reaches is proportional to the energy lost to friction. The lower
the height reached by the pendulum, the higher the value of the surface friction. The
measured value British Pendulum Number (BPN) is about 100 times the coefficient of
friction. Table 3.4 shows the recommended BPN values for major district and rural roads as
per IRC 134. Figure 3.2 shows the British Pendulum Tester.
Table 3.4: Recommended British Pendulum Number for Major District and Rural
Roads (Source: IRC 134:2022)
Category Site definition Good Satisfactory Poor Intervention
level (BPN)
A Straight roads ≥ 40 45-30 ≤ 30 30
B Curves with tight ≥ 45 45-35 ≤ 35 35
radius and
intersections

Figure 3.2: British Pendulum Tester

4.3.5 Pavement structural capacity
4.3.5.1 General
The structural condition of the pavement describes the ability of the pavement to carry its
design load without appreciable permanent deformation or damage. The structural condition
of the pavement has a direct impact on the functional performance of the pavement. As the
structural condition of the pavement deteriorates the rate of change of the functional
condition increases. Therefore, a pavement with poor structural condition will fail more
rapidly than a pavement with adequate structural condition, as measured in terms of
functional condition.
Pavement Surface Deflection

Pavement surface deflection measurements are the primary means of evaluating a flexible
pavement structural capacity and rigid pavement load transfer. Although other measurements
can be made that reflect (to some degree) a pavement's structural condition, surface deflection
is an important pavement evaluation method because the magnitude and shape of pavement
deflection is a function of traffic (type and volume), pavement structural section, temperature
affecting the pavement structure and moisture affecting the pavement structure. Additionally,
deflection measurements can be used in back calculation methods to determine pavement
structural layer stiffness and the sub grade resilient modulus. Thus, many characteristics of a
flexible pavement can be determined by measuring its deflection in response to load.
Furthermore, pavement deflection measurements are non-destructive.
There is a variety of commercially available devices for measuring in-situ pavement
deflections, referred to as deflectometers. State-of-the-art deflectometers apply a known load
to the surface and use geophones (i.e., vertical speed sensors, whose signal needs to be
integrated once to give deflection), arranged to yield a ‘‘bowl’’ of deflection measurements.
These devices provide information not only on the structural capacity of pavement sections
but also on the structural properties of their layers and the subgrade.

4.3.5.2 Benkelman Beam Deflection (BBD)

One of the earlier and least expensive devices used for measuring surface deflection is the
Benkelman Beam. This consisted of a mechanical lever-based probe supported by three legs
that recorded the rebound deflection of the pavement surface between the dual tires of a
‘‘standard’’ 80 kN truck axle as it drove away slowly. The Benkelman Beam Deflection
Method is widely used for evaluation of structural capacity of existing flexible pavements
and also for estimation and design of overlays for strengthening of any weak pavement for
highways. IRC 81 covers the guidelines for strengthening of flexible road pavements using
Benkelman beam deflection technique.
i. Concept: Performance of flexible pavements is closely related to the elastic

deflection of pavement under the wheel loads. The deformation or elastic deflection
under a given load depends upon sub-grade soil type, its moisture content and
compaction, the thickness and quality of the pavement courses, drainage conditions,
pavement surface temperature etc.
A conceptual working of Benkelman beam is depicted in Figure 3.3. A’B’ represents the
position of a Benkelman beam when the probe A’ is placed between the dual wheel of loaded
truck. The point A’ touches the maximum deflected point of the deflection bowl. When the
truck moves forward by a given distance (P’ to P), the deflection bowl also moves forward
and probe point A’ comes back to point position A. this deflection is called the rebound
deflection and is used for the estimation of overlay thickness.
Figure 3.3: Conceptual working of a Benkelman beam
ii. Equipment: Benkelman Beam consists of a slender beam 3.66 m long pivoted at a
distance of 2.440 m from the tip. A standard truck having a rear axle weighing 8170
kg fitted with dual tire inflated to a pressure of 5.60 kg/cm2 is used for loading the
pavement. Figure 3.4 depicts the schematic of Benkelman Beam.
iii. Principle: By suitably placing the probe between the dual wheels of a loaded truck, it
is possible to measure the rebound and residual deflections of the pavement structure.

While the rebound deflection is the one related to pavement performance, the residual
deflection may be due to non- recoverable deflection of the pavement or because of
the influence of the deflection bowl on the front legs of the beam. Rebound deflection
is used for overlay design.
Figure 3.4: Benkelman Beam (Source: IRC 81)

iv. Procedure:
The deflection survey essentially consists of two operations: (i) condition survey for
collecting the basic information of the road structure and based on this, the demarcation of
the road into sections of more or less equal performance; and (ii) actual deflection
measurements.
 Condition survey consists primarily of visual observations supplemented by
simple measurements for rut-depth using a 3 metre straight edge. Based on
these, the road length shall be classified into sections of equal performance
in accordance with the criteria given in IRC 81.
 The test point shall be pre-selected and marked as per guidelines. The tyre
pressure should be checked before the first test and then at intervals not
exceeding three hours.
 Before starting the deflection measurements, the Benkelman Beam should
be calibrated to ensure that the dial gauge and beam are working correctly.
 A standard loaded truck, with rear axle weighing 8170 kg and fitted with
dual tyre each having tyre pressure of 5.6 kg/cm2 is used. The dual wheel of
truck is centered above the testing point and probe of Benkelman beam is
placed between the two wheels.

 The truck driver is asked to slowly move 2.7 m from the selected point and
stop. The dial gauge reading is noted when recovery of the pavement is less
than or equal to 0.025 mm/min; this reading is called intermediate reading.
 The truck is moved forward by another 9 m and final reading is taken.
 Pavement temperature is also recorded every hour.
 Deflections measured by the Benkelman Beam arc influenced by the
pavement temperature. For design purposes, therefore, all deflection values
should be related to a common temperature. Measurements made when the
pavement temperature is different than standard temperature would need to
be corrected, as per IRC 81.
 Pavement deflections are also affected by seasonal variations in climate. It
is intended that the pavement deflections should pertain to the period when
the sub-grade is at its weakest condition. In India, this period occurs during
the recession of monsoon. It is, therefore, desirable to conduct deflection
measurements during this period. Where the same is not feasible, a
correction factor should be applied, as per IRC 81.
v. Applications: BBD test is used to determine the load-bearing capacity of pavements

for estimation of overlay requirements, identification of visually undetectable weak
points, formation of homogeneous roads sections, recording of load-bearing behavior
over longer periods and after extreme hydrological events, identification of structural
causes of damage and assessment of structural condition, selection of appropriate road
maintenance measures. The method is most suitable for thin and less stiff bituminous
courses like BM and Premix Carpet and for rural roads.
4.3.5.3 Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)

Measurement of deflection under a static load does not simulate the loading conditions
produced in pavements by a moving vehicle. The evaluation of pavements by such methods
is labour-intensive and, in general, time consuming. A falling weight deflectometer (FWD) is
a device that is designed to simulate the loading of a wheel passing over a pavement and
measure its vertical deflection response to that load. During the test, a known weight is
dropped onto a circular load plate on the pavement surface, and the resulting deflection is
measured by sensors placed around the load plate. The sensors are typically geophones or
force–balance seismometers.
i. Concept: Performance of flexible pavements can be evaluated by applying loads on

the pavements that simulate the traffic loading, recording the response to such loading
by measuring the elastic deflection under such loads, and analyzing these data duly
considering the factors influencing the performance such as sub-grade strength,

thickness and quality of each of the pavement layers, drainage conditions, pavement
surface temperature etc.
ii. Equipment: Typical FWD includes a circular loading plate of 300 or 450 mm
diameter. A rubber pad of 5 mm minimum thickness should be glued to the bottom of
the loading plate for uniform distribution of load. Alternatively, segmented loading
plates (with two to four segments) can be used for better load distribution. A falling
mass in the range of 50 to 350 kg is dropped from a height of fall in the range of 100
to 600 mm to produce load pulses of desired peak load and duration. Six to nine
velocity transducers (geophones) are used for measuring surface deflections of
flexible pavements. Figure 3.5 shows the schematic of FWD.
iii. Principle: When a moving wheel load passes over the pavement it produces load
pulses. Normal stresses (vertical as well as horizontal) at a location in the pavement
will increase in magnitude from zero to a peak value as the moving wheel load
approaches the location. The time taken for the stress pulse to vary from zero to peak
value is termed as 'rise time of the pulse'. As the wheel moves away from the location,
magnitude of stress reduces from peak value to zero. The time period during which
the magnitude of stress pulse varies from 'zero-to-peak-to-zero' is the pulse duration.
Peak load and the corresponding pavement responses are of interest for pavement
evaluation. The resulting load-deflection data can be interpreted through appropriate
analytical techniques, such as back-calculation technique, to estimate the elastic
module of the pavement layers.
Figure 3.5: Schematic of Falling Weight Deflectometer (Source: IRC 115)

iv. Procedure: An impulse load is applied by means of a falling mass, which is allowed
to drop vertically on a system of springs placed over a circular loading plate. The
deflected shape of the pavement surface is measured using displacement sensors
which are placed at different radial distances starting with the center of the load plate.
Trailer mounted as well as vehicle mounted FWD models are available commercially.
The working principle of all these FWD models is essentially the same. A mass of
weights is dropped from a pre-determined height onto a series of springs/buffers

placed on top of a loading plate. The corresponding peak load and peak vertical
surface deflections at different radial locations are measured and recorded.
Measured surface deflections, normalized to a standard load of 40 kN, along with
other inputs such as radial distances at which deflections are measured, layer
thicknesses, Poisson's ratio values of different layers, applied peak load and loading
plate radius, are used to back calculate the elastic module of different layers of the
existing pavement using an appropriate back calculation technique. The back
calculated module is used for the analysis of the in-service pavement and for
assessment of the structural condition of the pavement. KGPBACK, which is a
specific version of BACKGA program, is recommended in Indian standards for back
calculation.
Back calculated module values of the bituminous layers evaluated by FWD survey are
influenced by the pavement temperature. Hence the back calculated module obtained
at temperatures other than the identified standard temperature (35°C) will have to be
corrected. Moisture content affects the strength of sub-grade and granular sub-
base/base layers. The extent to which the strength is affected will depend on the
nature of sub-grade soil, gradation and nature of fines in the granular layers, etc.
Therefore, it is intended that the pavement layer module values should pertain to the
period when the sub-grade is at its weakest condition. In India, this period occurs
during the recession of monsoon. It is, therefore, desirable to conduct deflection
measurements during this period. Where the same is not feasible, a correction
procedure should be adopted
v. Applications: The computed elastic module of pavement layers are used for (i) the
strength evaluation of different layers of in-service pavements (ii) the estimation of
the remaining life of in-service pavement (iii) determination of strengthening
requirement, if any and (iv) evaluation of different rehabilitation alternatives (overlay,
recycling, partial reconstruction, etc.). The test is more suitable for highways
comprising thick and stiffer bituminous courses like DBM and BC.

CHAPTER 4
4.4.0 Pavement Condition Surveys and Pavement Condition Index
4.4.1 Background
The PCI (Pavement Condition Index) is a numerical indicator that rates the surface condition
of the pavement. The PCI provides a measure of the present condition of the pavement based
on the distress observed on the surface of the pavement. The PCI does not measure structural
capacity nor does it provide direct measurement of skid resistance or roughness. It provides
an objective and rational basis for determining maintenance and repair needs and priorities.
The PCI varies from 0 to 100 where 0 represent pavement in failed condition and 100
corresponds to pavement section in excellent condition. Regular monitoring of the PCI is
used to establish the rate of pavement deterioration, which permits early identification of
major rehabilitation needs. Representation of different pavement condition corresponding to
different values of PCI is shown in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Representation of PCI scale (Source: IRC 82)

The functional parameters considered for the determination of Pavement Condition Index
includes
1) Cracking Extent
2) Ravelling Extent
3) Patching Extent
4) Pothole Number
5) Rut Depth
6) International Roughness Index

4.4.2 Determination of PCI

Different steps involved in determination of PCI are depicted in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2: Procedure for Determination of Overall Pavement Condition Index (Source:
IRC 82)
The extent of the distress can be calculated as Equation 4.1.
..4.1
The number of potholes shall be calculated as per Equation 4.2.
..4.2
After determination of all individual PCI values, the final value of pavement condition index
can be determined using the weighted sum of each individual index values. The weightage
for different functional parameters for calculation of PCI (IRC- 82) is presented in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Weightage for different Performance Measures (Source: IRC 82)
Distress PCI Weightage

Parameter
IRI 0.40
Pothole 0.16
Rut Depth 0.14
Cracking 0.12
Ravelling 0.10
Patch Work 0.08
The maintenance recommendations based on PCI value are given in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Maintenance Recommendations based on PCI value (0-100 scale)

(Source: IRC 82)
Condition Excellent to Good Satisfactory to Fair Poor to Fail
Excellent GoodSatisfactor Fair Poor Fail
y
PCI Rating >90 to 100 >80 to 90 >60 to 80 >40 to 60 >20 to 40 0 to 20
Recommendations Routine Preventive Resurfacing Minor Major Re-

Maintenance Maintenance (based on Rehabilitat Rehabilitati Constructi
structural ion on/ on
evaluation) (based on Structural
Structural Overlay
evaluation)

CHAPTER 5
4.5.0 Maintenance Strategies for Flexible Pavements
4.5.1 Planning for Maintenance Activities

Timely and regular maintenance of roads provide economic rate of return as high as 15 to 20
percent depending upon the category of road and traffic volume. Moreover, it helps in
deferring the demand for rehabilitation which otherwise is far more costly than preventive
maintenance. Therefore, timely and appropriate maintenance of bituminous surface using
sustainable/suitable materials and methods is significant for preservation of road asset and to
serve the intended purpose. The different types of Maintenance activities are discussed as
follows.
4.5.2 Routine Maintenance

Routine Maintenance involves filling of potholes, repairing of cracks and patch works, which
are undertaken almost round the year. Routine maintenance is also required for pavement
markings on the bituminous surfaces to guide the road users and improve road safety.
4.5.3 Preventive Maintenance

The preventive maintenance is performed to improve or extend the functional life of
pavement surface while in good condition. This may defer the need of periodic maintenance
and rehabilitation.
4.5.3.1 Warrants for Preventive Maintenance

The various Preventive Maintenance techniques are discussed as follows.

4.5.3.1.1 Crack Filling or Crack Sealing
Table 5.1: Crack Filling (Source: IRC 82)

Crack Filling or Crack Warrants
Sealing
Climate Traffic Conditions Limitations
Addressed
 These treatments are All Performance  Longitudin Not useful for
intended to prevent the climatic is not al cracking
intrusion of moisture conditions significantly
 Minor - Structural failure
through existing affected by
block (i.e., extensive
cracks. varying traffic
cracking fatigue cracking
 Transverse or high severity
 Crack sealing cracking rutting)
addresses “working”
cracks, i.e., those that
open and close with  No -Extensive
changes in structural Pavement
temperature. Benefits deterioration
 Sealants used are Acceptable if:

typically elastomers The extent of
modified bituminous cracking is
materials that soften minimal (little
upon heating and to no structural
harden upon cooling. cracking).
Site Restrictions None
Construction Placement should be done during warm and dry weather
Considerations conditions. Proper crack cleaning is essential to a good bond
and maximum performance.

4.5.3.1.2 Fog Seal
Table 5.2: Fog Seal (Source: IRC 82)

Description Warrants
Climate Traffic Conditions Limitation
Addressed
Fog seals are placed All Increased  Longitudinal, Not useful for
primarily to climatic traffic can Transverse  Structural
conditions increase and block failure (such as
surface cracking
 Seal the pavement significant
wear
 Raveling/ fatigue
 Inhibit raveling weathering cracking)
 Rejuvenate oxidised  Bitumen  Friction loss
bitumen surface aging, (M-H)
 Provide some pavement oxidation and  Thermal
edge- shoulder hardening cracking (H)
delineation.
 Fog seals involves light Not
applications of a diluted recommended
bitumen emulsion for heavily
placed directly on the trafficked road
pavement surface with corridors/
no aggregate highways.
Typical application rates

range from 0.23 to 0.45 kg.
per m2
Site Restrictions Not appropriate for surfaces with poor skid resistance, as it
will lower the skid resistance further.
Construction Considerations Typically, a slow-setting emulsion is used which requires
time to “break,” and the pavement is sometimes closed for 2
hours for curing before being re-opened to traffic.
* L- Low Severity; M- Medium Severity; H- High Severity

4.5.3.1.3 Slurry Seal
Table 5.3: Slurry Seal (Source: IRC 82)

Characteristics Warrants
Addressed
 Slurry seal is a mixture All Performance  Transverse, Not useful for
of well-graded aggregate climatic is affected by longitudinal
 Structural
(fine sand and mineral conditions increasing and Block failure
filler) and Bitumen traffic cracking (fatigue
emulsion
 Raveling/ cracking
 The Slurry seal s spread Can weathering and deep rutting)
over the entire pavement accommodate  Asphalt  Thermal
surface with either a higher traffic aging, cracking
squeegee or spreader box volumes. oxidation
attached to the back of a
and
truck.
hardening
 It is effective in sealing
 Friction
low- severity surface
loss
cracks, waterproofing
the pavement surface,  Moisture
and improving skid infiltration
resistance at speeds
below 60 km/h.
Thickness is generally Adds no
less than 10 mm structural
capacity;
however, can
temporarily
seal cracks (if
severity is low)
or serve as a
rut-filler (if the
ruts are not
severe and are
stable)
Site Restrictions Pavement is often closed for several hours to allow the
emulsion to cure.
Construction Surface must be clean. Aggregates must be clean, angular,
durable, well-graded, and uniform (prefer 100% crushed).
Avoid placement in hot weather (potential flushing problems)
and premature opening to traffic. Do not place when freezing
temperatures are expected.

4.5.3.1.4 Micro Surfacing
Table 5.4: Micro Surfacing (Source: IRC 82)

Characteristics Warrants
Addressed
 Micro-surfacing consists All Very  Longitudinal Not useful for
of a mixture of polymer- climate successful and  Structural
modified emulsified conditions on both Transverse failure
asphalt, mineral low- and cracking
(fatigue
aggregate, mineral filler, high-
 Raveling/ cracking and
water, and additives traffic
weathering deep rutting)
applied in a process volume
similar to slurry seals.  Bleeding  Thermal
cracking
 Used primarily to inhibit  Roughness
raveling and oxidation of  Friction loss
the pavement surface
 Moisture
 Also effective at infiltration
improving surface friction
and filling minor
irregularities  Adds limited
structural
capacity
Temporarily
seals fatigue
cracks (if
severity is low)
and can serve as
a rut-filler (if the
existing ruts are
stable)
Site Restrictions None

Construction Avoid placement in hot weather if there is potential for
flushing

4.5.3.1.5 Surface Dressing
Table 5.5: Surface Dressing (Source: IRC 82)

Addressed
 Bitumen emulsion is All With proper  Longitudinal, Not useful for
applied directly to the climate design and transverse  Structural
pavement surface (1.2 to conditions placement, and block failure
1.7 kg/m2) followed by this can cracking
(fatigue
the application of perform
 Raveling/ cracking and
aggregate chips (0.004 well on
weathering deep
to 0.015 cum/m2 which high-
rutting
are then immediately volume  Friction loss
rolled to imbed chips. roads.  Thermal
 Roughness
cracking
 Application rates  Bleeding
depend upon aggregate  Extensive
However,
gradation and maximum  Moisture pavement
use is
size. infiltration deterioration
primarily
 This Treatment seals limited to
pavement surface and lower-  Adds almost  Can
improves friction. speed, no structural accelerate the
lower capacity stripping in
volume susceptible
roads. bituminous
However, pavements
effective at
sealing fatigue
cracks in
comparison
with other
treatments.
Site Restrictions High-speed, high-volume roadways are often avoided,
although a number of approaches are being used to extend
the applicability of these treatments.
Construction Considerations Surface must be clean. Treatment should be placed during
warm weather

4.5.3.1.6 Thin hot-mix/cold mix Bituminous Overlays
Table 5.6: Thin hot-mix/cold mix Bituminous Overlays (Source: IRC 82)
Climate Traffic Conditions Limitations
Addressed
 Plant-mixed All Performance  Longitudinal Not useful for
combinations climatic should not be and  Structural failure
of bitumen conditions. affected by transverse (fatigue cracking
and different traffic cracking
aggregates condition and deep rutting
 Raveling/weathe
applied to the
ring  Thermal cracking
pavement in
 Thin overlays  Friction loss  Extensive
thicknesses
are not pavement
between about  Roughness
structural deterioration
15 and 25 mm
layers  Bleeding
 Dense-graded,
open-graded,  As such they  Block cracking
premix and should not be may perform
stone matrix subjected to better with
mixes are strain from additional
used loadings. milling)
 Such layers
may be
subject to top
down cracking
under certain
combinations
of loadings,
environmental
conditions,
and pavement
structures.
Site Restrictions Edge-shoulder drop-off should be considered. Surface should be uniform
to ensure uniform compaction.
Construction Surface must be clean. A tack coat prior to overlay placement will help in
Considerations improving the bond to the existing surface. Thin HMA overlays dissipate
heat rapidly and, therefore, depend upon minimum specified mix
placement temperatures and timely compaction.

4.5.3.1.7 Ultrathin Friction Courses
Table 5.7: Ultrathin Friction Courses (Source: IRC 82)

Addressed
 Relatively new treatment All Withstand  Longitudinal, Not useful for
and consists of a gap- climatic relatively transverse  Structural failure
graded, polymer conditions high ADT and block (fatigue cracking
modified 10 to 20 mm volumes cracking
and deep rutting
layer and truck
 Higher
traffic  Thermal cracking
 This is placed on a tack severities can
better than
coat formed by the be addressed  Extensive
other thin pavement
application of a heavy, with cold
treatments deterioration
polymer- modified milling
bitumen emulsion.
 Ravelling/
 Treatment effectively weathering
addresses minor surface
 Friction loss
distresses and increases
surface friction  Roughness
 Bleeding
 Provides
some
increased
capacity and
retards
fatigue
cracking
 Not suited
for rutted
pavements
Site Restrictions Ultrathin overlays should only be placed on structurally sound
pavements. Localized structural problems should be repaired
prior to overlay application.
Construction Requires special paving equipment to place the mix.
Considerations

4.5.4 Periodic Maintenance

The general practice in the country is to finalize renewal programme on an annual basis. In
order to decide renewal layer on the surface, the renewal programme for each section of a
road should be decided well in advance. Once the programme is finalized, steps could be
taken to secure the required allocations and start the preliminary field action such as
mobilization of resources. While the nomenclature “Periodic Renewal” would imply the
renewal treatment to be carried out at a fixed and pre decided frequency, it would neither be
practicable nor desirable to follow implicitly of any specified frequency irrespective of the
condition of the road surface proposed to be renewed. The most effective way to plan a
renewal programme is to carry out periodic inspections of the road surface at suitable
intervals. In addition, special inspections are also necessary before and after the rains so as to
assess the need for pothole repair and patching and other remedial measures required to be
carried out either in advance or together with the renewal treatment.
4.5.4.1 Types of Renewal Treatments

The types of bituminous surfaces those can be adopted are surface dressing (one or two
coats), thin premix carpet, mixed seal, stone matrix asphalt, hot/cold mix semi- dense and
dense bituminous concrete. Micro-surfacing in one layer or two layers can also be used for
renewals. These surfaces have different life spans depending upon traffic and environmental
conditions. The specifications adopted for the renewal layer on a particular road would
depend upon the type of the original surface and its condition at the time of renewal.
Following standards/specifications may be referred for periodic renewals
4.5.4.2 Periodicity of Renewal

Based on the experience and condition indices, broad guidelines for the type and periodicity
of renewals are given in Table 5.8. This may be utilized as a guide for working out annual
renewal programme on different sections of roads. The priority of renewal treatment may be
decided based on rating. If there are 10 roads (say), with ratings from 40 to 60, the roads may
be arranged based on the ascending order of condition rating and the periodic renewal shall
be prioritized in the same order subject to budgetary allocations.

Table 5.8: Suggested Renewal on Flexible Pavement (Source: IRC 82)
Road PCI (Roughness Index, Suggested Treatment (Thickness, mm)

Category mm/km)
NH,SH 40-60 1800-2400 30-40 BC
NH,SH 40-60 2000-2600 30 BC/30 SDBC
MDR,RR 40-60 3000-3800 SD/PC/MSS/SDBC (20-25)
Urban Road 40-60 2000-2600 30-40 BC/SDBC/2 Coat Micro Surfacing
When the PCI value of road is rated as <60, it is recommended that a detailed investigation is
carried out to assess the strengthening requirement, if any. In case, the pavement is found to
be structurally adequate, then the periodic renewal will suffice.
Wherever feasible, recycling of wearing course may be preferred.
4.5.5 Materials and Methods for Rectification of Distress on Bituminous Surface

Repair materials and methods discussed in this Section fall under three categories:
i) Rejuvenation
ii) Seal, and
iii) Patching
Rejuvenation of oxidized and hungry bituminous surface can be done by application of liquid
bituminous materials. The seal coat is a thin application of bitumen, which shall be covered
with fine aggregate/ sand. Seal coat may be premixed material or a spray application.
Patching is an application of premixed bituminous mixture. Patching is done to fill potholes,
correct shallow depressions, and rutting and correct edge irregularities.
4.5.5.1 Bituminous Materials
4.5.5.1.1 Paving Bitumen

Paving Bitumen conforming to IS: 73 are recommended for road maintenance works, unless
otherwise specified, Paving bitumen is classified into four grades based on viscosity, viz.,
VG-10, VG-20, VG-30 and VG-40.
4.5.5.1.2 Cut-back Bitumen

Cut-back bitumen of different grades is required for cold weather construction as well as
maintenance under all-weather conditions. Medium curing cut-back bitumen MC-800

conforming to IS: 217 are recommended for preparation of storable bituminous

pothole/patching mix.
4.5.5.1.3 Bitumen Emulsion
Bitumen emulsion is a two-phase system consisting of bitumen, water and one or more
additives to assist in formation and stabilization and to modify the properties of the emulsion.
The bitumen is dispersed throughout the water phase in the form of discrete globules,
typically 1.0 to 25 μm in diameter, which are held in suspension by electrostatic charges
stabilized by an emulsifier. Bitumen emulsions conforming to IS: 8887 are recommended for
various maintenance applications including preparation of cold mixes and patching mixes.
4.5.5.1.4 Foamed Bitumen
Foaming of bitumen is a means of reducing the binder viscosity and increasing the binder
volume. Foam bitumen is produced in an expansion chamber in which cold water, between 1
and 5% by weight of bitumen, is injected under pressure into hot bitumen to produce foam.
Expansion ratio and half-life are two important properties of foam bitumen. The expansion
ratio is defined as the ratio of the volume of foam produced to the volume of liquid bitumen
injected. The life time of foam is expressed as the ‘half-life, defined as the time after which
the maximum volume of foam is reduced by a factor of two. It is measured in seconds. The
foam bitumen is used for stabilization of recycled asphalt pavement.
4.5.5.1.5 Modified Bitumen

Modified bitumen is the binder whose properties have been modified by the use of polymers
and rubbers. IRC: SP 53 and IS: 15462 specify different grades of modified bitumen for
construction and maintenance of bituminous roads.
4.5.5.1.6 Modified Emulsions

Modified emulsions are defined as bitumen emulsions whose aqueous phase is generally
modified by latex of the rubber. Sometimes, bitumen is also modified before emulsification.
These emulsions are used for micro-surfacing applications. The specification of modified
emulsion for micro-surfacing is given in IRC: SP: 81.

CHAPTER 6
4.6.0 Road Asset Management System (RAMS)
4.6.1 Background
Road Asset Management is a strategic and systematic process of maintaining, upgrading and
operating road assets throughout their life-cycle in a cost effective manner by combining
engineering principles. The rationale and key objectives of ensuring management of road
assets can be described as under:
1. Preserve the existing road assets so as to reduce the potential losses in value of these
assets by ensuring timely, regular and adequate maintenance.
2. Link funding with performance of the assets and achieve value for money invested in
asset creation and upgradation.
3. Move towards outcome based results to ensure economic benefits to vehicle operators
and other road users.
4. Decision for various interventions is based on asset management principles and data
on condition of the network being updated regularly.
The Basic Modules of Road Asset Management System as discussed in IRC: 130 are
a. Pavement Management System (PMS)
b. Bridge Management System (BMS)
c. Routine Maintenance Management System (RMMS)
d. Traffic Congestion Management System (TCMS)
e. Road Safety Management System (RSMS)
f. Intermodal Management System (IMS)
4.6.2 Pavement Management System (PMS)

PMS includes all activities involved in planning and programming, design, construction,
maintenance and rehabilitation of all roads. This includes the capacity to consider both the
engineering and economic aspects of pavement investments and returns on investment. The
use of a PMS approach has been shown to be more efficient than focusing on the “worst
first”. The principal components of a PMS are data collection and management, analysis and
feedback/updates. The PMS module requires analytical tool such as Highway Development
and Management Tool (HDM-4) or similar tool to predict road condition and to suggest
treatment option using life-cycle cost. The in-built deterioration modeling of any PMS
analytical tool helps in predicting the road condition considering the proposed intervention
options by extracting the required data stored within the road database of RAMS such as road
inventory, composition, pavement inspection data on distresses, roughness, structural strength
etc while configuring maintenance strategy, vehicle fleet and economic parameters. The PMS
analytical tool determines the road maintenance and improvement requirements for specific
roads and for the overall network including budget requirement. The analytical component, at

the network level, prioritizes the roads on the basis of cost-effective treatment options and at
the project level, it recommends cost-effective repair treatments.
4.6.2.1 Road Asset Data Collection

The data base is a central feature of RAMS in the modern context. The types of data needed
for pavement management can be broadly classified as inventory data and pavement
condition data. Inventory data describe the relatively permanent features related to the
pavement sections and would typically include pavement construction and maintenance
records. Pavement condition data include measures of pavement quality, which are broadly
classified as performance/roughness, structural, distress and safety/skid data.
4.6.2.2 Methods of Data Collection

The cost of data collection tends to be the largest component of managing and running
RAMS. Further, the direct benefit of frequent (or regular) collection of information is always
questioned and is continually subject to budgetary scrutiny. It is therefore important to select
data acquisition technology that is appropriate to the objectives, resources and modus
operandi of the agency.
The road inventory and pavement condition data collection has improved considerably as a
result of development of efficient and accurate equipment for data collection.
These can be summarized as:
a. Automated Road Survey System (ARSS) based on Global Positioning System,
Pavement Distress Measurement Systems (PDMS) using High Resolution Camera,
Laser Crack Measurement System, Right-of-Way Video Imaging System (ROW-VIS)
using High Resolution Color Camera or LiDAR, Automatic Rut Measurement System
(ARMS) using Multi–point Laser, Laser Rut Measurement System, Laser Crack
Measurement System, LiDAR, Geometry Measurement System (GMS) etc. for
capturing road inventory and pavement condition data.
b. Laser Profilometer (LP), Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator (FWBI), Automatic Road
Unevenness Recorder (ARUR), Car Axle Mounted Bump Integrator (CAMBI),
Accelerometer Based (AB) Equipment for roughness measurements (as per IRC:
SP16-2019)
c. Laser Based Mean Profile Depth (MPD)/Texture Measurement, British Pendulum
Tester (BPT) and Continuous Friction Measuring System (CFMS) for measuring
frictional properties of pavement surface
d. Benkelman Beam Deflection (BBD), Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD), Light
Weight Deflectometer(LWD) for measurement of pavement deflection
e. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) for determination of pavement layer characteristics
Similarly, data collection equipment for traffic volume counts and axle-load survey such as
Automatic Vehicle Classification (AVC), Static Weigh Scales (SWS) and Weigh-In-Motion

(WIM) system are also essential to supplement traffic related data while running any RMS
modules for planning and programming purpose.
4.6.2.3 Planning tools for PMS Application

Widely accepted economic evaluation model based on sound engineering and economic
priority principles, capable of undertaking both strategic and project level analyses at the
appropriate organizational levels, such as the Highway Development and Management Model
(HDM-4) or equivalent should be used for this purpose. The economic evaluation model
should have the capability in making strategic budgeting studies, project level technical
analyses, multi-year road works programming and optimization under budget constraints, and
projection of network condition under various budget scenarios covering both road condition
and capacity improvements. The strategic budgeting studies is required to establish necessary
funding levels in general budget categories using data of an appropriate Information Quality
Level (IQL). The analysis should be based on a life cycle cost approach. The PMS should be
able to establish a medium term budget framework including budget forecasts both for the
plan and non-plan budgets; to achieve certain Performance Indicators (PIs). The planning
analytic tool is required to conduct the project level analysis for specific sections of road for
different technically feasible options such as periodic maintenance, resurfacing,
rehabilitation, reconstruction, widening and geometric improvement etc. To allow for
preparing optimized multi-year rolling programs, the PMS must include a multi-year
programming module which shall optimize the selection and timing of pavement works under
different budget constraints to achieve various performance indicators.
4.6.3 Asset Management Decision Making and Maintenance Plan
4.6.3.1 Decision Making Criteria

The asset management decisions are generally made at the project level and at the network
level. At the management level, the decision-making problem faced by asset managers and
the factors that affect the asset manager’s decision are mostly dependent on the road policy of
the concerned highway agency / government organization besides the institutional issues.
4.6.3.2 Network-Level Analysis

It involves system-wide management functions such as establishing priorities for various
projects, determining the optimal use of limited funds, selecting optimum maintenance
policies for the entire network and assessing network-level impacts of alternative asset
maintenance strategies. The advantage of network level analysis is that it affords the asset
managers a birds-eye perspective of the assets under their control, particularly, the
performance consequences of different maintenance budgets. A disadvantage is that this level

of analysis often utilizes data that are only aggregate in nature and thus does not always
consider all factors associated with asset maintenance at the project level.
4.6.3.3 Project-Level Analysis

Project level analysis generally involves the selection and evaluation of maintenance
strategies for a specific asset (such as a section of road or bridge). Project-level models are
typically comprehensive, dealing with technical concerns and requiring detailed information.
Often at the project level, the common task is to select maintenance strategies that will
provide an acceptable level of service to the user over a given period of time at a minimum
overall cost. Project-level analysis often occurs at each individual component management
system.

Section 5 Rigid Pavement
Section 5
Rigid Pavement

CHAPTER 1
5.1.0 General Introduction to Rigid Paveement
5.1.1 Definition of Rigid Pavement

Concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials. It is often termed as artificial
rock. Due to its strength, affordability, durability and flexibility it finds its application in
infrastructure building (roads, bridges, houses etc.) Concrete is being used in the pavement
from centuries now. The first concrete pavement was built in Bellefontaine, Ohio in 1893.
Since then, the rigid pavement or concrete pavement has been very popular because of its
long life, high strength, high rigidity and durability. Concrete pavements have been used for
highways, airports, streets, local roads, parking lots, industrial facilities, and other types of
infrastructure.
The service life of concrete pavement is around 30-40 years which is much higher than the
bituminous roads. The concrete pavements must be preferred in waterlogged area, when
frequent maintenance is not required and the area where heavy traffic is expected. There are
number of factors that affect the life cycle cost of a pavement like material costs at the time
of construction, and concrete pavements have significantly lower maintenance costs although
initial construction costs may be higher.
Rigid Pavements are analysed by plate theory, instead of the layered theory like in the
flexible pavement. The plate theory assumes the slab to be a medium thick plate with a plane
which remains plane before and after bending. The existence of joints makes the layered
theory inapplicable in the rigid pavements.
Rigid pavements may be placed directly over subgrade or on a single granular layer. But in
India, the layer under the surface layers is kept same for the flexible and rigid pavement
which unnecessarily makes it costlier, over safe which is not at all required.
Figure 1.1: Typical Cross-section of Rigid Pavement

5.1.2 Types of Rigid Pavement

There are different types of rigid pavements that have been built in India. All these types of
rigid pavement have same performing function i.e. to resist vehicle loads through its flexural
strength and its behaviour due to the temperature differential. The concrete expands and
contracts due to the temperature variations and these movements must be dealt with.
Different types of pavements use joints, reinforcing steel, or both.
Rigid pavements are of different types namely: Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP),
Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP), and Continuous Reinforced Concrete
Pavement (CRCP). Figure below shows the major characteristics of these types of pavements.
Other type of pavements includes Prestressed Concrete pavement (PCP), Roller Compacted
Concrete (RCC) and Pervious or Porous concrete, which are generally used for specialized
industrial or parking lot applications.
1) Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)
Jointed plain concrete pavement, or JPCP, consists of unreinforced concrete slabs 4.2 to 5 m
in length with transverse contraction and longitudinal joints between the slabs. JPCP should
be constructed with closely spaced contraction joints. Dowels or aggregate interlocks may be
used for load transfer across the joints so that cracks should not form in the slabs until late in
the life of the pavement. Therefore, for JPCP, the pavement expansions and contractions are
addressed through joints. The JPCP is shown below.
Figure 1.2: Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP)

Jointed reinforced concrete pavement, or JRCP, is different from JPCP by the length of the
slab. JRCP has longer slabs and has light steel reinforcement. As the length of slab in this
pavement varies from 7.5 m to 30.0 m as shown in the figure, the reinforcement as dowel bar
is necessary to be used. The amount of distributed steel in JRCP increases with the increase
in joint spacing and is designed to hold the slab together after cracking. However, the number
of joints and dowel costs decrease with the increase in joint spacing. JRCP are not much used
nowadays. JRCP has not much advantage over JPCP, only that the cost of the steel is less and

the performance of the joints and the cracks. Because the joints are spaced further apart than
JPCP, they open and close more, and load transfer suffers as joints open wider.
Figure 1.3: Continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP)
CRCP is characterized by heavy reinforcement and an absence of joints. It uses much more
steel than JRCP, typically on the order of 0.4–0.8 percent by volume in the longitudinal
direction. Low amount steel is provided in the transverse direction as temperature steel. Due
to fewer joints, it provides a smoother ride and a longer life than any other type of pavement.
However, the cost of this pavement is very high.

Figure 1.4
5.1.3 Methods of Construction
The Pavement Quality Concrete (PQC) shall be laid on two layers of sub-base. Granular Sub-
base (GSB) acting as a lower sub-base and Dry Lean concrete (DLC) acting as upper sub-
base GSB, the lower sub-base shall be laid over a subgrade of minimum 500 mm compacted
thicknesses.
5.1.3.1 Sub-grade
The performance of the pavement system as a whole depends greatly on the construction of
the supporting subgrade, subbase, and base (if any) layers. Quality construction of these
layers ensures a well-drained, uniformly supported pavement, and makes it much easier to
build a smooth pavement because the paver has a smooth working platform. In contrast, a
weak subgrade generally requires time-consuming and costly full-depth reconstruction to
correct.
Preparation of the subgrade includes:
1. Compacting soils at moisture contents and densities that will ensure uniform and
stable pavement support.
2. Whenever possible, setting grade lines high enough and making side ditches deep
enough to increase the distance between the water table and the pavement.
3. Cross hauling and mixing of soils to achieve uniform conditions in areas where there
are abrupt horizontal changes in soil type.
4. Using selective grading in cut and fills areas to place the better soils nearer to the top
of the final sub-grade elevation.

5. Improving extremely poor soils by treatment with cement or lime, or importing better
soils, whichever is more economical.
Sub-grade shall comply with the following requirements:
1. No soft spots are present in the sub-grade
2. The sub-grade shall be of coarse-grained material and have a minimum CBR of 8%
3. The camber and super-elevation of sub-grade shall be same as that of the concrete
slab
5.1.3.2 Sub-base
The Sub-base provided under the concrete slabs comprises Granular Sub-base (GSB) as
lower sub-base and Dry Lean Concrete (DLC) as upper sub-base which is provided over
GSB. Permeability coefficient of GSB shall be at least 300 m/day.
Construction of Sub-base:
Prior to the laying of sub-base, the subgrade should be prepared by cleaning the area off any
bushes and trees/vegetation and sprinkled with water, one or two passes of 80-100 kN smooth
wheeled roller may be done on the surface.
The material to be used shall be natural sand, crushed gravel, crushed stone or its
combination. The material shall be free from organic or any deleterious material and shall
conform to the standards given in MoRTH.
Table below gives six grading for Granular Sub-Base (GSB). Lower sub-base layer shall
comprise of two layers. For lower layer called as filter/separation layer Grading I, II, V or VI
shall be used. Alternatively, geo-composite layer may also be used. For upper layer called as
Drainage layer, Grading III or Grading IV shall be used. Minimum compacted thickness shall
be 100 mm for each layer. However, if Geo-composite layer is used as separation layer then
minimum 150 mm thick GSB, Grading III or Grading IV shall be provided as drainage layer
on top of geo-composite layer. However, the use of geo-composite layer should be resorted to
only if it is economically viable.

IS Sieve Percent by Weight Passing the IS Sieve

Designation Grading I Grading Grading Grading Grading Grading
II III IV V VI
75.0 mm 100 - - - 100 -
53.0 mm 80-100 100 100 100 80-100 100
26.5 mm 55-90 70-100 55-75 50-80 55-90 75-100
9.50 mm 35-65 50-80 - - 35-65 55-75
4.75 mm 25-55 40-65 10-30 15-35 25-50 30-55
2.36 mm 20-40 30-50 - - 10-20 10-25
0.85 mm - - - - 2-10 -
0.425 mm 10-15 10-15 - - 0-5 0-8
0.075 mm <5 <5 <5 <5 - 0-3
Spreading and Compacting

The sub-base material and water shall be added and mixed together so as to ensure a
homogenous and uniform mix. The water required for the mixing shall be determined with
IS: 2720 (Part: 8). Then, the mix shall be spread on the subgrade, maintaining the required
slope and grade during spreading and laying.
Moisture in the mix must be checked in accordance with IS: 2720 (Part 2) and suitably
adjusted so that, at the time of compaction, it is from 1 to 2 percent below the optimum
moisture content.
Immediately after spreading the mi, rolling shall be done by an approved roller. If the
thickness of the compacted layer does not exceed 100 mm, a smooth wheeled roller of 80 to
100 kN may be used. For a single layer up to 200 mm, the compaction shall be done with the
help of a vibratory roller of minimum 80 to 100 kN weight. Rolling shall commence at the
lower edge and proceed towards the upper edge longitudinally for portions having
unidirectional crossfall or on superelevation. For carriageway having crossfall on both sides,
rolling shall commence at the edges a progress towards the crown.
Each pass of the roller shall uniformly overlap not less than 1/3rd of the track made in the
previous pass. During this operation, the grade and crossfall shall be checked and any
spots/depression which has become apparent may be corrected by removing or adding fresh
material. The maximum speed of the roller while in compaction operation shall not exceed 5
km per hour.
Rolling is done till the density of the layer is 98 % of the MDD for the material determined as
per IS: 2720 (Part 8). The surface of any layer of material on completion for compaction shall
be well-closed, free from movement under compaction equipment and from compaction
planes, ridges, cracks or loose material. All loose, segregated or otherwise defective areas
shall be made good to the full thickness of layer and re-compacted.

