DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICALS AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

(ACADEMIC YEAR: 2022-2023)

EC3301 – ELECTRON DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

(Regulation 2021)
Semester- III

LECTURE NOTES

NAME-
REG NO-
EC8353 ELECTRON DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

OBJECTIVES:
The student should be made to:
 Understand the structure of basic electronic devices.
 Be exposed to active and passive circuit elements.
 Familiarize the operation and applications of transistor like BJT and FET.
 Explore the characteristics of amplifier gain and frequency response.
 Learn the required functionality of positive and negative feedback systems.

UNIT I PN JUNCTION DEVICES 9

PN junction diode –structure, operation and V-I characteristics, diffusion and transition capacitance -
Clipping and Clamping circuits-Rectifiers – Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifier,– Display devices- LED,
Laser diodes, Zener diodecharacteristics- Zener Reverse characteristics – Zener as regulator

UNIT II TRANSISTORS AND THYRISTORS 9

BJT, JFET, MOSFET- structure, operation, characteristics and Biasing UJT, Thyristors and IGBT -
Structure and characteristics.

UNIT III AMPLIFIERS 9

BJT small signal model – Analysis of CE, CB, CC amplifiers- Gain and frequency response –MOSFET
small signal model– Analysis of CS and Source follower – Gain and frequency response- High frequency
analysis.

UNIT IV MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS AND DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER 9

BIMOS cascade amplifier, Differential amplifier – Common mode and Difference mode analysis – FET
input stages – Single tuned amplifiers – Gain and frequency response – Neutralization methods, power
amplifiers –Types (Qualitative analysis).

UNIT V FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND OSCILLATORS 9

Advantages of negative feedback – voltage / current, series , Shunt feedback –positive feedback –Condition
for oscillations, phase shift – Wien bridge, Hartley, Colpitts and Crystal oscillators.

TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
Upon Completion of the course, the students will be ability to:
 Explain the structure and working operation of basic electronic devices.
 Able to identify and differentiate both active and passive elements
 Analyse the characteristics of different electronic devices such as diodes and
transistors
 Choose and adapt the required components to construct an amplifier circuit.
 Employ the acquired knowledge in design and analysis of oscillators
TEXT BOOKS:
1. David A. Bell,”Electronic devices and circuits”, Oxford University higher education, 5th
edition 2008.
2. Sedra and smith, “Microelectronic circuits”,7th Ed., Oxford University Press
REFERENCES:
1. Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, “Electronic devices and circuits” PHI learning private limited, 2nd edition
2014.
2. Thomas L.Floyd, “Electronic devices” Conventional current version, Pearson prentice hall, 10th Edition,
2017.
3. Donald A Neamen, “Electronic Circuit Analysis and Design” Tata McGraw Hill, 3rd Edition, 2003.
4. Robert L.Boylestad, “Electronic devices and circuit theory”, 2002.
5. Robert B. Northrop, “Analysis and Application of Analog Electronic Circuits to Biomedical
Instrumentation”, CRC Press, 2004
 UNIT I PN JUNCTION DEVICES

INTRODUCTION

ELECTRONICS
Electronics is that branch of science and technology which makes use of the controlled
motion of electrons through different media and vacuum. The ability to control electron flow is usually
applied to information handling or device control.
APPLICATION OF ELECTRONICS
 Communication and Entertainment.
 Industrial.
 Medical science.
 Defence.

ELECTRONICS COMPONENTS
Active Component.
Passive Component.

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
The electronics components which are not capable of amplifying or processing an electrical signal are
called as passive component.
Examples –
1. Resistor.
2.Capacitor.
3. Inductor.

ACTIVE COMPONENTS
The electronics components which are capable of amplifying or processing an electrical signal are called
as passive component.

Examples –
1.Transistors.
2. Logic Gates.

SEMICONDUCTORS, CONSTRUCTION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF DEVICES.

Silicon was first identified by Antoine Lavoisier in 1784 (as a component of the Latin silex, silicis for flint,
flints), and was later mistaken by Humphry Davy in 1800 for a compound. In 1811 Gay-Lussac and Thénard
probably prepared impure amorphous silicon through the heating of potassium with silicon tetrafluoride. In
1874, Berzelius, generally given credit for discovering the element silicon, prepared amorphous silicon
using approximately the same method as Lussac. Berzelius also purified the product by repeatedly washing.

