\/ Pressure Management Helps Reduce Losses

by Julian Thornton with pumped feeds are usually divided into sectors on the
basis of elevated tank or storage reservoir levels.
Pressure management is a maintenance tool that can be Multiple feeds alleviate fire flow concerns. The various
used not only to help maintain minimum required flows feeds can be controlled by pressure-reducing valves with flow-
and avoid excessive flows but also to help a utility©s bottom modulated capability; if there is a fire, the system will have
line. A good pressure management program outlines the sufficient hydraulic capacity to maintain pressures and flows
areas within the distribution system that can benefit from for fire fighting, as required in the National Fire Protection
pressure control, considers the effect on consumers, employs Act regulations. The valves will automatically regulate
the most appropriate techniques, and ultimately saves the pressure as determined by the demand requirement plus the
utility time, money, water, or all three. Pressure minimum safe operating limit at residual conditions. The
management is the practice of controlling the amount of NFPA requires systems to have an available residual pressure
water pressure by decreasing it where it is excessive, of 20 psi while the hydrant is flowing and 40 psi static head.
maintaining it where it is sufficient, and sustaining it where When setting up potential pressure-controlled sectors, these
it is weak or unpredictable. This saves water, decreases wear requirements, as well as insurance regulations for the type of
and tear on the system, reduces unnecessary losses, and property, should be taken into account.
maintains a healthy supply for both consumer needs and Many pressure management programs concentrate on
emergency demands. reducing volume in smaller mains while allowing normal
Pressure management©s numerous benefits include system pressure in the larger trunk or transmission lines.
leakage reduction, Reservoirs are usually connected with the larger pipes, so
water conservation, refilling depleted storage tanks and reservoirs should not be
efficient distribution of water, a problem. Most utilities find that nonvisible leakage tends
deferral of costs to build new sources, to be in the smaller pipes and service connections, so the
reduced hydraulic impact, and effectiveness of a potential pressure management program
reduced customer complaints. also would not be reduced significantly by the exclusion of
Pressure management is particularly beneficial for larger pipes in the control area.
controlling leaks in systems with plastic-based pipes such as
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes, joint leaks, and high Pump Control
background leakage (often found in densely populated Many utilities use pump control as a method of
areas). In these cases, the relationship between leakage and controlling system pressure. Pumps are activated or
pressure is related to an expanding power law, as opposed to deactivated depending on system demand. This method is
a square root relationship that applies to holes in cast iron effective if the reduced level of pumping usually at night
or steel pipes. Therefore, reducing pressure on leaks in PVC can still maintain reservoir levels. With the advent of
pipe and leaks in joints affects the leak area as well as the variable-speed drives, pump control can be a very efficient
leak velocity, thus having a greater effect on leak flow and way of controlling system pressures. However, systems with
volume. In the case of areas with high background leakage fixed-speed pumps should consider the effect on energy
(nonlocatable by normal methods), pressure management is consumption if pumps are either pumping against a
the only effective method of controlling losses without throttled valve or switching on and off.
resorting to system replacement.
Pressure management does have critics, however, with Throttled System Valves
concerns about Many system operators recognize the need for reducing
fire flow, system pressure and will partially close a gate or butterfly
loss of revenue, and
reservoirs not filling at night.
When pressure management is Figure 1 Fixed Outlet Hydraulic Control
properly understood and
implemented, these concerns can be
addressed and alleviated. Counter
Clockwise
Management by Sector Rotation

The establishment of sectors in a Closed

system is a basic form of effective
pressure management. Sectors are
defined either naturally by geography
and system layout or physically with
valves. The sectors in which pressure
is controlled are usually quite large
and often have multiple feeds;
therefore, they do not usually
develop localized hydraulic problems
caused by valve closures. Systems When the pilot valve B is closed, the pressure in the control circuit exerts force on the
with gravity feeds usually are divided membrane of the main valve A, and the main valve will close.
into sectors by ground level. Systems