Construction of Dry Lean Concrete (DLC):

DLC is a layer which serves as base to the PQC slab. It is constructed below the slab and
extends beyond the PQC edges by 500 mm on either side to facilitate further construction
operations and provide an adequate support for the concrete slab. The extra width is also
required for the ease in movement of paver tracks. A minimum thickness of 150 mm is
recommended for the NHs, SHs, and a thickness of 100 mm for other roads. However, the
selection of thickness depends on the design of DLC.
Steps in construction:
1. Preparation of trial mixes
Trial mixes of dry lean concrete shall be prepared with moisture contents of 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5
and 7.0 percent using cement content requirement of aggregate-cement ratio. Optimum
moisture and density shall be established by preparing cubes with varying moisture contents.
Compaction must be done in 3 layers with vibratory hammer fitted with a square or
rectangular foot. A set of six cubes shall be casted at that moisture for the determination of
compressive strength at 3 and 7 days. If the strength is not as expected then, the trial mix
must be redesigned either using higher grade of concrete or by using more cement.
2. Batching and Mixing
The batching plant shall be capable of separately proportioning each type of material by
weight. The capacity of batching and mixing plant shall be at least 25 percent higher than the
proposed capacity for the laying arrangements. Calibration of the batching and mixing plant
shall be carried out at regular intervals, normally every month.
3. Transporting
Plant mixed lean concrete shall be discharged immediately from the mixer, transported
directly to the point where it is to be laid and protected from the weather by covering with
tarpaulin during transit. The concrete shall be transported by tipping trucks.
4. Placing
The equipment or paver shall be capable of laying the material in one layer in an even
manner without segregation, so that, after compaction the total thickness achieved is as
specified. The laying of the two-lane road sub-base shall be done in full width. For a
pavement more than two-lanes, the operation may be carried out by two pavers in echelon
separated by appropriate distance (15-20 m). Transverse and longitudinal construction joints
shall be staggered by 500-1000 mm and 200-400 mm respectively.
5. Compaction
The compaction shall be carried out immediately after the material is laid and levelled. In
order to ensure thorough compaction, rolling shall be continued on the full width till there is
no further visible movement under the roller and the surface is closed. Double Drum smooth-
wheeled vibratory rollers of minimum 80 to 100 kN static weights are considered to be

suitable for rolling dry lean concrete. Segregation of concrete in the dumpers shall be
controlled by moving the dumper back and forth while discharging the mix into it and by
other means. Even paving operation shall be such that the mix does not segregate.
6. Curing
Curing shall be done by covering the surface by hessian cloth in two layers which shall be
kept continuously moist for 7 days by sprinkling water. If water-curing is not possible, the
curing shall be done by spraying with liquid curing compound.
Construction of Pavement Quality Concrete (PQC)

Steps:
1. Mixing and Batching
2. Placing of Concrete
3. Spreading of concrete
4. Compaction
5. Surface Texturing
6. Curing
7. Opening to traffic

CHAPTER 2
5.2.0 Materials for Rigid Pavement Construction
5.2.1 Cement
Any of the following types of cement may be used with the approval of the Engineer.
i) Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) IS: 8112, IS: 12269
ii) Portland Pozzolana Cement ((PPC) IS: 1489 (Part 1)
iii) Portland Slag Cement (PSC) IS: 455
If the sub-grade soil contains soluble sulphates in a concentration more than 0.5 percent, the
cement used shall be sulphate resisting Portland cement conforming to IS: 12330 or Portland
slag cement with slag content up to 50 %.
5.2.2 Aggregates
Aggregates for pavement concrete shall be natural material complying with IS: 383. The
limits of deleterious materials shall not exceed the requirements as per IS: 383. The
aggregates shall be free from clay, silt, or silica in a form that can react with the alkalis in the
cement.
5.2.2.1 Coarse Aggregate

Continuously graded aggregates may be used, depending on the combined grading of the
coarse and fine aggregate. No aggregate which has water absorption more than 2 %. Shall be
used in concrete mix. Wherever aggregates of 2 % water absorption are not available, higher
value of water absorption subjected to the maximum of 3 per cent may be allowed if other
engineering properties are satisfied as per IS: 383. All aggregates shall be tested for
soundness in accordance with IS; 2386 (Part V).
5.2.2.2 Fine Aggregate

Aggregates which have water absorption of more than 3 per cent shall not be used. The
grading zone of fine aggregates as per IS: 383 shall be within the limits as given in Table
below. The additional details and limits for using fine aggregate in concrete pavement shall
be found in IS: 383 standards.
For more details on grading of PQC, IRC: 15 guidelines may be followed.

5.2.3 Water
Water used for mixing and curing of concrete shall be clean and free from chemical or
substances that may be harmful to the finished concrete. It shall meet the requirements
stipulated in IS: 456. Portable water is generally considered satisfactory for mixing and
curing.
5.2.4 Admixtures
5.2.4.1 Chemical Admixtures

The maximum quality or chemical admixture shall be 2% by weight of cementitious
materials (cement + fly ash/ground granulated blast furnace slag/silica fume). Compatibility
and optimum dose of the particular admixture with the specific cement type must be checked
before accepting the material.
5.2.4.2 Mineral Admixture

Fly ash, 15-30 percent or Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS), 25-50 percent by
weight of cementitious material may be used in concrete as part replacement of Ordinary
Portland cement, and in such case, the Ordinary Portland cement content shall not be less
than 1 00 kg/m^ of concrete. The fly-ash shall conform to IS: 381 2 (Part 1), and granulated
blast furnace slag shall conform to 18:12089. Site mixing of fly-ash or GBFS shall be
permitted only after ensuring availability of the equipments at site for uniform blending
through a specific mechanized facility with automated process control like batching and
mixing plant.

5.2.5 Dowel Bars and Tie bars

Dowel bars shall be mild steel rounds conforming to IS: 432, of Grade S: 240 and free from
oil, dirt, loose rust or scale. These shall be coated with epoxy or any other anti-corrosive
paint. Coated bars should be protected from scratching during handling, and should be
manually recoated by epoxy or anti-corrosive paint wherever scratches are observed. The
coating on the bars must be uniform and of equal thickness. Coating shall be done within 4
hours of cleaning of bars from all rust.
The bars must be straight, free of irregularities and burring restricting free movement in the
concrete. The sliding ends shall be sawn or cropped cleanly with no protrusions outside the
normal diameter of the bar. The dowel bar shall be supported on cradles/dowel chairs in pre-
fabricated joint assemblies positioned prior to the construction of the slabs or mechanically
inserted by a Dowel Bar inserter (DBI) with vibration into the plastic concrete by a method
which ensures correct placement of the bars besides full re-compaction of the concrete
around the dowel bars.
The minimum length of dowel bar shall be 5OO mm. The diameter and spacing of dowels
shall be designed as per IRC: 58. Dowel bars shall not be provided for slab of less than 200
mm thickness. Dowel bars shall be covered by a thin plastic sheath for at least 60 per cent of
the length from one end for dowel bars in contraction joints or half the length plus 50 mm for
expansion joints. The sheath shall be tough, durable, smooth slide lit and of an average
thickness not greater than 0.5 mm and shall have closed end.
Tie Bars
Tie bars in longitudinal joints shall be of steel material. Tie bars shall be High Yield strength
Deformed bars conforming to IS: 1786 and grade of Fe500. The bars shall be free from oil,
dirt, loose rust and scale. Tie bars are used across the longitudinal joints of concrete
pavements wherever it is necessary or desirable to ensure firm contact between slab faces or
to prevent abutting slabs from separating. Tie bars are designed to with stand tensile stresses
only and provided at mid-depth. For more details, IRC: 15 may be followed.
5.2.6 Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs)
5.2.6.1 Fly Ash

Fly ash up to 25 per cent by weight of Cementitious Material (CM) may be mixed at site with
OPC 53/43 Grade. The fly ash shall conform to IS: 3812 (Part l)

5.2.6.2 Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

Blast Furnace slag is a non-metallic product consisting essentially of glass containing
silicates and alumina silicates of lime and other bases, which are developed simultaneously
with iron in blast furnace or electric pig furnace. Granulated slag is obtained by further
processing the molten slag by rapidly chilling or quenching it with water or steam and air.
Blast Furnace slag in granulated form is used for the manufacture of hydraulic cement.
5.2.6.3 Silica Fume

Silica fume up to 10% by weight of OPC (as per IS: 15388, IRC: SP: 114 and IRC: 44).
5.2.6.4 Metakaolin
Metakaolin is obtained by calcinations of pure and refined kaolinitic clay at a temperature
between 650 and 850 degrees Celsius followed by grinding to a fineness of 7oo to 900 m2/kg
Metakaolin conforming to IS: 16354 may be used up to 20 per cent of the cementitious
material.
5.2.7 Special Additives
5.2.7.1 Air Entraining Admixtures

The use of air-entraining admixture is recommended to counter the freezing and thawing
effect with 5.5 1.5 % for 31.5 mm maximum size of aggregate and 6.5 1.5 % for 19 mm
maximum size of aggregate.
The air-entraining admixture may be used for improving the cohesiveness of the mix and to
reduce bleeding.
5.2.7.2 Fibers
Fibers may also e added as a special additive into the concrete for special applications to
enhance properties. The fibers may be carbon, steel or polymeric synthetic fibers and shall be
uniformly dispersed in the concrete mass at the time of concrete production.

CHAPTER 3
5.3.0 Design of Concrete Pavements
5.3.1 Design of Rigid Pavements for Highways
1 Stresses Due to Curling

σ = C E α Δt / 2
C is a correction factor depending upon L / l
Radius of relative stiffness, l = [Eh3 / 12(1-ν2)k]0.25
Selection of modulus of sub-grade reaction
Modified k- value over DLC sub-base
Maximum Recommended value = 300 Map/m

2 Stresses Due To Loading

Edge Load Stress
σe = 0.529 P / h2 (1 + 0.54 μ) [4 log10 (l/b) + log10 b – 0.4048]
σe = Edge load stress, kg/sq. cm.
P = Design wheel load, kg
h = Pavement thickness, cm
μ = Poisson’s ratio for concrete
l = Radius of relative stiffness, cm
b = Radius of equivalent distribution of pressure
= a, for a/h > 1.724
= (1.6 a2 + h2) 1/2 – 0.675 h, for a/h < 1.724
a = Radius of load contact area, assumed circular, cm
Corner Load Stress

σc = 3P / h2 [1 – (a√2 / l) 1.2]
σc = Corner load stress, kg/sq. cm.
P = Design wheel load, kg
h = Pavement thickness, cm
l = Radius of relative stiffness, cm
a = Radius of load contact area, assumed circular, cm
Fatigue Failure under Repetitive Load Application

Stress ratio = flexural stress due to load/ flexural strength of concrete
If Sr < 0.45, infinite number of repetitions
Fatigue Life, N = Unlimited if SR < 0.45
N = [4.2577 / (SR – 0.4325)]3.268
If 0.45 ≤ SR ≤ 0.55
Log10 N = (0.9718 – SR) / 0.0828
If SR > 0.55

*
For more details, please refer IRC: 58, Guidelines for the design of plain and jointed rigid
pavements for highways,' Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
5.3.2 Design of Rigid Pavements for Low Volume Road
1. Wheel Load
The maximum legal load limit on single axle with dual wheels in India is 100 kN. The
recommended design load on dual wheel is 50 kN having a spacing of the wheels as 310 mm
centre-to-centre.
2. Tyre Pressure
The effect of tyre pressure on the wheel load stresses for practical thickness of pavement is
not significant. But for more details please refer IRC: SP 62.
3. Design Period
Road is designed for a life of not less than 20 years. The design methodology is based on
wheel load stresses.
4. Design Traffic
Traffic Volume (T) Criteria for Thickness Evaluation
T < 50 CVPD Only wheel load stresses for a load of 50 kN on dual wheel
need be considered for thickness estimation since there is a low
probability of maximum wheel load and highest temperature
differential between the top and the bottom of the rigid
pavement occurring at the same time
50 CVPD < T < 150 CVPD Thickness evaluation should be done on the basis of total
stresses resulting from wheel load of 50 kN and temperature
differential
T > 150 CVPD Thickness evaluation on the basis of fatigue fracture

considering a reliability of 60 percent

a) Characteristics of the subgrade

The strength of subgrade is expressed in terms of modulus of subgrade reaction, k, which is
determined by Plate Bearing test. The subgrade strength is affected by the moisture content; it
is desirable to determine it soon after the monsoon. The k value can be obtained by the
soaked CBR value also. The minimum CBR of the subgrade should be 4 %.
b) Sub-base
A compacted foundation layer provided below a concrete pavement is termed as sub-base. It
should not undergo large settlement under repeated wheel load to prevent cracking of slabs.
c) Fatigue Behaviour of Concrete Pavement

For most low volume roads, fatigue behaviour is not important because of low volume of
commercial vehicles. But if there is traffic due to any reason then fatigue analysis must be
carried out Fatigue equations of IRC: 58 cannot be used because they are valid for 90 percent
reliability 60 % reliability is recommended for low volume roads.

Road with traffic >150 CVPD, fatigue must be considered
SR 2.222
log10 Nf 
0.523
Where,
Nf = Fatigue life of concrete pavement = Allowable load repetitions
d) Concrete Characteristics
Since concrete pavements fail due to bending stresses, it is necessary that their design is
based on the flexural strength of concrete.
ff = 0.7 √fck
Where,
ff = flexural strength, MPa
fck = characteristic compressive cube

strength, MPa
*
For more details, please refer IRC: 62, Guidelines for the design and construction cement
concrete pavements for rural roads, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
5.3.3 Design of Concrete Overlay (Thin White Topping)
1. Stresses Due to Temperature Curling

σT = 1.933-241000(α Δ T) + 1.267 (L/le)
Where,
σT = curling tensile stress at corner, kg/cm2
α = coefficient of thermal expansion, oC
ΔT = negative temperature differential, oC
L= Length of square slab, cm
le = radius of relative stiffness, cm

2. Stresses Due to Load and Temperature

Log (σ8) =3.6525 -0.456log (k) + 0.686(L/le) – 1.291log (le)
Log (σ16) =3.249 -0.559log (k) + 1.395(L/le) – 0.963log (le)-0.088(L/ le)
Where,
σ8 = bending tensile stress at corner for 8T single axle load, kg/cm2
σ16 = bending tensile stress at corner for 16T tandem axle load, kg/cm2
k= modulus of subgrade reaction, kg/cm3
L = length of square slab, cm
le= radius of relative stiffness, cm
3. Stress Ratio & Fatigue of Concrete Slab

Fatigue Criteria based on Miner’s Hypothesis and IRC: 58 has been considered
Concrete Fatigue criterion based on stresses ratio and allowable repetitions are based on IRC:
58
Stress Ratio is calculated based on load stresses divided by the flexural strength/MOR
If Structural fibre Reinforced Concrete is used,
SR = Flexural Stress/MOR (1 + R150)
Where,
R150 = residual strength ratio which characteristics the contribution of
fibre reinforcement. (ASTM C1609 or IRC: SP 46)
*
For more details, please refer IRC: SP: 76, Guidelines for conventional and thin white
topping, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi

CHAPTER 4
5.4.0 Mix Design of Rigid Pavements
5.4.1 Mix Design for Dry Lean Concrete (DLC)
5.4.1.1 Concrete Mix Proportions

The concrete mix shall be proportioned with a maximum aggregate cement ratio of 14:1
where ORG is used and 12:1 where PPC or PSC is used. The minimum cementitious
materials content shall not be less than 140 kg/cum of concrete. If this minimum cementitious
materials content is not sufficient to produce the concrete of the specified strength, it shall be
increased as necessary. The fly ash or GBFS content shall be 15-30 percent or 25-50 percent
by weight of cementitious materials
5.4.1.2 Trial Mixes

Trial mixes of dry lean concrete shall be prepared with water content of 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5 and
7.0 percent of the total weight of material. Optimum moisture and density shall be established
by preparing cubes with varying moisture contents, and moisture-density curve shall be
drawn. The optimum water content shall be decided so as to ensure full compaction under
rolling. Too much water will cause the concrete to be heaving up before the wheels and to be
picked up on the wheels of the roller. Too little water will lead to inadequate compaction and
segregation, low in-situ strength and an open textured surface. Special vibratory hammer
shall be used for compacting the specimens.
Trial mixes of dry lean concrete shall be prepared with moisture contents of 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5
and 7.0 percent using cement content requirement of aggregate-cement ratio specified in Para
4.2. Optimum moisture and density shall be established by preparing cubes with varying
moisture contents. Compaction of the mix shall be done in three layers with vibratory
hammer fitted with a square or rectangular foot. After establishing the optimum moisture, a
set of six cubes shall be cast at that moisture for the determination of compressive strength at
3 and 7 days. Trial mixes shall be repeated if the strength is not satisfactory either by
increasing cement content or using higher grade of cement.
5.4.1.3 Concrete Compressive Strength

The average compressive strength of each consecutive group of 5 concrete cubes shall not be
less than 7 MPa (as per IRC SP 49) & 10MPa (as per MORTH) at 7 days. In addition, the
compressive strength of any individual concrete cube shall not be less than 5.5 MPa at 7 days.
The design mix complying with these requirements shall be worked out before start of work.

5.4.2 Mix Design for Pavement Quality Concrete (PQC)
5.4.2.1 Target Strength for Mix Proportioning
a) Based on flexural strength

In order that not more than 5% of test results are likely to fall below the Characteristic
Strength, the Concrete Mix has to be proportioned for higher Target Mean flexural Strength
f’cr.
f’cr = fcr + 1.65 St OR
f’cr = fcr + 0.55 (whichever is higher)
Where
f’cr = Target Mean Flexural Strength at 28 days in N/mm2
fcr = Characteristic Flexural Strength at 28 days in N/mm2
St = Standard Deviation of strength
Table 4.1: Assumed standard deviation for compressive strength
Grade of Assumed Standard

S. No
concrete Deviation N/mm2
1 M30
2 M35
3 M40
4 M45 5.0
5 M50
6 M55
7 M60
8 M65
9 M70
6.0
10 M75
11 M80

Table 4.2: Assumed standard deviation for flexural strength
S. Flexural Strength Assumed Standard

No N/mm2 Deviation N/mm2
3.5
1 0.35
4
4.5
2 5 0.40
5.5
b) Based on compressive strength

f’ck = fck + 1.65 x Sc
OR
f’ck = fck + X (The value of X is given in Table)
Whichever is higher
Table 4.3: Value of X
Grade of
S. No Value of X N/mm2
concrete
1 M30
5.0
2 M35
3 M40
4 M45
5 M50 6.5
6 M55
7 M60
M65 &
8 8.0
above

5.4.2.2 Selection of Mix Proportions
a) Estimation of air content

Approximate amount of entrapped air to be expected in normal (non-air-entrained) concrete
is given in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Approximate air content
Nominal Maximum Size of Aggregate, mm Entrapped Air, as Percentage of Volume

of Concrete
9.5 1.5
19 1.0
26.5 0.9
31.5 0.8
b) Selection of water-cement ratio
Table 4.5: Preliminary Selection of Water – Cement/Cementitious Materials Ratio for

the Given Grade for Mix Designs Based on Flexural Strength
Sl. No. Flexural Strength at 28 Approximate Water Cement/ Cementitious

Day, N/mm2 Materials Ratio
OPC-43 Grade OPC-53 Grade
1 3.5 0.50 0.50
2 4.0 0.46 0.50
3 4.5 0.39 0.44
4 5.0 0.34 0.38
5 5.5 0.28 0.32

Table 4.6: Preliminary Selection of Water – Cement/Cementitious Materials Ratio for

the Given Grade for Mix Designs Based on Compressive Strength
Sl. No. Compressive Strength at Approximate Water Cement/ Cementitious

28 Day, N/mm2 Materials Ratio
OPC-43 Grade OPC-53 Grade
1 32 0.47 0.50
2 37 0.43 0.48
3 42 0.39 0.45
4 48 0.36 0.42
5 53 0.33 0.38
6 58 0.30 0.35
7 65 0.27 0.32
8 68 0.24 0.29
c) Calculation of cement/cementitious material content

The cement and supplementary cementitious material content per unit volume of concrete
may be calculated from the free water-cement ratio and the quantity of water per unit volume
of concrete.
The minimum cement/cementitious material content shall be 360 kg/m3 and maximum
cement content not including mineral admixtures shall be 450 kg/m3 except when mentioned
otherwise in the applicable specifications.
d) Estimation of coarse and fine aggregate contents
Estimation of coarse aggregate proportion in total aggregate

Approximate Volume of Coarse Aggregate per unit Volume of Total Aggregate is given in
Table 4.7 for W/C Ratio of 0.5, which may be suitably adjusted for other W/C ratios.
The proportion of volume of coarse aggregates is increased at the rate of 0.01 m3 for every
decrease in water-cement ratio by 0.05 and decreased at the rate of 0.01 m3 for every increase
in water-cement ratio by 0.05.

Table 4.7: Volume of Coarse Aggregate per Unit Volume of Total Aggregate for
Different Zones of Fine Aggregate as per IS: 383
Nominal Maximum Volume of Coarse Aggregate per Unit Volume of Total

Size of Aggregate, mm Aggregate for Different Zones of Fine Aggregate
Zone III Zone II Zone I
9.5 0.48 0.46 0.44
19 0.64 0.62 0.60
26.5 0.69 0.67 0.65
31.5 0.68 0.65 0.63
Estimation of coarse and fine aggregate contents

With the completion of steps given above, all the ingredients have been estimated except the
coarse and fine aggregate content. These quantities are determined by finding out the absolute
volume of cementitious material, water and the chemical admixture; by dividing their mass
by their respective specific gravity, multiplying by 1/1000 and subtracting the result of their
summation from unit volume. The values so obtained are divided into coarse and fine
aggregate fractions by volume in accordance with coarse aggregate proportion. The coarse
and fine aggregate contents are then determined by multiplying absolute volume with their
respective specific gravities and multiplying by 1000.

CHAPTER 5
5.5.0 Construction of Rigid Pavement
5.5.1 Sub-grade
The sub-grade is top 300-500 mm compacted layers in embankment or cutting just beneath
the pavement crust. The sub-grade in embankment is usually compacted in two layers to a
higher standard than the lower layers of the embankment. In cutting, the cut formation which
serves as the sub-grade is treated similarly to achieve the specific density to provide a
suitable foundation for the pavements. The CBR strength of the sub-grade shell satisfies the
design requirements as specified.
The embankment/sub-grade shall be prepared as under: The existing surface shall be cleared
and grubbed. The two passes of roller shall be given after light spray of water. The initial
levels will be recorded. The embankment shall be laid as per specifications.
The Pavement Quality Concrete (PQC) shall be laid on two layers of sub-base. Granular sub-
base (GSB) acting as a lower sub-base and Dry Lean Concrete (DLC) is acting as upper sub-
base. GSB, the lower sub-base shall be laid over a sub-grade of minimum 300-500 mm
compacted thicknesses. Sub-grade shall be of selected earth complying the following
requirements:
(i) No soft spots are present in the sub-grade.
(ii) The sub-grade shall have a minimum CBR of 7% for rural & 8% for SH, NH &
Expressways.
(iii) The camber and super-elevation of sub-grade shall be same as that of the
DLC & PQC
5.5.2 Sub-Base
The Sub-base provided under the concrete slabs comprises Granular Sub base (GSB) as lower
sub-base and Dry Lean Concrete (DLC) which is provided over GSB as upper sub-base.
Permeability coefficient of GSB shall be at least 300 m/day.
The material to be used for the GSB shall be natural sand, crushed gravel, crushed stone, or
combination thereof depending upon the grading required. The material shall be free from
organic or other deleterious constituents and shall conform to the IS: 383.

Requirements of aggregate
The material shall have a 10 per cent fines value of 50 kN or more (for sample in soaked
condition) when tested in compliance with IS: 2386 (Part IV) 1963. The water absorption
value of the coarse aggregate shall be determined as per IS: 2386 (Part III). If this value is
greater than 2 per cent, the soundness test shall be carried out on the material delivered to site
as per IS: 383.
Strength of sub-base
Laying of granular or WBM of thickness varying from 75 to 150 mm depending upon the
volume and type of traffic.
 Traffic up-to 50 CVPD: 75 mm thick WBM Gr-III or 100 mm GSB or 150 mm thick
cement/lime/lime fly ash treated marginal aggregates / soil with 3 MPa strength at 7
days with cement or at 28 days with lime! Lime fly ash is recommended.
 Traffic from 50 to 150 CVPD: 75 mm thick WBM Gr3/WMM over 100 mm GSB or
100 mm thick cementitious granular layer having minimum UCS of 3 MPa at 7 days
with cement or 28 days with lime, lime fly ash, over 100 mm thick cementitious
naturally available material with minimum UCS of 1.5 MPa is recommended.
 Traffic from 150 to 450 CVPD: 150 mm thick WBM Gr3/WMM over 100 mm of
granular sub bases or 100 mm of cementitious granular layer with a minimum UCS of
3 MPa at 7 days with cement or 28 days with lime or lime fly ash is recommended.
Table 5.1
IS Sieve Percent by Weight Passing the IS Sieve

Designation Grading Grading Grading Grading Grading Grading
I II III IV V VI
75.0 mm 100 - - - 100 -
53.0 mm 80-100 100 100 100 80-100 100
26.5 mm 55-90 70-100 55-75 50-80 55-90 75-100
9.50 mm 35-65 50-80 - - 35-65 55-75
4.75 mm 25-55 40-65 10-30 15-35 25-50 30-55
2.36 mm 20-40 30-50 - - 10-20 10-25
0.85 mm - - - - 2-10 -
0.425 mm 10-15 10-15 - - 0-5 0-8
0.075 mm <5 <5 <5 <5 - 0-3
CBR, Minimum 30 % 30 % 30 % 30 % - -
The material passing 425-micron (0.425 mm) sieve for all the grading when tested according
to IS:2720 (Part 5) shall have liquid limit and plasticity index not more than 25 and 6 per cent
respectively.
Modulus of Sub-grade Reaction “k”

CBR Value (%) 5 7 10 15 20 50 100

“k” Value (MPa/m) 42 48 55 62 69 140 220
Approximate “k”- Value Corresponding to CBR Values for Homogeneous Soil Sub-grade
Table 5.2: “K” Values Over Granular and Cement Treated Sub-Base
“k” Value of Effective “k” (MPa/m) over Effective “k” (MPa/m) over
subgrade untreated granular layer sub-base cement treated sub-base of
(MPa/m) of thickness in mm thickness in mm
150 225 300 100 150 200
28 39 44 53 76 108 141
56 63 75 88 127 173 225
84 92 102 119 - - -
5.5.3 Dry Lean Concrete

Dry lean concrete is cement concrete with low slump as well as low cement which is being
laid as a first layer for rigid pavement over sub-base (GSB). A thickness of minimum 150
mm is recommended for all major projects of State Highways and National Highways. When
DLC is adopted as sub base in case of roads other than the above roads its thickness of 100
mm is recommended.
The surface finish of the sub-base shall be smooth. The average compressive strength of each
consecutive group of 5 cubes shall not be less than 7 MPa at 7 days. For PQC bonded to
DLC, the 7-day strength of DLC should not be less than 10 MPa. If it is desired to have PQC
bonded to DLC, the surface of DLC is to be roughened with wire brush within 3-6 hours of
laying.
The granular sub-base shall be in a moist condition at the time the DLC is placed as per IRC:
SP: 49. There shall, however, be no pools of water or soft patches formed on the sub-base
surface.
Dry Lean Concrete (DLC) conforming to IRC: SP: 49 shall be used as upper sub-base for
concrete pavements. The use of granular sub-base or sub-base constructed out of semi rigid
material may also be used. The equivalent “k” value for different type of upper sub-bases
(like DLC/semi rigid materials/cement treated or stabilized sub-base/granular sub-base)
corresponding to “k” value of the sub-grade is required to be known for design of rigid
pavement.
“k” Value of Subgrade MPa/m 48 55 62

Effective “k” over 100 mm DLC MPa/m 208 278 389
Effective “k” over 100 mm DLC MPa/m 277 417* -

“k” Values for Dry Lean Concrete Sub-Base
*Maximum k value shall be 300 MPa/m. In calculating other values as per proportion, the
value of 300 MPa/m shall be taken instead of 417 MPa/m.
5.5.4 Joints
Mark the location of transverse joints by transferring from the drawings, on the sub base
with red paint on either side. In pavements up to 200 mm thick, no dowel bars will be
provided. All types of joints shall be sealed with bituminous sealant as per IS 1834.
All dowel bars shall be within (±) 5 mm in length. Normally, dowel bars are 500 mm long
and spaced at 250 mm c/c or as specified. They shall be parallel to the longitudinal axis of the
pavement.
Provide dowel bars where specified. These shall be placed at mid depth of the slab within a
tolerance of ±20 mm supported on dowel chairs.
a) Contraction joint shell is mechanically swan in a width of 3 to 5 mm and to a depth of

1/4 to 1/3 of the slab thickness. The joints will be spaced 2.5 m to 3.75 m c/c. Length
of panel in the direction of traffic shall not be less than the width of the pavement.
Joints shall be cut when the pavement is neither too soft nor too hard and is able to
bear the weight of the machine and crew. Normally, it may vary from 8 to 12 hours of
laying of concrete depending on weather conditions. The joints shall be subsequently
widened to 8-10mm width and 20 mm depth to house the hot poured bituminous
sealant as per drawings and as per Para 15 below Both ends of joints will be plugged
with pieces of synthetic tar felt to prevent ingress of water.
b) Construction joints shall be butt joints and placed after a day's work is over or when
work is suspended for more than 30 minutes. Both ends of joints will be plugged with
pieces of synthetic tarfelt to prevent ingress of water. The joint shall be sealed as per
(ii) above.
c) Expansion joints shall be provided near bridges and slab culverts and consist of
bitumen impregnated joint/ pre-moulded synthetic joint filler board. The joint filler
board shall be of 12 mm thickness near slab culverts and 20 mm thick near bridges
and shall comply with IS:1838. Dowel bars shall be provided at the expansion joints
as per drawings. Both ends of joints will be plugged with pieces of synthetic tar felt to
prevent ingress of water.
d) Longitudinal joints shall be provided for a pavement which is more than 4.5 m wide
and tie bars shall be provided at mid depth of slab. The concreting in the entire width
shall be done in one go and the joint shall be saw cut. It shall be 3.5 mm wide and of
depth equal to 1/3rd of the depth of slab after curing period is over. The joint shall be
widened to 6 to 8 mm to a depth of 12-15 mm and sealed with hot poured bituminous
sealant.

5.5.5 Separation Membrane

A separation membrane shall be used between the PQC and the DLC sub-base unless PQC is
designed as bonded to DLC sub-base. Separation membrane shall be impermeable
Polyethylene sheet 150 micron thick as per IS: 2508, transparent or white in colour laid flat
with minimum creases. The minimum width of the separation membrane shall be 3.5 m.
Before placing the separation membrane, the sub-base shall be swept clean of all the
extraneous materials using air compressor. Wherever overlap of plastic sheets is necessary,
the same shall be at least 300 mm. The separation membrane may be nailed to the lower layer
with concrete nails.
In summer (when ambient temperature is more than 25°C), before placing separation
membrane, the existing DLC surface shall be moist with water. Alternatively, non-woven
geo-textile, 4 mm thick, may also be used as separation layer between PQC and DLC.
5.5.6 Pavement Quality Concrete

i. All side forms shall be of mild steel channels or fabricated plates with adjustable jacks
at the back and of depth equal to the thickness of pavement or slightly less to
accommodate the surface regularity of the sub-base. Plant, equipment and tools
required for preparation and laying of pavement concrete are listed in Clause
1501.11.2 of Specifications for Rural Roads.
ii. Pavement concrete shall be produced near the site, using approved concrete mixers of
at least 0.2 cum capacity. Readymade concrete as per IS 4926 conforming to the
specified properties of strength and workability may also be used.
iii. Slump of concrete at paving site should be in the range of 30 mm ±10 mm. It will not
be more than 20 mm for hill roads.
iv. Concrete shall be placed between the side forms in a continuous manner and shall be
levelled with rakes and shovels. In concrete panels having acute angles, a bar mat of
10 mm dia tor steel bars at 150 mm centre to centre in both directions shall be
provided at 50 mm below the top of slab, in the entire panel.
v. Around man-holes or other openings in pavement, place 12 mm thick Salitax or other

pre-moulded board as per IS: 1838 and bar mats before concreting. Such panels with
openings shall have, bars mats of 10 mm dia tor steel at 150 mm both ways placed, 50
mm below the top of slab in the entire panel.
vi. Compact concrete by a vibrating screed supplemented by two needle vibrators. The
needle vibrator will be used specially in corners to ensure proper compaction of
concrete. The screed vibrator will be moved slowly to ensure adequate compaction of
the concrete. The bottom of the screed vibrator will be of the shape as per the cross
profile of the slab road. The amplitude of the vibration will not be less than 1.5 mm

and the speed of travel not more than 0.6m per minute the temperature of the concrete
shall be between 5°C -30°C.
vii. Paving near culverts and bridges: the pavement slab shall be carried over the Hume
pipe ensuring adequate cushion. In case the pavement abuts the main desk slab, of a
culvert or a bridge, a proper expansion joint (as per Para (iv) of JOINTS) above shall
be provided. In case the pavement abuts the existing culvert/bridge expansion joint
shall be provided by drilling holes at the required spacing in the existing deck slab.
These holes shall be of diameter 2 mm more than the dia of the dowel bar. The dowel
bars will be fixed in these holes with epoxy resin. The exposed end of the dowel bar
shell is covered with polythene sheeting and shell be embedded in the fresh concrete
of pavement slab.
5.5.6.1 Weather Limitations

A higher temperature of the fresh concrete results in rapid hydration and leads to accelerated
setting of concrete. The slump of concrete decreases and hence the water demand increases in
hot weather. No concreting should be done when the concrete temperature is above 30 OC. If
the rate of evaporation is expected to be above 1 kg/m² per hour near the top of the surface,
precautions against plastic shrinkage cracking are necessary. A ready to use chart to calculate
the rate of evaporation of water from the concrete for the construction of cement concrete
pavement is given in figure.

Chart for calculation of rate of evaporation of surface moisture of concrete from air
temperature and relative humidity, concrete temperature and wind velocity.
Graph 5.1
5.5.7 Texturing
As soon as practicable after compaction of concrete, smoothen the surface with a longitudinal
float operated from the work bridge. Just before the concrete becomes non-plastic, it shall be
textured with a long hand handled steel brush. The depth of the texture shall be about 1.5
mm. The texturing shall be perpendicular to the centre line of the pavement. The textured
surface shall be free from porous or other surface depression. The texturing brush shall be
cleaned at suitable intervals and made free from hardened cement paste.

5.5.7.1 Transverse Tining

When the texturing is specified in transverse direction the grooves produced shall be at
random spacing of grooves but uniform in width and depth. The spacing shall conform to a
pattern shown below:
Random spacing in mm
10 14 16 11 10 13 15 16 11 10 21 13 10
5.5.7.2 Longitudinal Tining

Longitudinal tining shall be done, if specified in the Contract. The centre to centre spacing
between the tines shall be 18 to 21 mm. The width of tine texture shall be 3 mm and depth
shall be 3 to 4 mm.
5.5.8 Finishing
After completion of texturing, before the concrete has taken its initial set, the edges of the
slab shall be carefully finished so as to leave the pavement edges smooth and true to line.
5.5.9 Cureing
After completion of the finishing operations, the entire surface of the pavement shall be
covered with wet hessian cloth, burlap or jute mats. They shall be maintained fully wetted
and in position for 24 hours. Upon the removal of the wet covering at the end of 24 hours, the
slab shall be thoroughly wetted and then cured by ponding or covering with wet sand,
occasionally sprinkled with water. The curing shall be continued for 21 days.
In case water is not available for curing, the newly built pavement surface will be sprayed
with two coats of curing compound, so that even a pin hold is not visible which is not
covered on the main surface and side. No traffic will be allowed for 7 days when such curing
is under progress. The concrete will be exposed only during the duration of saw cutting of
each joint. The joint will be temporarily sealed with jute rope.
5.5.10 Joint Widening & Sealing

After minimum of 28 days after casting the concrete pavement, joint groove at contraction
and construction joint shall be widened to 10 mm width and to a depth 18 to 20 mm and shall
be sealed with bituminous sealant after inserting baker rope. Debonding strip of backer roads
are required to prevent sealant flowing through bottom of the joint and prevent sealant
adhesion to the bottom of the groove. The backer rod with round section is used without any
paper backing as the closed cell foam used does not absorb sealant. The types of materials

used for debonding strip and backer rod are Polyethylene foam, Cross linked polyethylene
foam, Polyurethene foam Joint sealing compound shell be poured as per contract having
flexibility, resistance to age hardening and durability and shell confirm to IS: 1834. Before
sealing the primer will be applied as per manufacturer's instructions. Hence traffic at slow
speed with caution signs may be allowed once the sealant has cooled to ambient temperature.
For more details please refer IRC: 57.

CHAPTER 6
5.6.0 Quality Control of Rigid Pavements
5.6.1 General
The Engineer shall exercise quality control over the quality of the materials so as to ascertain
their conformity with the specification requirements, by carrying out test for the specified
properties in accordance with section 900 of the MoRTH specifications
The Contractor shall carry out quality control tests on the materials and work to the frequency
stipulated in subsequent paragraphs. In the absence of clear indications about method and or
frequency of tests for any item, the instructions of the Engineer shall be followed.
The Contractor shall provide necessary co-operation and assistance in obtaining the samples
for tests and carrying out the field tests as required by the Engineer from time to time. This
shall include provision of laboratory equipment, transport, consumables, and personnel
including labour attendants, assistants in packing and dispatching and any other assistance
considered necessary in connection with the tests
5.6.2 Quality Control of Materials
5.6.2.1 Cement
Any of the following types of cement capable of achieving the design strength may be used.
The minimum 28 days’ compressive strength of the cement should not be less than 43 MPa.
i) Ordinary Portland Cement IS:269 (43 Grade and 53 Grade) including 5%

performance Improver (Mineral admixture etc. as per IS:269)
ii) Portland-Pozzolana Cement IS:1489 (Part 1)
iii) Portland Slag Cement, IS:455
iv) Composite Cement (blended with granulated slag & fly ash), IS:16415
If the soil around concrete pavement has soluble salts, like sulphates in excess of 0.5 per cent,
the cement used shall be Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement, IS: 12330. The limits of
sulphate concentration (as sulphur trioxide) is that limit where either it is more than 0.2% in
subgrade soil or more than 0.3% in ground water. Cement used in both DLC and pavement
quality concrete in such situations should be sulphate-resistant. If chlorides are present,
Sulphate Resisting Cement shall not be used, and in such case Portland Slag Cement should

be used. Cement to be used may preferably be obtained in bulk. If cement in paper bags is
proposed to be used, there shall be bag-splitters with the facility to separate pieces of paper
bags and dispose them off suitably. No paper pieces shall enter the concrete mix. Bulk
cement shall be stored either in vertical or horizontal silos. The cement shall be subjected to
acceptance tests prior to its use.
5.6.2.2 Mineral Admixture

Mineral admixtures can improve the workability, long term strength and durability of
concrete. The following materials may be added as mineral admixtures subject to their
availability and corresponding policy guidelines regarding their usage by the Central/ State
Governments
a) Fly ash (As per IS: 3812 (Part 1))

Fly ash up to 25 per cent by weight of Cementitious Material (CM) may be mixed at site with
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) 53/43 Grade. The fly ash shall conform to IS: 3812 (Part I).
Fly ash of no other Grade shall be used
Site mixing of fly ash shall be permitted only after ensuring availability of the equipment’s at
site for uniform blending through a specific mechanized facility with automated process
control like batch mix plants conforming to 18:4925 and IS: 4926. Site mixing will not be
allowed otherwise
b) Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

Factory manufactured ground granulated blast furnace slag (as per IS: 10875) upto 50 per
cent by weight of cementitious material may be mixed at site with Ordinary Portland Cement
of 43/53 Grade. Regular tests shall be conducted on GGBFS at a testing frequency of 1 test
per 100 MT of slag to ensure the quality.
c) Silica fume
Silica fume up to 10 per cent by weight of OPC (as per IS: 15388, IRC: SP: 114 and IRC: 44,
if specified in design may be used.
Admixtures conforming to IS: 9103 may be used to improve workability of the concrete or
extension of setting time, on satisfactory evidence that they will not have any adverse effect
on the properties of concrete with respect to strength, volume change, and durability and have

no deleterious effect on embedded steel. Satisfactory performance of the admixtures should

be proved both on the laboratory concrete trial mixes and in trial paving works. The
maximum quantity of chemical admixture shall be 2 per cent by weight of cementitious
materials (cement + fly ash/ground granulated blast furnace slag/silica fume).
Compatibility and optimum dose of the particular admixture (from a specific manufacturer)
with the specific cement type (from a particular manufacturing plant) to be used, shall be
established by Marsh Cone Test as per ASTM C939. Concrete mix should be designed for a
combination of a particular cement and admixture, and admixture supplier and type cannot be
substituted without test confirming the required results
5.6.2.3 Aggregate
An aggregate for pavement concrete shall be complying with IS: 383. The limits of
deleterious materials shall not exceed the requirements set out in IS: 383
The aggregates shall be free from chert, flint, chalcedony or silica in a form that can react
with the alkalies in the cement. In addition, the total chlorides content expressed as chloride
ion content shall not exceed 0.06 per cent by weight and the total sulphate content expressed
as sulphuric anhydride (S03) shall not exceed 0.25 per cent by weight. In case the aggregates
are not free from dirt, the same may be washed and drained for at least 72 hours before
batching.
No aggregate which has water absorption more than 2 per cent shall be used in concrete mix.
All aggregates shall be tested for soundness in accordance with IS: 2386 (Part V). After 5
cycles of testing, the loss shall not be more than 12 per cent if sodium sulphate solution is
used. Or 18 per cent if magnesium sulphate solution is used, irrespective of their water
absorption.
a) Coarse aggregate
Coarse aggregate shall consist of clean, hard, strong, dense, non-porous and durable pieces of
crushed stone or crushed gravel and shall be devoid of pieces of disintegrated stone, soft,
flaky, elongated, very angular or splintery pieces. The combined flakiness and elongation
index shall not be more than 35 per cent. Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) shall not be more
than 30 per cent. Limestone aggregate may be used conforming to IS: 383. The maximum
size of coarse aggregate shall not exceed 31.5 mm in PQC and 26.5 mm in case of DLC
Continuously graded aggregates may be used, depending on the combined grading of the
coarse and fine aggregate
Iron slag aggregate, steel slag aggregate up to 30 per cent, Recycled Concrete Aggregate
(RCA) up to 30 per cent of total coarse aggregate can be used in Dry Lean Concrete (DLC)
only

b) Fine aggregate
The fine aggregate shall consist of clean natural sand or crushed stone sand or a combination
of the two and shall conform to IS: 383. Fine aggregate shall be free from soft particles, clay,
shale, loam, cemented particles, mica and organic and other foreign matter. The fine
aggregate shall not contain substances more than the following:
Clay lumps: 1.0%
Coal and Ignite: 1.0%
Material passing IS sieve No. 75 micron
i) Natural sand : 3% by weight of natural sand
ii) Crushed Stone sand : 12% by weight of crushed stone
iii) Blend of natural sand and crushed stone sand: shall not exceed 8% by
total weight of fine aggregates (IS:383)
Although IS: 383 permits in the case of stone crushed sand, the fines passing 75 microns up
to 15 per cent, this provision should be used with caution when crushed stone sand is used as
fine aggregate and when the mix produced in the Laboratory and the field is satisfactory in all
respects and complies with the requirement of Specification. The grading zone of fine
aggregates as per IS: 383 shall be within the limits as given in Table 6.1
Table 6.1: Fine Aggregates Requirements of Different Grading Zone
IS Sieve Percentage Passing for
Designation Grading Zone I Grading Zone II Grading Zone Ill
10 mm 100 100 100
4.75 mm 90 - 100 90 - 100 90 - 100
2.36 mm 60- 95 75-100 85-100
1.18 mm 30-70 55-90 75-100
600 micron 15-34 35-59 60-79
300 micron 5-20 8-30 12-40
150 micron 0-10 0-10 0-10
The fine aggregates conforming to any one of the above three grading zones may be used.
From grading Zones I to III, the fine aggregate grading becomes progressively finer therefore

the ratio of fine aggregate to coarse aggregate should be progressively reduced all cases
concrete mix should be properly designed as per IRC: 44 recommendations
In case of grading in all Grading Zones falls outside the limits of any particular grading Zone
of sieves other than 600 micron IS: Sieve by an amount not exceeding 5 per cent a particular
sieve size, (subject to cumulative amount of 10 per cent), it shall be regard as falling within
that grading zone. This tolerance shall not be applied to percentage passing the 600 micron IS
Sieve or to percentage passing any other sieve size on for edge the coarse limit of grading
Zone I.
For crushed stone sands, the permissible limit on 150 micron IS Sieve may be increased 20
per cent in Table 6.1 above. The use of crushed stone sand is permitted in PQC, however
percentage of fines passing 75 micron IS Sieve in case of PQC shall not exceed 12 percent.
c) Combined Grading
Table 6.2 and 6.3 is recommended for combined gradation of fine and coarse aggregate in
case of Dry Lean Concrete (DLC) and Paving Quality Concrete (PQC) respectively
Table 6.2: Aggregate Gradation for Dry Lean Concrete
Percentage passing by
S. No Sieve Size
weight
1 26.50 mm 100
2 19.0 mm 75-95
3 9.50 mm 50-70
4 4.75 mm 30-55
5 2.36 mm 17-42
6 600 micron 8-22
7 300 micron 7-17
8 150 micron 2-12
9 75 micron (Wet Sieving ) 0-5
The above grading is applicable both for natural sand and crushed stone sand. For finding the
fraction passing 75 micron, wet sieving of whole aggregate sample shall be performed

Table 6.3: Aggregate Gradation for Pavement Quality Concrete
Percentage Passing
Sieve Designation 31.5 mm 26.5 mm 19 mm

Nominal size Nominal size Nominal size
37.5 mm 100 100 100
31.50 mm 90-100 100 100
26.50 mm 85-95 90-100 100
19.0 mm 68-88 75-95 90-100
9.50 mm 45-65 50-70 48-78
4.75 mm 30-55 30-55 30-58
600 micron 8-30 8-30 8-35
150 micron 0-10 0-10 0-12
75 micron (Wet 0-5* 0-5* 0-5*

Sieving ) 0-2** 0-2** 0-2**
*Crushed Sand ** Natural Sand
5.6.2.4 Water
Water used for mixing and curing of concrete shall be clean and free from injurious amount
of alkalies, sulphates, chlorides, oil, salt, acid, vegetable matter or other substances harmful
to the finished concrete. It shall meet the requirements stipulated in IS.456. Portable water is
generally considered satisfactory for mixing and curing.