Occurrence of silicon
Measured by mass, silicon makes up 25.7% of the Earth's crust and is the second most abundant element
in the crust, after oxygen.2. Silica occurs in minerals consisting of (practically) pure silicon dioxide in
different crystalline forms. Amethyst, agate, quartz, rock crystal, chalcedony,flint, jasper, and opal are some
of the forms in which silicon dioxide appears. Biogenic silica occurs in the form of diatoms, radiolaria and
siliceous sponges.
Production
Silicon is commercially prepared by the reaction of high-purity silica with wood, charcoal, and coal, in an
electric arc furnace using carbon electrodes. At temperatures over 1,900 °C (3,450 °F), the carbon reduces
the silica to silicon according to the chemical equations:

SiO2 + C Si + CO → 2SiO2 + 2 C Si + 2 CO →

Germanium(Ge)
Germanium was discovered comparatively late because very few minerals contain it in high concentration.
Germanium ranks near fiftieth in relative abundance of the elements in the Earth's crust Germanium
production
Germanium tetrachloride is either hydrolyzed to the oxide (GeO2) or purified by fractional distillation and
then hydrolyzed. The highly pure GeO2 is now suitable for the production of germanium glass. The pure
germanium oxide is reduced by the reaction with hydrogen to obtain germanium suitable for the infrared
optics or semiconductor industry:
GeO2 + 2 H2 Ge + 2 H → 2O.

The germanium for steel production and other industrial processes is normally reduced using carbon.
GeO2 + C Ge + CO → 2.

Difference between conductors, semiconductor& Insulators.

Conductors:-
materials that have a low value of resistivity allowing them to easily pass an electrical current due to there
being plenty of free electrons floating about within their basic atom structure. When a positive voltage
potential is applied to the material these "free electrons" leave their parent atom and travel together through
the material forming an electron or current flow. Examples of good conductors are generally metals such
as Copper, Aluminium, Silver etc.

Insulators:-
Insulators on the other hand are the exact opposite of conductors. They are made of materials, generally
non-metals, that have very few or no "free electrons" floating about within their basic atom structure
because the electrons in the outer valence shell are strongly attracted by the positively charged inner
nucleus. Insulators also have very high resistances, millions of ohms per metre, and are generally not
affected by normal temperature changes (although at very high temperatures wood becomes charcoal and
changes from an insulator to a conductor). Examples of good insulators are marble, fused quartz,p.v.c.
plastics, rubber etc.
Semi-conductors:-
materials such as Silicon and Germanium, have electrical properties somewhere in the middle,between
those of a "Conductor" and an "Insulator".They are not good conductors nor good insulators(hence their
name semi-conductors).

PN JUNCTION DIODE
A p–n junction is formed by joining p-type and n-type semiconductors
together in very close contact. The term junction refers to the boundary interface where the two regions of
the semiconductor meet. If they were constructed of two separate pieces this would introduce a grain
boundary, so p–n junctions are created in a single crystal of semiconductor by doping, for example by ion
implantation, diffusion of dopants, or by epitaxy (growing a layer of crystal doped with one type of dopant
on top of a layer of crystal doped with another type of dopant).
P-N junctions are elementary "building blocks" of almost all semiconductor electronic devices such as
diodes, transistors, solar cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits; they are the active sites where the electronic
action of the device takes place. For example, a common type of transistor, the bipolar unction transistor,
consists of two p–n junctions in series, in the form n–p–n or p–n–p.
PN junction diode

Definition:
“A semiconductor device with two terminals, typically allowing the flow of current in one direction only.

“A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes called the anode and the cathode. They
are made with semiconductor materials such as silicon, germanium, or selenium. The fundamental property
of a diode is its tendency to conduct electric current in only one direction.”
“A Diode is an electronic device that allows current to flow in one direction only. It is a semiconductor that
consists of a p-n junction. They are used most commonly to convert AC to DC”

Drift
Applying an electric field across a semiconductor will cause holes and free electrons to drift through the
crystal. The total current is equal to the sum of hole current and electron current.
Diffusion
A drop of ink in a glass of water diffuses through the water until it is evenly distributed. The same process,
called diffusion, occurs with semiconductors. For example, if some extra free
electrons are introduced into a p-type semiconductor, the free electrons will redistribute themselves so that
the concentration is more uniform.

In DIFFUSION, the free electrons move away from the region of highest concentration. The higher the
localized concentration, the greater will be the rate at which electrons move away. The same process applies
to holes in an n-type semiconductor. Note that when a few minority carriers are diffusing through a sample,
they will encounter a large number of majority carriers. Some recombination will occur. A number of both
types of carrier will be lost.