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valve to create a head loss and reduce pressure. This method from pressure management. This is also true for systems
is the least effective, as the head loss will change as system with lower water losses and high costs to produce or
demand changes. At night when a distribution system needs purchase water. In situations where a loss of revenue cannot
the least pressure, the pressure will be higher. During the be tolerated, pressure reduction can be limited to nighttime
day when the distribution system needs the most pressure to hours, when consumption is at its lowest and system
supply demand, the pressure will be lower. pressures are at their highest.
Pressure reduction also conserves water by decreasing the
Fixed Outlet Hydraulic Control amount of water available to be lost by indiscriminate faucet
The traditional method of control is to use a and hose use. Most households will not notice the
hydraulically operated control valve. This method is diminished pressure, or will quickly adapt. Toilets account
effective for areas with low head losses, demand that does for a large portion of water use in US households; tank-type
not vary greatly because of seasonal changes, and areas with toilets use a fixed volume that does not change significantly
uniform supply characteristics (Figure 1). when pressure is reduced. Many other fixed-volume uses
within a residence also will not vary significantly with
Time-based Modulation pressure changes.
Time-based modulation uses a controller with an internal
timer. Pressure is controlled in time bands according to Making Decisions
demand profiles. This method is suitable for areas with First, determine if pressure management is physically
stable demand profiles and head losses and is usually used feasible and economically beneficial. If so, then a full
where cost is an issue but advanced pressure management is analysis can be conducted.
desired. Time-based modulation controllers can be supplied 1. Select the potential subsector or area for control.
with or without data loggers and remote links. Some The first stages of selecting a subsector take place in the
manufacturers connect the controller to the pilot valve and office, by inspecting maps or plans to select a suitable area
alter the set point of the pilot valve by introducing a force with potentially high pressure. The area should be
against the existing force of the pilot spring. Other controllable by isolation from the general system naturally
manufacturers use a timer and a solenoid valve to reroute or by a series of valve closures. Several pressure control
control through preset pilots. valves may be used if hydraulically necessary.
2. Conduct a demand analysis.
Flow-based Dynamic Modulation A demand analysis will identify the types of consumers in
Flow-based dynamic modulation (FBDM) is the best type the potential sector and their specific requirements. A rough
of control for areas with changing conditions, variable head calculation of volumetric versus direct pressure use can be
loss, and high fire-flow requirements. FBDM provides made to identify any potential loss of revenue through
advanced control of outlet pressure relative to demand by pressure reduction. This loss of revenue figure will then be
connecting the controller to a metered signal output. used in the final cost-to-benefit analysis, if reduction in
Altering the force against the pilot spring modulates the consumption is not desired. During the demand analysis
outlet pressure (Figure 2). The controller is normally phase, particular care should be given to potential seasonal
supplied with a local data logger and optional remote changes. Seasonal changes usually have a big impact in
communications. Water pressure can be controlled with a tourist areas.
preset profile, related to the changing relationship of
demand and head loss in the sector. Alternately, a direct continued on page 8
communications link can be made
between the controller and the critical
point. The second option involves Figure 2: Flow-based Dynamic Modulation
communications and therefore higher 60-40 psi
costs, which are not always necessary.
In general, installation costs are Flow Signal
higher for FBDM, but the more
sophisticated control provided by FBDM
means additional savings down the line
and guaranteed fire flows, making this
type of control desirable.
The Flip Side
Concerns about maintaining adequate
fire flows can be countered by preserving
minimum flows and ensuring that
controlled sectors have multiple feeds.
The likelihood of reservoirs not filling at
night because of a pressure management
program is slight, if care is taken not to
minimize pressure and flows in
transmission mains.
As for loss of revenue because of less
water sold, systems with high leakage
will almost always see a positive benefit
October 1999
Pressure Management Helps Reduce Losses continued from page
3. Perform an initial cost-to-benefit analysis.