Summary of Quality Control on Materials
Table 6.4: Gives a summary of frequency of testing of materials to use for concrete
pavement construction
Sr Quality of materials
No.
Control tests for materials and concrete shall be as under
1 Cement IS:455 Once for each source of

Physical and IS:1489 supply and occasionally when
chemical Tests IS:8112 called for in case of
IS:12269 long/improper storage.
IS:12330 Besides, the contractor also
will submit daily test data on
cement released by the
manufacturer
2 Coarse and i) Gradation One test for every day's work
Fine IS:2386 (Pt-1) of each fraction of coarse
Aggregates aggregate and fine aggregate,
initially; (may be relaxed later
at the discretion of the
Engineer)
ii) Deleterious constituents
IS:2386 (Pt. 2)
iii) Water Absorption Regularly as required subject
IS:2386 (Pt. 3) to a minimum of one test a
day for coarse aggregate and
two tests a day for fine
aggregate. This data shall be
used for correcting the water
demand of the mix on a daily
basis.
3 Coarse i) Los Angeles Abrasion Once for each source of
Aggregates values or aggregate Impact test supply and subsequently on
IS:2386 (Pt. 4) monthly basis
ii) Soundness Before approving the
IS:2386 (Pt. 5) aggregates and every month
subsequently
iii) Alkali aggregate -do-
reactivity
IS: (2386 Pt. 7) IS:456
4 Water Chemical Tests Once for approval of source
IS:456 of supply, subsequently only
in case of doubt.
5 Mineral Once from each source of

Admixture supply and subsequently on
monthly basis.

5.6.3 Quality Control for Concrete Road Construction
5.6.3.1 Dry Lean Concrete
a) Sampling and Testing of Cubes

Samples of dry lean concrete for making cubes shall be taken from the uncompacted material
from different locations immediately before compaction at the rate of 3 samples for each
1000 sq.m or part thereof laid each day. The sampling of mix shall be done from the paving
site.
Test cubes of 150 mm size shall be made immediately from each mix sample.
Cubes shall be made in accordance with the methods described in IS: 516 except that the
cubes shall be compacted by means of a vibratory hammer with the moulds placed on a level
and rigid base. The vibrating hammer shall be electric or pneumatic type fitted with a square
or rectangular foot having an area of between 7500 to 14000 sq.mm. The compaction shall be
uniformly applied for 60± 5 seconds with a downward force of between 300 N and 400 N on
to each of the three layers of the lean concrete material placed into the mould. The surface of
each compacted layer shall be scarified before the next layer is added to give key for the next
layer. The final layer shall be finished flush with the top of the cube mould. The dry lean
concrete shall be cured in accordance with IS: 516
b) In-situ Density
The dry density of the laid material shall be determined from three density holes at locations
equally spaced along a diagonal that bisects each 2000 sq.m or part thereof laid each day and
shall not be less than 98 percent of the achieved during the trail length construction. The
densities achieved at the edges i.e. 0.5 m from the edge shall not be less than 96 percent of
that achieved during the trail length construction. This rate of testing may be increased at the
discretion of the Engineer in case of doubt or to determine the extent of the defective area in
the event of non-compliance. Density holes at random may be made to check the density at
edges.
c) Thickness
The tolerances for thickness shall be ± 10 mm. The average thickness of the subbase layer as
computed by the level data of the sub-base and subgrade or lower sub-base shall be as per the
thickness specified in the contract drawings. The thickness at any single location shall not be
8 mm less than the specified thickness. Areas that cannot be repaired should be replaced over
full width. The extent of deficient areas should be decided based on cores.

d) Frequency of Quality Control Tests

The frequency of quality control tests for levels, alignment and concrete shall be as given in
Table 6.3
5.6.3.2 Pavement Quality Concrete
a) Sampling and Testing of Beam and Cube Specimens

Samples from fresh concrete shall be taken as per IS: 1199 and cube and beam specimens
shall be made, cured and tested at 28 days as per IS: 516.
The minimum frequency of sampling of concrete shall be one sample per 150 m3 (or part
thereof) of concrete. Each sample shall comprise of 3 test specimens of beams. These shall be
tested for 28 days strength. Engineer may also get cube specimens cast at the rate of 3 such
specimens per sample, as in case of beam for each 150 m3 (or part thereof) of concrete for his
reference, record and possible use for co-relation purposes. However, test pertaining to beams
shall govern. For each day's work, number of specimens shall not be less than six beams,
taken out of 2 different batches of concrete. Additional six cubes may also be got cast for
reference, record and co-relation, if desired by the Engineer.
The test results of the sample shall be the average of the strength of three specimens,
comprising the sample. The individual variations of any specimen (beam/cube/ core) shall not
be more than ± 15 per cent of the average (of the three specimens comprising the sample).
Flexural strength shall be used for quality control and for acceptance purposes. The flexural
strength should be determined by modulus of rupture under third point loading as per IS: 516.
The preferred size of beam shall be 150 mm x 150 mm x 700 mm for the maximum size of
aggregate of 31.5 mm.
The ratio between the 7 and 28 day strength (R) shall be established for the mix to be used in
the slab. This will be done at the time of initial design of mix. For this purpose, at least 6
specimens of beams shall be cast from each batch of concrete produced in the laboratory.
Minimum 6 batches ensuring minimum 36 specimens of beams shall thus be cast cured and
tested in the presence of the Engineer. Out of the 6 specimens drawn from each batch, one
specimen from each batch shall be cured and tested for 7 days strength and the balance 5
specimen of each batch shall be cured and tested for 28 days strength. This will provide at
least 30 specimens required to determine actual standard deviation of 28 days strength. The
specimen of cubes may also be got cast as per the procedure above if so desired for reference,
record and co-relation. The value of 'R' shall be arrived by dividing the average strength of
the 7 day specimens by the average strength of the 28-day specimens. The ratio 'R' shall be
expressed upto three places of decimal. In case of urgency, accelerated curing methods may
be adopted after approval of the Engineer-in-Charge

If during the construction of the trial length or during some normal working, the average
value of any four consecutive 7 day test results falls below the required 7 day strength as
derived from the value of 'R' then the cement content of the concrete shall, without any extra
payment, be increased by 5 per cent by weight. Whenever the cement content is increased,
the concrete mix shall be adjusted to maintain the required workability. Cement shall be
increased by 5 per cent in case of manual construction or construction in marshy/waterlogged
areas.
b) Acceptance criteria of strength
Flexural Strength
The concrete will be said to comply with the specified flexural strength when the following
conditions are met with
i) The mean strength determined from any group of 4 consecutive samples (each
sample containing 3 beam specimens i.e. 4 x 3 = 12 beam specimens) at 28 days
should exceed the specified characteristic flexural strength by at least 0.3 MPa.
ii) The strength of any sample is not less than the specified characteristic flexural
strength minus 0.1 MPa.
A quality control chart indicating the strength values of individual specimens shall be
maintained for continuous quality assurance. Where the requirements are not met with, or
where the quality of the concrete or its compaction is suspect, the actual strength of the
concrete in the slab shall be ascertained by carrying out tests on cores cut at the rate of 2
cores for every 150 cu.m of concrete. The average of the results of crushing strength tests on
these cores shall not be less than 0.8 x 0.85 times the corresponding characteristic
compressive strength of cubes, where the height-to-diameter ratio of the cores is two. Where
height to diameter ratio is not two, necessary corrections shall be made in calculating the
crushing strength of cubes in the following manner
The crushing strengths of cylinders with height-to-diameter ratios between 1 and 2 may be
corrected to correspond to a standard cylinder of height to a diameter ratio of 2 by
multiplying with the correction factor obtained from the following equation:
f= 0.11 n+0.78
Where,
f = correction factor and
n = height to diameter ratio

The corrected test results shall be analysed for conformity with the specification requirements
for cube samples. Where the core tests are satisfactory, they shall have precedence for
assessing concrete quality over the results of moulded specimens. The diameter of cores shall
not be less than 150 mm
If, however, the tests on cores also confirm that the concrete is not satisfying the strength
requirements, then the concrete corresponding to the area from which the cores were cut
should be replaced, i.e., at least over an area extending between two transverse joints where
the defects could be isolated or over larger area, if necessary, as assessed by additional cores
and their test results.
In order to ensure that the specified minimum strength at 28 days is attained in 1 in 20 of all
test beams, the mix shall be proportioned to give an average strength at 28 days exceeding the
specified strength by 1.65 times the standard deviation calculated first from the flexural
strengths of test beams made from the trial mix and subsequently from the accumulating
result of flexural strengths of job control test beams.
The standard deviation shall be re-calculated from the test results obtained after any change
in the source or quality of materials and the mix shall be adjusted as necessary to comply
with the requirements.
An individual 28 day test strength below the specified strength shall not be evidence for
condemnation of the concrete concerned if the average 28 day strength of this beam plus the
preceding 5 and succeeding 4 beams exceeds the specified strength by 1.65 times the
standard deviation and provided that there is no other evidence that the concrete mix
concerned is substandard.
Beams shall be made each day in pairs at intervals, each pair being from a different batch of
concrete. At the start of the work, and until such time as the Engineer may order a reduction
in the number of beams required, at least six pairs of beams and cubes shall be made each
day, one of each pair for testing at 28 days for determination of minimum permissible
flexural strength and the other for testing at an early age for the Engineer to assess the quality
of the mix. When the first thirty number of 28-day results are available, and for so long as the
Engineer is satisfied with the quality of the mix, he may reduce the number of beams and
cubes required.
During the course of construction, when the source of any material is to be changed, or if
there is any variation in the quality of the materials furnished, additional tests and necessary
adjustments in the mix shall be made as required to obtain the specified strength.
The flexural strengths obtained on beams tested before 28 days shall be used in conjunction
with a correlation between them and the 28 day flexural strengths to detect any deterioration
in the quality of the concrete being produced. Any such deterioration shall be remedied
without awaiting the 28 day strengths but the earlier strengths shall not constitute sole
evidence of non-compliance of the concrete from which they were taken.

Concrete shall be deemed not to comply with the Specification when more than one test beam
in a batch has 28 day strength less than the specified strength and the average 28 day flexural
strength of the batch of beams is less than the specified strength plus 1.65 times the standard
deviation of the batch.
Should the concrete fail to comply with the Specification for strength as described above, the
Contractor may, all at his own expense, elect to cut cores from the suspect concrete as the
Engineer shall direct. From the relation between cube strength and flexural strength, the core
strength shall be converted to flexural strength.
Any concrete that fails to meet the strength specification shall be removed and replaced at
Contractor's expense.
c) In-situ Density
The density of the compacted concrete shall be such that the total air voids are not more than
3 percent. The air voids shall be derived from the difference between the theoretical
maximum dry density of the concrete calculated from the specific gravity of the constituents
of the concrete mix and the average value of three direct density measurements made on
cores at least 150 mm diameter. Three cores shall be taken from trial lengths and in first two
km length of the pavement, while the slab is being constructed during normal working. The
proportions of the mix and the vibratory effort imparted i.e. the frequency and magnitude of
vibration shall be adjusted to achieve the maximum density.
All cores taken for density measurement in the trial section shall also be checked for
thickness. The same cores shall be made use of for determining in-situ strength. In 'case of
doubt, additional cores may be ordered by the Engineer and taken at locations decided by him
to check the density of concrete slab or the position of dowel/tie bars without any
compensation being paid for the same. In the calculation of the density, allowance shall be
made for any steel in cores.
Cores removed from the main carriageway shall be reinstated with compacted concrete with
mix proportions of 1 part of Portland cement: 2 parts of fine aggregate:2 parts of 10 mm
nominal size single sized coarse aggregate by weight. Before filling the fine mix, the sides
shall be hacked and cleaned with water. Thereafter cement-sand slurry shall be applied to the
sides just prior to filling the concrete mix.
d) Thickness
Thickness shall be controlled by taking levels as indicated in Clause 902.3. Thickness of the
slab at any point checked as mentioned above shall be within a tolerance of -5 mm to + 10
mm of the specified thickness as per Drawing. Thickness deficiency more than 5 mm may be
accepted and paid for at a reduced rate given in Clause 602.16.3. In no case, however,
thickness deficiency shall be more than 10 mm.

Payment Adjustment for Deficiency in Thickness

When the average thickness for the lot is deficient by the extent shown in Table 6.5, the
Contract until price will be adjusted as per this Table 6.5 and payment can be made for
reduced thickness.
Table 6.5: Payment Adjustment for Deficiency in Thickness
Deficiency in the average thickness of Per cent contract unit price payable
day's work
Up to 5 mm 100
6-10 mm 87
11 -15 mm 70
In the stretch where deficiency of average thickness is more than 20 mm, cores shall be cut to
ascertain the deficiency as directed by the Engineer, section whose thickness is deficient by
20 mm or more is identified with the help of cores. Such slabs shall be removed and
reconstructed at the cost of the Contractor. During such rectification work, care shall be taken
to replace full slab and to the full depth.
e) Horizontal Alignment
The horizontal alignment shall be checked with respect to the centre line of the carriageway
as shown in the drawings. The edges of the carriageway as constructed shall be corrected
within a tolerance of ± 10 mm therefore.
f) Surface Levels
The levels of the subgrade and different pavement courses as constructed shall not vary from
those calculated with reference to the longitudinal and cross profile of the road shown on the
drawings or as directed by the Engineer beyond the tolerances mentioned in Table 6.6

Table 6.6: Tolerances in Surface Levels
Sr. No. Layer Type Tolerances
+ 20 mm
1 Subgrade
-25 mm
+ 10 mm
2 Granular Sub-base/WBM/WMM Layer
-10 mm
+6mm
3 Dry Lean Concrete
-15 mm
+5mm
4 PQC*
-6 mm
*This may not exceed - 8 mm at 0 - 300 mm from the edges
g) Surface Regularity of Pavement Courses

The longitudinal profile shall be checked with a 3-meter-long straight edge moving straight
edge as desired by the Engineer at the middle of each traffic lane along a Line parallel to the
centre line of the road. The maximum permitted number of surface irregularities shall be as
per Table 6.7.
Table 6.7: Maximum Permitted Number of Surface Irregularities
Irregularity Surfaces of the carriageway and paved shoulders
4 mm 7 mm
Length(m) 300 75 300 75
No. of surface
20 9 2 1
Irregularities
h) Texture depth
The texture depth shall be measured using the sand patch method. The diameter of the patch
shall be measured to the nearest 5mm. the texture depth of the concrete surface shall be
calculated from 31000/ (DxD) mm where D is the diameter of the patch in mm. The average
depth shall be 3 to 4 mm. When the depth is less than 2.5 mm and is in excess of 4.5mm, the
contractor shall stop concreting till he corrects his tine brush and replaces it.

i) Acceptance criteria
Concrete slabs may develop cracks of minor to serious nature unless appropriate precautions
are taken to prevent their occurrence either during the construction phase or post-construction
period.
The slabs with full-depth cracks are totally unacceptable as it amounts to structural failure.
Besides, other cracks which are deep and are likely to progress in depth with time are also to
be considered as serious in nature. Fine crazy cracks, however, are not serious. Acceptance
criteria for cracked concrete slabs shall be as follows:
(i) Plastic shrinkage cracks with a cumulative length of 3000 mm in a slab can be
accepted after repair as per IRC: SP: 83. Beyond cumulative length of 3000 mm
shall be rejected.
(ii) Slabs with cracks running transversely or longitudinally penetrating to full depth
and length of the slab are to be rejected.
(iii) Slabs with any type of cracks which are penetrating to more than half the depth
shall be rejected.
j) Summary of Control Tests

Table 6.8 gives a summary of the frequency of testing of Dry Lean Concrete and pavement
quality concrete.

Table 6.8: Quality Control Test for Paving Quality Concrete (Acceptance
Criteria/Frequency)
Sr. No. Description

1 Strength, levels, Defects, Alignment and
Texture
(i) Strength Clause 6.2.2
(ii) In-situ density Clause 6.2.3
(iii) Pavement thickness Clause 6.2.4
(iv) Surface levels Clause 6.2.6, Table 6.1
(v) Surface regularity Clause 6.2.7
(vi) Horizontal alignment Clause 6.2.5
(vii) Acceptance criteria for cracked concrete Clause IRC: SP:83 and clause
slabs 6.2.9
(viii) Alignment of joints, widths, depths of To be checked @ one joint per
dowel grooves 400 m length or a day's work
whichever more is.
(ix) Surface regularity both transversely and Once a day or one day's work,
longitudinally without disturbing the curing
operation as per IRC: SP:16
(x) Alignment of dowel bars/tie bars and their To be checked in trial length
accuracy and once in every 2 km
(xi) Texture depth Clause 6.2.8
2 Quality of Concrete
(i) Strength of concrete IS:516 3 cubes and 3 beams per 150
cum or minimum 6 cubes and
6 beams per days work
whichever is more.
(ii) Core strength on hardened concrete IS:516 2 cores/km.
(iii)Workability of fresh concrete - Slump Test One test per dumper load at
IS:1199 both batching plant site and
paving site initially when work
starts. Subsequently sampling
may be done from alternate
dumper.
(iv) Thickness determination From the level data of concrete
pavement surface and sub-base
at grid points of 5 m x 3.5 m
or 6. 25 m x 3.5 m. Cores may
be cut in case of doubts
(v) Thickness measurement for trial Length 3 cores per trial length
(vi) Verification of level of string line in the String line or steel forms shall
case of slip form paving and steel forms in the be checked for level at an
case of fixed form paving. interval of 5.0 m or 6.25 m.
The level tolerance allowed
shall be ± 2 mm. These shall
be got approved 1-2 hours
before the commencement of
the concreting activity.

5.6.3.3 Joints
Arrangement of Joints
a) Staggered Joints
It has been observed that where transverse joints have been staggered on either side of
longitudinal joint, sympathetic cracking has often occurred in line with the joint in the
adjacent slab; therefore, it is desirable that joints be constructed in line across the full width
of the pavement.
b) Skew Joints
The use of skew joints increases the risk of cracking at the acute angled corner and may also
tend to make the slab move sideways. Thus transverse joints should as far as possible be at
right angle to the edges to the pavements.
c) Acute-angled Corner
The acute-angled corners should be avoided in the layout of the road and airfield slabs as the
stresses due to loading become exceedingly high. Under the conditions of corners warping
upward so that they are completely unsupported, the stresses at the corners of various angles
calculated theoretically and expressed in terms of stress at a right-angled corner, are
approximately 100 per cent, 145 per cent and 210 per cent for 90°, 70° and 50° respectively.
If acute angled corners are unavoidable, as sometimes is the case at intersections, the cornes
should be strengthened either by increasing the slab thickness at this point, or by heavy
reinforcement or by both.
The shape and dimensions of the slabs, in transitioning from one width to another or where
changes in direction are necessary, should be such as easily negotiated by traffic, pleasing to
the eyes and also permit the satisfactory compaction and finishing of the top surface.
Spacing of Joints
The spacing of transverse joints depends on several factors, the more important which are the
coefficient of thermal expansion of the concrete, the temperature during placing, the frictional
restraint of the DLC sub-base to the movement of the slab, the thickness of the slab and the
amount of reinforcement. For unreinforced concrete pavement, the spacing of joints shall be
such as to obviate the formation of uncontrolled cracks which would open and give rise to

spelling. For reinforced concrete slab, the spacing of joints should be related to the weight of
reinforcement so that opening of hair cracks is effectively controlled.
Steel Dowel Bars and Tie Bars

These shall conform to the requirements of IS: 432 and IS: 1786 as relevant. The dowel bars
shall conform to IS: 432 of Grade I. Tie bars shall be Thermo- Mechanically Treated (TMT)
bars conforming to IS: 1786 and grade of Fe 500. If steel mesh is used, it shall conform to IS:
1566. The steel shall be coated with appropriate anti-corrosive coating as per IS.13620.
Materials for Joint Sealing
a) Joint Sealing
The joint sealing compound shall be of hot poured, elastomeric type or cold polysulphide/
polyurethane/silicon type having flexibility, durability and resistance to age hardening.
Manufacturer's certificate shall be produced by the contractor for establishing that the sealant
is not more than six months old and stating that the sealant complies with the relevant
standard mentioned below
The material for cold poured joint sealant shall conform to any one of the following:
Polysulphide IS: 11433 (Part I), 8S: 5212 (Part II)
Polyurethene 8S:5212
Silicon ASTM 05893-04
If the sealant is of hot poured type, it shall conform to IS: 1834 or ASTM: D 3406, as
applicable. Hot poured joint sealing compound should not be heated above 180°C and also
over long duration; both are not permitted as it will lose its properties due to overheating.
Material once heated cannot be reheated again for use. Hence, the quantity of material to be
heated should be such that it is used fully. The overheated or reheated material will be
rejected. Therefore, quantity of sealing compound required for one operation of joint sealing
work shall only be heated.
b) Pre-moulded joint filler

Synthetic joint filler board for expansion joints which are proposed for use only at some
abutting structures, like, bridges and culverts shall be of 20-25 mm thickness within a
tolerance of ± 1.5 mm and of a firm compressible material and having compressibility of
more than 25 per cent as per IS: 1838. It shall be 25 mm less in depth than the thickness of
the slab within a tolerance of± 3 mm and provided to the full width between the side forms. It
shall be in suitable length which shall not be less than one lane width. If two pieces are joined

to make up full width, the joint shall be taped such that no slurry escapes through the joint.
Holes to accommodate dowel bars shall be accurately bored or punched out to give a sliding
fit on the dowel bars. IS: 1838 (Part 1) and IS: 10566 may be referred for more details.
c) Preformed Seals
The pre-formed joint sealing material shall be a vulcanized elastomeric compound using
polychloroprene (Neoprene) as the base polymer. The joint seal shall conform to
requirements of ASTM D 2628.
Fibers
Fibers may be used subject to the provision in the design to reduce the shrinkage cracking
and improve post-cracking residual strength. The fibers may be steel fiber as per IRC: SP: 46
or polymeric synthetic fibers. The polymeric synthetic fibers will be within the following
range of specifications
 Effective Diameter 8 - 300 micron for micro fibers

0.20 mm - 1.2 mm for macro Fibers/steel fibers
 Length 6-18 mm (micro), 40-65 mm (Macro)
 Specific gravity 0.91 to 1.36
 Suggested dosage 0.6 - 2.5 kg/m3 for micro fibers

2.0 - 8.0 kg/m3 for macro fibers
 Actual dosage may be taken from Table 3 of IRC SP: 46.

Techno-economical consideration should also be kept in view.
• Usage shall be regulated/designed as stipulated in IRC: 44, IRC: SP: 46 and IS: 456.
• Water absorption shall be less than 0.45 per cent
• Melting point shall not be less than 160°C.
• The aspect ratio shall vary from 200 to 2000.
• Synthetic fibers shall have good alkali and UV light resistance.

Sealant
The sealant should not be more than six months old and a certificate to this effect stating that
the sealant complies with the relevant standards should be obtained before approval for use.
The joints shall be sealed with the materials and methodology as suggested in IRC: 57
"Recommended Practice for Sealing of Joints in Concrete Pavements".

CHAPTER 7
5.7.0 Maintenance of Cement Concrete Pavement
5.7.1 Introduction
Concrete Pavements also known as Rigid Pavements have a relatively long service life,
provided these are properly designed, constructed and maintained. With mega projects like
National Highway Development Project (NHDP), Special Accelerated Road Development
Project (SARDP), and Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) the pace of concrete
pavement construction has increased recently. This is because concrete pavements are
economical in life cycle cost and known to perform better with minimum maintenance. The
concrete pavement can serve upto its design service life and even beyond if timely repairs are
undertaken. Load transfer mechanism of the concrete pavement is through beam action and
accordingly the concrete pavements are expected to perform relatively better than flexible
pavements on weak sub grades, as these can bridge small soft or settled areas of sub-grades.
The concrete pavement performance in high rainfall areas is found better than flexible
pavement due to high resistance to water penetration. Similarly, in hilly terrain, concrete
pavement is able to resist impact load and abrasion due to braking and acceleration in a better
way than flexible pavement
All pavements deteriorate with time. The rate of deterioration of concrete pavement is
comparatively much slower than that of flexible pavement. The concrete pavements are
therefore expected to have a longer service life.
Figure 7.1 indicates the typical treatment which may be considered with the age and
condition of pavement. The techniques of assessment, repair and rehabilitation presented are
for old concrete pavement during its normal service life. New concrete pavements should be
laid with utmost care so that no distress or defect is observed during construction. In the case
of concrete pavements, some distresses at a few isolated locations however, do take place
immediately after or during an early stage after completion. If these isolated distresses are
rectified well in time, then longer life of the concrete pavement is assured without much need
of detailed periodic maintenance/ rehabilitation. Preservation of concrete pavements,
therefore, can be broadly classified into three categories: -
(i) Concrete Pavement Restoration (CPR) Techniques - Repair and maintenance

operations without any overlay
(ii) Rehabilitation - Strengthening involving overlay options.
(iii) Reconstruction - Undertaken after the end of service life or due to severe
distresses in longer stretches due to faulty design/construction

With proper design, construction and maintenance, a concrete pavement can give a useful
service life of more than 30 years without any significant rehabilitation/reconstruction.
Concrete pavement repairs/maintenance involves a series of engineering techniques which
are used to repair the isolated areas of distress. Broadly such repairs theoretically do not
enhance the structural capacity beyond the designed life of a concrete pavement. In reality
such repairs, however, do extend the service life of the pavement. Timely repair by adopting
CPR techniques is quite cost effective and helps to avoid costly rehabilitation/reconstruction
later on.
Figure 7.1: Maintenance strategy of Aging Pavements with the level of deterioration
5.7.2 Types of Defects
5.7.2.1 Distress Identification

A site condition survey once a year, preferably in the beginning of monsoon season should be
undertaken to assess the existing pavement condition and to identify the pavement distresses.
Such site condition surveys should aim at two objectives:
(i) To determine the root cause of pavement distress.
(ii) To track the rate of progression of the distress leading to pavement deterioration
Repair techniques discussed, except those of full depth repair, may not be effective, if the rate
of pavement deterioration is relatively fast. In case of a fast rate of deterioration particularly
in continuous long stretches, the rehabilitation options may be considered along with repair
option and appropriate decision taken as per specific site conditions. Determining the root
cause of failure, if possible, helps in identifying the appropriate repair techniques/ strategies
including the combinations thereof. It is important to record both the severity and extent of
each distress during condition survey undertaken. In case, it is felt that non destructive and/or
destructive testing are required to assess the structural problems, as the same are not

adequately determined through visual inspections, then such testing should be undertaken
subsequently.
5.7.2.2 Distress Types

Distresses in concrete pavements are either structural or functional. Structural distresses
primarily affect the pavement’s ability to carry traffic load. Functional distresses mainly
affect the riding quality and safety of the traffic.
5.7.2.3 Structural Distresses

All cracks are not structural cracks. Any uncontrolled/random crack like longitudinal,
transverse, diagonal, intersecting cracks that extends through the depth of the slab (> D/2,
where ‘D’ is depth of PQC slab) is to be considered as a structural crack. Structural cracking
is often caused due to excessive loading, long joint spacing, and shallow or late sawing of
joints, restraint at base or edge, due to joint lock-up, inadequate thickness, material related
problems etc. Often reasons for structural cracking could be pumping of fines from the sub-
grade or the sub base, excessive warping of the slab, subsidence of utility trench, excessive
temperature stresses and moisture content. Structural cracks unless repaired effectively
reduce the load carrying capacity of the pavement and adversely impact the designed service
life of the pavement. Use of proper construction techniques and traffic load controls can
reduce/avoid structural cracks.
5.7.2.4 Functional Distress

These distresses do not necessarily reduce the load carrying capacity of the pavements but
affect the riding quality, and safety. Roughness, loss of surface texture or any other surface
related defects, problems like faulting, scaling, ravelling and popouts etc. fall under this
category
5.7.3 Visible Types of Distresses and Defects, Their Causes, How to Check, How to
Measure, How to Repair
5.7.3.1 Introduction
This Section covers the visible types of distresses and defects of jointed plain concrete
pavements. Though the section is intended to be dealing with maintenance practices, it is
desirable that the engineers are familiar with the causes for the common types of distresses
and defects so that they can avoid the practices that lead to them. It is also desirable that the

engineers know how to check them, measure them, record them and repair them. This section
gives the type of repair for each distress.
5.7.3.2 Types of Distress

Table 7.1 summarizes the various types of distress and unit of measurement.
LOW (Noted L) Degradation is not very perceptible by the user. Safety, the comfort of
wearing surface or the structural integrity are not affected. A preventive intervention could be
considered.
MODERATE (Noted M) Degradation is perceptible by the user. Safety, the comfort of
wearing surface or the structural integrity can be affected. An intervention is to be
considered.
HIGH (Noted H) Degradation is perceptible obviously by the user. At authorized maximum

speed, safety, the comfort of wearing surface is seriously affected. The structural integrity is
also seriously affected. An intervention is essential.

Table 7.1: Type of Distress – Unit of Measure – Defined Severity Level
INDEX DISTRESS TYPE UNIT OF MEASURE DEFINED

SEVERITY
LEVEL
CRACKING
1. Corner Breaks Number Yes
2. Durability Cracking “D” Cracking Number of slabs, Yes
Square Meters
3. Longitudinal Cracks Number, Meters Yes
4. Transverse Cracks Number, Meters Yes
JOINT DEFICIENCIES
5. Transverse joint seal damage Number Yes
6. Longitudinal joint seal damage Meters No
7. Spalling of longitudinal joints Meters Yes
8. Spalling of transverse joints Number, Meters Yes
SURFACE DEFECTS
9. Map cracking Number, Square Meters No
10. Scaling Number, Square Meters Yes
11. Polished aggregate/ worn out texture/ Number, Square Meters No
washed out texture
12. Popouts Number No
MISCELLANEOUS DISTRESSES
13. Settlement
14. Blowups Number Yes
15. Faulting of transverse joints and Location, Number, No
cracks Millimeters
16. Lane to shoulder dropoff or separation Meters No
17. Lane to median separation Meters No
18. Patch and patch deterioration Number, Square Meters Yes
19. Water bleeding and pumping Number, Meters No
20. Seepage of concrete slabs in
horizontal curves
21. Kerb failure on account of non-
formation of joints
5.7.3.2.1 Corner Breaks
Description
A portion of the slab separated by a crack, which intersects the adjacent transverse and
longitudinal joints, describing approximately a 45-degree angle with the direction of traffic
the length of the sides is from 0.3 m to one-half the width of the slab on each side of the
corner.

Possible Causes
Corner break which normally extends up to full depth is caused due to one or more of the
following reasons:
i) Load repetitions combined with loss of support caused due to pumping or

settlement of base layer.
ii) Due to design of poor load transfer mechanism at the joint.
iii) Due to stresses like thermal curling and moisture warping
How to Check-Severity Levels

LOW (L)
Crack is not spalled for more than 10 percent of the length of the crack; there is no
measurable faulting; and the corner piece is not broken into two or more pieces and has no
loss of material and no patching.
MODERATE (M)
Crack is spalled at low severity for more than 10 percent of its total length; or faulting of
crack or joint is < 13 mm; and the corner piece is not broken into two or more pieces
HIGH (H)
Crack is spalled at moderate to high severity for more than 10 percent of its total length; or
faulting of the crack or joint is ≥ 13 mm; or the corner piece is broken into two or more
pieces or contains patch material
How to Measure
Record number of corner breaks at each severity level. Corner breaks that have been repaired
by completely removing all broken pieces and replacing them with patching material (rigid or
flexible) should be rated as a patch. If the boundaries of the corner break are visible, then also
rate as a high severity corner break. Note: This does not affect the way patches are rated. All
patches meeting the size criteria are rated.
How to Repair according to Severity Levels

L: Corner crack in the form of hair crack can be temporarily sealed with liquid epoxy. Crack
can be widened to V-shape on the top before applying liquid epoxy. There is a need to check
water ingression to lower layer from all sides from joints and shoulder for further widening of
crack. This repair is temporary in nature.

M & H: Once the crack has reached moderate or high level, the cracked piece has to be
removed to full depth and replaced with a fresh concrete mix. Before filling the gap, the
opening shall be cut to square or rectangular shape and holes shall be drilled to insert atleast 2
steel dowels (grouted) on the two sides for transferring load to main slab (Figure 7.2)
Figure 7.2: Corner Breaks
(a) Low severity (b) Medium Severity (c) High Severity
5.7.3.2.2 Longitudinal Cracking
Description
Cracks those are predominantly parallel to the pavement centreline
Possible Causes
i) Excessive lane width
ii) Delayed sawing of longitudinal joints
iii) Non-uniform foundation conditions like partly cut and partly filled area
iv) Inadequate joint groove

v) Deficient thickness
vi) Overloading the pavement

LOW (L)
Crack widths < 0.5 mm, no spalling and no measurable faulting; or well-sealed and with a
width that cannot be determined.
MODERATE (M)
Crack widths ≥ 0.5 mm and < 3 mm; or with spalling < 75 mm; or faulting up to 13 mm.
HIGH (H)
Crack widths ≥ 3 mm; or with spalling ≥ 75 mm; or faulting ≥ 13 mm.
How to Measure
Record length in meters of longitudinal cracking at each severity level also record length in
meters of longitudinal cracking with sealant in good condition at each severity level

L: Injecting of liquid epoxy can be carried out. Cracks up to 0.2 mm can be left without
treatment. Crack of 0.2 mm to 0,5 mm shall be widened using router or scrabler and sealed
with liquid epoxy and epoxy mortar
M: The crack may be sealed with liquid epoxy or epoxy mortar and stitched or stappled.
H: Slab to be considered for full depth repair or replacement
Figure 7.3: Longitudinal Cracking

(a) Low Severity (b) Medium Severity (c) High Severity
5.7.3.2.3 Transverse Cracking
Description
Cracks those are predominantly perpendicular to the pavement centreline.
Possible Causes
The majority of transverse cracks develop on account of delayed formation of
transverse/dummy joints. A rough and undulating lower base layer also may cause restriction
to thermal movement of the slab causing cracks. The wrong placement of dowels may also
lead to the formation of transverse cracks.
 Deficient slab thickness
 Overloading also contributes to the transverse cracking
 Inadequate groove depth

LOW (L)
Crack widths < 0.5 mm, no spalling and no measurable faulting; or well-sealed and the width
cannot be determined.
MODERATE (M)
Crack widths ≥ 0.5 mm and < 3 mm; or with spalling < 75 mm; or faulting up to 6 mm.
HIGH (H)
Crack widths ≥ 3 mm; or with spalling ≥ 75 mm; or faulting ≥ 6 mm.

How to Measure
Record number and length of transverse cracks at each severity level. Rate the entire
transverse crack at the highest severity level present for at least 10 percent of the total length
of the crack. Length recorded, in meters, is the total length of the crack and is assigned to the
highest severity level present for at least 10 percent of the total length of the crack. Also
record the length, in meters, of transverse cracking at each severity level with sealant in good
condition. The length recorded, in meters, is the total length of the well-sealed crack and is
assigned to the severity level of the crack. Record only when the sealant is in good condition
for at least 90 percent of the length of the crack.

L: The cracks can be sealed by injecting liquid epoxy into the cracks so that entry of foreign
matter like grit etc. is avoided. Cracks can also be sealed after widening them on the surface
and applying epoxy mortar. Sealing also helps in stopping of seepage of water to the lower
layers.
M: The slab with 0.5 mm to 3 mm crack width would result in loss of load transference and
hence technique like “stitching” or “stappling” should be considered.
H: The slab having crack width larger than 3 mm and faulting exceeding 6mm would affect
seriously riding quality. Therefore, it is desirable to carry out a full depth repair or replace the
slab
Figure 7.4: Transverse Cracking

5.7.3.2.4 Joint Seal Damage
Description
Joint seal damage is any condition which enables incompressible materials or water to
infiltrate the joint from the surface. Typical types of joint seal damage are:
Extrusion, hardening, adhesive failure (bonding), cohesive failure (splitting), or complete loss
of sealant
Intrusion of foreign material in the joint
Weed growth in the joint
5.7.3.2.5 Transverse Joint Seal Damage
Possible Causes
Damage of sealant can be on account of various reasons like:
i) Cold Sealant
 Improper sealing
 Inferior quality
 Timely non-maintenance
ii) Hot Sealant
 Improper sealing
 Inferior quality
 Timely non-maintenance
 Overheating of sealant
 Intrusion of air bubbles during sealing

iii) Pre-moulded Sealing Strips
 Deficiency in the design of grip to hold on to the groove

 Excessive Shrinkage of strips due to oxidation

LOW (L)
Joint seal damage as described above exists over less than 10 percent of the joint.
MODERATE (M)
Joint seal damage as described above exists over 10-50 percent of the joint.
HIGH (H)
Joint seal damage as described above exists over more than 50 percent of the joint.
How to Measure
Record number of sealed transverse joints at each severity level

L: Damaged sealant to be removed and replaced with fresh sealant. The existing sealant shall
be raked out using special tool and cleaned, if necessary with concrete saw. Sealant shall be
applied with primer, if needed, with proper de-bonding strip etc.
The pre-moulded strips shall be replaced with new strips.
M & H: Damage to the extent of 10% to 50% or more than 50% tantamount to severe
damage. It is necessary to replace the entire sealant afresh to stop seepage of water to lower
layers.
In the case of pre-moulded strips, the damaged or extracted strips shall be replaced with new
strips of better quality and improved gripping system.
5.7.3.2.6 Longitudinal Joint Seal Damage
Possible Causes
i) Improper sealing practice
ii) Too narrow joint width

iii) Inferior joint sealant

iv) Over heating of sealant in the case of hot poured sealant
Normally pre-moulded sealants are not used in longitudinal joints, so the reason for their
damage is not highlighted.