Construction and Working of PN Diode

A diode is made from a small piece of semiconductor material, usually silicon, in which half is doped as a
p region and half is doped as an n region with a pn junction and depletion region in between. The p region
is called the anode and is connected to a conductive terminal. The n region is called the cathode and is
connected to a second conductive terminal. The basic diode structure and schematic symbol are shown
below.
V-I Characteristic for Forward Bias
When a forward-bias voltage is applied across a diode, there is current. This current is called the forward
current and is designated IF. The resistor is used to limit the forward current to a value that will not
overheat the diode and cause damage. With 0 V across the diode, there is no forward current. As you
gradually increase the forward- bias voltage, the forward current and the voltage across the diode gradually
increase, a portion of the forward-bias voltage is dropped across the limiting resistor. When the forward-
bias voltage is increased to a value where the voltage across the diode reaches approximately 0.7 V (barrier
potential), the forward current begins to increase rapidly, As you continue to increase the forward-bias
voltage, the current continues to increase very rapidly, but the voltage across the diode increases only
gradually above 0.7 V. This small increase in the diode voltage above the barrier potential is due to the
voltage drop across the internal dynamic resistance of the semiconductive material.

Graphing the V-I Curve:

If you plot the results of the type of measurements show you get the V-I characteristic curve for a forward-
biased diode. The diode forward voltage (VF) increases to the right along the horizontal axis, and the forward
current (IF) increases upward along the vertical axis.

Dynamic Resistance:
Unlike a linear resistance, the resistance of the forward-biased diode is not constant over the entire curve.
Because the resistance changes as you move along the V-I curve, it is called dynamic or ac resistance.
Internal resistances of electronic devices are usually designated by lowercase italic r with a prime, instead
of the standard R. Below the knee of the curve the resistance is greatest because the current increases very
little for a given change in voltage The resistance begins to decrease in the region of the knee of the curve
and becomes smallest above the knee where there is a large change in current for a given change in voltage.
V-I Characteristic for Reverse Bias

When a reverse-bias voltage is applied across a diode, there is only an extremely small reverse current (IR)
through the pn junction. With 0 V across the diode, there is no reverse current. As you gradually increase
the reverse-bias voltage, there is a very small reverse current and the voltage across the diode increases.
When the applied bias voltage is increased to a value where the reverse voltage across the diode (VR)
reaches the breakdown value (VBR), the reverse current begins to increase rapidly. As you continue to
increase the bias voltage, the current continues to increase very rapidly, but the voltage across the diode
increases very little above VBR. Breakdown, with exceptions, is not a normal mode of operation for most
pn junction devices.

Graphing the V-I Curve If you plot the results of reverse-bias measurements on a graph, you get the V-I
characteristic curve for a reverse-biased diode. The diodereverse voltage (VR) increases to the left along the
horizontal axis, and the reverse current (IR) increases downward along the vertical axis.

There is very little reverse current until the reverse voltage across diode reaches approximately the
breakdown value (VBR) at the knee of the curve. After this point, the reverse voltage remains at
approximately VBR, but IR increases very rapidly, resulting in overheating and possible damage if current
is not limited to a safe level. The breakdown voltage for a diode depends on the doping level. Reverse
voltage (VR) increases to the left along the horizontal axis, and the reverse current (IR) increases downward
along the vertical axis.
There is very little reverse current until the reverse voltage across diode reaches approximately the
breakdown value (VBR) at the knee of the curve. After this point, the reverse voltage remains at
approximately VBR, but IR increases very rapidly, resulting in overheating and possible damage if current
is not limited to a safe level. The breakdown voltage for a diode depends on the doping level.

RECTIFIER:

Rectifier is a circuit which converts AC in to DC. They are two types

1. Half Wave Rectifier

2. Full Wave Rectifier
1. Half Wave Rectifier

—
—
— The Half wave rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage. The primary of the
transformer is connected to ac supply. This induces an ac voltage across the secondary of the transformer.
—
During the positive half cycle of the input voltage the polarity of the voltage across the secondary
forward biases the diode. As a result a current IL flows through the load resistor, RL. The forward biased
diode offers a very low resistance and hence the voltage drop across it is very small. Thus the voltage
appearing across the load is practically the same as the input,

Half Wave rectifier output waveform

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

A Full Wave Rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using
both half cycles of the applied ac voltage. It uses two diodes of which one conducts during one half cycle
while the other conducts during the other half cycle of the applied ac voltage.

The output waveform

Working of Centre-Tap Full Wave Rectifier
As shown in the figure, an ac input is applied to the primary coils of the transformer. This input
makes the secondary ends P1 and P2 become positive and negative alternately. For the positive half of the
ac signal, the secondary point D1 is positive, GND point will have zero volt and P2 will be negative. At this
instant diode D1 will be forward biased and diode D2 will be reverse biased. As explained in the theory
behind P-N Junction and Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode, the diode D1 will conduct and D2 will not
conduct during during the positive half cycle. Thus the current flow will be in the direction P1-D1-C-A-B-
GND. Thus, the positive half cycle appears across the load resistance RLOAD. During the negative half
cycle, the secondary ends P1 becomes negative and P2 becomes positive. At this instant, the diode D1 will
be negative and D2 will be positive with the zero reference point being the ground, GND. Thus, the diode
D2 will be forward biased and D1 will be reverse biased. The diode D2 will conduct and D1 will not conduct
during the negative half cycle. The current flow will be in the direction P2-D2-C-A-B-GND.