Look at the per capita use in a sector and determine
whether it is excessive. If it is excessive, then pressure
management would become a natural part of a conservation
program. If it is not, look at the components of consumption
within the sector (residential, commercial, industrial), the
volumetric consumption, and the consumption directly tied
to pressure. Then analyze the potential benefits of loss
reduction over reduction in revenue.
Simple, commercially available spreadsheets can be used to
estimate the benefit from leak reduction against any potential
loss of revenue and cost to install the system. The resulting
estimated cost-to-benefit analysis will help you determine if
the program should continue to the next phase.
4. Take field measurements.
If the cost-benefit analysis shows a potential benefit, go
into the field and take some preliminary measurements of This service pipe leak was not visible from the surface
pressure and flow. These measurements will be used to and could have been greatly reduced by good pressure
identify the real benefits of control, and if reduction of management practices.
leakage is a major determining factor for valve installation.
5. Determine type of control, control limits, and component power and chemicals are the main components. If a system
dimensions. is approaching maximum capacity, then deferral of the cost
After the potential loss recovery and loss of revenue has been to build a new station or treatment plant can also be
calculated, analyze the field data to decide on the type of control included. Marginal cost may also be wholesale cost, if a
(fixed outlet, time based, or flow modulated), the control limits, utility purchases water from another utility.
and the dimension of the valve and bypass assembly. This final Be sure to determine if the existing system can meet future
decision will determine the cost of the installation. supply requirements. If it cannot, then include the potential
6. Perform final cost-to-benefit calculations. cost to supply additional water to the system and add the cost
Once all of the determining factors have been identified, of the additional water to the potential saved value.
the potential cost of the program should again be weighed Pressure management is a valid and safe method of
against the potential benefit. Consider, too, pressure reducing water losses and maintenance costs and should be
management©s intangible benefits, such as reduced customer investigated by those utilities with unnecessarily high
complaints and efficient distribution of water, that are hard pressures and leakage.
to calculate financially. The utility should study these
benefits and include them in the final decision making. H Julian Thornton is currently working in Brazil with BBL Ltd.
Often the main benefit of pressure management is the as a consultant specializing in water-loss control, hydraulic
reduction of lost water at marginal cost. Marginal cost is control, and computer network modeling. He is a member of
defined as the variable cost to produce the water. Usually the AWWA National Committee for Leak Detection and
Water Accountability and is currently Chair of the
Subcommittee for New Technology. He can be reached by
Valves for Regulating Pressure e-mail, [email protected] or telephone at (55) 11 826-6633.
and Throttling Flow
Throttling the flow of water requires special valve designs In This Month $ Journal
that are durable over a long period of time. The two principal
types of throttling valves used in a water system are The spotlight is on cutting-edge technologies in the
pressure-reducing valves and altitude valves. October Journal AWWA. Theme articles discuss:
It is sometimes necessary to create two or more separate
pressure zones and reduce the pressure for the lower zone the use of chlorite ion to control nitrification,
by using pressure-reducing valves. These valves operate the California Department of Health Services method
automatically to throttle flow and maintain a lower pressure in for detecting perchlorate in drinking water using ion
the lower distribution system. chromatography,
Ground-level reservoirs are usually filled through an
altitude valve. This type of valve is designed to let the the removal of arsenic and nitrate through ion
reservoir fill at a regulated rate and to stop flow completely exchange, and
when the tank is full. Altitude valves are also used to control the microbiological quality of a distribution system
flow to an elevated tank when the tank is not high enough to after nanofiltration.
accept full system pressure. The valve will automatically
shut off flow to the tank to keep the tank from overflowing.
Single-acting altitude valves allow water to flow in only
one direction. Double-acting valves allow flow in both Certification Corner answers
directions.
Excerpt from Water Transmission and Distribution, second edition. 1. a 3. b 5. a 7. b
2. d 4. d 6. c 8. b

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