Not applicable.
How to Measure
Record total length of sealed longitudinal joints with joint seal damage as described above.
Individual occurrences are recorded only when at least 1 m in length is damaged.
How to Repair
The old sealant shall be raked out with special tool. The sides shall be cleaned as much as
possible and subsequently resawn to have fresh sides of groove. The sides are sandblasted or
primed as recommended by the sealant manufacturer before applying sealant.
Figure 7.5
(a) Low Severity (b) Medium Severity (c) High Severity
5.7.3.2.7 Spalling of Longitudinal Joints and Transverse Joints
Description
Cracking, breaking, chipping, or fraying of slab edges within 0.3 m from the face of the
longitudinal joint

Possible Causes
i) Intrusion of incompressible foreign matter
ii) Early joint sawing
iii) Movement of heavy tyres on the joint

LOW (L)
Spalls < 75 mm wide, measured to the face of the joint, with loss of material, or spalls with
no loss of material and no patching.
MODERATE (M)
Spalls 75 mm to 150 mm wide, measured to the face of the joint, with loss of material.
HIGH (H)
Spalls > 150 mm wide, measured to the face of the joint, with loss of material or is broken
into two or more pieces or contains patch material
How to Measure
Longitudinal Spalling: Record length in meters of longitudinal joint affected at each

severity level. Only record spalls that have a length of 0.1 m or more. Spalls that have been
repaired by completely removing all broken pieces and replacing them with patching material
(rigid or flexible) should be rated as a patch. If the boundaries of the spall are visible, then
also rate as a high severity spall. Note: All patches meeting size criteria are rated as patches.
Transverse Spalling: Record the number of spalled joints in addition to that above.
How to Repair
L: The spalled area shall be cleaned with wire brush and compressed air and liquid sealing
compound shall be applied after priming the surface
M & H: Spalls less than 75 mm wide can be repaired as shallow depth repair. The spalled
area shall be cut to square or rectangular shape to atleast 20 mm depth. The vertical faces
shall be slanting to about 3° - 4° outwardly to have dove-tail effect. The spalled area can be
repaired with epoxy mortar, polymer mortar, or polymer concrete.

Figure 7.6: Spalling of Transverse Joints
Figure 7.7: Spalling of Longitudinal Joints
(a) Low severity (b) Medium Severity (c) High severity

5.7.3.2.8 Map Cracking
Description
A series of cracks that extend only into the upper surface of the slab. Larger cracks frequently
are oriented in the longitudinal direction of the pavement and are interconnected by finer
transverse or random cracks
Possible Causes
These fine hairline cracks are caused due to overworking during finishing of pavement
surface. These cracks are shallow and may penetrate to a depth of 5 mm to 12 mm. This may
lead to scaling of the surface

Not applicable
How to Measure
Record the number of occurrences and the square meters of affected area. How to record the
observations is presented in Appendix.
How to Repair
Application of liquid epoxy on the cracked area will help in sealing the cracks to some extent.
The area of cracks should be cleaned thoroughly with wire brush and compressed air before
applying liquid epoxy.
Figure 7.8: Map Cracking

5.7.3.2.9 Scaling
Description
Scaling is the deterioration of the upper concrete slab surface, normally 3 mm to 13 mm, and
may occur anywhere over the pavement
Possible Causes
Scaling may be caused due to overworking of surface while finishing or due to the effect of
bleeding. Also in cold regions, freeze and thaw, and use of de-icing salts may result in scaling
of surface. Other causes can be due to poor aggregate quality, inadequate curing, and local
cement deficiency.

LOW (L)
Scales < 3 mm average depth with no loss of material.
MODERATE (M)
Scales 3 mm to 13 mm average depth.
HIGH (H)
Scales > 13 average depth.
How to Measure
Record the number of occurrences and the square meters of affected area at each severity
level.
How to Repair
L: No repair
M & H: After removing the scales thoroughly from the surface using either wire brush or by
chipping or by scabbler etc. the surface shall be primed with liquid epoxy and finished with
epoxy mortar made of silica sand.

Figure 7.9
(a) Moderate Severity (b) High Severity
5.7.3.2.10 Polished Aggregate / Worn Out Texture / Washed Out Texture
Description
Surface mortar and texturing worn away to expose coarse aggregate
Out of brush and tine textures adopted on concrete surface for improving skid resistance,
brush texture tends to get worn out relatively early. Washing out of texture is caused due to
unexpected rains during concreting. Rain can cause damage to both textured and untextured
surfaces. Sometimes, the finished surface may not get needed time for texturing due to
continuous downpour.
Possible Causes
Poor quality of concrete mix used in pavement results in ravelling of fine matrix due to
trafficking. The aggregates exposed, therefore, get polished. Polishing of aggregates is more
severe when the microtexture of the stone is denser.
Wearing of texture due to constant traffic movement is a natural phenomenon. The texture is
normally grooved in the cement mortar present on the surface. Due to wearing action, the
sharp texture formed by brush initially gets rounded and further flattens. Whereas in the case
of tine texture there is no possibility of such wearing taking place.

How to Check-Severity Level

Not applicable.
How to Measure
Record the number of occurrences and the square meters of affected area. How to record the
observations is presented in Appendix.
NOTE: Diamond grinding also removes the surface mortar and texturing. However, this
condition should not be recorded as polished aggregate, but instead, be noted by a comment.
How to Repair
The surface to be retextured can be done using the following methods:
1) The pavement surface can be retextured using concrete saw to form tine texture. A
groove of 3mm depth and 3mm width can be cut at a spacing of about 20mm distance
from centre to centre of the groove. Although the process is time consuming, but it
can be done using inexpensive machines.
2) By using a diamond grinding machine the surface can be retextured. But it requires
costly machine to take up this work. Blasting or scrabbling also is helpful but the end
result with diamond grinder is better.
Figure 7.10
(a) Polished Aggregate (b) Washed out texture

5.7.3.2.11 Popouts
Description
Small pieces of pavement broken loose from the surface, normally ranging in diameter from
25 mm to 100 mm, and depth from 13 mm to 50 mm
Possible Causes
Popouts are cavities caused on account of intrusion of clay balls or sand-clods or weathered
aggregates in the concrete mix during construction. The softer fragment of clay ball/sand-
clod/weathered rock leaves behind a popout after wearing out due to trafficking and weather
action.

Not applicable.
How to Measure
Record the number in location
How to Repair
The popout shall be chased into a square or rectangular shape to its full depth with vertical
face slightly slanting outwardly to have dove-tail effect. The groove shall be filled with either
epoxy mortar or polymerized cement mortar. The surface of the chased area shall be primed
for better bondage. In the case of polymerized mortar or concrete, curing shall be done as per
manufacturer’s recommendation.
Figure 7.10
(a) Pop-out (b) Pop-out

5.7.3.2.12 Blowups
Description
Localized upward movement of the pavement surface at transverse joints or cracks, often
accompanied by shattering of the concrete in that area
Possible Causes
During the expansion phase of the concrete slabs, when the joints are filled with
incompressible material like stone there is concentration of stress at a joint, the adjoining
slabs tend to move upwards especially when the slabs are thinner and non-dowelled. In this
process the concrete gets crushed and the slabs move upwardly. The dowels get bent and
twisted.

Always of high severity
How to Measure
Record the number in location. How to record the observations is presented in Appendix
How to Repair
Depending upon the extent of damage either slabs on both sides of the joint are replaced or
the slabs are cut over a width of about 1 m on both sides of the joint to replace them. Such a
repair would involve insertion/grouting of dowels for providing load transference
Figure 7.11: Blowups

(a) Blowups (b) High Severity Blowups
5.7.3.2.14 Faulting of Transverse Joints and Cracks
Description
Difference in elevation across a joint or crack
Possible Causes
i) Inadequate load transferring dowels
ii) Pumping
iii) Settlement of base
The faulting in excess of 4 mm can affect the riding quality of the pavement.

Not applicable
How to Measure
Record in millimeters, to the nearest millimeter: 0.5 m and 3.0 m from the outside slab edge
(approximately the outer wheel path). For a widened lane, the wheel path location will be
0.75 m from the outside lane edge stripe. At each location, three measurements are made, but
only the approximate average of the readings is recorded. How to record the observations is
presented in Appendix.
How to Repair
This deficiency can be improved/corrected by the following treatment:

i) Replace the slabs on both sides of faulted joints
ii) Grind the surface of the slab which has ‘positive’ fault using scabbler and
diamond studded grinder. A 3 m straight edge may be used to check the surface
evenness after repair.
iii) Slab jacking can be done by lifting the slab and injecting grout to fill the voids
underneath the slab.
Figure 7.12: Faulting of Transverse Joints and Cracks
(a) Faulting
5.7.3.2.15 Lane-to-Shoulder Drop-off or Separation
Description
Difference in elevation or separation of width > 10 mm between the edge of slab and outside
shoulder; typically occurs when the outside shoulder settles.

Possible Causes
When the shoulder is constructed with earth, but also with bituminous concrete, due to
movement of overtaking vehicle or due to environmental factors like rain etc. the level of
shoulder erodes to a level lower than the pavement. This situation is hazardous when a
vehicle has to make use of shoulder during overtaking.

Not applicable.
How to Measure
Measure of the length of each occurrence at location.
How to Repair
In case of separation less than 10 mm, in the case of bituminous shoulder, after inserting a
back-up rod tightly, rubberized hot sealant can be applied to seal the joint whereas in the case
concrete shoulder sealant like polysulphide/ silicone/ polyurethane can be applied. When the
bituminous shoulder settles relatively, it shall be made up with thin bituminous overlay as
required. When there is earthen or gravel shoulder, regrading the shoulder, watering, levelling
and compacting is a solution
Installing of edge drains to collect water seeping through this longitudinal joint is a method
which can be explored. In Indian designs, no such drains have been adopted. The
Construction of such a drain at a later date using technique known as “retrofitting edge drain”
is a standard practice adopted in the advanced countries
In some advanced countries use of strips of draining concrete is constructed along this
longitudinal joint to dispose of part of the surface run-off.
In others cases, the shoulder material has to be scarified and added with requisite extra
quantity of improved material like gravel and mixed with water to obtain OMC condition and
graded with a motor grader to the required camber and rolled preferably with a vibratory
roller to achieve atleast 97% of MDD.
Construction of full depth pavement on shoulder will help in avoiding drop-off.

Figure 7.13
(a) Lane to shoulder Drop-off (b) Lane to shoulder Separation
5.7.3.2.16 Lane-To-Median Separation
Description
Separation of width generally < 10 mm between the edge of slab and the outlet supporting the
median kerb.
Possible Causes
Transverse shrinkage of slab is the primary cause. It can be also due to settlement of
embankment. This situation must be avoided in the super elevation zones where water can
enter freely to lower layers

Not applicable.
How to Measure
Measure of the length of each occurrence at location.
How to Repair
After inserting a back-up rod tightly, rubberized hot sealant can be applied to seal the joint.

Figure 7.14: Lane to Median Separation

5.7.4 Repair Techniques
5.7.4.1 Concrete as a Material

The common belief is that concrete is a durable material, and many concrete pavements have
lasted for 50 years or more. While this is true, faulty selection of materials and construction
practice can cause distress like cracking, scaling and spalling. A distressed concrete pavement
loses its integrity to perform as a structural material. Advances in repair materials render it
possible to repair distressed concrete roads to a large extent. However, it needs to be
emphasized that:
 Concrete is not a forgiving material, and demands the utmost care in the selection of
materials, mix design and construction practices
 The timely detection of signs of distress, diagnosis and intervention is the key to
successful performance of concrete pavements.
5.7.4.2 Repair Materials
5.7.4.2.1 General Requirements

The repair materials must fulfil the following requirements: -
 They should be compatible with the original concrete and fully bond with it.
 They should be easy to handle and use at site.
 They should enable the repaired road to be opened to traffic quickly.

 They should be suitable for use under the weather conditions prevailing.
 They should be easily available.
 They should be available at reasonable cost
5.7.4.2.2 Common Repair Materials

In view of the easy availability of bituminous mixes, maintenance engineers fill the patches
with them, having to deal with traffic and short time available for repairs. But it should be
borne in mind that bituminous mixes and concrete are two different materials with hardly any
compatibility. As such, the use of bituminous mixes can only be temporary expedient and not
a permanent solution, and hence is to be discouraged.
Rapid hardening cement or ordinary cement with an accelerator as admixture or high strength
quick-setting cement are used if no other better repair material is available. But these require
some curing period which may not be available in actual practice.
Considering the above, the most suitable material for repair of concrete pavement is resin
mixes or polymerized cement mortar or concrete. Good research work and successful field
applications have been done in India using this material for repair of concrete pavements
(IRC: SP 83). Since concrete structures (bridges) also use this material for repair of damaged
areas, good guidance on the use of this material is available in Section 2800 of the Ministry
of Shipping, Road Transport and Highways book of Specifications (MoRTH)
The resin material should be obtained from a reputed manufacturer. Since a wide range of
resins is manufactured, expert guidance should be sought on the selection of the right type.
The properties that need to be investigated are:-
(i) Pot life of resin system
(ii) Compressive strength and moisture susceptibility of resin-sand mortars
(iii) Bond strength of cement concrete-resin mortar composites
(iv) Shrinkage and thermal characteristics of resin system and resin mortar
(v) Durability of resin mortar-cement concrete composites.
Adequate precautions are needed in storage and handling or resin systems. The
manufacturers’ stipulations must be strictly observed so as to avoid injuries to the workers.
Low viscosity polymers are also used for repair of concrete roads.
5.7.4.3 Preparation of Repair Area

The surface which is to receive the fresh repair material must be freshly exposed concrete,
free of loose and unsound materials. A chisel and hammer can be used to achieve this

manually. A pneumatic hammer will be able to achieve speedy output, especially at sites
where traffic is heavy and long closures are not tolerated. The surface should be wire brushed
and treated with compressed air to rid of all loose particles. The surface should be dry. While
using air compressor for cleaning, suitable filter should be used such that the air jet is free
from oil traces.
For patch work, the recess for receiving the fresh material shall be formed to a regular
geometrical shape (square or a rectangle). Preferably the sides of the recess should be parallel
or perpendicular to the adjacent joints. It is a good practice to give the sides of the recess a
slight slant, so that the base of the recess is somewhat wider than its top, thus ensuring a
keying effect (Figure 7.15).
For repairs to joints, the sealant shall be completely removed, exposing the clean sound
concrete. Wire brushing must be done to achieve this. All debris shall be removed by a jet of
compressed air
Fine cracks shall be cleaned by a jet of compressed air. For repairing wider spalled cracks
which need partial depth patching, a regular groove of a trapezoidal section shall be prepared
by chiselling.
If resin based concrete mixes are used for patch repairs, the exposed area should first be
provided with a primer as recommended by the manufacturer.
Figure 7.15: Shape of the Groove for Receiving Thin-Bonded Repair
5.7.4.4 Longitudinal Cracking
5.7.4.4.1 Low Level of Distress

Cracks having a width less than 3mm are considered to fall in this category of distress.
Shrinkage cracks can be very fine and shallow but may widen eventually with time due to
loading or temperature change. Hair line cracks having a width of upto 0.2mm and narrow
cracks upto 1.0mm can be shallow cracks. But cracks of 3mm width normally will be of full
depth. But these cracks can be sealed by injecting liquid epoxy in order to block the entry of

moisture and foreign matter. It may be noted that the epoxy grout does not help in restoring
the slab structurally.
Epoxy injection of cracks is a specialized job and should be handled by experienced

personnel. Special tool kits are required for doing this job. Finer cracks require high pressure
whereas cracks of larger width can be sealed with lighter injecting units.
The crack to be injected with epoxy is first drilled with a series of holes at 0.5 to 1.5m
interval to fix nipples so that epoxy can be injected through them. In order to stop the leakage
of epoxy from the cracked surface, it is closed with liquid epoxy or epoxy mortar in advance.
A ‘v’ cut may be made to facilitate sealing of crack. The epoxy is injected till it appears in the
next nipple. Through this process the entire crack can be filled. A schematic arrangement of
crack repair with epoxy is shown in Figure 7.16
Figure 7.16: Method of Injecting Epoxy in a Crack, Moderate and High Severity
Longitudinal Cracking
These two levels of distresses have cracks in excess of 3mm width suggesting that the slab
has developed full depth crack. Repairing such deficiency by injecting epoxy is not of any
help. The other options are to either stitch or staple two pieces of the cracked slab. By these
methods the slab can be restored to some degree such that traffic can use the pavement safely.
However, the repaired section needs to be monitored for any eventual distress. The slabs can
effectively be repaired by full-depth repair after cutting out the slab to a width of 1.5 m where
crack has appeared. The method is explained in Para 7.5.5
5.7.4.4.3 Slab Repair by Cross-Stitching

Cross-stitching with inclined tie bars is suggested for all the longitudinal cracks in order to
arrest movement of cracked pieces and further opening/widening of cracks Figure 7.17.
Preliminary vertical holes of 45 mm diameter and 30 mm depth are drilled in an alternating

pattern at 500 mm spacing apart to facilitate the drilling of inclined holes.

Alternate inclined holes of 20 mm diameter are then drilled at an angle of 30 to 40 degree

from the slab surface normal to the line of the crack. The length of the hole should be 1.7
times the slab thickness. The holes are cleaned thoroughly using compressed air. The hole is
filled with epoxy resin in enough quantity for the tie bar to be completely coated when
inserted in the hole. A high yield deformed reinforcing bar of 16 mm diameter is then
inserted into the hole. A groove is made along the line of the crack, and it is filled with
epoxy-sand mortar. For details refer to IRC: SP: 83.
Figure 7.17: Cross-Stitching with 12 mm diameter bars

5.7.4.5 Full Depth Repair (FDR) Methodology
Full Depth Repair (FDR) technique restores the riding quality and life of the deteriorated area
equivalent to the rest of the pavement. FDR entails removing and replacing a portion of a slab
down up to the bottom of the slab and filling it with fresh concrete. The minimum width of
the repaired patch and at the same time width of left-out portion after removing the
deteriorated portion should be 1.5 m.
For removing the deteriorated concrete, transverse buffer saw cuts of 1/4 to 1/3 depth of slab
are made at the boundary of the patch (Figure 7.18). The concrete between these buffer cuts
is then removed by making full depth cuts and breaking it into pieces.
Holes are drilled into vertical faces of existing slabs for the installation of dowel bars. The
hole should be 2 mm bigger than the diameter of the dowel bars used at the project. The
dowel holes are cleaned by means of a nozzle and compressed air. The epoxy material is fed
to the back of the hole before inserting the dowel so that epoxy will flow outward and cover

the entire length of the dowel to ensure adequate bonding of dowel with surrounding
concrete. The exposed portion of the dowels is then covered with plastic sheathing (Figure
7.19).
If DLC sub-base layer is damaged during removal of deteriorated concrete, then it should be
repaired and covered with fresh piece of polythene sheet before filling the patch with fresh
concrete. Fresh concrete is then poured into the patch area and finished, textured and cured as
per the normal operations of concrete placement. For details refer to IRC: SP: 83.
Figure 7.18 Buffer Cuts for Protecting Patch Perimeters from Undercut Spalling
(Source: IRC: SP: 83)
Figure 7.19 Full Depth Repair of Cement Concrete Pavement

(Source: IRC: SP: 83)

5.7.4.6 Plastic Shrinkage Cracks

Plastic shrinkage cracks developed due to excessive evaporation of water from the freshly
laid concrete surface. High ambient temperature, high wind velocity and low air humidity
prevailing at the time of laying of concrete often leads to the formation of such cracks at the
surface. These cracks can be easily prevented by taking precautionary measures especially
during first few hours after laying of concrete. But, if such cracking occurs and concrete sets
after appearance of the cracks, then the cracks remain always visible on the surface. Plastic
shrinkage cracks are relatively short in length and shallow in depth and are not affect the
structural integrity of the slab. However, such cracks should be sealed with low viscosity
epoxy to avoid the breaking or spalling at the edges of the cracks and to keep the cracked
concrete in sound condition. Such cracks do not deteriorate further and affect the riding
quality of the surface.
Figure 7.20: Sealed Plastic Shrinkage Cracks

5.7.4.7 Joint Repairs of Concrete Road
The repairing of spalled joint grooves of contraction joints, longitudinal joints and expansion
joints in concrete pavement is done using epoxy mortar or epoxy concrete. The specification
of materials and construction procedure are given under Clause 3005 of MoRTH
Specifications.
The following points shall be considered while joint repairs are carried out.
a) The type/grade of epoxy shall be compatible with the coefficient of thermal expansion
of concrete.
b) The epoxy material shall be mixed with fine aggregates or fine stone chips to repair
the spalled or damaged edges.
c) The spalled/damaged edges shall be cut vertically with chisel to rectangular shapes.
d) Pneumatic chisel may be used with proper care to control the depth of cutting to the
minimum.
e) The epoxy mortar/concrete is then applied using hand tools like trowel, straight edge,
brush etc.

f) The repaired edge shall be in line with the joint groove and shall be flush with the
concrete slab surface.
g) If the joint sealant is damaged, the same shall be raked out and the affected portion
repaired by resealing.
5.7.5 Periodic Maintenance

The main types of maintenance required in respect of cement concrete pavements are as
follows
(a) Routine Maintenance: Routine maintenance may be defined as those treatments that
are applied to a pavement in order to keep the pavement functioning properly. As
such routine maintenance is sometime called ‘reactive maintenance’. This suggests
that it is a work that is performed as a reaction to a specific distress. Routine
maintenance is performed on pavement as they begin to show sign of deterioration,
but is generally considered to be a wasted effort on pavement that is severely
distressed.
(b) Programmed Maintenance: It covers works undertaken to arrest deterioration and

restore the asset to its original condition. Works are programmed in advance and
defined to delay further deterioration. It normally includes work such as resealing the
defective joint with sealant, cross-stitching, partial depth repairs, full depth and
diamond grinding to remove faults in the rigid pavement.
(c) Rehabilitation and Strengthening: It refers to programmed works that are undertaken
to structurally restore the condition of a road section to impart further design life to
carry future expected traffic loads. The works upgrade the road to current design
standards. It includes work like diamond grooving for restoring surface texture, slab
stabilization, reconstruction or application of an overlay to rectify structural
deficiencies in the pavement, and retrofitting of dowel bars and tie bars wherever
needed.
(d) Emergency Repairs: It covers responding to complaints or emergencies.
5.7.6 Repair Materials
General
Repair materials should have short setting times and develop strength fast enough to allow
reopening of the lanes to traffic. In high traffic corridors the sections to be repaired can only
be closed to traffic for a few hours. Lane closure of 6 to 24 hours is considered optimum.
Portland Cement Concrete modified with chemical admixtures or polymers used in these

applications are expected to become strong enough to carry traffic within 6 to 24 hours after
placement. Rigorous requirements for mix design and strength are stipulated for EOT
concrete applications. The uses of such concretes are bound to increase in future because with
increasing traffic levels, only limited duration lane closure for repair is possible. This type of
high early strength concrete is just emerging but durability related issues of such concretes
are not & fully settled. A more cautious approach is recommended to be followed in India.
Repair materials may be classified under Three General Types
(a) Cementitious - Generally comprising of a Portland cement, gypsum or magnesium

phosphate specially formulated to provide opening times of 2 - 8 hours or 20 - 24 hours
(b) Polymer based -Generally comprising of an epoxy, methyl methacrylate, polyester-

styrene or polyurethane based resin mixed with aggregates and a catalyst (hardener)
formulated to provide opening times 6 - 8 hours.
(c) Bituminous - Comprising of a bituminous binder and aggregate mix, these materials are
generally considered for making a temporary patch only

CHAPTER 8
5.8.0 New Technologies for Rigid Pavement
5.8.1 White topping/short Panel Concrete Pavement
Introduction
White topping is an engineered method of placement of concrete overlay on existing
distressed bituminous as well as concrete roads. In India, white topping technology is being
adopted at a very fast rate not only as a measure for overcoming commonly occurring
distresses in bituminous roads but also for the purpose of enhancing load carrying capacity of
the roads. Currently, this technology is being adopted for colonies and street roads of cities at
a large scale. The thickness of white topping generally varies from four inches to ten inches.
Based upon the thickness of the concrete overlay, it is known as ultrathin, thin, and
conventional white topping. White topping has immense potential to result in a stronger and
more durable pavement with respect to bituminous pavements.
5.8.1.1 Benefits of White topping

White topping on existing bituminous pavements provides many additional benefits as
compared to conventional bituminous overlay alternatives. Some of the benefits are
Long life, low maintenance, low life-cycle cost, improved safety and environmental benefits
 Bituminous overlays exhibit a more rapid loss of serviceability as compared to

concrete white topping at some critical locations. The lives of successive bituminous
overlays become progressively shorter after the first overlay.
 Deformation like rutting and cracking predominant in case of bituminous pavements

is normally absent with concrete surfaces of white topping. This is particularly true in
a hot climate like India.
 Conventional White topping improves structural capacity of existing bituminous

pavement, if built on a strong base course, and it impedes structural distresses.
 White topping requires much less maintenance and as such involves much less
frequent lane closures of road, as compared to bituminous surfaces.
 White topping is quite cost-effective to tackle annual budget constraints and high
traffic levels. It is, therefore, quite relevant to Indian conditions.
 White topping can uniformly fill ruts in the wheel path of bituminous pavements more
effectively because concrete is far more stiff and consistent at high temperature than

bituminous mixes. Broadly, for similar reasons, the occurrence of cracks is also
relatively much less in case of white topping.
 Concrete is relatively light in colour and hence concrete surface is more reflective to
light, absorb less heat and reduce the urban heat island effect.
 Improved reflection of lights from vehicles enhances safety, lowers energy
requirement of external lighting, lower contribution to heat in the environment.
 Fuel consumption on concrete roads has been found to be less than the bituminous
road.
5.8.1.2 Types of White topping

White topping is classified into three types. This is based on the types of interface provided
i.e. degree of bonding between the underlying bituminous layer with PCC overlay and the
thickness of the overlay; three types of interfaces are:
 Bonded interface
 Un-bonded interface
 Partial bonded interface
a) Conventional White topping

It consists of a PCC overlay of thickness 200 mm or more (on the top of existing bituminous
layer) which is designed and constructed without consideration of any bond between the
concrete overlay and underlying bituminous layer. Conventional white topping is designed
and constructed like a new rigid pavement without assuming any composite action.
Conventional white topping treats the existing bituminous surface as a sub-base like Dry
Lean Concrete (DLC) and to this extent the condition of existing bituminous surface does not
matter significantly, except that bituminous surface should not suffer from any isolated
damages like subsidence or material related problems.
b) Thin White topping (TWT)

PCC overlay of thickness greater than 100 mm and less than 200 mm is classified as Thin
White topping (TWT). The bond between the overlaid PCC and underlying bituminous layer
is often a consideration but it is not mandatory. The bonding consideration may be ignored in
the design. High strength concrete with fibres is commonly used. Joints are at shorter spacing
of 0.6 to 1.25 m.

c) Ultra-Thin White topping (UTWT)

PCC overlay of thickness equal to or less than 100 mm is classified as Ultra-Thin White
topping (UTWT). Bonding between underlying bituminous layer and overlaid PCC layer is
mandatory in case of Ultra Thin White topping. Milling the existing bituminous surface to an
average depth of 25 mm is normally used to provide the bonding at the interface between the
existing bituminous surface and PCC overlay. Such bonding can be provided by some other
methods also, but milling is considered desirable because an effective bond between the
existing and overlaid surface is absolutely essential for a better performance of UTWT.
High-strength concrete with fibres is normally provided with closely spaced joints (at interval
of 0.6 to 1.25 m). Ultra thin white topping of 50 mm to 75 mm i.e. less than 100 mm is
generally not recommended for Indian conditions Good construction technology in small
urban towns to lay such thin high-grade concrete may not be available
For the details design and construction methodology of Thin white topping IRC: 76 shall be
referred
5.8.2 Precast Concrete Pavement

A new innovative technology of “Precast Pretension Concrete Pavement (PPCP)” has been
introduced which has addressed all the typical deficiencies of conventional jointed pavement
without sacrificing long term durability. PPCP systems are defined as concrete panels
fabricated off-site, transported to the project site, installed (connected and supported) on a
prepared foundation (existing or re-graded foundation). PPCP could be used for repair,
reconstruction, or new construction of both Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) and Portland Cement
Concrete (PQC) pavements. Because the panels are fabricated off-site in a plant, they already
gain strength before they reach the site and the common defects like abrasion, potholes due to
be quality get rid of. In controlled condition, good texturing can be done. Being under
compression for major section, long term durability improves substantially. Jointed pavement
requires expensive equipment and time for curing. The need for costly equipment limits the
application of concrete pavements in remote areas where access to a concrete paver is
extremely difficult due to limitation of funds and magnitude of job. On the other hand, need
for concrete curing limits the application of this type of pavements for high traffic volume in
urban areas where closing the road for a long time is not feasible. PPCP can be used to
construct pavement in remote areas where it is difficult to provide all the required machinery
for pavement construction and where it’s difficult to maintain the required quality. The basic
construction steps of PPCP are shown in Figure 8.1.
The Main advantages in this system are:
 Short work zones –
 No on-site finishing and curing.
 Reduced user delays

 Immediately ready for traffic

 Improved safety/satisfaction – Workers and users
 No need for paver – Less mobilization cost
 Long-life performance – High-quality concrete
The basic construction steps are:
1. Preparing the precast panels at the casting yard and curing them upto the required strength.
2. Preparing the base course at site by developing the crust or by milling the existing surface
as required at site.
3. Transporting the panels to the site.
4. Placing the panels while ensuring the proper level of the panels.
5. Performing the various grouting activities as required by the design.
6. Grinding unevenness at the joints (if any).
7. Sealing the joints.

Figure 8.1: Basic construction steps of Precast Concrete Pavement
5.8.2.1 Advantages of Precast Concrete Pavement:

The major advantages of using PCPP are:
5.8.3 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement

Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP) is intended for roads carrying very
high volume of commercial traffic and where closing road often for maintenance is difficult.
Unlike the jointed plain cement concrete pavement, no transverse joints are provided in
CRCP but longitudinal joints are necessary if the carriageway width is more than a lane
width. Longitudinal steel is provided in CRCP primarily to control transverse cracks that
appear due to shrinkage taking place in fresh concrete and also hold them together. Normally
shoulders are also tied to carriageway, but without joint for improved performance. CRCP
construction in India is limited to small trial constructions or short road lengths in colonies or
factories or Toll Plazas etc. In India, therefore, has limited exposure to the construction of
CRCP and have to rely on the existing international literature and state of the art for this
technology.

Continuously Reinforced Cement Concrete Pavement without Joints
 It is a joint less rigid pavement with continuous reinforcement. Normally fine

harmless fine transverse cracks develop on the pavement at close spacing of about
0.50 m to 2 m. A typical cracking pattern of concrete pavement can be seen in Figure
8.2. Crack width of 1 mm and less is said to be good for controlling spalls and when
crack width is less than 0.6 mm it has been found to be effective in reducing water
penetration.
Figure 8.2: The Type of Transverse Cracks which Appear on the Surface of CRCP
 The longitudinal joints are formed between lanes especially when pavement width is
more than 4.5 m. These are generally tied joints. In addition to providing transverse
bars, additional bars are provided as tie bars at longitudinal joints. And similarly
concrete shoulders are tied for improved performance. Longitudinal joints are cut with
concrete saw and sealed.
 No anti-friction layer or separation layer in the form of polythene sheet or wax based
coating is provided over base or existing bottom layer as provision of such a layer
would result in formation of intermittent cracks at greater spacing but of more width.
 Special joints and anchor beam have to be provided whenever the CRCP slab abuts
with a permanent structure like bridge or culvert or any structure
 Percentage of longitudinal steel reinforcement found from international experience is

in the range of 0.65 to 0.80 percent of the cross-sectional area of concrete (Ref. 2)

Figure 8.3: A Typical cross-section of continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement
5.8.4 Interconnected Block Pavement

Interconnected Block Pavement shall consist of a surface layer of appropriate-sized concrete
paving blocks and compacted over a thin bedding sand layer of specified grading, which is
spread over a properly constructed and profiled base course and is bounded by properly
installed edge restraints. The joints shall be filled by fine sand of specified grading. The work
shall include supplying laying and paving of blocks including all materials, labours ad
equipment and performing all operations in connection with the laying of ICVP as per the
specifications. The typical composition of the block pavement
5.8.4.1 Technical Specification for Block Pavement
a) Base Layer
The engineering properties of base layer, which include load spreading properties to reduce
stresses on the sub-grade and desired drainage characteristics, have an important bearing on
the performance block pavement. The sub-grade shall be prepared as per Clause 301 of
MoRTH specification and DLC shall be provided as per section 7.1.
b) Bedding Sand Layer

The bedding sand layer shall be from either a single source or blended to achieve the
following grading as per Table 8.1.

Table 8.1: Grading Requirement of Bedding Sand
Sieve Size, mm Per Cent Passing
9.52 100
4.75 95-100
2.36 80-100
1.18 50-95
600µ 25-60
300µ 10-30
150µ 0-15
75µ 0-10
The bedding sand should be slightly moist, and the moisture content shall be about 4 per cent
by weight.
c) Joint filling Sand

It should pass a 2.36 mm sieve and be well graded. The grading of joint filling sand is given
in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Grading Requirement of Joint Filling Sand
Sieve size Per cent Passing
2.36 100
1.18 90-100
600µ 60-90
300µ 30-60
150µ 15-30
75µ 0-10

d) Concrete Paving Block

The grade and thickness of the block pavement shall be as per the Design catalogue for
pavement thickness shown in Table 8.3
Table 8.3 Design Catalogue of Block Pavement
Traffic and Road Type Types of Layers Subgrade CBR (%) Grade of
Above 10 5-10 Block
• Cycle Tracks, Pedestrain Block Thickness 60 mm 60 mm
Footpaths Sand Bed 30±5 mm 30±5 mm M-30
Granulated Subbase 200 mm 200 mm
• Commercial Traffic Axle Block Thickness 60-80 mm 60-80 mm
Load Repetitions less than Sand Bed 30±5 mm 30±5 mm
M-40
10 msa WBM/WMM Base 250 mm 250 mm
• Residential Streets Granular Subbase 200 mm 250 mm
• Commercial Traffic Axle Block Thickness 80-100 mm 80-100 mm
Load Repetitions 10-20 Sand Bed 30±5 mm 30±5 mm
msa
M-40
• Collector Streets WBM/WMM Base 250 mm 250 mm
Industrial Streets, Bus and Granular Subbase 200 mm 250 mm
Truck Parking Areas
• Commercial Traffic Block Thickness 100-200 100-200
(Container Yard and see Sand Bed mm mm
Ports) Axle Load WBM/WMM Base 30±5 mm 30±5 mm
Repetitions 20-50 msa or 250 mm 250 mm M-50
WBM/WMM Base 150 mm 150 mm
and DLC over it 100 mm 100 mm
• Arterial Streets Granular Subbase 200 mm 250 mm
Laying of block shall be done, precisely at the indicated level and profile and in a way that a
good surface drainage to the gulley chambers is assured. The blocks shall be laid as tight as
possible to each other. The maximum joint width shall be limited to 3mm. Fine angular sand
as per the specification shall be brushed into the joints and thereafter the compaction shall be
done with a vibrating plate compactor on a clean surface. After compaction, again fine
angular sand shall be brushed into the joints.
5.8.4.2 Construction Guidelines for Block Pavement

The sequence of construction of block pavement should as follows.
1. Levelling and compaction of sub-grade.
2. Provision and compaction of sub-base course (where needed).

3. Provision and compaction of base-course and checking for correct profile.

4. Installation of edge restraints.
5. Provision and compaction of coarse bedding sand.
6. Laying of blocks and interlocking.
7. Application of joint sealing sand and compaction.
8. Cleaning of surface.
9. Filling any remaining empty portions in the block layer especially near edge restraint
blocks with in situ concrete.
5.8.4.3 Sub-grade Preparation

This is the foundation layer over which the block pavement is constructed. Like in
conventional pavements, the water table level should not be at a level of 600 mm or higher,
below the sub-grade level. It should be compacted in layers of either 150 or 100 mm
thickness guidelines.
5.8.4.4 Base and Sub-Base Layers

Base course and sub-base course are constructed in accordance with standard procedures as
per MoRTH specifications. When cement bound base is to construct using dry lean concrete
as per IRC: SP: 49. Constructing the layers to proper level and grade is very essential to
maintain the level and surface regularity of the block pavement.
5.8.4.5 Edge Restraint Blocks and Kerbs

Concrete blocks on trafficked pavements tend to move sideways and forward due to braking
and maneuvering of vehicles. The tendency to move sideways has to be counteracted at the
edges by special edge blocks and kerbs. The edge block should be designed and anchored to
the base such that the rotation or displacement of blocks is resisted. These are to be made of
high strength concrete for withstanding the traffic wheel-load without getting damaged.
These members should be manufactured or constructed in-situ to have at least a 28-day
characteristic compressive strength of 30 MPa. As far as possible the edge blocks should
have vertical face towards the inside blocks.

5.8.4.6 Placing and Screeding of Bedding Sand

The thickness of the sand bed after compaction should be in the range of 30-50 mm, whereas,
in the loose form it should be 40 to 50 mm. It is preferable to restrict the compacted thickness
to 30 mm to reduce the risk of any localized over-compaction, which would affect the final
block surface level. Bedding sand should not be used to fill-up local depressions on the
surface of a base or sub-base. The depressions if any should be repaired with same base or
sub-base material in advance before placing sand. The sand of specified gradation to be used
should be uniformly in loose condition and should have uniform moisture content. Optimum
moisture content is that when sand is neither too wet nor too dry and has moisture of 6 to 8
percent. Requirement of sand for a day's work should be prepared and stored in advance and
covered with tarpaulin or polythene sheets. The processed sand so obtained is spread with the
help of screed boards to the specified thickness. The screed boards are provided with nails at
2-3 m apart which when dragged gives the required thickness. The length of nail should take
into account the surcharge to be provided in the un-compacted thickness. Alternatively, the
screed can be dragged on edge strips kept on both sides as guides
5.8.4.7 Laying of Blocks

Blocks can be laid generally by manual labour but mechanical aids like hand-pushed trolleys
can expedite the work. Normally, laying should commence from the edge strip and proceed
towards central line. When dentated blocks are used, the laying done at two fronts will create
problem for matching joints in the middle. Hence, as far as possible, laying should proceed in
one direction only, along the entire width of the area to be paved.

Section 6 Transport Planning and Environment
Section 6
Transport Planning and
Environment

CHAPTER 1
6.1.0 Traffic Data Collection Methods and Analysis
6.1.1 Introduction
Traffic data collection plays a pivotal role in modern transportation planning and
management. Understanding the movement of vehicles and pedestrians on our road networks
is crucial for optimizing traffic flow, identifying congestion points, enhancing road safety,
and making informed decisions regarding infrastructure improvements. Accurate and
comprehensive traffic data is the foundation upon which cities and transportation authorities
can build effective strategies to meet the ever-evolving demands of urban mobility. Traffic
data collection methods have evolved significantly over the years, leveraging advancements
in technology to provide more precise and real-time insights. From traditional manual counts
to sophisticated automatic traffic counters and GPS-enabled devices, a wide array of tools
and techniques now exist to capture valuable data about travel patterns, vehicle volumes,
speeds, and travel times.
The collected traffic data serves as the backbone of various analytical processes that offer a
deep understanding of traffic behavior. Through traffic flow analysis, congestion
assessments, and origin-destination studies, planners and policymakers can gain valuable
insights into the complex dynamics of transportation systems. This information empowers
them to design more efficient and sustainable solutions that align with the needs and
expectations of both commuters and businesses. In this age of smart cities and data-driven
decision-making, traffic data collection has become more than just a means to gather
statistics; it is a cornerstone of modern urban planning. As we embark on a journey towards
smarter, safer, and more accessible transportation networks, the importance of robust and
reliable traffic data collection cannot be overstated.
In this exploration of traffic data collection, we will delve into the various methods employed
to capture traffic data, examining their strengths and limitations. Additionally, we will
explore how this data is analyzed and utilized to generate meaningful insights and drive
evidence-based transportation planning and management. From traditional approaches to
cutting-edge technologies, the world of traffic data collection holds the key to shaping the
future of urban mobility, ensuring a seamless and efficient transportation experience for
generations to come.
Traffic data collection serves as a fundamental tool in transportation planning and

management. Understanding the movement of vehicles and pedestrians on road networks
holds significant importance due to the following reasons:
1. Infrastructure Planning: Traffic data helps in identifying areas with high traffic
volumes, congestion, and bottlenecks, enabling better infrastructure planning and
design.

2. Congestion Mitigation: Accurate traffic data allows authorities to identify

congestion-prone areas and implement targeted strategies to reduce traffic jams and
improve overall traffic flow.
3. Safety Enhancements: Analyzing traffic data helps in identifying high-risk areas

prone to accidents, leading to the implementation of safety measures and reducing the
number of road incidents.
4. Optimized Travel Times: By studying travel patterns and traffic volumes,

transportation planners can optimize travel times and route options for commuters and
freight movement.
5. Public Transport Planning: Traffic data aids in determining demand for public
transport, optimizing routes, and scheduling services efficiently.
6. Environmental Impact: Understanding traffic patterns enables the assessment of

environmental impacts, helping to design greener and more sustainable transportation
systems.
6.1.1.1 Purpose of Traffic Data Collection:

The primary objectives of traffic data collection are as follows:
1. Inform Decision-Making: Traffic data provides critical information for policymakers

and urban planners to make informed decisions about transportation infrastructure and
management strategies.
2. Monitor Performance: Regularly collected traffic data allows for the monitoring of
the performance of transportation systems, enabling timely interventions and
improvements.
3. Evaluate Policies: Traffic data aids in evaluating the effectiveness of existing

policies and implementing new ones to address emerging challenges.

4. Forecasting: Analyzing historical traffic data helps in predicting future traffic trends,
assisting in long-term planning and resource allocation.
5. Safety Analysis: Traffic data collection supports safety assessments, enabling the
identification of hazardous locations and the implementation of safety measures.
6.1.1.2 Types of Traffic Data

Traffic data can be broadly categorized into the following types:
1. Classified Traffic Volume Data: Records the number of vehicles passing through
specific points or sections of the road network over a given time period.
2. Speed Data: Measures the speed of vehicles to assess the flow of traffic and identify
potential speed-related issues.
3. Occupancy Data: Indicates the proportion of time a specific location on the road is
occupied by vehicles, helping to assess road utilization.
4. Travel Time Data: Measures the time taken to travel between specific points,
providing insights into overall travel efficiency.
5. Origin-Destination Data: Tracks the movement of vehicles or travelers between

specific origins and destinations, enabling the analysis of travel patterns.
6. Queue Length Data: Measures the length of queues at intersections or bottlenecks,

helping to assess congestion levels.
7. Incident Data: Records information about accidents, breakdowns, and other incidents
affecting traffic flow and safety.
Collectively, these types of traffic data form the basis for comprehensive traffic analysis and
the formulation of effective transportation strategies.