i) Peak Current
The instantaneous value of the voltage applied to the rectifier can be written as Vs = Vsm Sin ωt
Assuming that the diode has a forward resistance of RFWD ohms and a reverse resistance equal to infinity,
the current flowing through the load resistance RLOAD is given as
Im = Vsm/ (RF + R Load)
ii) Output Current

Since the current is the same through the load resistance RL in the two halves of the ac cycle, magnitude od
dc current Idc, which is equal to the average value of ac current, can be obtained by integrating the current
i1 between 0 and pi or current i2 between π and 2π.

Fig.Center tapped full wave rectifier with capacitive filter

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop “bridge”
configuration to produce the desired output. The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not
require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding
is connected to one side of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below.
The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two diodes conducting current
during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series
while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below.

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1 and D2
switch “OFF” as they are now reversing biased. The current flowing through the load is the same direction
as before.
The Negative Half-cycle

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the load is also
unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore the average DC voltage
across the load is 0.637Vmax.However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows through two
diodes instead of just one so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops (2 x 0.7 = 1.4V) less
than the input VMAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice the supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a
50Hz supply or 120Hz for a 60Hz supply.)Although we can use four individual power diodes to make a full
wave bridge rectifier, pre-made bridge rectifier components are available “off-the-shelf” in a range of
different voltage and current sizes that can be soldered directly into a PCB circuit board or be connected by
spade connectors. The image to the right shows a typical single phase bridge rectifier with one corner cut
off. This cut-off corner indicates that the terminal nearest to the corner is the positive or +ve output terminal
or lead with the opposite (diagonal) lead being the negative or -ve output lead. The other two connecting
leads are for the input alternating voltage from a transformer secondary winding.
Ripple factor: Ripple factor for bridge rectifier is 0.482

LASER DIODE
PN-junction Laser: A semiconductor laser is a specially fabricated pn junction device (both the p and n
regions are highly doped) which emits coherent light when it is forward biased. It is made from Gallium
Arsenide (GaAs) which operated at low temperature and emits light in near IR region. Now the
semiconductor lasers are also made to emit light almost in the spectrum from UV to IR using different
semiconductor materials. They are of very small size (0.1 mm long), efficient, portable and operate at low
power. These are widely used in Optical fibre communications, in CD players, CD-ROM Drives, optical
reading, laser printing, etc. P and N regions are made from same semiconductor material (GaAs). A p
type region is formed on the n type by doping zinc atoms. The diode chip is about 500 micrometer long and
100 micrometer wide and thick. The top and bottom face has metal contacts to pass the current. The front
and rare faces are polished to constitute the resonator.
When high doped p and n regions are joined at the atomic level to form pn-junction, the equilibrium is
attained only when the equalization of Fermi level takes place in this case the Fermi level is pushed inside
the conduction band in n type and the level pushed inside the valence band in the p type.

When the junction is forward biased, at low voltage the electron and hole recombine and cause spontaneous
emission. But when the forward voltage reaches a threshold value the carrier concentration rises to very
high value. As a result the region "d" contains large number of electrons in the conduction band and at the
same time large number of holes in the valence band. Thus the upper energy level has large number of
electrons and the lower energy level has large number of vacancy, thus population inversion is achieved.
The recombination of electron and hole leads to spontaneous emission and it stimulate the others to emit
radiation. Ga As produces laser light of 9000 Å in IR region.

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction diode
that emits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to
recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is
called electroluminescence, and the colour of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is
determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.

Construction of LED
An n-type layer is grown on a substrate and p-type is deposited on it by diffusion.
The metal anode connections are made at the outer edges of p-type so as to allow more control surface area
for the light to escape.
Symbol of LED

Material used in LED

In silicon and germanium diodes , most of electrons give up their energy in the form of heat while a
little amount in the form of light which is insignificant of use.
Semiconductor material which mainly used-
1.GaAs (invisible)
2.GaP(red or green light)
3.GaAsP(red or yellow light)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF LED

Operation of LED
It is based upon the phenomenon of electroluminance, which is emission of light from a
semiconductor under the influence of an electric field. Recombines occurs at P-N juction as electron from
N side recombines with holes on p-side. When recombination take place the charge carrier give up energy
in the form of heat and light.