6.1.2 Manual Methods of Traffic Data Collection

Manual methods of traffic data collection remain relevant despite the availability of advanced
automated technologies. They offer unique advantages, such as flexibility in data collection
and the ability to capture specific details through direct human observation and interaction.
By employing these manual methods in combination with automated techniques,
transportation authorities can gather comprehensive data that informs effective decision-
making and enhances the overall efficiency of transportation systems.
In manual method, the observer will stand at the point of interest and count the vehicles with
the help of hand tallies. Normally, data will be collected for short interval of 5 minutes or 15
minutes etc. and for each type of vehicles like cars, two wheelers, three wheelers, LCV,
HCV, multi axle trucks, non-motorised traffic like bullock cart, hand cart etc. From the flow
data, flow and headway can be derived. The use of an enoscope is one of the manual
approaches. A base length of around 30-90 metres is designated on the road using this
method. The enoscope is at one end, while the observer is at the other. Through the enoscope,
he could see the vehicle passing the far end and starts the stop watch. When a vehicle passes
in front of him, he pauses the stop watch. Figure 1.1 depicts the operation of the enoscope.
Figure 1.1: Illustration of measurement over short section using enoscope
Traffic Data Collection Methods:
1. Manual Traffic Counting: This method involves deploying personnel to manually

count and record traffic volumes, vehicle types, and other relevant data. It can be done
using tally counters, paper forms, or electronic devices.
2. Automatic Traffic Counting: Automatic Traffic Counters (ATCs) use various

technologies like inductive loops, infrared sensors, radar, and cameras to
automatically record traffic data without human intervention.

3. GPS and Mobile Data: Mobile apps and GPS devices in vehicles can track
movement and speeds, providing valuable data for traffic analysis.
4. Probe Vehicles: Special vehicles equipped with data collection devices traverse road
networks, collecting real-time traffic data.
5. Video Surveys: Video cameras capture traffic movement, allowing for later analysis
of traffic flow, congestion points, and safety issues.
6. Bluetooth and Wi-Fi Sensors: These sensors detect Bluetooth or Wi-Fi signals from
passing vehicles, enabling travel time estimation and origin-destination studies.
7. Toll Collection Systems: Toll booths and electronic toll collection systems can be
used to gather traffic data by counting passing vehicles.
8. Remote Sensing: Remote sensing technologies like satellite imagery can be utilized
for larger scale traffic analysis and studies.
6.1.2.1 Traffic Counters:
A traffic counter is a count of vehicular or pedestrian traffic along a specific route, walkway,
or intersection. A traffic count is often performed either automatically (by installing a
temporary or permanent electronic traffic recording device) or manually by observers who
visually count and record traffic on a hand-held electronic device or tally sheet. Personnel
stationed at predetermined points manually count and classify vehicles into different
categories (e.g., cars, buses, trucks)... Local governments can utilize traffic counts to
determine which routes are most often used and then either enhance that road or give an
alternative if there is an excessive volume of traffic. In addition, some geography fieldwork
includes a traffic count. The underlying data for calculating the Annual Average Daily Traffic
(AADT), the primary indicator used to quantify traffic volume, is traffic counts. [1]
The importance of the Traffic counter provides essential data for traffic volume analysis,
aiding in understanding daily traffic patterns and identifying peak hours.
6.1.2.2 Survey and Interview:

Purpose: Surveys and interviews involve direct interaction with road users to gather specific
information about their travel behaviors and preferences.

Method: Surveyors conduct questionnaires or interviews with drivers, passengers, or

pedestrians to collect data on trip purposes, origin-destination information, and mode choice.
Importance: Surveys and interviews offer valuable insights into the travel demands, trip
motivations, and preferences of commuters, helping to tailor transportation policies and
services accordingly.
6.1.2.3 Video Recording and Observations:
Purpose: Video recording and observations involve visually monitoring traffic movements to
collect detailed data on vehicle behavior and intersection dynamics.
Method: Cameras are strategically placed to capture real-time traffic flow, turning
movements, and traffic interactions.
Importance: Video recording and observations provide visual evidence of traffic patterns,
enabling in-depth analysis of traffic flow, intersection efficiency, and safety issues.
6.1.2.4 Floating Car Methods:
Purpose: Floating car methods involve using vehicles equipped with data collection
instruments to monitor traffic conditions in real-time.
Method: Specially equipped vehicles traverse predetermined routes, collecting data on travel
times, speeds, and congestion levels.
Importance: Floating car methods provide dynamic and real-time traffic information, making
them valuable for evaluating travel time reliability and identifying congestion hotspots.
6.1.2.5 Travel Time Surveys:
Purpose: Travel time surveys focus on measuring the time it takes for vehicles to travel
between specific points on the road network.
Method: Vehicles are tracked as they travel along designated routes, and their travel times are
recorded.
Importance: Travel time surveys help assess the performance of transportation systems,
identify bottlenecks, and evaluate the impact of traffic management strategies.
6.1.3 Automatic Traffic Data Collection Methods

Automatic traffic data collection methods offer efficiency, accuracy, and real-time data
updates, making them essential tools for transportation planning, traffic management, and
decision-making. These technologies enable authorities to respond quickly to changing traffic

conditions, optimize transportation networks, and enhance overall road safety and efficiency.
Generally, traffic count technologies can be split into two categories: the intrusive and non-
intrusive methods. The intrusive methods basically consist of a data recorder and a sensor
placing on or in the road. Non-intrusive techniques are based on remote observations.
6.1.3.1 Inductive Loop Detectors:

The loop is fed an oscillating electrical pulse. A moving vehicle chassis metal content alters
the electrical characteristics of the circuit. A vehicle event is triggered when changes are
observed at a roadside unit. Flow and occupancy
are collected using a single loop system. The
speed can be determined using the assumptions
made for the average length of vehicles. Flow,
occupancy, vehicle length, and speed are all
collected using two-loop systems. Figure 1.2
depicts the operation of the Inductive Loop
Detectors
Inductive loop detectors are used to automatically
collect traffic data based on the presence of
vehicles over magnetic loops embedded in the
road surface.
The significance of inductive loop detectors

Inductive loop detectors are commonly used for traffic volume counting, vehicle
categorization and detecting traffic flow patterns at crossings.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Inductive Loop Detectors
Advantages:
a. It is a very cheap technology. Almost every dynamic traffic control system in this
world uses IDL data.
Disadvantages:
a. Loops are damaged by utility and street maintenance activities or penetration of
water.
b. IDLs with low sensitivity fail to detect vehicles with speed below a certain threshold,
and miscount vehicles with complex or unusual chassis configurations, or vehicles
with relatively low metal content (e.g. motorcycles).
c. IDL data supplied to traffic control systems have a very low sample rate.

d. Not suitable for mounting on metallic bridge decks.

e. Some radio interference occurs between loops in close proximity with each other.
6.1.3.2 Radar Traffic Sensors:

The radar traffic sensor used the position and velocity data it measured along with the state of
the intersection lights to predict when an approaching vehicle would run a red light. When an
imminent red-light running condition was detected, the radar traffic sensor system would
notify the intersection signal controller. The signal controller could then hold the traffic
signals red in all directions until the vehicle cleared the intersection, thereby avoiding an
accident. As shown in Figure 1.3. These sensors use radio waves to detect the presence and
speed of vehicles on the road. The radar sensor emits radio waves that bounce off passing
vehicles, and the reflected signals are used to calculate vehicle speed and traffic density.
Figure 1.3: Working of Radar traffic sensors

Radar traffic sensors are effective for continuous traffic monitoring, providing real-time data
on vehicle speed and traffic flow.
6.1.3.3 Infrared Traffic Sensors:

The sensors are situated overhead to see approaching or departing vehicles, as well as traffic
from the side. Infrared sensors are utilized for signal control, measuring volume, speed, and
class, and recognizing pedestrians in crosswalks. With infrared sensors, the term detector
refers to a light-sensitive element that converts reflected or emitted energy into electrical
impulses. Real-time signal processing is utilized to detect the presence of a vehicle in
incoming signals.

Passive Infrared (PIR)

Detection of vehicle based on emission or reflection of infrared (electromagnetic radiation of
frequency 1011 - 1014Hz) radiation from vehicle surface, as compared to ambient levels
emitted or reflected from the road surface shown in Figure 1.4. The PIR system collected
following parameters: Flow volume, Vehicle presence, and detection zone occupancy. Speed
with unit with multiple detection zones.
Figure 1.4: Emission and reflection of energy by vehicle and road surface. (Source:
FHWA vehicle detection manual)
Advantages
i. Relatively long wavelength of light used in PIR systems makes them less susceptible
to weather effects.
Disadvantages
i. Accuracy of speed information is poor with low resolution sensors. Vehicle length
determination is highly problematic for the same reason.
Active Infrared (AIR):

Active Infrared (AIR)/Laser Low power LED or laser diode fires a pulsed or continuous
beam down to road surface as shown in Figure 1.5. Time for reflection to return is measured.
Presence of a vehicle lowers the time of reflection. High scanning rates provides a detailed
profile for classification determination. Use of Doppler frequency shift from moving object
allows for very accurate speed determination. The AIR system collected following
parameters flow volume, speed, classification, vehicle presence, traffic density.

Figure 1.5: Laser radar beam geometry. (Source: FHWA vehicle detection manual)
Advantages:
i. Very accurate flow, speed and classifications possible.
ii. Laser systems work in day and night conditions.
Disadvantages:
i. Active near-IR sensors adversely affected by weather conditions.
ii. Laser systems impeded by haze or smoke.
iii. Some problems with tracking small vehicles reported.
iv. Relatively high costs compared to other units. Precise, but limited zone of detection
require additional units over other systems.
6.1.3.4 Video Image Processing:

The traffic parameters are collected by frame-by-frame analysis of video images captured by
roadside cameras. The following parameters are collected: Depending on the processing
methodology almost all traffic parameters are captured from video analysis. Simple video
systems often collect flow volume and occupancy. More complex systems allow the
extraction of further parameters.
a. Purpose: Video image processing involves using cameras to capture real-time

traffic data and analyze it using computer vision techniques.
b. Method: The video feed is processed to extract information such as vehicle

counts, speed, and lane occupancy.
c. Importance: Video image processing allows for detailed traffic analysis and
offers valuable insights into complex traffic patterns and behaviors.

Bluetooth and Wi-Fi Sensors:

d. Purpose: Bluetooth and Wi-Fi sensors detect Bluetooth or Wi-Fi signals
emitted by mobile devices in passing vehicles.
e. Method: By analyzing the signals received, these sensors can estimate travel
times and track vehicle movements.
f. Importance: Bluetooth and Wi-Fi sensors are especially useful for tracking
travel times along specific routes and conducting origin-destination studies.
6.1.3.5 Global Positioning System (GPS):

The global positioning system (GPS) is widely used in automotive navigation and traffic
engineering studies such as traffic time studies. Many cell phones are equipped with
positioning functions, and hence they are considered in the same category as the GPS.
If a vehicle carries a GPS receiver on board and it is set up to log GPS signals, it is possible
to record the positions of the vehicle and the time when a location is passed as the vehicle
moves along the road. Therefore, the vehicle would leave a trace of spatial-temporal points in
the time-space diagram, and a curve that connects these points depicts the vehicle’s spatial-
temporal trajectory. From this trajectory, the motion of this vehicle can be understood.
Vehicle-specific motion data such as instantaneous speed, average running speed, and
distance traveled, and travel time is collected. GPS-based data collection provides a
comprehensive view of vehicle movements, enabling detailed traffic flow analysis and route
optimization.
GPS devices track the movements of vehicles and transmit location data to central servers for
analysis.
Mobile Apps and Crowd sourcing:

Purpose: Mobile apps with traffic data collection capabilities and crowd sourcing platforms
allow users to voluntarily contribute traffic-related information.
Method: Users report traffic incidents, travel times, and congestion through the app or
platform.
Importance: Mobile apps and crowd sourcing provide real-time, user-generated data that
complements traditional data collection methods, offering a broader perspective on traffic
conditions.

6.1.4 Data Collection with Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)

Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) represent a sophisticated integration of advanced
technologies designed to enhance the efficiency, safety, and sustainability of transportation
networks. These systems play a crucial role in traffic data collection, offering real-time,
accurate, and comprehensive information for various purposes. Below are some ways ITS
facilitates data collection:
1. Vehicle Detection and Tracking:

 ITS utilizes various sensors like inductive loops, radar, and cameras to detect
and track vehicles. These sensors automatically collect data on traffic volume,
speed, and vehicle classification.
2. Traffic Management Centers:

 ITS establishes centralized Traffic Management Centers (TMCs) where data
from various sources, such as CCTV cameras, traffic sensors, and GPS
devices, are collected, analyzed, and managed.
3. Connected Vehicles:
 ITS enables vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I)
communication, allowing connected vehicles to exchange real-time data, such
as speed, position, and traffic conditions.
4. Probe Vehicles:
 ITS incorporates probe vehicles equipped with GPS and data collection
devices to collect real-time traffic information as they travel through the road
network.
5. Intelligent Traffic Signals:

 ITS implements adaptive traffic signal control systems that use data from
various sources to adjust signal timings in real-time, optimizing traffic flow
and reducing congestion.

6. Smartphone Apps and Crowd sourcing:

 ITS leverages Smartphone apps that allow users to report traffic incidents,
road conditions, and travel times, contributing to crowd sourced data for better
traffic management.
7. Weather and Environmental Sensors:

 ITS integrates weather and environmental sensors to monitor road conditions,
precipitation, and visibility, providing crucial data for safe and efficient travel.
8. Electronic Toll Collection Systems:

 ITS employs electronic toll collection systems that automatically record
vehicle movements and travel times as vehicles pass through toll points.
9. Public Transport Data Collection:

 ITS facilitates the collection of real-time data for public transport systems,
including bus and train arrivals, passenger loads, and service disruptions.
The data collected through ITS is vital for traffic management, transportation planning, and
policy decision-making. It enables authorities to monitor traffic conditions, identify
congestion hotspots, optimize traffic flow, and implement timely interventions to improve
safety and efficiency. Additionally, the wealth of real-time data obtained from ITS
contributes to the development of smarter and more responsive transportation systems,
paving the way for future advancements in mobility and urban planning.
6.1.5 Traffic Data Analysis

The combination of various traffic data collection methods and analysis techniques provides
transportation professionals and urban planners with the necessary information to make
informed decisions and improve overall traffic management and safety.
1. Traffic Flow Analysis: This involves studying traffic volumes, densities, and speeds
to understand how traffic moves through different parts of the road network.
2. Congestion Analysis: Identifying areas of congestion and peak traffic times helps in
devising congestion mitigation strategies.

3. Origin-Destination Studies: Analyzing the movement of traffic between specific

origins and destinations helps in understanding travel patterns and optimizing
transportation routes.
4. Travel Time Studies: Estimating travel times between various points aids in
identifying bottlenecks and areas needing improvement.
5. Safety Analysis: Examining accident data and identifying high-risk areas helps in
implementing safety measures.
6. Level of Service (LOS) Assessment: Evaluating the quality of traffic flow on roads,
intersections, and highways based on predefined criteria.
7. Capacity Analysis: Assessing the capacity of road segments and intersections to

determine their ability to handle traffic demand.
8. Simulation and Modeling: Using traffic simulation software to model different

scenarios and test the impact of proposed changes in traffic flow.
6.1.5.1 Traffic Flow Analysis

The aim of traffic flow analysis is to create and implement a model which would enable
vehicles to reach their destination in the shortest possible time using the maximum roadway
capacity. This is a four-step process:
 Generation – the program estimates how many trips would be generated. For this, the
program needs the statistical data of residence areas by population, location of
workplaces etc.;
 Distribution – after generation it makes the different Origin-Destination (OD) pairs

between the location found in step 1;
 Modal Split/Mode Choice – the system has to decide how much percentage of the
population would be split between the difference modes of available transport, e.g.
cars, buses, rails, etc.;
 Route Assignment – finally, routes are assigned to the vehicles based on minimum
criterion rules.

Figure 1.6: The Four Step Travel Demand Model for Traffic Assignment
This cycle is repeated until the solution converges.
There are two main approaches include System Optimum and User Optimum to tackle this
problem with the end objectives:
System Optimum: In short, a network is in system optimum (SO) when the total system cost
is the minimum among all possible assignments. System Optimum is based on the concept
that the system will control all vehicle routes and that rerouting will be based on resource
usage and overall system cost. (Cost can be thought of as journey time.) As a result, all routes
between a given OD pair in a System Optimum routing algorithm have the same marginal
cost. The equilibrium of the demand function and the marginal cost function determines the
System Optimum in classical transportation economics. Marginal cost is roughly shown as an
increasing function in traffic congestion in this technique. The marginal cost of the trip can be
described in the traffic flow method as the total of the cost (delay time, w) experienced by the
driver and the externality (e) that a driver imposes on others.
User Equilibrium: A network is in user equilibrium (UE) when every driver chooses the
routes in its lowest cost between origin and destination regardless whether total system cost is
minimized. [5] The user optimum equilibrium assumes that all users choose their own route
towards their destination based on the travel time that will be consumed in different route
options. The users will choose the route which requires the least travel time. The user
optimum model is often used in simulating the impact on traffic assignment by highway
bottlenecks. When the congestion occurs on highway, it will extend the delay time in
travelling through the highway and create a longer travel time. Under the user optimum
assumption, the users would choose to wait until the travel time using a certain freeway is
equal to the travel time using city streets, and hence equilibrium is reached. This equilibrium
is called User Equilibrium, War drop Equilibrium or Nash Equilibrium. The fundamental idea
of User Equilibrium is that all used routes between a given OD pair take the same amount of

time. When the actual trip time in the system reaches the free-flow travel time on that route,
an alternative route option is available for use.
6.1.5.2 Traffic Pattern Identification

Traffic pattern identification refers to the process of analyzing and understanding the flow of
traffic in a given area or on a specific route. This is typically done using data collected from
various sources, such as traffic cameras, GPS devices, sensors, and other traffic monitoring
technologies. The goal is to extract valuable insights from the data to improve traffic
management, optimize transportation systems, and enhance overall road safety and
efficiency.
Traffic pattern identification includes:

Traffic Volume: Identifying the volume of vehicles passing through specific locations during
different times of the day or week. This information helps in understanding peak traffic hours
and areas with high traffic density.
Traffic Flow: Analyzing the movement of vehicles through intersections, road segments, and
entire road networks. This helps in identifying congestion points and areas with smoother
traffic flow.
Origin-Destination Analysis: Identifying the origins and destinations of vehicles to

understand traffic patterns between different areas.
Congestion Detection: Detecting areas where traffic congestion frequently occurs and
understanding the contributing factors.
Travel Time Analysis: Analyzing the time taken by vehicles to travel between specific points,
helping identify areas with longer travel times.
Transportation authorities, city planners, and urban developers often use the insights gained
from traffic pattern identification to make data-driven decisions that can improve overall
traffic management and enhance the commuting experience for the public.
6.1.5.3 Traffic Data Visualization Techniques

Data visualization is a graphical representation of information and data. By using visual
elements like charts, graphs, and maps, data visualization tools provide an accessible way to
see and understand trends, outliers, and patterns in data. This blog on data visualization
techniques will help you understand detailed techniques and benefits. The uses of Data
Visualization as follows:
 Powerful way to explore data with presentable results.
 Primary use is the pre-processing portion of the data mining process.

 Supports the data cleaning process by finding incorrect and missing values.
 For variable derivation and selection means to determine which variable to include
and discarded in the analysis.
 Also play a role in combining categories as part of the data reduction process.
Data Visualization Techniques includes:
 Box plots
 Histograms
 Heat maps
 Charts
 Tree maps
 Word Cloud/Network diagram
 Box Plots: A box plot is a graph that gives you a good indication of how the values in
the data are spread out. Although box plots may seem primitive in comparison to
a histogram or density plot, they have the advantage of taking up less space, which is
useful when comparing distributions between many groups or datasets. For some
distributions/datasets, you will find that you need more information than the measures
of central tendency (median, mean, and mode). You need to have information on the
variability or dispersion of the data.
 Column Chart: It is also called a vertical bar chart where each category is represented
by a rectangle. The height of the rectangle is proportional to the values that are
plotted.
 Bar Graph: It has rectangular bars in which the lengths are proportional to the values
which are represented.
 Area Chart: It combines the line chart and bar chart to show how the numeric values
of one or more groups change over the progress of a viable area.
 Dual Axis Chart: It combines a column chart and a line chart and then compares the
two variables.
 Line Graph: The data points are connected through a straight line; therefore, creating
a representation of the changing trend.
 Pie Chart: It is a chart where various components of a data set are presented in the
form of a pie which represents their proportion in the entire data set.
 Scatter Plot Chart: It is also called a scatter chart or scatter graph. Dots are used to
denote values for two different numeric variables.

 Heat Map: It is a technique of data visualization that shows the level of instances as
color in two dimensions.
6.1.5.4 Traffic Flow Analysis includes Traffic Volume Analysis

Traffic flow analysis is a broader concept that involves studying the movement of vehicles
through a specific area or road network, understanding the patterns, and identifying the
factors that affect traffic behaviour. Traffic volume analysis is a fundamental aspect of traffic
flow analysis, focusing specifically on quantifying the number of vehicles passing through a
particular point on a road during a specific time period.
Traffic Volume Analysis includes:
a. Traffic Volume: Traffic volume analysis determines the number of vehicles passing
through a given point, such as an intersection, road segment, or an entire roadway,
over a specific time interval, such as an hour, day, or month. It helps identify peak
traffic hours, traffic density, and traffic variations over time.
b. Traffic Counting: Various methods, including manual counting, automatic counting

using sensors, or video-based technologies, are used to collect data on traffic volume.
These counts are essential for traffic engineers and planners to assess road capacity,
plan infrastructure improvements, and allocate resources efficiently.
Traffic Flow Analysis includes:
a. Traffic Behavior: Traffic flow analysis goes beyond traffic volume to understand
how vehicles move through a road network. It includes studying factors such as
vehicle speeds, acceleration, deceleration, lane changes, and turning movements.
b. Congestion Analysis: Traffic flow analysis helps identify areas prone to congestion
and determines the causes of congestion, such as bottlenecks or traffic incidents.
c. Level of Service: Traffic flow analysis is used to evaluate the level of service (LOS)
of a roadway, which quantifies its operational quality based on factors like speed,
travel time, and delay experienced by drivers.

d. Traffic Simulation: Traffic flow analysis often involves the use of traffic simulation
models that can replicate real-world traffic conditions. These simulations help predict
traffic patterns and assess the impacts of proposed changes to the road network.
6.1.5.5 Traffic Density Analysis:

Traffic density analysis involves the examination and evaluation of the concentration of
vehicles on a road or specific roadway segment during a particular time period. It is a critical
aspect of traffic flow analysis and plays a significant role in understanding and managing
traffic conditions. Traffic density is typically measured as the number of vehicles per unit
distance, such as vehicles per kilometre or vehicles per mile.
Steps to carry out traffic density analysis are:
 Data Collection: Traffic density analysis begins with data collection. Various
methods can be used to collect traffic data, such as manual counting, automated traffic
counters, or video-based technologies. Data can be collected continuously or at
specific intervals, depending on the study's objectives.
 Traffic Density Calculation: Once the data is collected, traffic density is calculated
by dividing the number of vehicles passing through a specific road segment by the
length of that segment. This yields the average number of vehicles per unit distance
for that segment.
 Spatial Visualization: Traffic density is often represented spatially through

visualizations like heat maps or choropleth maps. These maps use color gradients or
shading to show areas of high and low traffic density. Brighter colors indicate higher
traffic density, while darker colors indicate lower density.
 Temporal Analysis: Traffic density analysis can also involve studying how traffic
density varies over time. Temporal patterns can be analyzed using line charts or other
time-series visualizations.
 Comparison and Identification: By comparing traffic density data across different

times of the day, days of the week, or months, patterns of congestion and peak traffic
hours can be identified. This information is valuable for traffic management and
infrastructure planning.

 Level of Service (LOS) Evaluation: Traffic density is a crucial factor in determining

the level of service (LOS) of a roadway, which measures its operational quality. LOS
evaluation helps transportation engineers and planners assess road performance and
make necessary improvements.
 Traffic Simulation: Traffic density data is often used as input for traffic simulation
models. These models can predict how changes to road networks or traffic
management strategies will impact traffic density and flow.
Traffic density is a second fundamental characteristic of any road. It tells you how significant
are the congestion of cars on the road. If the density reaches its maximum, the flow drops to
zero, forming a traffic jam.
We calculate density as the number of vehicles m that occupies a segment of a road of a

length L. To calculate it, simply divide these two values:
The reciprocal of the traffic density is the headway - the distance between the front tips of
two vehicles driving one after another.
6.1.5.6 Traffic Speed Analysis

Traffic speed analysis involves the examination and assessment of the speed at which
vehicles travel on roadways. It is a critical aspect of traffic flow analysis and is used to
understand how efficiently traffic moves, identify potential problem areas, and evaluate the
impact of various factors on travel times.
Steps to carry out traffic density analysis are:
 Data Collection: Traffic speed data is collected using various methods, including
radar speed guns, GPS devices, inductive loop detectors, and cameras. These devices
record the speeds of passing vehicles at specific locations.
 Speed Distribution Analysis: Traffic speed analysis involves studying the

distribution of vehicle speeds. This can be visualized using frequency histograms or
kernel density plots to understand the spread of speeds and identify common speed
ranges.

 Spatial Analysis: Traffic speed analysis can include spatial visualizations, such as
heat maps or choropleth maps, to display variations in speed across different road
segments or areas. Brighter colors indicate higher speeds, while darker colors
represent lower speeds.
 Speed Profile Analysis: Speed profiles show how the average vehicle speed changes
along a specific road segment or route. This helps identify areas with consistent traffic
flow and areas where speed fluctuations occur.
 Speed vs. Time Analysis: Analyzing how vehicle speeds change over time can reveal
patterns related to rush hours, off-peak times, and daily or weekly variations in traffic
speed
 Average Speed Calculation: Average speed is calculated by dividing the total

distance traveled by the total time taken by vehicles on a specific road segment or
during a particular time period.
 Speed Limit Compliance: Traffic speed analysis is also used to assess whether
drivers comply with posted speed limits. This information can be vital for road safety
and law enforcement efforts.
 Traffic Simulation: Traffic speed data is often utilized as input for traffic simulation
models. These models can predict traffic speeds under different scenarios and help
evaluate the effectiveness of traffic management strategies.
Types of speed to be analyzed

1. Spot speed
2. Free Flow Speed
3. Travel Speed
4. Design Speed
Spot Speed: Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle as it passes a specified point
along a road. Spot speeds may be determined by manually measuring (with use of electronic

or electromechanical devices like pneumatic tube detectors or radars) the time required for a
vehicle to traverse a relatively short specified distance.
Free Flow Speed

The desired speed of drivers in low volume conditions and in the absence of traffic control
devices. In other words, the mean speed of passenger cars that can be maintained in low to
moderate flow rates on a uniform freeway segment prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
Travel Speed
Travel speed is the effective speed of the vehicle on a journey between two points and is the
distance between the two points divided by the total time taken for the vehicle to complete
the travel including any stopped time. If the journey speed is less than running speed, it
indicates that the journey follows a stop-go condition with enforced acceleration and
deceleration. The spot speed here may vary from zero to some maximum in excess of the
running speed. Uniformity between travel and running speeds denotes comfortable travel
conditions.
Design Speed
Design speed is defined as the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified
section of highway when conditions are so favorable that the design features of the highway
govern (ITE 1999). This definition implies that the design speed should be selected based on
drivers expectations, the type of highway and terrain and topography.
6.1.5.7 Traffic Flow Relationships (Fundamental Diagrams)

The relation between flow and density, density and speed, speed and flow, can be represented
with the help of some curves. They are referred to as the fundamental diagrams of traffic
flow. They will be explained in detail one by one below.
Flow-density curve
The flow and density varies with time and location. The relation between the density and the
corresponding flow on a given stretch of road is referred to as one of the fundamental
diagram of traffic flow. Some characteristics of an ideal flow-density relationship are listed
below:

1. When the density is zero, flow will also be zero, since there is no vehicle on the road.
2. When the number of vehicles gradually increases the density as well as flow
increases.
3. When more and more vehicles are added, it reaches a situation where vehicles can’t
move. This is referred to as the jam density or the maximum density. At jam density,
flow will be zero because the vehicles are not moving.
4. There will be some density between zero density and jam density, when the flow is
maximum. The relationship is normally represented by a parabolic curve.
The point O refers to the case with zero density and zero flow. The point B refers to the
maximum flow and the corresponding density is kmax. The point C refers to the maximum
density kjam and the corresponding flow is zero. OA is the tangent drawn to the parabola at O,
and the slope of the line OA gives the
mean free flow speed, i.e. the speed with
which a vehicle can travel when there is no
flow.
It can also be noted that points D and E

correspond to same flow but has two
different densities. Further, the slope of the
line OD gives the mean speed at
density k1 and slope of the line OE will
give mean speed at density k2. Clearly the
speed at density k1 will be higher since there is less number of vehicles on the road.
Speed-density diagram
Similar to the flow-density relationship, speed will be maximum, referred to as the free flow
speed, and when the density is maximum, the
speed will be zero. The simplest assumption is
that this variation of speed with density is
linear as shown by the solid line in Figure .
Corresponding to the zero density, vehicles
will be flowing with their desire speed, or free
flow speed. When the density is jam density,
the speed of the vehicles becomes zero.
It is also possible to have non-linear

relationships as shown by the dotted lines.
These will be discussed later.

Speed Flow Relation

The relationship between the speed and flow
can be postulated as follows. The flow is zero
either because there are no vehicles or there are
too many vehicles so that they cannot move. At
maximum flow, the speed will be in between
zero and free flow speed.
The maximum flow Qmax occurs at speed u. It is

possible to have two different speeds for a
given flow.
6.1.5.8 Traffic Pattern Identification:
Peak Hour Analysis:

Peak hour analysis is the process of identifying and studying the busiest or most congested
hours during a typical day or specific time period in a transportation network. The objective
of peak hour analysis is to understand traffic patterns during these peak periods and make
informed decisions to improve traffic flow, optimize transportation systems, and reduce
congestion.
Here's how peak hour analysis is typically conducted:
Data Collection: To perform peak hour analysis, traffic data is collected for a specific
location or roadway segment over an extended period, typically for a week or more. Various
data collection methods can be used, including manual counting, automated traffic counters,
video-based technologies, and GPS devices.
Traffic Volume Analysis: The collected data is then analyzed to identify the hours with the
highest traffic volume or the most significant number of vehicles passing through the area.
These hours are considered as the peak hours.
Spatial Analysis: Spatial visualizations, such as heat maps or choropleth maps, may be used
to display the distribution of traffic volume across different areas or road segments during the
peak hours. This helps identify congestion hotspots and areas with high traffic density.
Traffic Speed Analysis: In addition to traffic volume, the average traffic speed during the
peak hours is analyzed to understand how efficiently traffic moves during congested periods.

Congestion Analysis: Peak hour analysis also involves studying the level of congestion
during the peak periods. This includes evaluating the duration and severity of congestion,
identifying bottleneck areas, and understanding the causes of congestion.
Peak Hour Factors: Various factors can contribute to peak hour traffic, such as commuter
patterns, school schedules, special events, and weather conditions. Analyzing these factors
helps in formulating targeted strategies to address congestion during peak hours.
Traffic Management Strategies: Based on the analysis results, transportation authorities and
planners can implement traffic management strategies to mitigate congestion. These
strategies may include adjusting traffic signal timings, implementing reversible lanes,
promoting public transportation, or creating alternative travel routes.
Modeling and Simulation: Traffic engineers often use modeling and simulation techniques
to predict future traffic patterns and assess the impact of proposed changes or improvements
to the transportation network.
The Peak Hour Factor (PHF) compares the traffic volume during the busiest 15-minutes of
the peak hour with the total volume during the peak hour. It indicates how consistent traffic
volume is during the peak hour.
PHF = (total hourly volume) / [(peak 15-minute volume within the hour x 4)]
= V / (VPeak x 4)
0 < PHF >= 1
A PHF of 1 indicates that the traffic volume in every 15-minute interval is the same and
therefore the traffic flow is consistent throughout the hour. Lower PHF values indicate more
variable traffic flows and that the traffic volume has a spike during the peak 15-minute
interval.
6.1.5.9 Origin-Destination Analysis

Origin-Destination data represents numbers of movements between pairs of geographic
locations. OD-data analysis can help with finding patterns in e.g. traffic flows, commutes,
migrations, and other transportation.
Every origin-destination data record includes a pair of locations:
 An Origin (or Source) location.
 A Destination (or Target) location.

Data representing movement such as trips, deliveries, and foot traffic naturally contain these
locations, making them well suited for an origin-destination analysis.
The goal of O-D analysis is to identify patterns of travel, assess demand for transportation
services, and make informed decisions for improving transportation systems.
Here's how origin and destination analysis is typically conducted:
Data Collection: O-D analysis requires data on the movement of people or vehicles between
different locations. This data can be collected through various methods, including surveys,
GPS tracking devices, mobile apps, or automatic fare collection systems (for public
transportation).
Trip Generation: The first step in O-D analysis is trip generation, which involves estimating
the total number of trips generated or attracted to each zone or location within the study area.
Trips can be categorized into different types, such as home-based work trips, home-based
non-work trips, and other special-purpose trips.
Trip Distribution: Trip distribution refers to determining the probable routes and
destinations of trips from their respective origins. Gravity models and other mathematical
techniques are often used to estimate trip distribution.
Trip Assignment: Trip assignment allocates the estimated trips to specific routes or
transportation modes within the network. This step helps identify the actual paths that
travelers are likely to take between origins and destinations.
Mode Choice Analysis: In some cases, O-D analysis includes a mode choice analysis, which
determines the transportation mode preferences of travelers, such as car, bus, train, or
walking.
Visualization: O-D analysis results are often represented visually using flow maps or origin-
destination matrices. Flow maps show the movement of trips between different locations,
while origin-destination matrices display the number of trips between specific origins and
destinations.
Transportation Planning: The insights gained from O-D analysis help transportation
planners and engineers in developing and implementing transportation policies, infrastructure
improvements, and public transportation services to meet the travel demand efficiently.

O-D analysis is vital for urban and regional transportation planning, as it provides a
comprehensive understanding of travel patterns, identifies traffic hotspots, and aids in
designing transportation systems that cater to the needs of the population. It is used to
optimize traffic flow, reduce congestion, enhance public transportation services, and improve
overall mobility and accessibility.

CHAPTER 2
6.2.0 Traffic Forecasting Techniques
6.2.1 Introduction
Effective traffic forecasting is a fundamental aspect of modern urban planning and
transportation management. As cities continue to grow, the need for accurate predictions of
traffic patterns and volumes becomes ever more crucial for ensuring efficient and sustainable
mobility. The ability to forecast traffic trends empowers authorities and stakeholders to make
informed decisions, optimize transportation infrastructure, and proactively address issues
related to congestion and travel times. In this context, a wide array of sophisticated
techniques has emerged, encompassing statistical analysis, machine learning, simulation
modeling, and real-time data integration.
These forecasting methods offer valuable insights into traffic behavior, enabling us to
anticipate future demands and challenges. This article delves into the various traffic
forecasting techniques, exploring how they work, their strengths, and their applications,
shedding light on the essential role they play in shaping the future of urban transportation. By
understanding and harnessing these techniques, cities can pave the way towards smarter,
more adaptive, and sustainable transportation networks that cater to the needs of a rapidly
evolving world. Traffic forecasting is a critical aspect of urban planning, transportation
management, and infrastructure development. Several techniques are employed to predict
traffic patterns and volumes accurately, helping authorities and stakeholders make informed
decisions.
6.2.2 Estimation of Traffic Growth

Traffic growth estimation is forecasting the future increase in traffic volume on roadways,
highways, or transportation networks over a specified time period. Estimating traffic growth
is an important part of transportation planning and infrastructure development since it aids in
anticipating future demand, detecting potential bottlenecks, and making informed decisions to
handle the increased traffic flow. Traffic Growth is governed by number of factors includes
economic and Demographic. The Economic factors include GDP, Agriculture Output, and
Industrial Output. The demographic variables include Population and Rural/ Urban Mix of
population.
It's essential to consider the uncertainties associated with traffic growth estimates, as they are
influenced by a range of factors, including changes in technology, transportation policies, and
unexpected events. Sensitivity analysis can be used to assess the impact of different
assumptions on traffic growth projections.

Econometric Models
If the past data is available on traffic for number of years and the corresponding data on some
economic indicator such as GDP is also available then the data can yield an econometric
model. A twenty-year period is normally assumed to be the design period for a road project.
However, this can be suitably altered to suit the local conditions. The traffic counts pertaining
to the road during previous years, if available, can be used for projecting the growth of traffic
to the design year. If no such data is available, the traffic can be projected by the growth
factor method, on considerations of the growth of region with respect to population, fuel
consumption, number of registered motor vehicles etc. The Elasticity Method relates traffic
growth to changes in the related economic parameters. This method studies, in an appropriate
perspective, the changes in observed past traffic volumes in the context of changes in relevant
economic indicators in the Social Impact Assessment (SIA), to which it was closely related in
the past. Such parameters include Net State Domestic Product (NSDP), income accruing to
the major sectors of the economy, etc. This method takes into account not only the past
growth of the major economic indicators, but also the future perspective. According to IRC-
108, elasticity based econometric model for highway projects could be derived in the
following form (Eqn.1)
Loge P = A0 + A1 Loge (EI) (1)
Where:
P = traffic volume;
EI = Economic Indicator;
A0 = Regression constant;
A1 = Regression co-efficient (Elasticity Index)
Based on the projected elasticity values for study area roads and the growth of SIA, the future
average annual compound traffic growth rates by vehicle type have been estimated by using
the following relationship (Eqn.2)
TGR = (NSDPgr) x E (2)
Where,
TGR – Traffic growth rate for mode
NSDPgr – growth rate of NSDP in Public Influence Area (PIA)
E – Elasticity value for mode
6.2.3 Traffic forecasting Techniques:

Traffic forecasting is a critical aspect of urban planning, transportation management, and
infrastructure development. Several techniques are employed to predict traffic patterns and

volumes accurately, helping authorities and stakeholders make informed decisions. Here are
some key traffic forecasting techniques:
1. Time Series Analysis: Time series analysis is a statistical method that examines
historical traffic data to identify patterns and trends over time. By analyzing factors
like daily, weekly, and seasonal variations, as well as long-term trends, traffic
forecasters can make predictions for future traffic volumes. This technique is
particularly useful for short-term traffic forecasting, such as daily or weekly
predictions.
2. Regression Analysis: Regression analysis establishes relationships between traffic

variables and external factors that influence traffic patterns, such as population
growth, economic indicators, and weather conditions. By using historical data and
these external factors as input, regression models can estimate future traffic volumes
and provide insights into the impact of various factors on traffic behavior.
3. Simulation Models: Simulation models are used to create virtual representations of

traffic systems, incorporating various parameters like road geometry, traffic signal
timings, and driver behavior. These models can predict traffic flow, congestion, and
travel times under different scenarios, such as changes in road layouts or the
introduction of public transportation systems. Simulation models are valuable for
assessing the impact of proposed projects before actual implementation.
4. Machine Learning Algorithms: Machine learning techniques, such as neural

networks, decision trees, and support vector machines, are increasingly used in traffic
forecasting due to their ability to identify complex patterns in vast datasets. These
algorithms can consider multiple variables simultaneously, such as traffic volume,
time of day, weather conditions, and events, to generate more accurate and detailed
predictions.
5. Big Data Analytics: With the advent of modern technology, vast amounts of data are
collected from various sources, such as GPS devices, traffic cameras, and social
media. Big data analytics involves processing and analyzing these massive datasets to
extract valuable insights about traffic behavior and predict future traffic patterns.
6. Composite Models: Traffic forecasting often requires a combination of multiple

techniques to improve accuracy. Composite models integrate the strengths of different
forecasting methods, reducing the limitations associated with individual approaches.

For example, combining time series analysis and machine learning algorithms can
provide a more comprehensive understanding of traffic trends and fluctuations.
7. Real-Time Data Integration: Real-time data integration involves using up-to-the-

minute information from various sources, like traffic sensors and mobile applications,
to enhance the accuracy of short-term traffic forecasts. This approach allows
authorities to make informed decisions promptly, mitigating traffic congestion and
improving overall transportation efficiency.
In conclusion, traffic forecasting techniques play a pivotal role in anticipating future traffic
patterns and guiding transportation planning efforts. By leveraging statistical analysis,
machine learning, simulation, and real-time data, authorities can make well-informed
decisions to optimize traffic flow, reduce congestion, and enhance overall urban mobility.
6.2.4 Traffic Impact Assessment:

Traffic Impact Assessment (TIA) is a vital process in urban planning and development
projects that aims to evaluate the potential effects of a new development on the surrounding
transportation network. When a significant project, such as a new residential complex,
commercial establishment, or infrastructure development, is proposed, it has the potential to
introduce additional traffic flows into the area. A thorough TIA involves the collection and
analysis of data related to existing traffic conditions, road capacities, peak travel times, and
pedestrian activity. By employing various traffic forecasting techniques and simulation
models, the TIA assesses the projected impact of the development on traffic congestion,
safety, and overall accessibility. This assessment not only ensures compliance with regulatory
requirements but also enables authorities and developers to implement appropriate traffic
management measures and infrastructure improvements to mitigate potential adverse effects
and foster sustainable urban development. By considering the implications of new
developments on the existing transportation system, traffic impact assessments contribute to
creating well-planned, efficient, and safe urban environments that accommodate future
growth while minimizing negative impacts on mobility and quality of life.

CHAPTER 3
6.3.0 Environmental and Appraisal- Mitigation
6.3.1 Introduction
Environmental appraisal and mitigation are critical components of project planning and
development, with the goal of assessing the potential environmental impacts of proposed
projects and taking steps to mitigate or offset these impacts. The purpose is to ensure that
development activities do not adversely affect the environment or natural resources, and to
support long-term development.
6.3.2 Environmental Appraisal

Environmental appraisal involves the systematic assessment of the potential environmental
impacts of a proposed project or development. It is conducted before project implementation
to identify, predict, and evaluate the likely environmental effects. The appraisal considers
various environmental aspects, including air quality, water resources, biodiversity,
ecosystems, land use, cultural heritage, and social factors.
The key steps in environmental appraisal include
Scoping: Identifying the environmental aspects that need to be considered during the
assessment and defining the scope of the study.
Baseline Data Collection: Gathering data on the existing environmental conditions in the
project area to establish a baseline against which potential impacts can be measured.
Impact Assessment: Evaluating the potential environmental impacts of the project by

considering its design, location, and associated activities.
Public Consultation: Engaging with stakeholders and the public to gather their views,
concerns, and suggestions related to the project's environmental impacts.
Mitigation Measures Identification: Identifying measures to avoid, minimize, or

compensate for adverse environmental impacts.

Environmental Impact Statement (EIS): Preparing a comprehensive report, often called an

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) or Environmental Impact Statement (EIS),
summarizing the findings of the appraisal and the proposed mitigation measures.
Environmental Mitigation: Environmental mitigation refers to the implementation of

measures to reduce or eliminate the negative environmental impacts identified during the
appraisal process. The goal is to ensure that projects are developed in an environmentally
responsible manner and that any adverse effects are adequately addressed. Common
mitigation measures may include:
Avoidance: Modifying project design or location to avoid significant environmental impacts.
Minimization: Implementing measures to reduce the intensity or magnitude of potential

impacts.
Compensation: Implementing measures to offset or compensate for environmental impacts,

such as creating new habitats or restoring degraded ones.
Monitoring and Enforcement: Establishing monitoring programs to assess the effectiveness

of mitigation measures and enforces compliance with environmental regulations.
Environmental assessment and mitigation are essential for long-term development because
they help to achieve a balance between economic growth and environmental protection.
Project planners can use these procedures to make educated decisions, adopt best practices,
and protect the environment for current and future generations. Furthermore, following
environmental standards and best practices might improve a project's social acceptance and
support.
6.3.3 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

The Environmental Impact Assessment focuses on evaluating the potential effects of a project
on the natural environment, including air, water, land, flora, and fauna. The assessment
process involves gathering data on the project's scope, the existing environmental conditions
of the project site, and the anticipated changes due to the development. By using various
techniques, such as field surveys, predictive modeling, and expert consultations, the EIA
identifies potential environmental risks and impacts. These could range from habitat
destruction and pollution to resource depletion and climate change implications. The EIA
enables project proponents and regulatory bodies to devise suitable mitigation measures to
minimize negative impacts and enhance the project's ecological compatibility.

6.3.4 Social Impact Assessment (SIA)

The Social Impact Assessment focuses on understanding the potential social consequences of
the proposed project on the affected communities and stakeholders. It considers aspects such
as demographic changes, public health, cultural heritage, livelihoods, and community
dynamics. The SIA process involves engaging with local communities, conducting surveys,
and holding consultations to identify potential social risks and opportunities. Social impact
assessment aims to ensure that the project respects the rights and well-being of the people in
the affected areas and fosters positive social outcomes. It helps in designing interventions and
measures to promote social inclusivity, economic development, and cultural preservation,
ultimately contributing to the sustainable development of the community.
Mitigation Measures: Once the environmental and social impacts are identified through the
EIA and SIA, the next step involves formulating appropriate mitigation measures. Mitigation
refers to the actions taken to reduce or eliminate the negative impacts and enhance the
positive effects of the project. These measures can include the adoption of cleaner
technologies, habitat restoration, waste management strategies, community development
programs, and capacity-building initiatives. The goal of mitigation is to strike a balance
between development aspirations and environmental and social sustainability. Implementing
effective mitigation measures ensures that the project contributes positively to the well-being
of the environment and communities, fostering long-term benefits and minimizing potential
conflicts.
In conclusion, conducting Environmental and Social Impact Assessments and implementing

suitable mitigation measures are integral to responsible and sustainable development. These
assessments allow decision-makers to understand the full scope of a project's impact and
address potential issues proactively. By integrating environmental and social considerations
into the planning and implementation of development projects, we can promote harmony
between human activities and the natural and social environments, contributing to a more
resilient and equitable future.
6.3.5 Case Study: Construction of a New Highway
Introduction: In this case study, will examine the construction of a new highway that aims to
improve transportation connectivity between two major cities. The project involves
significant environmental and social implications due to its scale and potential impact on
surrounding ecosystems and communities.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): The EIA conducted for the highway project
identified several potential environmental impacts. These included habitat fragmentation, loss
of biodiversity, air and noise pollution, and the risk of water pollution from runoff during

construction and operation. To address these issues, the project proponents adopted best
practices such as:
1. Habitat Conservation and Restoration: The project included measures to protect

and restore natural habitats in the affected areas. This involved setting aside green
corridors and implementing reforestation and wetland restoration programs to
mitigate habitat fragmentation.
2. Sustainable Construction Practices: Low-emission construction equipment and

machinery were used to minimize air pollution. Dust suppression measures were
employed to reduce particulate matter during construction activities.
3. Storm water Management: The project implemented innovative storm water

management systems to prevent water pollution from runoff. Permeable surfaces,
retention ponds, and vegetated swales were incorporated to filter and store runoff,
reducing its impact on nearby water bodies.
Social Impact Assessment (SIA): The SIA highlighted potential social impacts such as
changes in land use patterns, relocation of communities, and disruptions to local livelihoods.
To address these concerns, the project proponents adopted best practices such as:
1. Community Engagement: Early and continuous engagement with affected

communities was prioritized. Regular consultations and participatory planning
sessions were conducted to understand community needs and concerns.
2. Livelihood Restoration: For communities facing displacement, the project included

provisions for livelihood restoration programs. Affected individuals were provided
with skill development training and support to transition into alternative livelihood
opportunities.
3. Safety and Accessibility: The design of the highway included features to improve
safety for pedestrians and cyclists. Overpasses and underpasses were constructed to
enhance connectivity and reduce the risk of accidents.

Best Practices:
1. Early and Comprehensive Assessment: Conduct the EIA and SIA early in the
project development process to identify potential impacts and inform decision-
making. A thorough assessment allows for the incorporation of mitigation measures
from the project's inception.
2. Stakeholder Engagement: Engage with all relevant stakeholders, including local

communities, NGOs, and government agencies, throughout the project lifecycle.
Meaningful engagement fosters transparency, builds trust, and ensures that diverse
perspectives are considered.
3. Adoption of Sustainable Technologies: Embrace sustainable construction practices

and technologies that minimize environmental impacts, such as low-emission
vehicles, eco-friendly construction materials, and energy-efficient lighting systems.
4. Mitigation Hierarchy: Follow the mitigation hierarchy: avoid impacts where

possible, minimize them if avoidance is not feasible, and finally, compensate for any
residual impacts. This approach ensures that environmental and social considerations
are at the forefront of decision-making.
5. Monitoring and Compliance: Implement a robust monitoring and evaluation system

to track the effectiveness of mitigation measures and ensure compliance with
environmental and social commitments.
In conclusion, the construction of a new highway presents both environmental and social
challenges that demand careful consideration and mitigation. By conducting thorough EIAs
and SIAs and implementing best practices, we can strike a balance between development
objectives and environmental and social sustainability, ensuring a more resilient and
equitable outcome for all stakeholders involved.

Section 7 Traffic Engineering and Safety
Section 7
Traffic Engineering and
Safety

CHAPTER 1
7.1.0 A Brief History of Road Safety Audit
Road safety audit began in the mid- 1980s when a Road Safety Engineering (RSE) team in a
County in England began to question the number of newly built roads that were appearing in
the list of black spot locations of Surry County. With support from the County Surveyor, a
policy was developed requiring all new road designs in the County to be checked and
approved for safety by the RSE team prior to construction. This checking process became
formalized as road safety audit (RSA), and the RSE team became the first road safety audit
team. It can be said that RSA team applied their black spot investigation skills in a proactive
way so as to eliminate safety concerns at the design stage. The term “road safety audit” came
to be used since then, and continues to be used today, to refer to a thorough and detailed
examination of a road design from a road safety perspective.
7.1.1 Purpose of Road Safety Audit

This Manual is aimed at the road authorities (decision makers), engineers, technicians,
consultants, and contractors, concessionaries concerned with road projects, irrespective of
category of road or the area where they work. The application of safety principles in the
provision, improvement and maintenance of roads as means of accident prevention can be
established through road safety audit. Thus, the purpose of this audit is to ensure that road
users would be exposed to minimal risks of accidents in both new roads and existing roads.
Figure 1.1

CHAPTER 2
7.2.0 Road Safety Audit: An Overview
This section explains the how, what, when, where and why of road safety audits. It provides
useful information for everyone with a responsibility for planning, designing, managing,
constructing, operating or maintaining roads and highways.
7.2.1 The Road Safety Situation

In India, road crashes in the year 2021 itself alone accounted for 1.55 lakh fatalities and 4.14
lakh injuries. In economic terms, the cost to the nation is an estimated 3% of Gross Domestic
Product (GDP). Majority of fatalities are in the age group of 18-45 years. There is a need for
coordinated action by all the key stakeholders to address this serious concern.
In India, a total number of 4,12,432 road accidents have been reported by States and Union
Territories (UTs) during the calendar year 2021, claiming 1,53,972 lives and causing injuries
to 3,84,448 persons. The number of road accidents in 2021 increased by 12.6 percent on an
average compared to previous year 2020. Similarly, the number of deaths and injuries on
account of road deaths increased by 16.9 percent and 10.39 percent respectively,Error!
Reference source not found. Presents the number of road crashes occurred in states and Union
Territories (UTs).

Total Number of Accidents

- 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000
55,682
Tamil Nadu
48,877
Madhya Pradesh
37,729
Uttar pradesh
34,647
Karnataka
29,477
Maharastra
33,296
Kerala
21,556
Andhra Pradesh
21,315
Telangana
20,951
Rajasthan
15,186
Gujarat
12,375
Chattisgarh
10,983
Odisha
9,933
Haryana
11,937
West Bengal
7,411
Assam
9,553
Bihar
5,871
punjab
5,452
Jammu & Kashmir
4,728
Jharkhand
4,720
Delhi
2,849
Goa
2,404
Himachal Pradesh
1,405
Utarakhand
1,049
Puducherry
746
Nagaland
479
Tripura
366
Manipur
245
Meghalaya
208
Chandigarh
115
A & N Island
155
Sikkim
283
Arunachal Pradesh
140
D & N Haveli
69
Mizoram
4
Lakshadweep
Daman and Diu
236
Ladakh
*Source: Road accidents in India statistics released by MoRTH
Figure 2.1: Total Number of Road Crashes occurred in States and Union Territories
(UTs)
2021
2020
2019

Total Number of Accidents

- 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000
Tamil Nadu 15,384
Maharashtra 13,528
Madhya Pradesh 12,057
Rajasthan 10,043
Karnataka 10,038
Andhra Pradesh 8,186
Bihar 7,660
Telangana 7,557
Gujarat 7,452
West Bengal 5,800
Chhattisgarh 5,371
Odisha 5,081
Haryana 4,706
Punjab 4,589
Kerala 3,429
Assam 3,036
Jharkhand 3,513
Delhi 1,239
Himachal Pradesh 1,052
Uttarakhand 820
Jammu & Kashmir 774
Goa 226
Tripura 194
Meghalaya 187
Arunachal Pradesh 157
Puducherry 140
Manipur 110
Chandigarh 96
Dadra & Nagar Haveli 76
Sikkim 56
Mizoram 56
Nagaland 55
Andaman & Nicobar Islands 20
Daman & Diu -
Lakshadweep 1
*Source: Road accidents in India statistics released by MoRTH (2021)
Figure 2.2: Total number of Road Crashes State/Union Territory wise fatalities in 2021
The State of Madhya Pradesh ranked the 2nd highest in the total number of road accidents
(48,877); constituting a share of about 11.851 per cent in the country during 2021.The
Madhya Pradesh had the 3rd highest number of road accident fatalities in the country
contributing about 7.83 percent during 2020. Figure 2.1 shows the State/Union Territory
wise Road Crashes in 2020, 2021 and 2019. As compared to 2019 there is a slight reduction
in 2021, however, this reduction some extent attributed to COVID-19 situations. Odisha is
12th ranked according to the severity (Road Accident deaths per 100 accidents) as shown in
Figure 2.2.

30
( Number of persons killed per 100 accidents) 24.6 24.7

25
22.2
20.8
20 19.1
Accident Severity Index
17 17.9
15.9 15.2 15.6 16.2 15.9 16 16.6 16
15.2
15 14
10
0
2008
2005
2006
2007
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
Year
Figure 2.3: Accident severity during year 2005 -2021 in the State of Madhya Pradesh
Though, with regard to the number of fatalities and accidents Madhya Pradesh is placed
about 2nd rank in India, However the accident severity is concerned it is showing the increase
in trend, which is less than National Average.
7.2.2 What is road safety audit?

Road Safety Audit (RSA) RSA is summarized with the statement “prevention is better than
cure”. As the name implies RSA, is a process of crash prevention – it aims to identify safety
concerns in a road design in order for changes to be made while they “are still pencil lines on
a piece of paper”. By making changes at the design stage, road safety can be built in to new
road projects and the risk to the future users of that road can be minimized. A road safety
audit is “a formal, systematic and detailed examination of a road project by an independent
and qualified team of auditors that leads to a report of the potential safety concerns in the
project.” It is a formal examination because the audit follows a set process that leads to a
formal report which then becomes a part of the record of the whole road project. It is a
detailed examination that requires time, knowledge, skill, judgment, depth and detail.
It requires a team of independent auditors, each of whom is detached from the design team
and who are qualified and experienced in road safety engineering practices. Other
professionals could also add inputs to an audit, but the main auditors shall invariably have
engineering background. Having a team of auditors (rather than a sole auditor) provides a
variety of experiences that increases the likelihood of a potential safety concern being
detected. Two heads are better than one. The outcome of a road safety audit is a road safety
audit report that identifies road safety issues and makes recommendations to remove or
reduce the impact of these. Responsibility to implement these recommendations remains with
the road authority. A road safety audit assesses the safety of all road users – car drivers and
passengers, pedestrians, bicyclists and motorcyclists, truck users, bus passengers, other two
and three-wheelers and users of animal drawn vehicles.

7.2.2.1 Road safety audit is:

• A formal process (not just an informal check).
• Conducted by persons who are independent of the design.
• Conducted by persons with appropriate qualification, training and experience.
• An assessment of road safety issues in a road design, a Traffic Management Plan for
road works, a newly completed road scheme, or it can also be the identification of
safety concerns on an existing road.
7.2.2.2 Just as importantly, a road safety audit is not:

• A check of compliance with standards;
• A Substitute for Regular Design Checks;
• A Crash Investigation;
• An Opportunity to re-design a project;
• A Name for a more detailed site inspection;
• A Way of assessing or rating a project as good or bad.
7.2.2.3 A good road safety audit will be accomplished when:

• Focus is on road safety issues only.
• Keep relevant standards and guidelines in mind while remembering that audit is more
than compliance check with standards.
• Consider the needs of all road users (including pedestrians, two/three wheelers,
animal drawn vehicles, depending upon their presence and proportion in the traffic) in
all weather and lighting conditions.
• It is thorough and comprehensive.
• It is realistic and practical in findings. But do not rule out options because of cost - it
is the road authority that will decide whether the investment can be justified.
• Produce audit report promptly - usually within four weeks of the audit inspection.
Designers are expected to comply with standards but audit job is not to check that they have
done this. Auditing job as an auditor is to put himself into the shoes of the future road users
of the road – how will they use the new road and what safety problems may some of them
encounter? Undertaking a road safety audit can be described as a combination of art and
science – the art of appreciating the needs of the future users of the road coupled with the
science of sound engineering principles.

7.2.2.4 If road authority elects to develop such a program, there is need to:
• Clearly define the stretch of the road to be audited and the types of risks/crashes that
need attention (e.g. collisions with roadside hazards, or head-on collisions, or
pedestrian crashes, or intersection crashes).
• Have an agreed budget available for the remedial work. Unlike many safety issues
identified in design stage audits, which may cost little to change, improving safety
issues on an existing road may involve significant cost!
• Ask the audit team to prioritise their findings (from highest to lowest) to provide
guidance on where to spend programme budget. It is possible that the cost of the
recommended remedial work may exceed the budget.

CHAPTER 3
7.3.0 Five stages of Road Safety Audit:
A brief on the five stages of RSA is presented in the succeeding sections.
7.3.1 Stage 1: Planning/Feasibility Study Stage

An audit on completion of the planning or feasibility study stage will examine features such
as design standards, route choice and continuity with the existing adjacent network,
horizontal and vertical alignments, cross sections and interchange / intersection layouts.
Careful auditing at this early design stage can help to reduce the costs and lost time
associated with changes that may otherwise be brought about during later audits.
7.3.2 Stage 2: Detailed Design Stage

This audit stage occurs on completion of the detailed road design (the final DPR) but before
the preparation of contract documents. Typical considerations include geometric layout,
pavement markings, signals, lighting, road signages, intersection details, clearances to
roadside objects (crash barriers/frangibility) and provision for vulnerable road users.
Attention to detail at this design stage can do much to reduce the costs and disturbance
associated with last minute changes that may otherwise be brought about with a pre-opening
audit.
7.3.3 Stage 3: Construction Stage

This stage of audit takes place during construction of the road works. It examines the safety
of the traffic management plans for each phase of construction for large road projects (i.e.
before the works begin), and it also inspects the provisions for road safety at the road work
site during the construction period. Typical issues examined include the provisions for
pedestrian safety, advanced warning zones, adequate transition zone lengths, worker safety,
and effective numbers of reflective signs, safe delineation, credible speed limits, temporary
crash barriers, lighting and diversions.
7.3.4 Stage 4: Pre-Opening Stage

This audit involves a detailed inspection of the new road project immediately prior to its
opening. Although most road projects are constructed “under traffic” there is a time just
before the Contractor hands over the project when the project is almost complete and when a
pre- opening stage audit is undertaken. The new road should be driven, ridden and walked (as
appropriate) by the audit team to ensure that the safety needs of all road users are provided
for. A night-time inspection is particularly important at this stage to check installation and

visibility of signs, markings, delineation, lighting and any other night time/low light related
issues.
7.3.5 Stage 5: Safety Audit of Existing Roads

The existing road may be a well- established road dating back decades or it may be a recently
upgraded or rehabilitated road. The audit of existing road aims to ensure that the safety
features of a road are compatible with the functional classification of the road. It also aims to
identify any feature that may develop over time into a safety issue (such as a tree blocking
sight lines at an intersection).
The number of project stages at which audits are conducted usually varies according to the
classification of the road, and the size of the project. For example, a major road project on an
expressway or multilane highway may be audited at each of the project stages. For efficient
use of limited resources, smaller projects on roads carrying low volume of traffic may be
audited at one or two stages.
A number of the safety issues found in these audits should be readily addressed through
simple and low cost maintenance practices (e.g. tree trimming, sign and line marking
renewal, and roadside hazard issues). As such, there are benefits in having maintenance
crews trained in road safety reviews so that they can apply their safety knowledge routinely
during each shift.
Another issue with safety audits of existing roads revolves around the use of crash data.
Some auditors like to have access to the Police crash data for the road they are auditing. They
say it helps them to understand some of the proven safety issues along the road.
Others argue that this can cause the audit team to focus too closely on the crash sites,
possibly overlooking other high risk locations. Whichever option is adopted the road
authority should be very clear in its objectives. If it wants a crash investigation, use crash
data together with the audit. However, if it wants a pure road safety audit, the audit team is
asked to inspect the road without access to any crash data.
The audit team should prioritise its findings according to those that can most readily and cost-
effectively be treated. It makes easier for the road authority to undertake the recommended
treatments as per available budget.

CHAPTER 4
7.4.0 What projects are to be road safety audited?
All new road projects will benefit from having road safety audits undertaken during the
design and construction stages. However, in recognition of the need to apply resources to
where they can have maximum effect, road safety audits may be commissioned only at
selected stages according to the cost of the road project or the classification of the road.
It is difficult to be too definitive about the types of road project most in need of an audit but,
as a general rule, audit:
• Any road project on a high speed road.
• Any road project experiencing high volume of traffic and vulnerable road users.
Another question is about the number of stages of audit to undertake. In general, the larger
the road project, the more stages of audit it should have. But remember that it is not the cost
of the project that is important; it is the cost of the mistake!
Safety issues can occur even in minor road projects and if they go unresolved, deaths and
injuries may result. Complying with the road safety audit policy (See Section 4.3 for a draft
policy) of an organisation is an important step forward.
Safety audit in respect of Rural Roads (Other District Roads and Village Roads) and Roads in
Urban Areas may require some special considerations during the audit process. These are
discussed briefly in the later sections.
i) The key groups involved in a road safety audit - their roles and responsibilities
1 There are three key groups involved in the road safety audit process:
2 The organization (road authority) that is responsible for the project and which is
deemed to be the “owner” of the road on behalf of the government. The Project
Manager is the day-to-day representative of the Client on technical matters. While the
Client is usually a road authority, it can also be a private investor (concessionaire) for
toll roads. However, even in such cases, the road authority being the final Client, will
ultimately decide what is to be done (and not to be done) in the road project.
Designers
3 A person but usually a team commissioned by the Project Manager for the Client or
by the Concessionaire to design and develop the road project. The design team may
be a part of the Client organisation or may come from a separate consulting company.
The designers provide a service to the Client by designing the new road within the
stated constraints issued by the Client.
Audit team

4 A team of normally 2 persons who are qualified as road safety auditors and who are
independent of the design and the proposal. The audit team is engaged by the Project
Manager for the Client. While the audit team may come from the Client’s
organisation (provided the team members are clearly independent of the project) they
are now increasingly from specialist consultancy companies. The audit team provides
a service to the Client by finding safety problems in the design.
5 When preparing Terms of Reference for an audit, or engaging an audit team to

undertake an audit, it is necessary to be clear about the interaction of these three key
groups. There must be shared co-operation and a clear understanding that all groups
are ultimately working to one goal. However, the audit team is charged with injecting
road safety expertise into the project and there may be occasions when the other
groups question what the auditors recommend.
6 At the same time, the audit team should recognise that the Client has the
responsibility to weigh up all competing factors and to decide the way forward. The
team should put forward its case for safety as clearly as possible but then leave the
Client, Project Manager and the design team to decide what will be done. The audit
team may be invited to provide additional safety advice during the Completion
meeting or afterwards but the team must recognise the right of the Client to ultimately
decide.
i) Rural Roads
1 Rural roads are generally single lane with low design speeds and low volumes of
traffic (both motorized and non-motorized). In some states, these roads have
intermediate lane (5.5 m) or two-lane (7.0 m) wide carriageway. With development
of rural roads, these roads are experiencing accelerated growth of traffic. One
negative externality associated with this is increased potential for accidents.
2 As with other categories of roads, crashes on rural roads may be caused by one or a
combination of several factors such as:
(i) Road design: compromise on geometric design due to land constraints, lack of proper
road signs, pavement markings and other traffic control devices, poor intersection
layout, inadequate sight distance, unmanned railway level crossings.
(ii) Road condition: Uneven and slippery road surface, pot holes, sunken shoulders and
edge break, rut formation.
(iii) Bridge condition: Gap in expansion
• Reduced risk of crash and its severity while using the road network.
• Enhanced attention to the safety needs of vulnerable road users.
• Lower costs for remedial work at (future) blackspots.
• reduced overall costs of road trauma to the community.

• Safer road networks are developed. Joints, worn out bearings, broken parapets.
(iv) Road users: Dangerous driving (excessive speed, excessive alcohol), fatigue, not
wearing seat belt/helmets. Sections passing through habitations and schools pose
safety risk to pedestrians, cyclists and even cattle and non-motorized vehicles.
(v) Vehicles: Failure of brakes and steering systems, tyre burst, lighting system, night
time conspicuity.
(vi) Environment factors: Heavy rainfall, fog, snow, storm, etc. creating unsafe driving
environment.
3 Checklist: The checklist in Section 7.3 will be applicable for safety audit of rural
roads also.
4 Safety Aspects in Rural Roads: The road agencies responsible for rural roads need to
ensure that safety engineering measures are embedded into the design during
preparation of DPRs and estimates.
5 The following aspects for improving safety on these roads may be given due
attention:
(a) Road signs and pavement markings should be integral part of road construction and
up-gradation works. The signs should be retro-reflective and markings done with
thermoplastic reflective paints. They will also require regular maintenance to serve
the intended purpose. There should be no compromise whatsoever on this requirement
in all rural roads projects and programmes.
(b) Where the existing geometrics of the road alignment are poor, efforts should be made
to undertake spot improvements identifying such locations. In the meanwhile,
appropriate cautionary and speed limit signs should be posted at such locations.
Where there is history of or potential for accidents, proper traffic calming measures
should be provided with proper advance warning signs.
(c) Intersections and junctions of rural roads with main roads need special emphasis. The
layout design may be finalised in consultation with traffic specialists. Provision of
traffic calming measures on rural roads just ahead of their meeting point with the
main highway would be of help. There is also need to ensure availability of safe sight
distance.
(d) Provision of bus bays at suitable location close to villages en-route and ramps for
providing access to agricultural fields may also be considered. At the end of the road,
adequate space needs to be ensured so as to enable turning of buses and other
commercial vehicles.
(e) Provision of proper crash barriers, hazard markers and parapets on bridges and
embankments on curves, especially in hill areas with valleys and gorges posing safety
hazards.

(f) Replacing unmanned railway crossings with underpasses/road over bridges or with
gates to ensure their closing at the time of train passing through such locations.
ii) Urban Roads
1 Urban road is the one with a relatively high density of driveway access located in an
urban area and having traffic signals with a minimum spacing of one kilometer. The
term ‘Urban Road Segment’ refers to the length of road with control arrangements at
both of its ends, i.e. the upstream and downstream intersections are controlled
intersections. Conducting of Road Safety Audit (RSA) of urban roads wherein the
interaction of motorized traffic (MT) would invariably occur with the non- motorized
traffic (NMT). Motorized Traffic primarily consists of buses, cars, two/three wheelers
including electric rickshaws with different dimensions and horse power and a minor
proportion of goods vehicles (tempos, trucks) share the available road space with
NMT traffic which includes cyclists, cycle rickshaws as well as pedestrians
[identified as (Vulnerable Road Users) in the earlier sections] would have frequent
interaction with mixed mode motorized traffic typically witnessed on roads.
Therefore, the RSA should ideally aim at providing safer environs considering such
issues. Recognizing the emphasis of the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs
(MOHUA) as well as Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) to provide increased mobility on
urban roads during the last two decades, these roads are experiencing accelerated
growth of traffic. One negative externality associated with the above phenomenon is
the increasing trend of number of road crashes, especially during the lean hours of
traffic on urban centers / cities.
2 As seen on other categories of roads, root causes for the road crashes on urban roads
can be attributed to one or a combination of several factors such as:
• Road design: compromise on geometric design due to land or Right of Way (RoW)
constraints, lack of proper road signs, pavement markings, poor intersection layout,
poorly designed and ineffectively placed signalized junction, inadequate sight
distance and absence of segregation of NMT from Motorized traffic.
• Road condition: Uneven and slippery road surface and pot holes.
• Geometry: Poor geometrics coupled with absence of associated road appurtenances at

the diverging and merging locations of flyovers.
• Road users: Dangerous driving (excessive speed, excessive alcohol), fatigue, not
wearing seat belt/helmets.
• Vehicles: Failure of brakes and steering systems, tyre burst, lighting system, night
time conspicuity.
• Environment factors: Heavy rainfall, fog, snow, storm, etc. creating unsafe driving
environment due to poor drainage system, inadequate lighting.

3 Checklist: The checklist in Section
ii) Will be applicable for safety audit of urban roads also.

1 Safety Aspects of Urban Roads: The road agencies responsible for urban roads need
to ensure that safety engineering measures are embedded into the design during
preparation of Detailed Project Reports and estimates.
2 The following aspects for improving safety on these roads may be given due
attention:
(a) Road signs and pavement markings should be integral part of road construction and
up-gradation works. The signs should be minimum of micro prismatic grade or better
in terms of its retro-reflectivity properties and markings shall be done with
thermoplastic retro reflective paints. They will also require regular maintenance to
serve the intended purpose. There should be no compromise whatsoever on this
requirement for all types of urban roads.
(b) Where the existing geometrics of the road alignment are poor, efforts should be made
to undertake spot improvements identifying such locations. In the meanwhile,
appropriate cautionary and speed limit signs should be posted at such locations.
Where there is history of or potential for road crashes, proper traffic calming
measures should be provided with proper advance warning signs.
(c) Intersections on urban roads need special treatment in terms of providing facilities for
all types of Vulnerable Road Users. The layout design shall be finalized by the Urban
Local Bodies (ULBs) in consultation with traffic specialists. Provision of traffic
calming measures on urban roads experiencing frequent road crashes in terms of
Speed Table or Speed Hump would be of help.
(d) Provision of bus bays at suitable location at least 75 m away from the intersections.
(e) Provision of cement concrete crash barriers, hazard markers and parapets on flyovers
and bridges.
Conducting a Road Safety Audit - The Key Steps
The road safety audit process: Road safety audits are undertaken to identify safety concerns
in a road design so that those who are responsible for delivering the road project can take
these safety concerns into account and make the necessary amendments at an early time.
The road safety audit process has ten steps. For some small road projects, some of these ten
steps may be brief, but the sequence of steps still applies. The 10-step process is illustrated in
Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Road Safety Audit Process
S. Road Safety Audit Step Responsibility

No.
1 Determine that an audit is needed Road Authority
2 Select a Team Leader, who then selects the audit Project Manager of the Road
team Authority and Road Safety Audit
Team Leader
3 Provide information (the drawings and design Designer (via Project Manager)
reports) about the project to the Team Leader
4 Hold a commencement meeting – outline the Project Manager
project and discuss the audit ahead (plus Designer) and the Road Safety
Audit Team Leader
5 Assess the drawings and design reports for safety The Audit Team
issues (the “desktop” audit)
6 Inspect the site – day time and night time The Audit Team
7 Write the audit report. submit to the Project The Team Leader with
8 Hold a completion meeting – to discuss the key Project Manager
safety issues and to clarify outstanding matters (plus Designer) and Road Safety
Audit Team Leader
9 Provide response on the Audit report, referring to Project Manager/Road Authority
each and every audit recommendation
Follow-up and implement all agreed Project Manager and Designer
10 recommendations and changes
Deciding that an audit is necessary
The Project Manager on approval of road authority decides which road projects are to be
audited. In some road authorities, decision to audit a project is based on the road hierarchy.
Works on expressways or national highways and primary arterials are always audited and
usually at several stages. Projects on other roads are likely to be audited at fewer stages.
A draft road safety audit policy (outlined in Section 4.3) is included in this manual to guide
road authorities about the type of road projects that should be audited and the stages of audit
that may be undertaken. This draft policy may help the road authority to establish an audit
policy that suits the needs of the organisation and road users. Any policy should be realistic
and it will need to take into account the resources (human and financial) available to the road
authority. It may be better to start small and work up.
Sometimes, in the absence of an audit policy, other criteria may be used to decide about
auditing a road project, including:
At what stages in planning, design and construction will the audit be most useful? (Generally,
the design stage would prove the better!)
Will this road project benefit from an audit? (The answer is almost always yes!)

Selecting the road safety audit team
The road safety audit process is quite straightforward, but the qualification, experience and
skills necessary to undertake a successful and worthwhile audit are quite substantial and
extensive. The audit team needs to be able to interpret technical drawings and design reports,
looking for any possible negative (unsafe) features included and at the same time any positive
(safe) features left out.
The audit team also needs to be able to communicate clearly the safety concerns it finds in a
report to the Project Manager. Writing a technically competent, clear and yet concise audit
report is an important requirement. The report should detail the findings of the audit to the
Project Manager and the design team. If they cannot understand the safety concerns detected
in the audit, there is a risk they may take decisions which could lead to either a waste of
public funds or to unsafe outcomes for road users.
However, the most significant aspect of good auditors is their ability to “put themselves into
the shoes of the future road users” of motorized and non-motorised vehicles and pedestrians.
Thus, the auditor will be better positioned to interpret the drawings and design reports and to
draw out the key safety concerns for the future.
Good auditors “put themselves into the shoes of the future road users”
In order to improve the likelihood of engaging a good audit team, road authorities should
make clear in the Terms of Reference that a road safety audit is to be performed by a team
(usually two persons) that is experienced and expert in the process.
Successful road safety auditors will have qualification and experience in road safety
engineering. This experience will be enhanced if the auditor also has an understanding of:
Traffic engineering
Road design and construction techniques
Aptitude for crash investigation techniques
Road user behaviour
There are many benefits of engaging an audit team of two persons to undertake the audit
rather than using a single auditor. The main benefits include:
Different perspectives of the same issue can be gained. This can arise from the diversity of
background and from the different experiences of a team.
Cross fertilization of ideas. When two professionals discuss safety issues in the office during
the “desktop” audit or when on site, they help each other to develop clarity in their ideas and
a wider view of the potential safety concerns in the project.
More knowledge readily available on-site, if the audit team has members with different
background, they can assist each other on technical issues. Two heads are better than one.

A qualified and skilled audit team – with experience relevant to the size and stage of project
being audited – is essential
The Project Manager appoints the audit team and also specifies the number of team members
in the team. The Project Manager may decide to use the draft Terms of Reference (see
Section 4.4) to clearly define the requirements for the audit.
Each audit team should be led by a Senior Road Safety Auditor, having adequate
qualification and experience in road safety engineering.
The audit team leader is responsible for managing the audit, communicating with the Project
Team and ensuring that the report is completed on time. The team leader is usually the most
experienced member of the audit team and will provide technical guidance and leadership to
the other team member.
In appointing the audit team, the authority may consider the following:
Is the auditor independent of the project?
Has the auditor attended an approved audit training programme?
Has the auditor the necessary qualifications, experience and skills for this size and stage of
project?
Is the auditor able to see potential safety concerns from different road users’ points of view?
The first essential ingredient in any road safety qualification and audit team is road safety
engineering experience. In addition, it is important to select member with relevant
experience: is the project an expressway or a local street; is it an urban or a rural road
project? What stage of audit is involved? One of the most critical elements in any road safety
audit is the judgement, technical knowledge and skills of the audit team. There is no
substitute for an experienced road safety audit team that understands the audit process and is
able to foresee potential safety concerns.
How many people should be in an audit team? This depends on the size of the audit task.
However, as a general rule, a team of two members may be considered for most audits. For
minor projects on low volume roads in low speed locations, the team may comprise of one
senior Road Safety Auditor along with one Apprentice Auditor who is qualified civil
engineer and trained in road safety.
Audits can provide an opportunity for less experienced staff to be “assistant and/or
apprentices” on a team and to learn about the process and the skills involved.
Providing all the background information
The project team/design team provides a copy of all the necessary drawings and reports to the
audit team leader to permit a thorough road safety audit to take place.
Care is needed to make sure that the audit team is given the latest version of drawings and
design reports in order to minimise the chance they could be looking at an obsolete drawing.

Figure 4.1
For some audits (usually small projects), there may be only one or two A-3 sized drawings.
For other projects (large projects on national highways and expressways), there may be
hundreds of drawings and a number of detailed reports for the audit team to examine. It does
take time and resources to gather together all the current drawings and documents. The
Project Manager and the design team should be aware of this and should keep this in view
when commissioning an audit.
One of the first tasks for the audit team is to list all of the drawings and reports that have been
given to it for the audit. This list becomes a part of the audit report.
Holding a Commencement meeting
Commencement meetings enable the audit team leader to meet with the Project Manager and
also the design manager.
Commencement meetings provide an opportunity to explain the audit process to the Project
Manager and designers, and to reassure them (if needed) that the audit will help their project.
Sometimes, especially during the early days of audit in a new organisation, some Project
Managers and designers may feel a little threatened by having an audit undertaken on their
project.
After gaining experience with audits however, almost all Project Managers welcome the
safety inputs their project can gain from audits. They start to see audits as the main
opportunity to inject road safety expertise into their project. This is positive and beneficial
to all.
The Commencement meeting is also a time for the designer to explain where compromises
may have been made in the design. Often the designers will already have safety concerns
about parts of their design.
This meeting also provides an opportunity for the audit team to request any other information
that it feels is necessary. The audit team will not be able to inspect the site under all traffic or
weather conditions, so if particular conditions are important (e.g. traffic conditions during
market days), the audit team should be advised.

As audits become more common, commencement meetings will become less significant. The
audit Team Leader will receive the drawings attached to an email.
Checking the drawings, design reports and documents
This “desktop” audit involves reviewing the drawings design reports and other documents in
the office before and after carrying out the inspections.
Take time to closely examine the drawings. Scribble on the drawings and reports as
necessary, and mark issues to be more closely examined out on site. List the possible safety
concerns to be checked on site, making use of the checklists as required.
When back in the office, the audit team uses the drawings and design reports again to double
check for safety concerns now it knows more about the site and its traffic conditions.
The process of reviewing the documents and inspecting the site is repeated as required until
the audit team is satisfied that it has identified all safety concerns that can reasonably be
expected to be identified from the drawings.
Inspecting the site

The location of the new road proposal is to be inspected – by the entire audit team – during
day time and again at night time.
The inspection involves taking the drawings and reports of the proposal out to the site and
inspecting the whole site – trying to imagine what the finished road project will look like and
how it will operate. During the site inspection, the audit team should “put itself into the shoes
of the future road users” of the road project.
While on site, take lots of photographs. A few of these can be used in the audit report, while
the entire stock of photos can serve as historical record of the audit assignment. They can also
help the audit team to remember a specific safety concern when back in the office writing the
audit report. Keeping a record of observations and safety findings on-site can be a challenge.
Pen and paper will work but is often hard to manage in hot, dusty, windy, humid or wet
conditions. Experienced auditors now tend to record their observations verbally direct on to a
digital recorder or a smart phone. These enable more detailed observations to be recorded and
in a shorter time. They are easier to use on-site and they give a digital record that can be
stored in a computer for possible historical use.
While inspecting the site, auditors need to anticipate whether different light (day and night)
conditions or weather (fog, rain) conditions may create safety concerns on the completed
road. The team is expected to look beyond the limits of the project and to include adjacent
sections of road in the audit. Transition zones, where the new road merges into the existing
road system can often become locations of increased risk. It is not uncommon for additional
delineation to be recommended in the “old section” of highway by the audit team as a way of
transitioning road users safely from the new to the existing road.

Remember that the inspection should be undertaken from the point of view of all the likely
road user groups - not just motorists. There are a wide variety of road users, each with quite
different safety needs. It is best to consider them all while undertaking the audit.
Writing the road safety audit report

Writing the report is the responsibility of the Audit Team Leader. Other team member(s)
should double check the report, and provide comments on it.
Occasionally a section or two will be written by a team member. But in most cases, the Team
Leader is the one who completes the report, signs it and submits it to the Project Manager.
Audit reports are concise reports with brief, but technically clear descriptions of each of the
safety concerns that have been identified. It is best if the report follows an agreed format; this
makes it easier for the team to write and importantly it assists project managers and designers
to respond. The Case Studies in Section 6 of this manual make use of the tabular format for
presenting safety concerns and recommendations.
The audit report should contain:

A title page – with the name of the road project and its location.
A brief description of the road project – what type of project, why it has been proposed, and
the stage of the audit.
The names of the road safety audit team members.
Dates of the audit inspections and the weather conditions on-site at those times.
A table of all the safety concerns found from the desktop audit as well as from the site
inspection.
A risk rating (see Section 4.6 for each safety concern.
A practical and clear recommendation for corrective action for each safety concern.
Digital photographs of important safety concerns linked/aligned with the road chainage as far
as possible
A statement signed and dated by the Team Leader on behalf of the team, indicating that the
team has audited the drawings, inspected the site and identified the road safety concerns
noted in the report.
A list of all drawings, reports and documents reviewed as part of the audit, including drawing
numbers and dates. This may be useful for reference later as large road projects often have
several generations of drawings. It may prove necessary at a later time to be quite specific
about the actual drawing and design report that was audited.

When writing the audit report:

List all the identified safety concerns (and recommendations for each) either:
In order from highest risk to lowest risk, or
In groups of similar concerns (e.g. cross section matters, intersection lay out, geometric
deficiency pedestrian matters), or
By chainage along the project stretch.
Clearly describe each safety concern and its location.
Add photographs if they can clarify a specific safety concern.
Avoid being too specific with the recommendations unless certain that the specific
recommendation is the only one.
In framing a recommendation, think about high/low cost and short/long term options.
Be realistic in making recommendations - take into account the level of risk associated with
the safety concern and the cost likely to rectify it.
Be constructive, clear and practical about how the safety concern might be eliminated or
lessened.
Maintain professional credibility. An audit report can often demonstrate the technical
knowledge, skills and experience of the audit team, and especially the Team Leader.
Avoid redesigning any part of the project – that is for the design team to do.
An example of writing audit recommendations

The audit team leader ensures that all audit recommendations in the report indicate the
direction in which a solution should be sought, rather than specifying the solution. Auditors
usually don’t know about the project constraints - if they become too prescriptive, they may
prescribe impractical remedies to a safety concern, and in turn may end up losing credibility.
For example, during a design stage audit, an audit team discovers a steep side slope beside a
national highway. The slope will clearly be undrivable, it will be within the clear zone and it
will clearly be a safety concern. The drawings do not show any action proposed for this
location.
Identifying and reporting the safety concern is the first and most important thing for the audit
team to do. Being too specific with a recommendation when there are several options
available can lead to difficulties. In this case, recommending to the Project Manager to
“Install crash barrier” will often be seen as too prescriptive, and in some situations it may not
be the technically sound recommendation due to issues that are not known to the audit team.
Recommending in an audit report to “Flatten the embankment or shield it” is just as
technically sound and it guides the design team towards a range of options.