Comparison between an LD and LED

— Laser Diode LED

 Stimulated radiation  Spontaneous radiation
 Narrow line width  Broad spectral
 Coherent  Incoherent
 Higher output power  Lower output power
 A threshold device  No threshold current
 Strong temperature dependence  Weak temperature dependence
 Higher coupling efficiency to a  Lower coupling efficiency
fiber
Zener Diode
The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of a silicon PN junction. When
biased in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated current, but when
a reverse voltage is applied to it the reverse saturation current remains fairly constant over a wide range of
voltages. The reverse voltage increases until the diodes breakdown voltage VB is reached at which point a
process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the depletion layer and the current flowing through the zener
diode increases dramatically to the maximum circuit value (which is usually limited by a series resistor).
This breakdown voltage point is called the "zener voltage" for zener diodes.
 The point at which current flows can be very accurately controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the
doping stage of the diodes construction giving the diode a specific zener breakdown voltage, (Vz) ranging
from a few volts up to a few hundred volts.

Zener Diode I-V Characteristics:

The Zener Diode is used in its "reverse bias" or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the diodes anode
connects to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve above, we can see that the zener diode
has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage regardless of the value
of the current flowing through the diode and remains nearly constant even with large changes in current as
long as the zener diodes current remains between the breakdown current IZ (min) and the maximum current
rating IZ (max). This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilize a voltage
source against supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown region
is almost constant turns out to be an important application of the zener diode as a voltage regulator. The
function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in parallel with it in spite
of the ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the load current and the zener diode will continue to
regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below the minimum IZ (min) value in the reverse
breakdown region.
Zener shunt regulator
Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilized voltage output with low ripple under varying load
current conditions. By passing a small current through the diode from a voltage source, via a suitable current
limiting resistor (RS), the zener diode will conduct sufficient current to maintain a voltage drop of Vout.
We remember from the previous tutorials that the DC output voltage from the half or full-wave rectifiers
contains ripple superimposed onto the DC voltage and that as the load value changes so to does the average
output voltage. By connecting a simple zener stabilizer circuit as shown below across the output of the
rectifier, a more stable output voltage can be produced.
Operation of the circuit:
The current through resistor R is the sum of zener current IZ and the transistor base current IB (= IL
/ β).
IL IZ IB
The output voltage across RL resistance is given by
V0 Vz VBE
Where VBE=0.7 V Therefore, VO= constant.
The emitter current is same as load current. The current IR is assumed to be constant for a given
supply voltage. Therefore, if IL increases, it needs more base currents, to increase base current Iz decreases.
The difference in this regulator with zener regulator is that in later case the zener current decreases (increase)
by same amount by which the load current increases (decreases). Thus the current range is less, while in the
shunt regulators, if IL increases by ΔIL then IB should increase by ΔIL / β or IZ should decrease by ΔIL
/ β. Therefore the current range control is more for the same rating zener.In a power supply the power
regulation is basically, because of its high internal impedance. In the circuit discussed, the unregulated
supply has resistance RS of the order of 100 ohm. The use of emitter follower is to reduce the output
resistance and it becomes approximately.

R h
R z ie 0
fe 1h
Where RZ represents the dynamic zener resistance. The voltage stabilization ratio SV is approximately
V V0 S Rz
Vi Rz Ri
SV can be improved by increasing R. This increases VCE and power dissipated in the transistor. Other
disadvantages of the circuit are.
1. No provision for varying the output voltage since it is almost equal to the zener voltage.
Change in VBE and Vz due to temperature variations appear at the output since the transistor is connected
in series with load, it is called series regulator and transistor is allow series pass transistor.
UNIT -5.FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND OSCILLATORS

Feedback Amplifiers

 Desensitize The Gain

 Reduce Nonlinear Distortions
 Reduce The Effect of Noise
 Control the Input And Output Impedances

Extend The Bandwidth Of The Amplifier

The General Feedback Structure
Basic structure of a feedback amplifier. To make it general, the figure shows signal flow as opposed to voltages or currents
(i.e., signals can be either current or voltage).

The open-loop amplifier has gain A  xo = A*xi

Output is fed back through a feedback network which produces a sample (xf) of the output (xo)  xf = xo
Where  is called the feedback factor
The input to the amplifier is xi = xs – xf (the subtraction makes feedback negative)
Implicit to the above analysis is that neither the feedback block nor the load affect the amplifier’s gain (A).
This not generally true and so we will later see how to deal with it. The overall gain
(closed-loop gain) can be solved to be:
 xo A
A  
f
1 A xs


A is called the loop gain 1+A is called the “amount of feedback”
 Finding Loop Gain

Generally, we can find the loop gain with the following steps:

1. Break the feedback loop anywhere (at the output in the ex. below)
2. Zero out the input signal xs
3. Apply a test signal to the input of the feedback circuit
4. Solve for the resulting signal xo at the output
If xo is a voltage signal, xtst is a voltage and measure the open-circuit voltage If xo is a
current signal, xtst is a current and measure the short-circuit current
5. The negative sign comes from the fact that we are apply negative feedback

x f  xtst
xs=0 xi xi  0  xf

xo  Axi   Axf  Axtst

xo
loop gain    A
xf xtst

xtst xo
Negative Feedback Properties

Negative feedback takes a sample of the output signal and applies it to the input to get several desirable properties. In
amplifiers, negative feedback can be applied to get the following properties

–Desensitized gain – gain less sensitive to circuit component variations

–Reduce nonlinear distortion – output proportional to input (constant

gain independent of signal level)

–Reduce effect of noise

–Control input and output impedances – by applying appropriate

feedback topologies

–Extend bandwidth of amplifier

These properties can be achieved by trading off gain

Gain Desensitivity
Feedback can be used to desensitize the closed-loop gain to variations in the basic amplifier. Let’s see how.
Assume beta is constant. Taking differentials of the closed-loop gain equation
gives…

A dA
Af 
1 A
dAf  2
Divide by Af 1  A 

dAf 1 A A
dA
Af  2 
1 dA
1  A  1 A A

This result shows the effects of variations in A on Af is mitigated by the feedback amount. 1+Abeta is also called the
desensitivity amount
We will see through examples that feedback also affects the input and resistance of the amplifier (increases Ri and decreases Ro by
1+Abeta factor)
Bandwidth Extension
Mentioned several times in the past that we can trade gain for bandwidth Consider an amplifier with a high-frequency
response characterized by a single pole and the expression:
Apply negative feedback beta and the resulting closed-loop gain is:

AM
As
1 s H

As 
AM H1
1 AA
MM 
Af s
1  A s   1 s



•Notice that the midband gain reduces by (1+AMbeta) while the 3-dB roll-off frequency increases series-shunt

by (1+AMbeta)
Basic Feedback Topologies

Depending on the input signal (voltage or current) to be amplified and form of the output
(voltage or current),amplifiers can be classified into four categories. Depending on the amplifier shunt-series
category, one of four types of feedback structures should be used (series-shunt, series-series,
shunt-shunt, or shunt-series) Voltage amplifier – voltage-controlled voltage Source
Requires high input impedance, low output impedance Use series-shunt feedback
(voltage-voltage feedback) Current amplifier – current-controlled current source
Use shunt-series feedback (current-current feedback)
Transconductance amplifier – voltage-controlled current source Use series-series feedback
(current-voltage feedback) Transimpedance amplifier – current-controlled voltage source Use series-series
shunt-shunt feedback (voltage-current feedback)

shunt-shunt
Examples of the Four Types of Amplifiers
iOUT iOUT
RD RD

vOU vOUT
vIN Vb vIN Vb
T Current
Amp
iIN iIN
Transimpedance Transconductance
Amp Amp

Voltage
Amp

 Shown above are simple examples of the four types of amplifiers. Often, these amplifiers alone do not have good
performance (high output impedance, low gain, etc.) and are augmented by additional amplifier stages (see below) or
different configurations (e.g., cascoding).

iOUT iOUT

RD RD RD RD

vOUT Vb vOU Vb
vIN vIN
T
iIN
iIN
Examples of the Four Types of Amplifiers
lower Zout lower Zout higher gain higher gain
 Series-Shunt Feedback Amplifier
(Voltage-Voltage Feedback)

Samples the output voltage and returns a feedback voltage signal

Ideal feedback network has infinite input impedance and zero
output resistance
Find the closed-loop gain and input resistance The output resistance
can be found by
applying a test voltage to the output
So, increases input resistance and reduces output resistance  makes
amplifier closer to ideal VCVS
Vf  Vo

Vi  Vs Vf

Vo  AVs   Vo 
V 
A  o A Rof
f Vs  1 A V  AVi
R i  R 1 A  Ro
V i 
R  s 
Vs V
R s 1 A
i i
V
if Vi Ri Vi
i
I i
The Series-Shunt Feedback Amplifier

The Ideal Situation

The series-shunt
feedback amplifier:
(a) ideal structure;
(b) equivalent circuit. Z o(s)
Z of(s)

Vo 1  A(s)(s)
A

Af 
Vs 1  A 
 Vi  AVi
Vs Vs Vs

Rif Ri Ri

i I Vi Vi Vi
Ri

Rif Ri1  A

Zif(s) Zi (s)1  A(s)(s)

 Series-Series Feedback Amplifier
(Current-Voltage Feedback)

For a transconductance amplifier (voltage input, current output), we must apply the
appropriate feedback circu
Sense the output current and feedback a voltage signal. So, the feedback it
current is a transimpedance block that converts the current signal into
a voltage.
To solve for the loop gain:
Break the feedback, short out the break in the curren
sense and applying a test current Iout
To solve for Rif and Rof ZL
Gm