Therefore, when writing the audit report and developing appropriate recommendations, audit
teams should address the following aspects:
Avoid specifying solutions in too much detail.
Be realistic - take into account the level of risk associated with the safety concern and the
cost likely to rectify it.
Avoid redesigning – that is for the design team to do.
Remember there may be high cost/low cost and short term/long term solutions.
Be constructive about how the safety concern might be eliminated or perhaps reduced.
Maintain professional credibility.
Remember – the audit team “guides” but it is the responsibility of the Project Manager and
the designers (not the audit team) to make the final decision about the solution and to arrange
for any redesign.
Holding a completion meeting
The Project Manager is responsible for arranging a Completion meeting involving:

The Audit Team Leader,
The Project Manager, and
The Designer / Design team,
At this meeting, the road safety audit findings and recommendations are tabled and discussed.
The meeting provides an opportunity for the auditor, the Project Manager and the design
team to discuss all and any issues in the report. This will usually involve a discussion of each
safety concern, its risk rating and priority and its recommended ways to overcome the
identified safety problem.
The meeting should be held in a professional and co-operative manner with a spirit of all
parties working together for the enhanced safety of road users. It should not become a
meeting of blame game, or serious dispute. A safety audit is a positive activity that helps to
improve road safety for all road users by highlighting potential safety concerns before they
become problems.
A Project Manager may ask for an audit report to be altered or to have some safety concerns
removed. This happens rarely and it is neither professional nor ethical. In such cases, the
Team Leader must not entertain any suggestion of altering a report to “soften” the audit
findings.
The Project Manager is required to provide his response in writing to each and every
recommendation in the report. At that time, he/she will be able to state why a

recommendation has not been able to be accepted. The audit process is a professional,
transparent and positive process with one goal
– To improve safety for all road users.
With passage of time, completion meetings might become less common. Similar to
commencement meetings, the completion meeting will eventually give way to a transfer of
the audit report via email to the Project Manager.
Providing response to the audit report
The Project Manager is required to provide response in writing to each audit recommendation
in the report.
He/she can either:
Accept it completely (and develop solutions to overcome or reduce the safety concern); or
Accept the safety concern but not agree to the recommendation. In these cases, he/she will
seek alternative ways to resolve the safety concern; or
Not accept the recommendation (explaining clearly why this decision has been taken).
To provide useful feedback, the Project Manager should send a copy of the response to the
audit Team Leader for information. The audit team should note the responses and where
possible learn from them. The team should be aware that they should not create an on-going
dispute over which recommendations have or have not been accepted.
As mentioned earlier, the audit team “guides” but it is the responsibility of the Project
Manager and the designers (not the audit team) to make the final decision about the solution
and to arrange for any redesign.
Deciding the way forward

The audit team has quite a straight forward task – to identify all the safety concerns that
might exist in a road design for a new road project. If there is any doubt about whether or not
an issue is likely to become a safety concern, the usual routine is to include that issue – just in
case!
A part of the audit process that is often more challenging and demanding rests with the
Project Manager and the road authority. How does the client decide whether or not to accept
an audit recommendation? It is neither always possible nor practical to agree with all
recommendations as some of these may involve large additional expenses that will affect
progress with the project. In practice, this challenge facing the decision makers usually only
arises with the ‘very expensive’ recommendations and occasionally with ‘complex’
recommendations; it rarely happens with simple and/or low cost recommendations.
As a guiding principle, when faced with an audit recommendation that is difficult to resolve,
the Project Manager needs to consider and weigh up the following aspects:

How often might crashes occur? (Weekly, monthly, yearly)

How serious might such crashes be? (Fatal, injury, property damage only),
What will it cost to remedy (or at least reduce) the problem? With most safety concerns, there
are usually several alternative remedies.
How effective can each alternative be expected to be?
Following up and implementing agreed recommendations and changes
A road safety audit achieves nothing for the road users until its recommendations are
discussed, decided and implemented.
As mentioned earlier, in many audits, particularly while the project is still in the design stage,
the changes can be made at low cost. At times, however, an audit may reveal safety concerns
that cause difficult decisions to be made by the Project Manager, usually because the cost of
remedial action is so high.
In these cases, the usual options available to the Project Manager include:
Staging the improvement work over an increased period of time, possibly into the next
financial year when more funding may be available.
Seeking an increase in the project budget to allow the desired countermeasures.
These are all valid decisions, provided they are committed in writing in the response report
with clear reasons given. The audit process can direct Project Managers towards a safer
alternative but it is the responsibility of the Project Manager to ultimately decide on the
course of action. As long as all competing issues are clearly and fully considered for each
identified safety concern, the audit team should be satisfied that its contribution has been of
value to the project.
7.4.1 Managing Road Safety Audit

This Section outlines some of the main points in managing a road safety audit. It provides
useful information to help to get road safety audit started in an organization, as well as
information about developing a road safety audit policy for an organization. Essential
information for those responsible for commissioning road safety audits is provided.
Road safety audit is a process that road authorities should embrace as part of an overall
strategic approach to road safety. However, for those road authorities with comparatively less
experience with road safety audits, there may be some uncertainty about how best to go about
implementing the process into their planning/design/construction programs.
This Section provides some guidance and advice for decision makers, managers, engineers
and staff of road authorities. It offers special assistance to those who are responsible for
implementing the road safety audit process within their organization, or who are required to
engage consultants or safety auditors to carry out safety audits of their road projects.

7.4.2 Putting road safety audit to work in the road authority

For those road authorities yet to introduce the road safety audit process into their road
planning/design/construction process, the following points provide guidance about the way
forward:
Whether there is a formal commitment to improving road safety and this kind of support and
empowerment is critical to creating a “safety culture” within a road authority.
Include road safety in the Action Plan of organization, and commit to developing a Road
Safety Action Plan.
Develop a Road Safety Action Plan. Base it on relevant road safety strategies (such as
existing national and state road safety strategies). There is need to include a programme for
the treatment of hazardous road locations (a black spot programme) as well as the road safety
audit process.
Hold an open meeting of senior technical staff to discuss and address the important road
safety audit issues that will arise in the organization. In so doing, develop an audit policy and
a set of basic audit practices which meet the needs of organization. Points that may arise in
that meeting include:
How will the organization get adequate road safety audit skills and resources?
What needs to be done for the audit process to be understood by senior executives, managers,
designers and potential auditors?
Designers may initially express reluctance at having their work audited. How can this be
addressed?
How much training is required and for whom (departmental manager, engineers, designers,
potential auditors)?
What road projects are to be audited in the organization? Only the largest projects, or only
those on the busiest roads, or maybe urban only, or perhaps all projects above a certain cost
or length.
How will road safety audit requirement be incorporated into design and construction
contracts?
What proportion/number of projects will be audited? At what design stages will audits be
conducted?
Who will be conducting audits? Will it be outsourced? If so, how to find and decide on
auditors – best value for money, skills or experience? Who manages the panel of certified
road safety auditors? Who can give advice on these issues?
How will audit recommendations be dealt with? Who will decide to accept or reject the more
“difficult” recommendations? A formal process is required.
How will audit findings be fed back into the design process to improve future designs?

Get started. Consider calling in a team of qualified and experienced road safety auditors to
undertake some pilot projects of road designs. Use their findings in a training workshop that
includes managers, designers and potential future auditors as participants. Practical examples
are very convincing. Designers and Project Managers of the road authorities quickly become
audit supporters when they see for themselves some of the safety issues that arise in some
road designs.
Adhere to the agreed road safety audit policy to improve designs before they are built. Get
feedback from auditors, designers and managers and then modify the audit policy and the
audit process to best suit the road authority as experience grows.
Be prepared for some mistakes but take time to learn from those mistakes so that the road
safety audit process can develop and grow in the organisation. After gaining experience with
design stage audits, consider undertaking safety audits of the existing road network (possibly
in conjunction with a program of treating hazardous road locations).
Let the senior executives know how the audit process is progressing in the organisation. Give
them examples of where road users have benefited because of the road safety improvements
generated through the audit process, and let them know how staff members are learning new
skills as a result of the process.
Keeps it going! Once road safety audit becomes established in the organisation there can be a
temptation to believe that it will happen automatically. This may or may not be so. Monitor
the quality and the quantity of audit reports. Maintain a training and awareness program.
Ensure that road safety audit is promoted with continued energy and passion.
7.4.3 Options for having a road safety audit undertaken

The road authority for a road project is responsible for appointing a Project Manager to
oversee the project on its behalf. There are three key attributes that the Project Manager
should ensure when engaging a team of road safety auditors.
The audit team should be:
Qualified – satisfy the requirements laid down for a Senior Road Safety Auditor/Auditor.
Experienced – demonstrated experience with the type of road project and the stage of audit
Independent – clearly have no previous involvement in the planning or design of the road
project.
Without a qualified and experienced audit team, the road authority may end up with an audit
report that fails to add value to the project. If the team is not fully independent of the project,
they could be too forgiving of some of the safety issues involved because they know of the
design constraints that have led to them. Independence is important for the fresh
identification of safety issues, as well as to ward off possible accusations of “soft” audits.
With these key attributes in mind, the main options for getting audits done are:

Engage an independent consultancy firm – have the Project Manager engage an experienced
consultancy firm to do the audit. This option ensures that the audit is independent, and over
time may lead to a competitive market in providing audit services to road authorities. A
sample Terms of Reference for a road safety audit is given in Section 4.4.
Use in-house staff – this option has the advantage that it is quick and easy to arrange, and it
can mean that the auditors can see the scheme through to completion. It is necessary to ensure
that the staff used are trained and experienced in road safety audit and is independent of the
design. By adding to their practical audit experience, the in- house staff can develop their
awareness of the audit process and they may therefore be more discerning when obtaining
audits in the future.
7.4.4 A suggested road safety audit policy

There is a need for all staff in a road authority to be clear about what road projects are to be
audited and at what stages this should be done. It is equally important to ensure that road
safety audit becomes firmly established in a road authority.
Both of these needs are best satisfied by formulating a road safety audit policy by the
authority.
Such a policy should detail the type of road project to be audited, the stage(s) of audit that
will be undertaken and the reporting and response systems. The policy should be
disseminated widely to all professionals in the road authority, as well as to all professionals
who have dealings with the authority on road and safety related matters.
An example of a draft road safety audit policy for the road authority is given below. It is to be
remembered that any policy (whether about road safety audits or any other subject) should be
a “living” document. It should be reviewed and updated as experience with the process grows
within the road authority.
“Road projects to be undertaken by the [insert name of road authority] will be road safety
audited at the following stages (Table 4.2) according to the class of the road, in accordance
with the procedures contained in the IRC “Manual on Road Safety Audit”:

Table 4.2: Suggested Stages of RSA
Audit Tollways / National State Major District Urban Local

Expressways Highways Highways Roads Arterial, Sub Streets,
Arterial and Rural Roads
Collector
Roads
Planning Optional Optional Optional Optional N/A
(DPR)
Design*
Construction Optional Optional Optional
Pre-opening Optional Optional
Existing According to local policy and resources

Roads
For BoT, Annuity, Hybrid Annuity, EPC, the stage of Feasibility Report by the Road
Authority and later Design Stage by the Concessionaire or the Contractor as relevant
The road authority should consider the resources available and the demands for the coming
years in formulating its audit policy. Once agreed, the policy should be widely promoted
throughout the authority so that staff is aware of its importance and to confirm that they use it
to guide them in their audit work.
7.4.5 Draft terms of reference for commissioning a road safety audit

The following draft Terms of Reference is provided for use by the road authority and their
Project Managers when required to engage suitable consultants or others to carry out a road
safety audit. Details of the proposal and specific issues to do with the management of the
audit are to be inserted where shown.
Terms of Reference for a [insert name of road authority]
Stage Road Safety Audit of [insert name of the road project]
Background
The [insert name of road authority] has developed a proposal to [insert a brief description of
the type and location of the proposal] in order to provide improved capacity and traffic
performance along this road stretch/bridge project as well as increased safety for all road
users.

The Task
The task in this assignment is to carry out a [insert stage name] stage road safety audit of the
proposed [insert name of project] so that potential road safety problems can be `identified,
discussed and minimized before the project is completed.
The audit shall be undertaken in accordance with the process detailed in IRC “Manual on
Road Safety Audit”.
Scope of Services
The scope of services required of the audit team will include, but is not necessarily limited to,
the following:
That the audit be undertaken by an audit team of two auditors.
That the Team Leader is a Senior Road Safety Auditor and is empanelled as such by the
competent authority.
Attendance by the Audit Team at a Commencement Meeting with the Project Manager and
designers in order to obtain full information about the proposal and an understanding of the
background to the project. A review of all documents provided by the Project Manager prior
to inspecting the site and again prior to finalizing the audit report.
Day and night time inspections of the entire site so as to get a better understanding of the
existing traffic situation and
An insight into how the finished project will look.
The auditors may consult the appropriate checklist in the “Manual on Road Safety Audit”,
but not limit their audit to the concerns listed therein. They should look at the safety needs of
all road users of this location, especially vulnerable road users.
Preparation of a concise road safety audit report in the format outlined in the Manual.
The audit report shall include a clear description of all safety concerns which have been
identified. It shall contain practical recommendations for each safety concern which shall be
of an appropriate and specific nature.
The Team Leader is to sign and submit the audit report to the Project Manager.
The Audit Team Leader is to attend the Project Manager’s Completion Meeting in order to
answer questions about the audit findings and to discuss the audit recommendations and
possible design changes and/or remedial treatments.
The following information will be made available by the road authority to the audit team
leader for the audit: [insert the list of reports, drawings, data, etc.]
NOTE: As experience grows with road safety audits, the road authority may decide to hand
over the drawings and design reports without holding a Commencement Meeting. Similarly
there may not be any need for a Completion Meeting once the audit process is well
established in the organisation.

Qualifications and Experience
The audit services are to be provided by a team comprising two road safety engineering
specialists and shall be road safety auditors. Sound knowledge of road safety engineering and
practical experience in highway design and traffic engineering is required by the audit team.
Required Inputs
[Adjust these requirements to suit the scale and complexity of the project]
The assignment is expected to take up to 20 person days, as follows:
6 person days reviewing the reports/ drawings and attending the Commencement Meeting
4 person days inspecting the site (day and night time inspections are required)
8 person days preparing the road safety audit report.
2 person days to attend the Completion Meeting, (This will normally be held within one
month of the audit report being submitted.)
Reporting
The Senior Road Safety Auditor shall submit the completed and signed road safety audit
report to the Project Manager in electronic format by [write submission date for the audit
report]
Any questions about the proposal or the audit are to be directed by the Senior Auditor to
[insert name of the responsible engineer] via telephone [insert number] or email [insert email
address.
Empanelment of Road Safety Audit Consultant
The road authority may consider empanelment/short listing of road safety audit
consultant/firms based on their qualification, knowledge and experience in the field of
highway/ traffic and transportation/ road safety engineering.
Following criteria may be considered for engaging auditor by the consulting firm/consultant.
Senior Road Safety Auditor should:
Be a graduate in civil engineering with more than 10 years’ experience in design,

construction and maintenance of roads,
Have completed an approved road safety audit training program of at least two weeks
duration,
Have a minimum of three years practical experience in road safety, and
Have completed at least five road safety audits, at least three of the five audits must be at a
design stage.
Road Safety Auditor should:

Be a graduate in civil engineering with more than 7 years’ experience in design, construction
and maintenance of roads,
duration,
Have a minimum of two years practical experience in a road safety,
Have completed at least three road safety audits,
Road Safety Assistant/Apprentice should:
Be a graduate in civil engineering with more than 2 years’ experience in design, construction
and maintenance of roads, and
duration
7.4.6 Risk Assessment of Safety Concerns and Prioritization of Suggested

Recommendations
When an audit report contains a number of safety concerns, the Project Manager Needs
assistance to assess the risk involved in the safety concerns and also priority level in which
recommendations can be adopted
Risk is often defined as the likelihood (frequency) of an event times the consequence
(severity) of that event. Table 4.3 gives simple criteria for the risk involved in the safety
concerns assessed by the safety auditor. It is a qualitative assessment process and it requires
professional judgment of the Audit Team.
Table 4.4 gives guidance for a safety auditor in assigning priority level for each
recommendation that can be considered by the Client/ Project Manager in view of the
constraints in implementing.

Table 4.3: Criteria for Risk Assessment
Severity Description Examples
Very High Multiple deaths are likely High speed, multi-vehicle crashes on
expressways. A bus collision at high speed with
a bridge abutment.
High A death and/or serious High/medium speed vehicle/vehicle collisions.

injuries are likely High/medium speed collisions with a fixed
roadside object. Pedestrian crashes on rural
highways.
Medium Minor injuries only are Low speed collisions, such as a three-wheeler
likely colliding with a bicyclist, a rear end crash in a
slip lane, or a pedestrian struck in a car park.
Table 4.4: Assigning Priority Level for Suggested Recommendations
Priority Suggested Treatment Approach
Essential Where risk is assessed as Very High, the recommendation shall be

implemented “at any cost”.
Where risk is assessed as High, the recommendation shall be

implemented unless cost of remedial treatment is prohibitive and risk
Highly Desirable
can be reduced by an alternative measure.
Desirable Where risk is assessed as Medium, the recommendation shall be

implemented if the safety concerns could not be mitigated even after the
implementation of the recommendations under “essential;” and ‘highly
desirable’ priority levels for the same location and the risk needs to be
reduced further.

CHAPTER 5
7.5.0 Road Markings and Signs
Road Markings
The Commonly used Materials for Road Markings are:

Hot Applied Thermoplastic Compound
Solvent borne and Waterborne Road Marking Paints
Other special material for road marking includes Cold Applied Plastics and Preformed
Adhesive Tapes. For more details kindly refer IRC: 35.
Colour Pattern for Markings
1. White
Because of the visibility and good contrast against the road surface, the white colour should
be widely used for road markings.
2. Yellow
The longitudinal marking in yellow colour should be used to convey message where it is not
permitted to cross the markings. Yellow colour is also used to show parking restrictions and
to impose other traffic control. Yellow colour is defined as per IS Colour No. 356.
3. Blue
The blue colour should be used to indicate new and special markings which are not
conventional. Blue is the colour of public transportation including three wheelers, scooter and
rickshaws. The blue colour shall be used to indicate dedicated bus lanes in the Bus Rapid
Transit (BRT) corridor on urban streets. In the bus lanes being marked across the
intersection, the blue marking should be used to inform the road users that the lane is
specifically meant for buses and other vehicle should not drive or stop in this lane.
4. Green
The green colour should be deployed to distinguish the bicycle and non-motorised transport
facilities provided on the road. Green colour background should be marked at the intersection
to give priority to the cyclists and pedestrians in crossing the road. When the motorized

vehicles and non-motorized vehicles share the same carriageway, the green background lanes
are preferred. When dedicated non-motorized lanes are built, a special green cycle boxes
should also be used.
5. Red/Purple
Where multiple road users are sharing the road space on hazardous locations, the red colour
marking is primarily used to help people understand the danger. Red marking is highly
recommended on hazardous intersections and also at places where pedestrians traffic conflict
with the motorized traffic.
Visibility Related to Speeds

Road signs must be easily seen both during the day and at night. When there are no
visual indications on the sides of the road at night or during low light conditions, road
markings become a crucial aid for drivers to follow.
The drivers must generally be able to see guiding markings from a distance equal to at
least two seconds of travel time. Based on the requirements, Table 5.1 provides the minimum
preview distance.
Table 5.1: Reaction Time for Drivers at Minimum Preview Distance
Speed (kmph) 30 40 50 65 70 80 90 100 110 120

Preview Distance (m)
17 22 28 36 39 44 50 56 61 67
2 Seconds of Travel Time
Retro Reflectivity
Glass beads that are partially embedded on the surface of the marking as a binder material
and also distributed externally during application time are used in pavement marking to
achieve retro reflection, as illustrated in Figure 5.1. As glass beads reflect light from a
driver's headlamp, their quality has a significant impact on how retroreflective pavement
markings are.
Figure 5.1: Glass Bead Reflection

Classification of Pavement Markings

Pavement Markings are broadly classified into following seven categories based on the
placement of markings with regard to vehicular movement and also based on the function of
the markings
i. Longitudinal Marking (LM)
ii. Transverse Marking (TM)
iii. Hazard Marking (HM)
iv. Block Marking (BM)
v. Arrow Marking (AM)
vi. Directional Marking (DM)
vii. Facility Marking (FM)
Markings for Road Links

Only single carriageway highways should make use of the centre lines to divide
opposing traffic lanes and ease movement between them. Normally, the centre line is put in
the middle of the carriageway, although the following situations may prevent this from
happening:
Location of the carriageway width transition
More turning lanes at intersections
Uneven number of lanes on straightaways and curves with short sight distances.
Urban roads with one-side parking only; urban roads with an odd number of lanes; urban
roads with extra lanes designated to the main direction of flow; Curves with additional
expansion.
Traffic Lane Lines

For cars to move in the right lanes and to reduce drivers' tendency to meander, the roadway
with two or more in one direction is divided into separate lanes by traffic lane line markings,
thereby encouraging safety and guaranteeing maximum capacity. The marking of traffic lanes
at intersections and on their approaches remove confusion and makes turning and through
movements easier. Additionally, traffic lanes should be designated in crowded areas when the
roadway may support more than one lane, in other dangerous sites in rural and urban areas,
near pedestrian crossings, and on significant one-way streets. Traffic lanes shouldn't be
marked arbitrarily because respect for road markings increases with proper usage.

No Overtaking Lines
On two- and three-lane roadways, there shall be no passing zones constructed on summit
curves, horizontal bends, or anywhere else where overtaking manoeuvre is required to be
forbidden due to constrained visibility or other hazardous circumstances.
Rarely do vehicles need to cross the centre line for overtaking on undivided highways with
more than three lanes. For such roadways, the double solid centre line is to be treated as a
continuous no-overtaking marking that cannot be crossed on any side. A single or double
solid line along the middle shall delineate the no-overtaking zone.
Border or Edge Lines

The border or edge lines serve to define the boundaries within which a driver can safely go
by indicating where the carriageways finish. Driving at night in bad weather is made
comfortable by this constant rule.
The pavement edge lines are preferred in the following locations: In front of and near narrow
bridges and around sharp curves; Where obstructions on the shoulder are close enough to
pose a hazard to the driver; On pavement width transitions; On heavily trafficked two and
three lane roads where head lamp dazzle is severe; Along lengths which are sufficiently long.
7.5.1 Classification of Road Signs as per IRC 67
Mandatory / Regulatory Signs:-

The shape of all Mandatory or Regulatory Signs is circular. The triangular GIVEWAY or
YIELD sign and the octagonal red STOP sign are the only deviations in terms of shape and
sign. These two signs inform motorists on who has the right of way. Using signs like
"overtaking prohibited," "U-turn prohibited," or "cycles prohibited," as well as restrictions on
parking like "parking prohibited" and size and speed limits for vehicles like "speed limit" and
"maximum load limit," mandatory and prohibited manoeuvres are indicated. On a white
background, they have a red circular ring and diagonal bars with black symbols, arrows, or
letters. The diagonal red bar prohibits the activity or movement indicated by the black
symbol, while the red ring denotes prohibitory regulation.
Mandatory signage must include a round, white symbol on a blue background with positive
instructions. They specify what the driver is required to perform. For instance, directional
Wherever the restriction is in effect, control signs are used to compel the regulation of
specific movements.
The laws and regulations communicated by mandatory and regulatory signs must be adhered
with, and it is illegal to break them. In Figure 5.2, examples of these indicators are displayed.

Figure 5.2: Example of mandatory sign

Cautionary / Warning Signs:-
Triangular warning or cautionary signs with a red border and a black symbol on a white
backdrop are used to warn and advise drivers about potential danger or the presence of
specific hazardous conditions on or near the roadway so that they can take the necessary
action. These signs urge drivers to use extra caution and may call for a speed reduction or
other move. These signs include those that read "School ahead," "Hairpin Bend," "Narrow
Bridge," and "Gap in Median," among others. There is an illustration in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3: Example of cautionary / warning sign
Informatory / Guide Signs:-

All facility guide and informational signage are rectangular in design. Informatory Signs for
Facilities must be a symbol inside a rectangular board with a blue backdrop, indicating the
location and directions to facilities like "fuel station," "eating place," or "parking." For more
details kindly refer IRC: 67.
There are also rectangular information signs with distances between locations and arrows
pointing in that direction. Displays the colour scheme of the direction information sign.

These are meant to provide road users with information that will aid them along the route in
the simplest and most direct way possible. These are demonstrated by examples in
Figure 5.4: Example of Informatory /Guide Signs

7.5.2 Material for Signs
The various materials and fabrication of road signs shall conform to the following
requirements:
Concrete
Concrete shall be of M25grade for foundation.
Reinforcing Steel
Reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of Indian Standards (IS 1786) unless
otherwise specified.
Bolts, Nuts and Washers

High strength bolts shall conform to IS 1367 whereas precision bolts, nuts, etc. shall
conform to IS 1364.
Plates and Supports

Plates and support sections for the signposts shall conform to IS 226 and IS 2062 or any
other stated IS specification. Concrete structures shall not be used for plates and supports.

Substrate
The substrate shall be either Aluminium sheeting or Aluminium Composite Material (ACM)
conforming to the following subsections only.
Aluminium
Aluminium sheets used for sign boards shall be of smooth, hard and corrosion resistant
aluminium alloy conforming to IS 736 - Material Designation 24345.
Aluminium Composite Materials (ACM)

The Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) thermoplastic core of the ACM sheets used for sign
boards is sandwiched between two thick sheets of aluminium with an overall thickness of 4
mm and 3 mm and an aluminium skin thickness of 0.4 - 0.5 mm and 0.25 - 0.3 mm on each
side, respectively. The top surface of the aluminium surface must be prepared as the sheeting
manufacturer recommends before applying the retro reflective sheeting. To provide corrosion
resistance and weather ability and to ensure compliance with applicable American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards, a fluorocarbon coating may be placed over the
exposed surface of aluminium. When evaluated in accordance with the test methods indicated
against each of them, the mechanical properties of 4mm and 3mm ACM and those of its
aluminium skin shall conform to the requirement given in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2: Specifications for Aluminium Composite Material (ACM)
S. Description Specification for 4 mm Specification for

No. 3 mm
Standard Test Acceptable Value Acceptable Value
A Mechanical Properties of ACM
1 Peel off strength with ASTM: D903 Min.4 N/mm Min.4 N/mm
retro reflective sheeting
(Drum Peel Test)
2 Tensile Strength ASTM:E638 Min.40 N/mm2 Min.30 N/mm2
3 0.2 % Proof Stress ASTM:E638 Min.34 N/mm2 Min.34 N/mm2
4 Elongation ASTM:E638 Min.6% Min.5%
5 Flexural Strength ASTM:C393 Min.130 N/mm2 Min.120 N/mm2
6 Shear strength with ASTM:D732 Min.18 N/mm2 Min.18 N/mm2
Punch Shear Test
B Properties of Aluminum Skin
1 Tensile Strength (Rm) ASTM:E8 Min.150 N/mm2 Min.130 N/mm2
2 Modulus of Elasticity ASTM:E8 Min.70,000 Min.70,000
N/mm2 N/mm2
3 Elongation ASTM:E8 A50 Min.2 % A50 Min.2 %
4 0.2% Proof Stress ASTM:E8 Min.110 N/mm2 Min.110 N/mm2

7.5.3 Retro Reflective Sheeting

The retro reflective sheeting that is used on the signage must be white or another colour with
a smooth outer surface and the ability to reflect light back across its whole surface. It must be
colorfast and resistant to the elements. It must be brand-new and unused, devoid of any signs
of scorching, edge lifting, or cracking, and with barely any shrinkage or expansion. The
manufacturer of the sheeting must obtain a certificate from an international or government
laboratory or institute stating that the sheeting has been tested for coefficient of retro
reflection, daytime colour, colour fastness and luminance, shrinkage, flexibility, liner
removal, adhesion, impact resistance, specular gloss and fungus resistance, night-time colour,
and three years of outdoor weathering and has passed these tests. If the certificate is obtained,
the sheeting will be considered to have passed these tests.
An alternative is to accept provisionally a certificate from an established laboratory in India

that complies with ASTM: D4956's requirements for artificially accelerated weathering. In
such a scenario, the Employer/Client may, if they like, request a performance guarantee that
would be relinquished upon receipt of a document proving that the sheeting has weathered
for the required three years outdoors.
The three kinds of retro reflective sheeting are as follows:
CLASS A Sheeting: - Engineering and Super Engineering Grade Sheeting in accordance with
ASTM D4956 Types I and II.
CLASS B Sheeting: - High Intensity and High Intensity Prismatic Grade Sheeting in
accordance with ASTM: D4956 Type III and IV is CLASS B sheeting.
CLASS C Sheeting: - All Micro Prismatic Grade Sheeting in accordance with ASTMD
D4956 Type VIII, IX, and XI.
Retro-reflection means the reflection of light which is returned in directions close to the
direction from which it came and this property being maintained even over wide variations of
the direction of the incident radiation:
Observation angle (α) is the angle between the illumination axis and the observation axis as
shown in Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.5: Description of observation angle

Entrance angle (β) means the angle from the illumination axis to the reference axis. The
reference axis is an axis perpendicular to the retro-reflective surface as shown in Figure 5.6.
Figure 5.6: Description of Entrance Angle
Coefficient of retro-reflection R' is obtained from the luminous intensity (I) of the retro-
reflective area in the direction of observation and the illuminance (Ev) on the retro-reflective
plane at right angles the direction of the incident light and the illuminated plane sample
surface A as given
Eq. 1. R′ = I / Ev * A (1)
Where: R′ is coefficient of retro-reflection expressed in candela per square meter per lux
(cd.m-2.lx-1).
Though the sheeting as per ASTM classification are available from Type I to Type XI, a
“higher” type of sheeting used in the ASTM need not necessarily imply that it is better than a
"lower"-type sheeting, rather it meets different performance characteristics. Each type of
sheeting has certain performance characteristics and the type of sheeting for a road should be
selected which suits the situation encountered by road users in viewing the signs on the
particular road. For example, sheeting with high coefficient of retro reflection at small
observation angle will give better performance for driver’s viewing the sign from long
distances. Similarly, signs with wide observation angle give good performance for drivers
encountering situations to observe the signs at short range distances. Thus, Class C Micro
prismatic sheeting shall be preferred for the major category of roads like Expressways,
National / State Highways and Urban Roads. Moreover, Type XI sheeting with observation
angle of up to 10 shall be preferred while choosing Class C grade sheeting applications as it
offers good visibility from short and medium range distances. Type IV micro prismatic
sheeting may be used for delineator posts.

7.5.4 Placement and Operation of Road Signs

Road signs should be positioned such that they are visible to drivers. Road signs should be
positioned in relation to the site or circumstance to which they apply in order to help with
proper meaning communication. The placement and legibility of the road sign should be such
that it gives drivers enough time to see it and respond at operating speed.
No advertisements or other messages unrelated to traffic control may be displayed on road

signs or the materials supporting them (including the front and back). However, signage
promoting certain wayside businesses and amenities as well as directions geared towards
tourists shouldn't be regarded as advertising.
Placement and use of road signs should be uniform and consistent. Remove any road signs
that are unnecessary or are no longer needed. If removal or change is necessary, it should not
be delayed because the sign is in good physical condition.
Orientation of Signs
The signs unless otherwise stated shall normally be placed at right angles to the line of travel
of the approaching traffic. Signs relating to parking, however, should be fixed at an angle
(approximately) 15 to the carriageway so as to give better visibility.
Where light reflection from the sign face is encountered to such an extent as to reduce
legibility, the sign should be turned slightly away from the road as shown in Figure 5.7. On
horizontal curves, the sign should not be fixed normal to the carriageway, but the angle of
placement should be determined with regard to the course of the approaching traffic.
Sign faces are normally vertical, but on gradients it may be desirable to tilt a sign forward or
backward from the vertical to make it normal to the line of sight and improve the viewing
angle.
Figure 5.7: Sign Orientation with Respect to Carriageway

CHAPTER 6
7.6.0 Black spot Treatment Process
In a black spot improvement programme, road traffic crashes are analyzed spatially for a
fixed period of years (ranging between 3 to 5 years) and where localized higher density of
road crashes are identified (clusters), these can indicate that there are deficiencies with the
road environment. If this high crash occurrence has been caused by clear, physical road
deficiencies, it is essential that such defects should be identified thereafter, suitable remedial
measures should be devised and undertaken to rectify the defects so as to reduce both the
incidence of road crashes and fatalities on the identified road stretch. In many cases, the
specific “Black spots” can be rectified by engineering measures; as the rectification of black
spots should be accorded top priority by the road owning agency. The key phases in
conducting the investigation and rectification of black spots can be broken-down into five
main stages:
Crash data analysis and identification of initial candidate black spot sites;
Analysis of severity of crash at identified black spots and prioritization of the list;
Crash data analysis of individual sites and diagnosis of the causes of crashes and selection of
countermeasures;
Detail design and implementation of proposed treatments; and
Monitoring and evaluation
In this regard, the definition for treatment of the black spots in various countries is given in
Annexure an IRC 131. And it also presents a comparison of approaches being used by these
countries. The technical process to be deployed for developing the suitable treatment for a
black spot is given in Figure 6.1. As mentioned earlier, the technical process given in these
Guidelines, including the road crash data collection dwells on engineering aspects only. It
starts with prioritization of black spots followed by detailed crash data analysis, for
prioritized black spots, site visit, and final diagnosis. This will suggest development of
countermeasures, their detailed design and implementation, followed by monitoring and
evaluation. For further details kindly refer IRC 131 (Guidelines for Identifying and the
Treating the Black spots).

Figure 6.1: Technical Process for Treating a Black spot

CHAPTER 7
7.7.0 Reference codes for Principles for Safer Design
The principles for safe design can be obtained from relevant IRC publication and a few of
them are listed below.
IRC 35 Code of Practice for Road Marking

IRC 67 Code of Practice for Road Signs
IRC SP 73 Manual of Specifications & Standards for 2-Laning of Highway
IRC SP 84 Manual of Specifications & Standards for 4-Laning of Highway
IRS SP 87 Manual of Specifications & Standards for 6-Laning of Highway
IRC 65 Guidelines For Planning & Design of Roundabouts
IRC 99 Guidelines for Traffic Calming Measures in Urban & Rural Areas
IRC SP 55 Guidelines for Traffic Management for Work zones
IRC: 73 Geometric Design Standards for Rural (Non-Urban) Highways
The Road Safety Audit checklists

Following Checklist are included
Table 7.1: Checklist for Planning/Feasibility Stage
Table 7.2 Checklist for Detailed Design Stage Table 7.3 Checklist for Construction Stage
Table 7.4 Checklist for Pre-opening Stage
Table 7.5 Checklist for Audit of Existing Roads
A separate checklist (Refer Table 7.6) has been included for rural roads with low design
speeds and low volumes of traffic.

Table 7.1 Checklist for Planning/Feasibility Stage

Audit
1. Road Design Standards

Issue Yes No N/A Comments
Are the design standards being used appropriate (considering the class of terrain, mix of
traffic including Vulnerable Road Users and the function of the proposed road)?
Has the design speed been adopted considering the hierarchy of Road and mix of traffic
including Vulnerable Road Users?
Will the likely speed limit on the proposed road be compatible with the design speed and mix
of traffic, non-motorized traffic including pedestrians?
Does the route fit in with the physical constraints imposed by the topography? Does the
project road relieve routes or sites with bad accident records?
Check for consistency throughout the route; note any location where alignment standard
2. Alignment
changes abruptly and is not as would be expected by drivers.
Will the design speed be “safe” with regard to horizontal and vertical alignment?
Does the alignment (horizontal and vertical) give sufficient forward visibility for the selected
design speed? (Check for inadequate stopping sight distances)?
Will horizontal and vertical alignments be safe and consistent, especially at interchanges and
intersections?
Will all merging, diverging and weaving areas be “safe”? Is the proposal consistent with the
adjacent road network?
Do the horizontal and vertical alignments fit together comfortably? (Check for bad
combinations, such as a sharp bend immediately after a summit curve, and sag curve within a
bend).
Will sight distances be satisfactory – especially at intersections and property accesses?

Does the alignment provide safe overtaking opportunities? Does it avoid creating situations
where the forward visibility is marginal for overtaking (neither clearly adequate nor
inadequate)?
Does the treatment at curves, proposed if any, make appropriate, adequate and safe provision
for transition curves, super elevation and extra width of carriageway and formation?
Does the vertical alignment pose excessive demands on the power of heavy vehicles? Has it
been designed so those maximum grades are interspersed with recovery grades?
3. Visibility and sight distance

Are sight and stopping distances adequate throughout the proposal?
Is the design free of sight restrictions (maybe due to buildings, trees, signs, or rock slopes)?
4. Staged Works
If the scheme is to be constructed in stages, are the stages arranged to ensure maximum
safety?


Audit
If the scheme is a stage towards a wider or dual carriageway is the design adequate to clearly
impart this message to drivers? (Always look for misleading things that could confuse
drivers/riders)
Is the transition between single and dual carriageway (either way) handled safely?
5. Cross Section
Are the widths of the carriageway, shoulders, medians (if any), service roads in accordance
with standards and adequate for the function of the road and volume and the mix of traffic
likely to use it?
Check whether bridges have footpaths and they have proper gradients/crash barriers/parapets.
Existing Bridges
New proposed Bridges
Approaches of proposed VUP/PUPs
Note any location where the cross-section standard changes abruptly along the route or is
otherwise inconsistent with driver expectations.

Have the shoulders and side slopes been designed to a safe standard and note any locations
with inadequate shoulder width?
Have the side drains been designed to a safe standard? Are the batter slopes and drains safe
for run-off vehicles to traverse?
Check whether the cross-section has adequate provision for the Vulnerable Road Users
including persons with disabilities:
Pedestrians: Have paved footpath, adequate refuge width on median and proper ramps, up
and down kerbs, where there is regular pedestrian traffic?
Bicyclists: Segregated areas (e.g. paved shoulders) where numbers are significant.

In particular is the cross section wide enough to provide sheltered turn lanes within the
median (in case of divided carriageway)? Is it possible to provide storage lane for small
vehicles that really need protection without being exposed to through traffic.
If a median is proposed, will it be wide enough for the safe installation of street lighting,
where required either during the proposed works or later?
Does the cross section avoid unsafe compromises at bridges and other narrowing’s? (NOTE:
It is desirable for safety to continue full width shoulders across bridges and through
narrowing).
Are overtaking and/or climbing lanes proposed if needed?

Are all roadside hazards (existing and proposed) being managed “safely”? (NOTE: Check if a
clear zone has been used during the development of the proposal and assess if that clear zone
will be adequate).
6. Interchanges
Are all features of each interchange design “safe”?

Will the type of interchange be understood by road users?
7. Intersections
The type of junction (T-type, staggered, signal controlled, roundabout) suitable for the
function of the two or more roads, the traffic volume, the traffic
Movements (pedestrians and vehicular) and the site constraints? Is it safest
Table 7.1 Checklist for Planning/Feasibility Stage Audit

Alternative?
Does the layout encourage slow controlled speed at and on the approach to stop/give way
lines and other critical decision points?
Are the number and distribution of proposed intersections suitable in relation to the function
of the new road, the surrounding road network, and access for all traffic?

Are the Median openings for U-turn proposed to minimise wrong way movements?
Is each intersection easily identified and understood from all approaches?

Is there adequate provision for channelizing the different streams of traffic? (Check the
provision for right turn lanes, deceleration lanes and acceleration lanes?)
Is adequate provision made for pedestrians and non-motorised vehicles?

Will all necessary turns (including U turns) be able to be made safely?
Are sight lines within each intersection adequate and free of obstruction by fixed objects such
as buildings, overpass structures, traffic signs or vegetation?
Is the design free of all Y junctions?

Is the proposed traffic control at each intersection (Stop/Give Way, roundabout, traffic
signals) as “safe” as practical?
Is the provision of night times lighting adequate, if not what are the deficiencies?
8. Vulnerable road users (pedestrians, bicyclists, two wheelers and three wheelers,
animal drawn carts)
Will pedestrians (particularly the young, old and disabled) be able to safely walk along both
sides of the road? (NOTE: Consider the expected traffic speeds on the new road).
Will pedestrians (particularly the young, old and disabled) be able to safely cross the road?
(NOTE: Consider the expected traffic speeds on the new road).
Do all vulnerable road users have connectivity along their route, and lateral clearance to
motor traffic?
Is the proposal free of “squeeze” points where vulnerable road users may be exposed to
traffic?
Does the proposal provide adequate width of pedestrian footpath and ensure sight distance?
9. Matching in to the existing road network

At the interface between the new and the existing roads has sufficient attention been given to
safety matters?
Is the interface between the new and existing well away from any hazard (such as a crest, a
bend, a roadside hazard or where there may be poor visibility?)
If the proposal cuts across established paths (village roads, pedestrian walkways etc), has
attention been given to providing safe alternative routes for the users of those paths?


Audit
10. General road safety issues
Are safety measures taken on sections of the road having special events, festivals, market places or other
intermittent activities?
Are railways level crossings suitably identified and safe treatments proposed? Are sufficient truck rest areas
proposed with toilet facilities?
Are sufficient rest areas proposed?
Will the new road be as safe as practical given the local weather conditions (sunrise, sunset, fog, snow, dust
storms, or monsoonal storms)?
Is the proposal likely to be free of “visual deceit”?

Has the proposal taken safe account of animals on the road, including wild animals crossing from adjacent
forests or fields?
11. Roadside hazards
Are there any roadside hazards which appear to have been left out in the design?
Are crash barriers proposed where only necessary?
Is the type of barrier proposed suitable for this location? Are impact attenuators provided in gore area?
Do the standard drawings indicate that the barrier terminals will be a suitably safe type?
Do the standard drawings indicate a safe connection of the barrier to bridge abutments, together with the
necessary reduction in post spacing to stiffen the barrier and prevent “pocketing”.
12. Providing for public transport
Does the design provide for all forms of public transport that will use the new road?
Are bus lay-bys to be provided at places where passengers are most likely to use them?

Are all weather footways/footpaths proposed to and from bus stops and other key public transport locations
to assist passengers to safety get to/from?

Have suitable paved waiting areas been proposed for three-wheelers/cycle rickshaw?
13. Nigh time issues
Will the interface between the new road and the old road be obvious and as safe as practical at night?
Will the proposed geometry be understandable for road users to traverse at night?
14. Road Maintenance Vehicles

Is the placement of electric poles safely located?
Will road maintenance vehicles be able to work safely on the new road?
15. Drainage
Will the road be well drained?

Table 7.1 Checklist for Planning/Feasibility Stage Audit
Will the drains be covered, or located behind crash

barrier?
Yes = likely to be satisfactory for safety No = there are possible safety issues NA = not applicable

Table 7.2 Checklist for Detailed Design Stage Audit
1. Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

Will the design speed be “safe” with regard to horizontal and vertical alignment?
Does the alignment (horizontal and vertical) give sufficient forward visibility for the selected design speed?
(Check for inadequate stopping sight distances)?

Will horizontal and vertical alignments be safe and consistent, especially at interchanges and intersections?
Will all merging, diverging and weaving areas be “safe”? Is the proposal consistent with the adjacent road
network?
Do the horizontal and vertical alignments fit together comfortably? (Check for bad combinations, such as a
sharp bend immediately after a summit curve, and sag curve within a bend).
Will sight distances be satisfactory – especially at intersections and property accesses?
Does the alignment provide safe overtaking opportunities? Does it avoid creating situations where the
forward visibility is marginal for overtaking (neither clearly adequate nor inadequate)?
Does the treatment at curves, proposed if any, make appropriate, adequate and safe provision for transition
curves, super elevation and extra width of carriageway and formation?
Does the vertical alignment pose excessive demands on the power of heavy vehicles? Has it been designed
so those maximum grades are interspersed with recovery grades?
2. Typical cross sections

Are the widths of the carriageway, shoulders, medians (if any), service roads in accordance with standards
and adequate for the function of the road and volume and the mix of traffic likely to use it?
Check whether bridges have footpaths and they have proper gradients/crash barriers/parapets.
Existing Bridges
New proposed Bridges

Approaches of proposed VUP/PUPs
Note any location where the cross-section standard changes abruptly along the route or is otherwise
inconsistent with driver expectations.
Have the shoulders and side slopes been designed to a safe standard and note any locations with inadequate
shoulder width?
Have the side drains been designed to a safe standard? Are the batter slopes and drains safe for run-off
vehicles to traverse?
Check whether the cross-section has adequate provision for the Vulnerable Road Users including persons
with disabilities:
Pedestrians: Have paved footpath, adequate refuge width on median and proper ramps, up and down kerbs,
where there is regular pedestrian traffic?
Bicyclists: Segregated areas (e.g. paved shoulders) where numbers are significant.

In particular is the cross section wide enough to provide sheltered turn lanes within the median (in case of
divided carriageway)? Is it possible to provide storage lane for small vehicles that really need protection
without being expose d to through traffic?
If a median is proposed, will it be wide enough for the safe installation of street lighting where required
either during the proposed works or later?
Does the cross section avoid unsafe compromises at bridges and other narrowing? (NOTE: It is desirable for
safety to continue full width shoulders across bridges and through narrowing).
Are all roadside hazards (existing and proposed) being managed “safely”? (NOTE: Check if a clear zone
has been used during the development of the proposal and assess if that clear zone will be adequate).
Are shoulders proposed to be paved?
Are overtaking and/or climbing lanes proposed, especially in hill sections?