Apply a test voltage Vtst across O and O’ t

I Itst
A  o (also called G ) m
i V
I I Vf RF
A  o  A Loop Gain  A   out  G mR
f 1 A I tst
f
Vs

Rif V V V R I  Io R I  AVi  Ri 1 A

 s  i f  i i  i i
Ii Ii Ii Ii

V I  AVi Ro I  AI tst Ro  1  A Ro

Rof  tst  tst  tst
Its Itst Its
t t
 Shunt-Shunt Feedback Amplifier
(Voltage-Current Feedback 




2. When voltage-current FB is applied to a transimpedance amplifier,
output voltage is sensed and current is subtracted from the input 1
R
i) The gain stage has some resistance i A
Rif
ii) The feedback stage is a transconductor

iii) Input and output resistances (Rif and Rof) follow the same
form as before based on values for A and beta
Vo
A

Ii
V

Is  Ii  I f o
  Vo Ro
A R 

A of
Vo
Af   1A
Is
1 A 
 Shunt-Series Feedback Amplifier
(Current-Current Feedback)

3. A current-current FB circuit is used fo

current amplifiers
r
i) For the b circuit – input resistance should be low and
output resistan be high
4. A circuit example is shown
i) RS and RF constitute the FBcircuit ce
• RS should be small and RF large
ii) The same steps can be taken to

Iout
solve for A, Abeta, Af, Rif, and Rof RD
• Remember that both A and b circuits are current
controlled current sources
Iin

RS
RF
The General Feedback Structure
Exercise

Amount_Feedback  20log1  A

c)

Amount_Feedback  60

Vs  1 Vo  AfVs Vo  10
d)

Vf  Vo Vf  0.999

4
Vi  Vs  Vf Vi  10  10

e) A  0.810 A
Af  Af  9.998
1  A

10  9.998 
10 100  0.02
 Some Properties of Negative Feedback
Gain Desensitivity

A
Af
1  A  


deriving

dA A
dAf dividing by Af
2 1  A  
(1  A  )




dAf 1 dA

Af (1  A  ) A

The percentage change in Af (due to variations in some circuit parameter) is smaller than pecentage
cahnge in A by the amount of feedback. For this reason the amount of feedb

1  A  

is also known as the desensitivity factor.
Some Properties of Negative Feedback
Bandwidth Extension

High frequency response with a single pole AM

A(s)
s
1 
H

AM denotes the midband gain andH the upper 3-dB frequenc

A(s)
Af(s)
1    A(s)

AM
Af(s)
1 AM 
 
s
1 
H  
AM  
1  L

Hf H  1  AM    Lf
1  AM  
 Oscillator principle



Oscillator

5. Oscillators are circuits that generate periodic signals.

6. An oscillator converts DC power from power supply to AC signals power spontaneously –
without the need for an AC input source (Note: Amplifiers convert DC power into AC output
power only if an external AC input signal is present.)
7. There are several approaches to design of oscillator circuits. The approach to be discussed is
related to the feedback using amplifiers. A frequency-selective feedback path around an
amplifier is placed to return part of the output signal to the amplifier input, which results in a
circuit called a linear oscillator that produces an approximately sinusoidal output.
8. Under proper conditions, the signal returned by the feedback network has exactly the correct
amplitude and phase needed to sustain the output signal.
 The Barkhausen Criterion I
9. Typically, the feedback network is composed of passive lumped components
that determine the frequency of oscillation. So, the feedback is complex
transfer function, hence denoted as  ( f)

10. We can derive the requirements for oscillation as follows: initially, assume a sinusoidal driving source with phasor Xin is present.
But we are interested in derive the conditions for which the output phasor Xout can be non-zero even the input Xin is zero.

The output of the amplifierblockcan be wrtten as X out  A( f )[Xin  ( f )X out ]

A( f )
solvefor X we obtainX  Xin
A( f ) ( f )
out ou 1
, t

If Xin is zero,the only way the the output can be nonzerois to have A( f ) ( f )  1

11. The above condition is know as Barkhausen Criterion.

 The Barkhausen Criterion II
12. The Barkhausen Criterion calls for two requirement for the loop gain . First, the magnitude of the loop gain must be unity. Second,
the phase angle of the loop gain must be zero the frequency of oscillation. (e.g, if a non-inverting amplifier is used, then the phase
angle of must be zero.
For a 
inv(ef r)ting amplifier, the phase angle should be 180)
13. In real oscillator design, we usually design loop-gain magnitude slightly larger than unity at the desired frequency of oscillation.
Because a higher gain magnitude results in oscillations that grow in amplitude with time, eventually, the amplitude is clipped by
the amplifier so that a constant- amplitude oscillation results.