Is safe provision to be made for breakdown vehicles, and emergency vehicles?
3. New/existing road interface
4. Staged Works
Will the transition from old road to the new scheme be “safe”?
If the scheme is to be constructed in stages, are the stages arranged to ensure maximum safety?
Is the transition between single and dual carriageway (either way) handled safely?
5. Intersections
The type of junction (T-type, staggered, signal controlled, roundabout) suitable for the function of the two
or more roads, the traffic volume, the traffic movements (pedestrians and vehicular) and the site constraints?

Does the layout encourage slow controlled speed at and on the approach to stop/give way lines and other
critical decision points?
Are the number and distribution of proposed intersections suitable in relation to the function of the new
road, the surrounding road network, and access for all traffic?
Are the Median openings for U-turn proposed to minimize wrong way movements?
Is each intersection easily identified and understood from all approaches?
Is there adequate provision for channelizing the different streams of traffic? (Check the provision for right
turn lanes, deceleration lanes and acceleration lanes?)
Is adequate provision made for pedestrians and non-motorised vehicles?
Are pedestrian crossing places marked, and are pedestrians channelled to these crossings?
Will all necessary turns (including U turns) be able to be made safely?

Are sight lines within each intersection adequate and free of obstruction by fixed objects such as
buildings, overpass structures, traffic signs or vegetation?
Is the design free of all Y junctions?
Is the proposed traffic control at each intersection (Stop/Give Way, roundabout, traffic signals) as
“safe” as practical?
Is the provision of night times lighting adequate, if not what are the deficiencies?
Will traffic signal control at the intersection(s) be clearly seen and understood?
With roundabouts, is adequate deflection provided for all approaches?
Are correct signs shown for all approaches to the roundabout?
For other intersections, are Stop/Give Way signs shown and correctly located for maximum
conspicuity?
6. Interchanges
Are sight lines open and free of obstruction at all merges and diverges?
Are the distances between decisions making points sufficient for safety?
Is the signing scheme for each interchange clear and will it be easily understood by road users?
Are all roadside hazards in the interchange identified and safely protected?
7. Adjacent Land
Will all accesses to and from adjacent land/properties be “safe”?
Is fencing provided in rural areas to keep animals from straying onto the road?
8. Roadside Hazards
Are crash barriers provided only where necessary?
Is the type of each proposed barrier suitable for its

location?
Do the standard drawings indicate that the barrier terminals will be a suitably safe type?
Are impact attenuators provided in gore area?

Do the standard drawings indicate a safe connection of the barrier to bridge abutments, together with
the necessary reduction in post spacing to stiffen the barrier and prevent “pocketing”.
9. Vulnerable road users (pedestrians, bicyclists, two wheelers and three wheelers and animal
drawn carts)
Do all vulnerable road users have connectivity along their route, with suitable lateral clearance to motor
traffic?
Will pedestrians (particularly the young, old and disabled) be able to safely walk along both sides of the
road?


Is the design free of “squeeze” points where vulnerable road users may be exposed to traffic?
Are dropped kerbs provided at all intersections and mid-block locations where pedestrians are to cross?
If formal crossings are proposed, are these conspicuous on each approach?

Are the correct signs and pavement markings proposed for each pedestrian facility?
Will each crossing facility be well illuminated at night so that pedestrians can be well seen by
drivers/riders?
If mid-block traffic signals are proposed, will these have pedestrian push buttons?
Are pedestrian paths to be provided through medians to permit pedestrians to cross “at road level” and to
assist disabled pedestrians with improved access?
Has adequate provision been made for safe parking and stopping by three- wheelers/cycle rickshaws?
10. Signs, Pavement Markings and Delineation
Do all signs (regulatory, warning and direction) shown in the DPR accord with the 6 C’s of good signage
and is as per IRC: 67?
Are Informatory signs provided for the category /function road proposed? (Check for Shoulder mounted and
Gantry Signs)
Overhead signs –size, message information adequate, languages as per IRC standards.
Will all larger (more than 100mm diameter) sign supports be located outside the clear zone, or else be
frangible?

Is good delineation (curve warning signs, advisory speed signs, guide posts and chevron alignment markers)
provided where required?

Safety Audit of VMS
i) Horizontal clearance of vertical post of sign from carriageway edge ii) Vertical clearance of VMS signs at
highest point on carriageway
Readability of VMS signs during Day/Night.

Check for any unauthorized traffic signs and use of non-standard signs (color and shape)
Location and spacing of signs
Note locations where there are too many signs placed
Note the signs placed too close to each other

Are all junctions provided with advance direction sign, distance information sign and intersection sign etc.?
Has correct type of pavement markings been used in various situations (e.g. lane line, edge line etc.)?
Are correct colour used for laying road markings?

Is there any deficiency in the delineation of merge and diverge areas, including situations where ‘through’
traffic may inadvertently lead into auxiliary and turn lanes?
Are zebra crossing markings provided at junctions and mid-blocks of the sections (depending upon the
movement of pedestrian)?
Is positioning of stop lines appropriate?
Are the directional arrows marked on the pavement guiding the driver or creating confusion to the driver?
Are there locations where there is a lack of “Hazard markings’ at approach end of island, medians and
Culverts/bridges etc.?
Have retro-reflective markers/road studs been installed? Where coloured markers are used, have they been
Installed correctly?
If chevron alignment markers are installed, have the correct types of markers been used?
Do the drawings also indicate high quality reflective material (red on left, white on right) atop each guide
11. Parking
post?
Have sealed and marked areas been provided for parking? Will the parking be adequate and safe?
12. Emergency service vehicle access

Has provision been made for safe access and movements by emergency vehicles?
Are median openings frequent, visible and well signed?
13. Lighting and night time issues
Will all signs be located where they can be easily seen at night?
Are the critical locations (intersections, pedestrian facilities, Bus bays, bus stops, truck lay bye, toll plaza
etc.) proposed to be lit?

Is lighting provided on road sections passing through built areas, service roads, above and below the grade?
Separator, underpass, etc
Are the proposed lighting scheme and illumination levels of an appropriate standard, consistent with the
needs of the location, pedestrian and other factors?
Will the proposed geometry be understandable for road users to traverse at night?
Do the standard drawings indicate that the lighting columns will be frangible?
If the columns are not frangible, have other actions been taken to make these safe for road users?
Are there any lighting poles in the median(less than 2m wide) unprotected by crash barriers?
Identify the locations where street lighting columns constitute a hazard to traffic (on the outside of sharp
curves, on small islands, noses of medians) or which may conflict visually with traffic signals or signs?
14. Drainage
Does the design provide adequate drainage?

Will drains be covered, or located outside the clear zone, or shielded behind crash barrier?

Table 7.2 Checklist for Detailed Design Stage

Audit
15. General road safety considerations

Is the new road as safe as practical given the local weather (sunrise, sunset, snow, fog, rain, wind)?
Is the project free of all “visual deceit”?
Is the road surface free of gravel and sand, and with good skid resistance? Yes = likely to be satisfactory for
safety
No = there are possible safety issues NA = not applicable

Table 7.3 Checklist for Construction Stage Audit
1. Traffic management plan (design and implementation)

Has a traffic management plan (TMP) been prepared for the road work site as per IRC SP 55?
Has the TMP been approved by the Supervision Consultant or other authorized person?
Does the Contractor have an appointed Safety Engineer who is responsible for road safety at the work site,
including checking the condition of the installed TMP every day?
Does the TMP provide adequate and correct signage, delineation for all road users under all traffic
conditions?
Does the TMP provide work site protection (barriers) for all road users under all traffic conditions?
Has the TMP been implemented correctly at the road work site?
Is the advanced warning zone adequately signed to alert approaching road users of the presence of the road
works?
Is the transition zone correctly and adequately signed and delineated to guide approaching road users into
their correct path?

Road Works Stage
Is the termination zone adequately signed to advise road users that they are past the road works and may
return to normal road/highway speeds?
Are the flagmen highly conspicuous and placed where they can give clear instructions to approaching
drivers/riders in advance of the work site?

2. Speed control
Has the safety buffer zone been provided as per IRC: SP: 55?
Are the speed limit signs conspicuous?
Are there sufficient numbers of repeater speed restriction signs through the length of the work site?
Is the signed speed appropriate for safe traffic movement through the work site?
Have local Police been requested to enforce the signed speed limit through the worksite?
Are speeds managed (through signs, enforcement and if necessary road humps) so that vehicle operating
speeds that pass within one traffic lane width of any work site are 40km/h or lower?
3. Signs, Signals, Pavement Markings and Delineation
Are all necessary warning, direction and regulatory signs in place as shown in the TMP?
Are all existing road signs (those that are unnecessary during the works) covered to avoid distraction or
misinformation?
Are all “Men at Work” signs removed or covered when work is finished for the day (Applicable in case of
maintenance works)? (NOTE: Signs must be
Credible and it brings other signs into disrepute to leave “Men at Work” signs


In place if no workers are present).
Do all signs satisfy the 6C’s of good signage practice?

Are temporary traffic signals clearly visible to the approaching drivers/riders?
If the signals generate traffic queues, can the end of the queue be easily seen by approaching drivers/riders?
Are pavement markings consistent and clear through the length of the work site for both day and night?
Is delineation through the site safe for all road users under all anticipated conditions?
With several layers of asphalt typically to be laid for new roads, is temporary lane marking being used on
each new layer to guide drivers/riders as an interim safety initiative, especially at night?
4. Diversions from one carriageway to the other
If traffic is to be diverted from one carriageway onto the other, do the advanced warning signs provide clear
guidance about the diversion ahead and are they well located to alert all approaching road users?
Is the transition zone well delineated (with plastic cones and other forgiving devices) to reduce the number
of traffic lanes well before the carriageway ends?
Is the carriageway (on which the work is to take place) fully closed at all intersections?
Are drivers/riders from the side roads given adequate warning of the two way traffic operation on the sole
carriageway open on the main road?
Is the carriageway (on which the work is to take place) fully and clearly closed off to all traffic?
Are all drivers/riders in both directions on the other carriageway adequately reminded they are on a two way
section of road (such as with “Two Way” warning signs)?

Is the management of all two way traffic sections through the road work site safe for all road users both day
5. Road Surface
and night?
Is the road surface suitable for safe movement by all road users, especially two and three wheelers?
Are paved surfaces swept and kept free of gravel and sand?
Has a suitable paved surface been provided along with correct lane markings to guide drivers/riders through
diversions?
Have signs and markers/road studes been used to highlight changes in road surface to approaching
drivers/riders?
Have signs and markers/studs been used to highlight locations where different layers of asphalt end, causing
sudden changes in the road surface for approaching drivers/riders?
6. Crash barriers

Are all crash barriers necessary and are they installed correctly?
Have safe terminals (that are suitable for the operating speeds through the work site) been placed on the
end of each section of barrier?
7. Work site access
Are work site access points located with adequate sight distances for entering and exiting work
vehicles?
Are all site access points closed off to unauthorized

traffic?
Are appropriate traffic controls in place where works traffic and public traffic interact?
8. Road worker safety
Are all workers and supervisors at the works site wearing good and required PPE as per HSE norms
and as per the requirement of activity being performed?
Is safe ladder provided for workers at site to reach the working platform/area?
Is working platform provided for safe working with toe guard and railing to prevent worker’s fall?
Is there a suitable safety zone in advance of and beside the work site?
9. Vulnerable road users (pedestrians, bicyclists, two wheelers and three wheelers, and animal
drawn carts) through the work site
Are pedestrians, bicyclists, and two/three wheelers able to move safely through the construction zones?
Are vulnerable road users able to cross the road safely?
In particular, is safe access across the road provided for the young, the elderly and the disabled?
Have all-weather footways been provided to assist public transport users to reach their stops without
walking through the road work site?
10. Safety at night
Are the road works conspicuous to all road users after

dark?
Are travel paths obvious to all road users after dark?

In particular, do carriageway closures have suitable advanced warning zones and transition zones that
are conspicuous and clearly delineated for night time?

Table 7.4 Checklist for Pre-opening Stage Audit
1. New/Existing Road Interface

Is the interface between the new road and the old road as safe as practical?
Where drivers/riders depart the new road and return to the existing network, are they provided with
sufficient delineation and pavement markings to compensate for possible increased speeds?
2. Intersections
Are sight lines free of obstructions at all intersections?
Are the intersection layouts clear and visible from all approaches? Are traffic signals conspicuous,
functioning properly and safely?
Are the signal timings reasonable and likely to maximise driver/rider compliance?
Are the signal phasings reasonable and safe, with no conflicting movements?
Are pedestrian signals installed at each signalised intersection and are they easy to see, with adequate
WALK time and clearance time?

Are roundabouts visible and recognisable from all approaches?
Are correct advanced warning and suitable direction signs installed on each approach to each roundabout?
At other intersections are Stop and/or Give Way signs conspicuous and correctly installed to make priority
clear?
3. Interchanges
Are sight lines open and free of obstruction at all merges and diverges? Are the distances between decision-
making points sufficient for safety?
Are the direction signs for each interchange clear and easily understood at the anticipated operating speeds?
4. Signs, Pavement Markings and Delineation
Do all signs satisfy the 6Cs of good signage practice?

Is there a need for any more signs to warn, inform, guide, control or delineate?
Have all unnecessary old signs and markings (including those from the road works) been removed?
Are the speed zones provided with clear speed restriction signs of a suitable value?
Are pavement markings continuous, correct and conspicuous?
Are road signs and road markings tested for retro-reflectivity and conforming to relevant IRC standards
Have potentially confusing situations been removed or resolved safely?
Are guide posts correctly installed in accordance with the layouts shown in the standard drawings?
Are chevron alignment markers installed where necessary and in accordance

with the layouts shown in the standard drawings?
Is there consistency and uniformity of delineation and markings throughout the scheme?
Have initiatives been taken to delineate the road and to maximise the chance that vehicles will remain
on the road?
5. Roadside hazards
Are all roadside hazards adequately treated i.e. they adequately provided
with signs?
Is safety barrier installed where necessary?
Is barrier correctly and safely installed?
Are impact attenuators provided in gore area?
Are all bridge abutments and culverts safely treated?
Is there a degree of hazard associated with large trees, boulders, etc. and whether these can be treated to
improve roadside safety?
Do the trees and other vegetation obstruct driver and pedestrian sight lines, which are essential for safe
traffic operation?
Is there adequate delineation/visibility of barriers and fences during night times?
Is any thick growth of vegetation by the roadside enough far back from the edge of the pavement to
enable a driver to take protective steps in time if any human or animal should run across the road from
behind or within the vegetation?
Are there any sharp edged or pointed fixtures or tops of supporting verticals on the median crash
barriers or on dividers which can hurt a motor cyclist in
case of a collision or crash or loss of balance?
Are there any village name boards or direction boards by the roadside with pointed ends to hurt a
passenger in a bus on window seat?
Bridges/Canal crossings: Are the open spaces by the side of ends of Parapets covered by protective
crash barriers or walls to prevent vehicles going into the river or canal?
Is the vegetation removed and paving in the median at openings in median at
junctions or for U Turns or for pedestrian crossings for a length of 120 m on either side of opening to

afford complete visibility to drivers?
Is the height of vegetation in the median less than 60 cm on curves?
Is the median clear of any trees with trunks with girth greater than 30 cm? If not, are such locations
enveloped by protective crash barriers?
Are fixing details of pipe railing such that the entire length of pipe is smooth and continuous without
any projection on road ward side?
Are entrances to abandoned roads properly fenced off?
drawn carts)
Do all vulnerable road users have connectivity along the road, with suitable lateral clearance to motor
traffic?
Will pedestrians (particularly the young, old and disabled) be able to safely walk along the road?
Are pedestrian crossing places marked, and are pedestrians channelled to these crossings?


Is the new road free of “squeeze” points where vulnerable road users may be exposed to traffic?
Is the number and placement of the pedestrian facilities adequate and safe for the situation and the
pedestrian numbers?
Is each pedestrian facility clearly marked and conspicuous on each approach?
Are the correct signs and pavement markings installed at each pedestrian facility?
Is each crossing facility well illuminated at night so that pedestrians can be seen by drivers/riders?
Do all mid-block traffic signals have pedestrian push buttons to allow pedestrians to register their demand
to cross the road?

Are medians in urban areas free of barriers, suitably wide and with a suitable surface to act as an effective
pedestrian refuge?
Are pedestrian paths provided through medians to permit pedestrians to cross “at road level” and to assist
disabled pedestrians?
Is adequate safe parking and stopping provided for three-wheelers? Are bus stops located where passengers
will use them?
Are bus stops well delineated and lit?

Are bus stops sealed for all-weather use?
7. Drainage

Does the new road appear to have sufficient cross fall or camber and adequate drainage to prevent ponding
of rainwater from occurring?

Are all drains safe (covered, underground or outside the clear zone)?
8. Landscaping
Is the landscaping “safe” in terms of roadside hazards? (NOTE: Any tree with a trunk in excess of 100mm
diameter is considered a road side hazard if planted within the clear zone).
Does the landscaping permit clear sight lines at all intersections, pedestrian facilities and median openings?
Are all signs easy to see and read at night?
Are the critical locations (intersections, pedestrian facilities, bus bays, bus stops, truck lay bye, toll plaza,
etc) conspicuous at night?
Is lighting provided on road sections passing through built up areas, service roads, above and below the
grade separator, underpass, etc

Are the illumination levels of an appropriate standard, consistent with the needs of the location, pedestrian
and other factors?
Is the “through route” well signed, line marked and obvious to road users at night?
Is the new road free of visual deceit for road users at night?
Are the lighting columns frangible? If not are they outside the clear zone?
10. Access to property and developments
Are all accesses to/from adjoining properties conspicuous and as “safe” as practical?
Is fencing provided and adequate to keep animals off the road, especially in rural areas?
Is the new road as safe as practical given the local weather (sunrise, sunset, snow, fog, dust storms, or
monsoonal storms)?
Is the project free of all “visual deceit”?
Is the road surface free of gravel and sand, and with good skid resistance?
Have the batter slopes of cuttings been treated to minimise the risk of rocks falling onto the new road?
Check that all temporary arrangements, signages, etc, have been removed and replaces by permanent
arrangements.

Table 7.5 Checklist for Safety Audit of Existing

Roads
1. Sight Distances
Are all sight distances adequate for the speed of traffic using this road? Are safe overtaking opportunities
provided?
2. Intersections
Are U turn provisions conspicuous and “safe”?
Are all intersections clear and visible?
Are all traffic signals conspicuous, functioning properly and safely? Are roundabouts visible and
recognisable from all approaches?
3. Interchanges
Are sight lines open and free of obstruction at all merges and diverges?
Are the distances between decision-making points sufficient for safety at the operating speed?
Is the direction sign for each interchange clear and easily understood at the operating speed?
4. Cross sections
Are lane widths, shoulder widths and bridge widths, “safe” for the traffic volume and mix?
Are medians and islands of adequate width for the safety of likely users?
Are the shoulders suitable for use by all vehicles and road users, including pedestrians, cyclists and
animals?
Is appropriate super elevation and extra width of carriageway provided on curves?
5. Roadside Hazards
Are all larger (more than 100mm diameter) sign supports located outside the clear zone if they are not
frangible?

Are all crash barriers correctly and safely installed?

Are any hazards within the agreed clear zone for this road? Are crash barriers used only where necessary?
Are impact attenuators provided in gore area? Are all the crash barriers correctly installed?
6. Drainage
Is the road well drained?

Are all drains outside the clear zone, covered, or behind suitable barrier?
7. Signs, pavement markings and delineation
Do all signs and pavement markings satisfy the 6C’s of good signage and line marking practice?


Roads
Is the speed zone “safe”, and clearly signed?
Are pavement markings conspicuous and continuous?
Are road signs and road markings tested for retro-reflectivity and conforming to relevant IRC standards
Is the road well delineated (warning signs, plastic guide posts, chevron alignment markers) installed as
necessary and spaced in accordance with installation guidelines?
Is there a need for more signs to warn, inform, guide, control or delineate?
drawn carts)
Do all vulnerable road users have connectivity along the road, with suitable lateral clearance to motor
traffic?
Are pedestrians (particularly the young, old and disabled) able to safely walk along the road?
Is the road free of “squeeze” points where vulnerable road users are exposed to nearby moving traffic?
Are pedestrians (particularly the young, old and disabled) able to safely cross the road?
Is the number and placement of the pedestrian facilities adequate and safe for the situation and the
pedestrian numbers?
Are all the formal crossings clearly marked and conspicuous on each approach?
Are the correct signs and pavement markings installed at each pedestrian facility?
Is each crossing facility well illuminated at night so that pedestrians can be seen by drivers/riders?
Do all mid-block traffic signals have pedestrian push buttons?
Are pedestrian paths provided through medians to permit pedestrians to cross “at road level” and to
assist disabled pedestrians?
Has adequate provision been made for safe parking and stopping by three- wheelers/cycle rickshaw?

Are bus stops located where passengers will use them?
Are bus stops well delineated and lit?
9. Access to Property and Developments
Are all accesses to/from adjoining properties “safe”?
Are the illumination levels of an appropriate standard, consistent with the needs of the location,
pedestrian and other factors?


Roads

Are the lighting columns frangible? If not, are they located outside the clear zone?
Are all signs easy to see and read at night?
Are the critical locations (intersections, pedestrian facilities, bus bays, bus stops, truck lay bye, toll plaza,
etc) conspicuous at night?
Is lighting provided on road sections passing through built up areas, service roads, above and below the
grade separator, underpass, etc

Is the “through route” well signed, line marked and obvious to road users at night?
Is the road free of visual deceit for road users at night? Is all lighting adequate and safe?
Are the lighting columns frangible? If not are they outside the clear zone? Is there a need for more signs to
warn, inform, guide, control or delineate?

Is the road as safe as practical given the local weather conditions (sunrise, sunset, snow, fog, storms, and
wind)?
Is the road surface free of gravel and sand, and with good skid resistance? Yes = likely to be satisfactory for
safety
No = there are possible safety issues NA = not applicable

Table 7.6 Checklist for Safety Audit of Rural

Roads
1. Alignment
Are operating speeds likely to be commensurate with the design speed?
Are there any abrupt sharp curves on the road? If so, are warning signs provided on the approaches?
especially when radius of curves are less than the standard.
Is there sufficient forward visibility available along the road?
Whether appropriate traffic calming measures and cautionary signs boards are provided where there is
compromise on geometric due to land and other site constraints?
Is the interface between the new and existing road well away from any hazard (such as a crest, a bend, a
roadside hazard or where there may be poor visibility?)
Are sight and stopping distances adequate throughout the road section?
Will horizontal and vertical alignment be consistent with safe visibility requirement?
2. Cross Section
Is the road wide enough for the traffic?
Does the cross section include the needs of all road users including pedestrians, cyclists when the road
passes through habitation/villages?
Does the cross section avoid unsafe compromises at bridges and other narrowing’s?
Is there smooth transition in case of narrow bridges, CD structures and other narrowing?
Whether the crosses fall/camber provided correctly in the design?

Whether super elevation and extra width provided at the curves where required?

When rural roads are constructed in stages, does the Stage-1 ensure proper safety until Stage-2 is taken up,
especially in hill roads?

Is there provision for bus-stop/ safe waiting space for villagers? Are they well positioned?
3. Road Signs and Road Markings
Is the road (design) provided with reflective edge line markings and centre line markings (where applicable)
as per IRC 35?

Are the edge markings clearly visible at day and night conditions Are all required road signs are provided as
per IRC 67?
Are the road signs and pavement markings having adequate retro reflectivity as required in IRC 67 and IRC
35?
Are there no-overtaking sign envisaged at curves at restricted sight distance?


Roads
4. Lighting
Is lighting facilities sufficient in built-up areas?
Has street lighting been provided on sections where pedestrians or other vulnerable users are expected
during night conditions?

Are street lighting provided at junctions of rural road with high speed roads?
5. Road-side hazards
Are all delineations and hazard markets in accord with IRC 79?
Is the right of way free from hazardous road side objects? If not, are the hazardous road side objects
delineated well with hazard markers or other treatments?
Are all hazardous locations/ objects protected by safety barriers?

Are there any roadside hazards which appear to have been left out in the design?
Is the type of barrier proposed suitable for the location?

Whether retaining walls and breast walls provided where needed on roads in hilly area?
Whether parapets provided on retaining walls on road in hilly area? Do the barrier terminals will be a
suitably safe type?
6. Schools/ Built up areas

Are the connections of safety barrier to bridge/ culvert parapet safe?
Are traffic calming measures provided near schools and built up area as per IRC 99?

Has the approaching traffic been warned (through signs & markings) of the presence of the school &
7. Drainage
children?
Has drainage been provided? Is there any road section which is susceptible for water logging?
8. Junctions
Is the pedestrian walking space affected by provision of drainage?
Is sufficient visibility available for the main road users to spot the traffic approaching from the side road?
Is sufficient visibility (check the visibility splay) available for the minor road user to see the traffic
approaching from the side road?
Has the junction control (priority) been established through road markings and road signs?
(STOP/GIVEWAY Sign as per IRC 67)
Is the approach to junction provided with warning signs of the major road ahead?


Roads

Is the road approaching the junction on a gradient?
Is there a need for speed reduction measure at the mouth of the junction? Is the design free
of?
All Y junctions?
Is the priority established in cross roads through road marking and traffic signs?
Is the junction easily identified and understood from all approaches?
Are sight lines within each junction adequate and free of obstruction by fixed objects such as
buildings, overpass structures, traffic signs or vegetation?

Is there sufficient visibility (safe braking distance) available for all approaching vehicles?
9. Railway Level Crossing
Whether road crosses a railway line and if so, whether a manned crossing or subway or over
bridge has been envisaged?

In case of level crossing, are all traffic calming measures provided with adequate signs and
markings as per IRC
10. Other Safety Considerations
Whether the height of electrical transmission line over the road would have proper vertical
clearance.
Is the new road, as safe as practical given the local weather (sunrise, sunset rain, snow, fog,
storm, wind?)
Will the new road surface be free of gravel and sand with good skid resistance?
Yes = likely to be satisfactory for safety No = there are possible safety issues NA = not
applicable

List of References
IRC 250 MoRTH Specifications for Road and Bridge Works

IRC SP 11 Handbook of Quality Control for Construction of Roads and Runways
IS 1892 Code of practice for subsurface investigation for foundations
IS 15736 Geological exploration by geophysical method (electrical resistivity)
IS 3043 Code of Practice for Earthing
IS 5313 Guide for Core Drilling Observations
IS 10208 Specification for diamond core drilling equipment
IS 2131 Method for standard penetration test for soils
IS 2132 Code of practice for thin-walled tube sampling of soils
IS 8763 Guide for undisturbed sampling of sands
IS 4078 Code of practice for indexing and storage of drill cores
IS 4464 Code of Practice for Presentation of Drilling Information and Core
Description in Geotechnical Investigation
IS 11315: Part 11 Methods for Quantitative Description of Discontinuities in Rock
Masses Part 11 Core Recovery and Rock Quality Designation
IS 3025: Part 1 Methods of sampling and test (physical and chemical) for water and
wastewater
IS 2720: Part 1 Methods of test for soils, Part 1: Preparation of dry soil samples for
various tests
IS 4968: Part 1 Method for subsurface sounding for soils, Part 1: Dynamic method
using 50 mm cone without bentonite slurry
IS 4968: Part 2 Method for subsurface sounding for soils, Part 2: Dynamic method
using cone and bentonite slurry
IS 10042 Code of practice for site investigations for foundation in gravel-
boulder deposit
IS 4968: Part 3 Method for subsurface sounding for soils, Part 3: Static cone
penetration test
IS 1888 Method of load test on soils
IS 9214 Method of determination of modulus of subgrade reaction (K-value) of
soils in field
IS 2720: Part 13 Methods of test for soils, Part 13: Direct shear test
IS 2720: Part 2 Methods of test for soils, Part 2: Determination of water content
IS 2720: Part 3/ Sec 1 Methods of test for soils, Part 3: Determination of specific gravity,
Section 1: Fine grained soils
IS 2720: Part 3/ Sec 2 Methods of test for soils, Part 3: Determination of specific gravity,
Section 2: Fine, medium and coarse grained soils
IS 2720: Part 4 Methods of test for soils, Part 4: Grain size analysis
IS 2720: Part 5 Methods of test for soils, Part 5: Determination of liquid and plastic
limit
IS 2720: Part 40 Methods of test for soils, Part 40: Determination of free swell index of
soils

IS 2720: Part 7 Methods of test for soils, Part 7: Determination of water content-dry
density relation using light compaction
IS 2720: Part 11 Methods of test for soils, Part 11: Determination of the shear strength
parameters of a specimen tested in unconsolidated undrained triaxial
compression without the measurement of pore water pressure
IS 2720: Part 15 Methods of Test for Soils, Part XV: Determination of Consolidation
Properties
IS 2720: Part 10 Methods of test for soils, Part 10: Determination of unconfined
compressive strength
IS 4332: Part1 Methods of test for stabilized soils, Part 1: Method of sampling and
preparation of stabilized soils for testing
IS 4332: Part 2 Methods of test for stabilized soils, Part 2: Determination of moisture
content of stabilized soil mixtures
IS 4332: Part 3 Methods of test for stabilized soils, Part 3: Test for determination of
moisture content-dry density relation for stabilized soil mixtures
IS 4332: Part 4 Methods of test for stabilized soils, Part 4: Wetting and drying, and
freezing and thawing tests for compacted soil-cement mixtures
IS 4332: Part 5 Methods of test for stabilized soils, Part 5: Determination of
unconfined compressive strength of stabilized soils
IS 4332: Part 6 Methods of test for stabilized soils, Part 6: Flexural strength of soil-
cement using simple beam with third-point loading
IS 4332: Part 7 Methods of test for stabilized soils, Part 7: Determination of cement
content of cement stabilized soils
IS 5529: Part 1 In-situ permeability test Part 1 Test in overburden
IS 2470: Part 1 Code of practice for installation of septic tanks: Part 1 design criteria
and construction
IS 5529: Part 2 In - Situ permeability test: Part 2 tests in bedrock
IS 1892 Subsurface investigation for foundations
IS 1888 Method of load test on soils
IS 4968: Part 3 Method for subsurface sounding for soils: Part 3 Static cone
penetration test
IS 6403 Code of practice for determination of bearing capacity of shallow
foundations
IS 8009: Part 1 Code of practice for calculation of settlements of foundations: Part 1
shallow foundations subjected to symmetrical static vertical loads
IS 1498 Classification and identification of soils for general engineering
purposes
BS 1377: Part 3 Methods of test for soils for civil engineering purposes Chemical and
electro-chemical testing
IS 2720: Part 8 Methods of test for soils, Part 8: Determination of water content-dry
density relation using heavy compaction
IS 2720: Part 31 Methods of test for soils, Part 31: Field determination of California
Bearing Ratio
IS 2720: Part 29 Methods of Test for Soils, Part 29: Determination of Dry Density of
Soils In-place by the Core-cutter Method

IS 2720: Part 28 Methods of test for soils, Part 28: Determination of dry density of soils,
in-place, by the sand replacement method
IRC 36 Recommended Practice for Construction of Earth Embankments and
Subgrade for Road Works
IRC 75 Guidelines for the Design of High Embankments
IRC: SP: 50 Guidelines on Urban Drainage
IRC: 37 Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements
IRC: SP: 42 Guidelines of Road Drainage
AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures
IRC: 34 Recommendations for Road Construction in Areas Affected by Water
Logging, Flooding and/or Salts Infestation
IS 1904 Code of practice for design and construction of foundations in soils:
General requirements
IS 13094 Selection of ground improvement techniques for foundation in weak
soils -Guidelines
IS 15284 (Part 1) Design and construction for ground improvement - Guidelines, Part 1:
Stone columns
IRC SP 116 Guidelines for Design and Installation of Gabion Structures
IS 2720: Part 39/ Sec 1 Methods of test for soils, Part 39: Direct shear test for soils containing
gravel, Section 1: Laboratory test
IS 2720: Part 39/ Sec 2 Methods of test for soils, Part 39: Direct shear test for soils containing
gravel, Section 2: In-situ shear test
IRC: SP: 102 Guidelines for Design and Construction of Reinforced Soil Walls
BS 8006: Part 1 Code of practice for strengthened/reinforced soils and other fills
BS 8006: Part 2 Code of practice for strengthened/reinforced soils Part 2: Soil nail
design
ASTM D 6638 Standard Test Method for Determining Connection Strength Between
Geosynthetic Reinforcement and Segmental Concrete Units (Modular
Concrete Blocks)
ASTM D5262 Standard Test Method for Determining Connection Strength Between
Geosynthetic Reinforcement and Segmental Concrete Units (Modular
Concrete Blocks)
GRI Standard Practice Determination of the Long-Term Design Strength of Flexible
GG4 (b) Geogrids"
ISO 10319 Geosynthetics Wide-width tensile test
ASTM D 6637 Standard Test Method for Determining Tensile Properties of Geogrids
by the Single or Multi-Rib Tensile Method
EN 10223-3 Steel wire and wire products for fencing and netting - Part 3:
Hexagonal steel wire mesh products for civil engineering purposes
IS: 15681 Geological exploration by geophysical method (Seismic Refraction)
BS 5930 Code of practice for site investigations (Withdrawn)
IS: 9179 Method for the preparation of rock specimen for laboratory testing.
IS 13365: Part 1 Quantitative classification system of rock mass - Guidelines: Part 1
RMR for predicting of engineering properties.

IS 13365: Part 2 Quantitative classification systems of rock mass Guidelines Part 2
Rock mass quality for prediction of support pressure in underground
openings.
IS 13365: Part 3 Guidelines for classification system of rock mass Part 3 Determination
of slope mass rating (SMR).
IS 8764 Method of determination of point load strength index of rocks.
IS 9143 Method for the determination of unconfined compressive strength of
rock materials.
IS 9179 Method for the preparation of rock specimen for laboratory testing.
IS 9221 Method for the determination of modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s
ratio of rock materials in uniaxial compression.
IS 10050 Method for determination of slake durability index of rocks.
IS 10082 Method of test for the determination of tensile strength by indirect tests
on rock specimens.
IS 10782 Method for laboratory determination of dynamic modulus of rock core
specimens?
IS 13047 Method for determination of strength of rock materials in tri-axial
compression?
IS 14448 Code of practice for reinforcement of rock slopes with plane edge
failure?
IS 13372: Part 2 Code of practice for seismic testing of rock mass Part 2 Between the
borehole.
IRC SP: 106 Engineering Guidelines on Landslide Mitigation Measures for Indian
Roads
IS 14458: Part 1 Retaining wall for hill area - Guidelines: Part 1 selection of type of
wall
IS 14458: Part 2 Retaining wall for hill area - Guidelines: Part 2 design of
retaining/breast walls
IS 14458: Part 3 Guidelines for retaining wall for hill area: Part 3 Construction of dry
stone walls
IS 14458: Part 4 Retaining wall for hill area - Guidelines: Part 4 construction of dry
stone walls
IS 14458: Part 5 Retaining wall for hill areas - Guidelines: Part 5 construction of
cement stone masonry walls
IS 14458: Part 6 Retaining Wall For Hill Area - Guidelines Part 6 Construction of
Gabion Walls
IS 14458: Part 7 Retaining Wall for Hill Area Guidelines Part 7 Construction of
Peripheral Reinforced Gabion Walls
IS 14458: Part 8 Design of RCC Cantilever Retaining Walls
IS 2314 Steel Sheet Piling Sections
IRC 56 Recommended Practices for Treatment of Embankment and Roadside
Slopes for Erosion Control
ASTM D4632 Standard Test Method for Grab Breaking Load and Elongation of
Geotextiles

IS 13162: Part 5 Geotextiles - Methods of Test, Part 5: Determination of Tensile
Properties Using a Wide Width Strip
ASTM D4533 Standard Test Method for Trapezoid Tearing Strength of Geotextiles
IS 14293 Geotextiles - Method of test for trapezoid tearing strength
IS 13162: Part 4 Geotextiles – Methods of test Part 4 Determination of puncture
resistance by falling cone method
ASTM D6241 Standard Test Method for Static Puncture Strength of Geotextiles and
Geotextile-Related Products Using a 50-mm Probe
ASTM D3786 Standard Test Method for Bursting Strength of Textile Fabrics—
Diaphragm Bursting Strength Tester Method
IS 1966: Part 1 Textiles - Bursting properties of fabrics Part 1: Hydraulic method for
determination of bursting strength and bursting distension
IS 1966: Part 2 Textiles - Bursting properties of fabrics Part 2: Pneumatic method for
determination of bursting strength and bursting distension
ASTM D4491 Standard Test Methods for Water Permeability of Geotextiles by
Permittivity
IS 14324 Geotextiles – Methods of test for determination of water permeability –
Permittivity
ASTM D4751 Standard Test Methods for Determining Apparent Opening Size of a
Geotextile
IS 14294 Geotextiles - Method for determination of apparent opening size by dry
sieving technique
GRI GG2 Index Testing of the Junction Strength of Geogrids
ASTM D4355 Standard Test Method for Deterioration of Geotextiles by Exposure to
Light, Moisture, and Heat in a Xenon Arc-Type Apparatus
EN ISO 10316 Shipbuilding Class B magnetic compasses Tests and certification
EN ISO 12236 Geosynthetics Static puncture test (CBR test)
EN ISO 9864 Geosynthetics Test method for the determination of mass per unit area
of geotextiles and geotextile-related products
EN ISO 9863: Part 1 Geosynthetics Determination of thickness at specified pressures Part 1:
Single layers
EN ISO 9863: Part 2 Geotextiles and geotextile-related products Determination of thickness
at specified pressures Part 2: Procedure for determination of thickness
of single layers of multilayer products
EN ISO 12958: Part 1 Geotextiles and geotextile-related products Determination of water
flow capacity in their plane Part 1: Index test
EN ISO 12958: Part 2 Geotextiles and geotextile-related products Determination of water
flow capacity in their plane Part 2: Performance test
ASTM D5199 Standard Test Method for Measuring the Nominal Thickness of
Geosynthetics
ASTM D4595 Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Geotextiles by the
Wide-Width Strip Method
ASTM D4716 Standard Test Method for Determining the (In-plane) Flow Rate per
Unit Width and Hydraulic Transmissivity of a Geosynthetic Using a
Constant Head

ASTM D5261 Standard Test Method for Measuring Mass per Unit Area of
Geotextiles
ASTM D1505 Standard Test Method for Density of Plastics by the Density-Gradient
Technique
ASTM D1693 Standard Test Method for Environmental Stress-Cracking of Ethylene
Plastics
ASTM D2990 Standard Test Methods for Tensile, Compressive, and Flexural Creep
and Creep-Rupture of Plastics
ASTM D5035 Standard Test Method for Breaking Force and Elongation of Textile
Fabrics (Strip Method)
ASTM D4355 Standard Test Method for Deterioration of Geotextiles by Exposure to
Light, Moisture and Heat in a Xenon Arc Type Apparatus
ASTM D6525 Standard Test Method for Measuring Nominal Thickness of Rolled
Erosion Control Products
ASTM D3776 Standard Test Methods for Mass Per Unit Area (Weight) of Fabric
IRC 113 Guidelines for the Design and Construction of Geosynthetic
Reinforced Embankments on Soft Subsoils
CPCB Central Pollution Control Board
MoEF CC Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
MoRD Ministry of Rural Development
IRC SP 132 Guidelines on use of Industrial Wastes for Road Embankment and
Subgrade Construction
IRC 108 Guidelines for Traffic Predictions on Rural Highways

"FHWA Traffic Monitoring Guide". June 2013. Retrieved March 2015
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/global-positioning-system
Juan Carlos Muñoz and Jorge A. Laval. “System optimum dynamic traffic assignment
graphical solution method for a congested freeway and one destination”. Transportation
Research Part B : Methodological (2006)
https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/nptel/512_FundRel/web/web.html#:~:text=The%20relation%
20between%20the%20density,no%20vehicles%20on%20the%20road.
https://www.tableau.com/learn/articles/time-series-
analysis#:~:text=Time%20series%20analysis%20is%20a,data%20points%20intermittently%
20or%20randomly

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CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi

Prof. Manoranjan Parida Director CSIR-CRRI

Dr. Velumurgan Chief Scientist Traffic Engineering & Safety

Volume I: Quality Control Manual for Roads

Section 2: Geotechnical Engineering

Section 3: Flexible Pavement Construction

Section 4: Flexible Pavement Maintenance

Section 6: Traffic Planning

Section 7: Traffic Engineering & Safety

Volume II: Quality Control Manual for Bridges

Bridge Engineering: Bridges constitute critical elements of infrastructure. This section

Undoubtedly, the creation of such a comprehensive manual emerges as an invaluable

CONTENTS Page No.

Section - 2 Geotechnical Engineering 23

Section - 3 Flexible Pavement 134

Section - 4 Pavement Maintenance 225

Section - 5 Rigid Pavement 279

Section - 6 Transport Planning and Environment 378

Section - 7 Traffic Engineering and Safety 415

Quality Control Manual for Roads

Quality Control Manual for Roads 1

Quality Control Manual for Roads 2

1.1.2 Quality Control

1.1.2.1 Types of Quality Control

(a) Control of Methods

(b) Control of End-Results

1.1.2.2 Performance of Quality Control

1.1.2.2.1 Testing Facilities

(a) Constructing and equipping laboratories;

Quality Control Manual for Roads 3

(c) Preparing test forms; and

1.1.2.2.2 Testing Frequency

1.1.2.2.3 Method Control

1.1.2.2.4 End-result Control

1.1.2.2.5 Quality Parameters

Quality Control Manual for Roads 4

1.1.2.2.6 Reporting of Test Results

1.1.2.2.7 Interpretation of Test Results

1.1.2.2.8 Statistical Quality Control

1.1.2.2.9 Monitoring of Quality Control

The Contractor bears the obligation to perform and is accountable for:

- Conducting sampling and testing

Quality Control Manual for Roads 5

(a) The Engineer's issuance of:

As stipulated in the contract.

- Monitoring and supervising the works

The Resident Engineer's team can be categorized to establish a supervisory structure

1.1.3 Approval of Quarries and Borrow Areas

Quality Control Manual for Roads 6

- Ensuring that the proposed materials meet specification requirements.

(i) Approval of the Quarry/Borrow Area as proposed.

Quality Control Manual for Roads 7

(a) Selection of area:

- Borrow Areas should not be within the Project Right-of-Way.

(b) Transport of Materials:

(c) Development/Redevelopment of Borrow Pits and Quarries:

Quality Control Manual for Roads 8

1.1.4 Approval of Materials

1.1.4.2 Approval of Natural Materials