14. On the other hand, if exact unity loop gain magnitude is designed, a slight reduction in gain would result in oscillations that decays
to zero.
15. One important thing to note is that the initial input Xin is not needed, as in real circuits noise and transient signals associated with
circuit turning on can always provide an initial signal that grows in amplitude as it propagates around the loop (assuming loop gain
is larger than unity).
 tives:

Different types of oscillators:

16. An oscillator has a positive feedback with the loop gain infinite. Feedback-type sinusoidal oscillators can be classified as
LC (inductor-capacitor) and RC (resistor-capacitor) oscillators.

 Tuned oscillator
 Hartley oscillator
 Colpitts oscillator
 Clapp oscillator
 Phase-shift oscillator
 Wien-bridge and
 Crystal oscillator
Difference between an amplifier and
an oscillator:
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF
OSCILLATORS:
17. The classification of various oscillators is shown in Table .
 CIRCUIT ANALYSIS OF A

GENERAL OSCILLATOR:

 This section discusses the general oscillator circuit with a simple generalized
analysis using the transistor, as shown in Fig. .
 An impedance z1 is connected between the base B and the emitter E, an impedance z2 is connected between the collector C and
emitter E. To apply a positive feedback z3 is connected between the collector and the base terminal.
 All the other different oscillators can be analyzed as a special case of the
generalized analysis of oscillator.
 CIRCUIT ANALYSIS OF A GENERAL OSCILLATOR:

18. The above generalized circuit of an oscillator is considered using a simple transistor-equivalent circuit model. The
current voltage expressions are expressed as follows:
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS OF A GENERAL OSCILLATOR:
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS OF A GENERAL
OSCILLATOR:
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS OF A GENERAL
OSCILLATOR:
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS OF A GENERAL
OSCILLATOR:
Hartley Oscillator:
Hartley Oscillator:
Colpitts Oscillator:
Colpitts Oscillator:
Colpitts Oscillator:
Phase-Shift Oscillator:
Phase-Shift Oscillator:
Phase-Shift Oscillator:
Phase-Shift Oscillator:
Phase-Shift Oscillator:
Phase-Shift Oscillator:
Wien-Bridge Oscillator:
Wien-Bridge Oscillator:
Wien-Bridge Oscillator:
Wien-Bridge Oscillator:
Wien-Bridge Oscillator:
 Wien-Bridge Oscillator:
19. Advantages of Wien-Bridge Oscillator:
20. The frequency of oscillation can be easily varied just by changing RC network
21. High gain due to two-stage amplifier
22. Stability is high

Disadvantages of Wien-Bridge Oscillator

23. The main disadvantage of the Wien-bridge oscillator is that a high frequency of oscillation cannot be generated.
 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR:

24. Crystal oscillator is most commonly used oscillator with high-frequency stability. They are used for laboratory experiments, communication
circuits and biomedical instruments. They are usually, fixed frequency oscillators where stability and accuracy are the primary considerations.
25. In order to design a stable and accurate LC oscillator for the upper HF and higher frequencies it is absolutely necessary to have a crystal
control; hence, the reason for crystal oscillators.
26. Crystal oscillators are oscillators where the primary frequency determining element is a quartz crystal. Because of the inherent characteristics
of the quartz crystal the crystal oscillator may be held to extreme accuracy of frequency stability. Temperature
27. compensation may be applied to crystal oscillators to improve thermal stability of the crystal oscillator.
28. The crystal size and cut determine the values of L, C, R and C'. The resistance R is the friction of the vibrating crystal, capacitance C is the
compliance, and inductance L is the equivalent mass. The capacitance C' is the electrostatic capacitance between the mounted pair of electrodes
with the crystal as the dielectric.
Circuit Diagram of CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR:
Circuit Analysis of CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR:
 APPLICATIONS OF OSCILLATORS:
 Oscillators are a common element of almost all electronic circuits. They are used in various applications, and
their use makes it possible for circuits and subsystems to perform numerous useful functions.
 In oscillator circuits, oscillation usually builds up from zero when power is first applied under linear circuit
operation.
 The oscillator’s amplitude is kept from building up by limiting the amplifier saturation and various
non-linear effects.
 Oscillator design and simulation is a complicated process. It is also extremely
important and crucial to design a good and stable oscillator.
 Oscillators are commonly used in communication circuits. All the
communication circuits for different modulation techniques—AM, FM, PM—the use of an oscillator is must.
 Oscillators are used as stable frequency sources in a variety of electronic
applications.
 Oscillator circuits are used in computer peripherals, counters, timers, calculators, phase-locked loops, digital
multi-metres, oscilloscopes, and numerous other applications.
 POINTS TO REMEMBER:
29. 1. Oscillator converts dc to ac.
30. 2. Oscillator has no input signal.
31. 3. Oscillator behaviour is opposite to that of a rectifier.
32. 4. The conditions and frequencies of oscillation are classified as: