Advances in Agriculture Sciences Volume II

(ISBN: 978-93-95847-59-9)

Editors

Dr. Gopichand Singh Dr. Pavan Singh

K. V. K., Phalodi, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural

under Jodhpur Agriculture University, Chemistry, College of Agriculture, JNKVV,

Rajasthan, India Tikamgarh, (M.P.), India

Dr. Amit Kumar Pandey Dr. Simeet S. Rokade

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Department of Botany,

Chemistry, Bihar Agricultural University, Late Pundalikrao Gawali Arts and Science

Sabour, Bhagalpur, Bihar Mahavidyalaya, Shirpur (Jain),

Dist. Washim, M.S.

February, 2024
Copyright Editors

Title: Advances in Agriculture Sciences Volume II

Editors: Dr. Gopichand Singh, Dr. Pavan Singh, Dr. Amit Kumar Pandey, Dr. Simeet S. Rokade

First Edition: February, 2024

ISBN: 978-93-95847-59-9

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any

form or by any means, without permission. Any person who does any unauthorized act in

relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for

damages.

Published by:

BHUMI PUBLISHING

Nigave Khalasa, Tal – Karveer, Dist – Kolhapur, Maharashtra, INDIA 416 207

E-mail: [email protected]

Disclaimer: The views expressed in the book are of the authors and not necessarily of the

publisher and editors. Authors themselves are responsible for any kind of plagiarism found

in their chapters and any related issues found with the book.
 PREFACE

Agriculture, being the cornerstone of human civilization, has undergone

remarkable transformations over centuries. However, in today's rapidly changing
world, the challenges facing agriculture are more complex and multifaceted than ever
before. From feeding a growing global population to mitigating the impact of climate
change, the demands placed upon the agricultural sector are immense.
In response to these challenges, scientists, researchers, and practitioners from
around the globe have been tirelessly working to push the boundaries of agricultural
knowledge and practice. Their relentless pursuit of innovation has led to remarkable
discoveries and novel solutions that hold the potential to revolutionize the way we
produce food, manage resources, and safeguard the environment.
"Advances in Agriculture Sciences" serves as a testament to the dedication and
ingenuity of these individuals. Through a collection of insightful chapters, this book
offers a comprehensive overview of cutting-edge research and emerging trends across
various domains of agricultural science. From precision farming and biotechnology to
sustainable practices and digital agriculture, each chapter delves into the latest
developments and their implications for the future of farming.
Moreover, this book aims to foster interdisciplinary collaboration and
knowledge exchange among researchers, practitioners, policymakers, and
stakeholders in the agricultural community. By bringing together diverse perspectives
and expertise, we hope to inspire dialogue, spark innovation, and drive positive change
across the agricultural landscape.
As we navigate the complexities of the 21st century, the importance of
agricultural science in addressing global challenges cannot be overstated. It is our
sincere hope that "Advances in Agriculture Sciences" will serve as a valuable resource
for anyone seeking to deepen their understanding of the dynamic field of agriculture
and contribute to its continued advancement.
We extend our heartfelt gratitude to all the authors who have contributed their
expertise and insights to this book. Their contributions have been instrumental in
shaping this endeavor and enriching the discourse on agricultural innovation.
Editors
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Sr. No. Book Chapter and Author(s) Page No.

1. AN INVESTIGATION TO MEDICINAL AND 1 – 10
PHARMACOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF KALACHIKAI:
CAESALPINIA BONDUCELLA (L.)
C. Karthikeyan, B. Harine and K. Dharani
2. SOYBEAN BREEDING FOR ABIOTIC STRESS TOLERANCE: 11 – 21
TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Gowtham Kumar S, Indhu M, M. Keerthika and D. Pushparaj
3. ADVANCES TRANSFORMING AGRICULTURE SCIENCES 22 – 32
Anita B., Lokeshwari A. B., Sindhiya P. M. and Mani Sharma D.
4. AI REVOLUTION IN AGRICULTURE: MANAGING PESTICIDE 33 – 49
RESIDUE AND PROTECTING AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
Mariyadasu Perli, Vivek Chintada and B Manaswitha
5. FUNCTIONAL FOODS AND FORTIFIED NUTRACEUTICALS 50 – 59
Jagadeshwari S, Priya A, Rajashimman S and Senthil J
6. POST-HARVESTING TECHNIQUES IN HORTICULTURE 60 – 70
Gowtham Kumar S, Ajai M, Vinotha G,
Lavanya M and Manoj Kumar B
7. BEYOND MONOCULTURE: UNLOCKING THE POTENTIAL OF 71 – 75
DIVERSIFIED CROPPING SYSTEM IN TEA CULTIVATION
Supriya Sonowal, Shyamal Kr Phukon, Rana Pratap Bhuyan,
Diganta Sharmah, Aditi Smith Gogoi,
Eimon Bharadwaj and Rashmi Kalita
8. VERTICAL FARMING – THE FUTURE OF CROP PRODUCTION 76 – 84
Rishika Choudhary, Anuj Kumar and Anju Bijarnia
9. BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC STRESS MANAGEMENT IN 85 – 93
AGRICULTURE
Priyanka Chand and D. V. Singh
10. UNLOCKING THE CARBON-SEQUESTERING POTENTIAL OF 94 – 104
TEA GARDENS FOR CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION
Bidisha Hazarika, A. S. Gogoi and B. K. Medhi
11. ECONOMIC VIABILITY OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 105 – 119
PRACTICES IN MODERN FARMING
Harshit Mishra, Ankit Kumar Tiwari and Deep Chand Nishad
12. MARKET DYNAMICS AND CONSUMER PERCEPTIONS OF 120 – 135
ORGANIC PRODUCE IN CONTEMPORARY AGRICULTURE
Ankit Kumar Tiwari, Harshit Mishra and Deep Chand Nishad
13. POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT: ENHANCING FOOD 136 – 152
SECURITY AND SUSTAINABILITY
Deep Chand Nishad, Harshit Mishra,
Ankit Kumar Tiwari and Divyanshi Mishra
14. THE CURRENT LANDSCAPE OF ORGANIC FARMING IN 153 – 159
ASSAM AND CHALLENGES CONFRONTING ORGANIC
FARMERS IN THE REGION
Brishti Saikia, R.A. Halim, Pompi Dutta and Nivedita Deka
15. FORECASTING THE POSSIBILITIES OF PLANT GROWTH- 160 – 167
PROMOTING RHIZOBACTERIA (PGPR) AS NEXT-
GENERATION BIOFERTILIZERS: AN EXTENSIVE ANALYSIS
Lenin Kumar Bompalli
Bhumi Publishing, India

FORECASTING THE POSSIBILITIES OF PLANT GROWTH-PROMOTING

RHIZOBACTERIA (PGPR) AS NEXT-GENERATION BIOFERTILIZERS: AN
EXTENSIVE ANALYSIS
Lenin Kumar Bompalli
Department of Biotechnology,
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar University, Etcherla, Andhrapradesh, India
Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) represents a promising avenue in modern
agriculture for sustainable crop production. This comprehensive review explores the multifaceted
potential of PGPR as a next generation biofertilizers. We delve into their diverse mechanisms of
action, ranging from nutrient acquisition and hormone modulation to disease suppression and
stress tolerance enhancement. Furthermore, we discuss the current state of research on PGPR,
highlighting recent advancements and challenges in their application as biofertilizers. Research
has demonstrated that inoculating plants with plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) or
treating plants with microbe-to-plant signal compounds can be an effective strategy to stimulate
crop growth. Plants have evolved to respond to microbial quorum sensing compounds and to
produce analogs, providing plants with another level of regulation over the rhizomicrobiome.
Drawing upon this analysis, we provide insights into the outlook of PGPR-based solutions,
emphasizing their role in addressing global agricultural challenges and fostering the possibilities
in environmentally friendly practices.
Keywords: PGPR, global agricultural, next generation, biofertilizers, disease, sustainable crop.
Introduction:
A new revolution in agricultural innovation will be needed to sustain the food, fiber, and
fuel needs of a growing global population and a changing climate through the 21st century. A
“Fresh” Green Revolution, perhaps the Bio-Revolution, needs to be based on fewer intensive
inputs with reduced environmental impact. (Backer et al., 2018). Plant growth-promoting
rhizobacteria (PGPR) are involved in various mechanisms such as phosphate solubilization,
siderophore production, biological nitrogen fixation, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid
deaminase (ACC) production, and quorum sensing (QS). Rhizosphere bacteria that positively
influence plant growth through. Signal interference and inhibition of biofilm formation,
phytohormone production, antimicrobial activity, induction of systemic resistance (ISR),
promotion of beneficial plant-microbe symbiosis, and many other mechanisms. (Benaissa, 2019).
PGPR is used in a variety of ways, including supplying atmospheric nitrogen, synthesizing
siderophores, producing plant hormones such as auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins, dissolving
phosphorus (P) and other minerals, or synthesizing stress-reducing enzymes. promotes the
growth of plant symbionts. 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase or cell wall
degrading enzyme. (Olanrewaju et al., 2017). PGPR classified as e2PGPR which means
exophytes and endophytes. Exophytes bacterial genera included Azotobacter, Serratia,
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Azospirillum, Bacillus, Caulobacter, Chromobacterium, Agrobacterium, Micrococcous,
Pseudomonas and Burkholderia. Endophytes bacterial genera may include Allorhizobium,
Bradyrhizobium, Mesorhizobium and Rhizobium. Exophytes inhabit the rhizospere or in the
spaces between the cell cortex. Endophytic bacteria live inside the specialized nodal structures of
root cells.
The need for sustainable agriculture
By 2050, the world's population will be around 10 billion, putting existing food resources
under severe pressure. (United Nations, 2015). In addition to the well-characterized legume-
rhizobia symbiosis, rhizobia that promote plant growth include N2-fixing rhizobia that colonize
the rhizosphere, which supplies nitrogen to plants. Regardless of the mechanism that promotes
plant growth, PGPR must colonize the rhizosphere around the roots, the rhizoplane (the root
surface), or the roots themselves (within the root problem). (Hagera et al., 2020) Plant growth-
promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are known for enhancing crop productivity as well as plant
protection. (Jai Singh Patel et al., 2021).
Role of microbial biofertilizers
The use of biofertilizers dates to the 1980s, when the first rhizobial formulations were
patented and marketed in Germany (Nobbe and Hiltner, 1986). Microorganisms such as rhizobia,
bacilli, and pseudomonas secrete hydrogen cyanide, decomposing pathogens and ensuring plant
defense against pathogenic diseases. N2-fixed biofertilizers have been widely studied on
legumes, and it is important to demonstrate their potential in non-legume crops using non-
symbiotic diazotrophs such as Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Gluconaceotobacter, and
Burkholderia. requires further effort. (Becky et al., 2022).
Emergence of PGPR as next-generation biofertilizers
PGPR can be used to improve plant health and promote plant growth without polluting
the environment. (Calbo et al., 2014). The report highlighted the need for better PGPR
biofertilizers to supplement rapidly increasing agri-food production as one of the main drivers of
the economy. Incorporation of nanoencapsulation technology is pivotal in revolutionizing his
PGPR biofertilizer formulations today. (Pravin et al., 2016).
Mechanisms underlying PGPR-mediated plant growth promotion
PGPB can usually promote plant growth directly by promoting resource acquisition or
modulating phytohormone levels, or indirectly by reducing the inhibitory effects of various
pathogens on plant growth and development. Can promote plant growth hormone by acting as a
biocontrol bacterium. (Glick, 1995).
1. Nutrient mobilization and cycling
Biofertilizers, or microorganisms, that help plants absorb nutrients can do a variety of
things, including increasing the surface area accessible to plant roots, fixing nitrogen, promoting
phosphorus solubilization, producing siderophores, and producing prussic acid. It works in a
way. (Pii et al., 2015). The production of HCN by PGPR was initially thought to promote plant
growth by suppressing pathogens. However, this idea has recently been questioned by Rijavec
and Lapanje, 2016.

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2. Phytohormone production and regulation

Hormones are generally defined as a class of signaling molecules that are released or
secreted by specific glands of an organism and transported by the circulatory system to specific
target organs to regulate physiology and behavior (Davies. 2010). Application of phytohormone-
producing PGPR can help improve plant physiology, biomass, and yield (Vessey 2003;
Nihorimbere et al., 2011). Plant hormones interact synergistically or antagonistically under
certain conditions to regulate physiological processes (Peleg and Blumwald). 2011)
3. Induction of systemic resistance
Commercial applications of Pseudomonas spp.'s plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria
(PGPR) involve protecting plants by inducing systemic resistance against a range of pests and
illnesses. Combinations of many PGPR strains have enhanced efficacy by causing systemic
resistance to multiple diseases that target the same crop. (Ramamoorthy, 2001).
4. Biocontrol of phytopathogens
PGPR can also work as biocontrol agents providing protection to the plants, enhancing
the plant growth through the synthesis of antibiotics. The use of biopesticides is increasing
slowly at a rate of 8% annually based on the different types of microbial pesticides. (Umair et al.,
2020)
5. Mitigation of abiotic stress
By colonizing the rhizosphere/endo rhizosphere region and producing phytohormones,
exopolysaccharides, volatile compounds, and ACC deaminase, which cause the production of
osmolyte and antioxidants as well as stress-responsive gene regulation, PGPR helps plants
withstand a variety of abiotic stresses, such as drought, salt, cold, and heavy metal toxicity.
(Manoj et al., 2021).
Diversity and functionality of PGPR
Induced systemic resistance (ISR) is a state of active resistance caused by an inducing
agent following pathogen infection. Although ISR can be induced by beneficial rhizobia,
pathogen-induced resistance is called systemic acquired resistance (SAR) (Pieterse. et al., 2002).
1. Taxonomic diversity of PGPR
Beneficial interactions between plants and microorganisms in the rhizosphere are known
to be important factors for plant health and soil fertility (Jeffries et al., 2003). Plant growth-
promoting rhizobia (PGPR) are a large group of soil bacteria that, when grown together, promote
the growth of their hosts. These rhizosphere microorganisms produce growth-stimulating
hormones and suppress plant pathogens, among other mechanisms that support plant growth.
They also benefit from using metabolites secreted by plant roots as nutrients. (Anujrana et al.,
2011). Environmental stress can cause significant damage to most plant species and is one of the
major constraints to plant growth and production worldwide (Yang et al., 2009). Although plants
can actively attack microorganisms from the environment, the plant rhizosphere is considered a
hotspot of microbial activity that is home to a variety of bacteria, many of which contribute to
plant performance and stress tolerance. (Bruto et al., 2014, Company et al., 2019)

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2. Functional traits contributing to plant growth promotion
Phenotypic traits and their associated trade-offs have been shown to have globally
consistent effects on individual plant physiological functions. (Westoby et al., 2002). The timing
of phenological events (such as leaf emergence, flowering, fruiting and leaf senescence) is
crucial for species resource acquisition and reproductive success (e.g. plant–pollinator
interaction, Nord & Lynch, 2009; Liu et.al, 2021)
Applications of PGPR in agriculture
A 50% increase in agricultural output is required to feed the world’s rapidly expanding
population, roughly 9 billion people by 2050. (Alexandratos and Bruinsma, 2012) One of the
best tactics is thought to be the phytomicrobiome, which is thought to be a superior substitute for
sustainable agriculture and a workable way to address the two main issues of environmental
stability and global food security. The agricultural sector is using the phytomicrobiome more and
more because of its environmentally friendly and sustainable mechanisms for promoting plant
growth. (Atteeq shah et al., 2021)
1. Enhancing soil fertility and nutrient availability
Since almost all the world's land suitable for agricultural production is currently under
cultivation, future food and fiber demands must be met by increasing crop yields per unit area.
More than 50% of the world's land is degraded, reaching nearly 70% in some areas, and
anthropogenic land degradation threatens our ability to meet 21st century food and fiber
demands. (Gomiero. 2016). The development of biofertilizers containing organic waste has been
shown to increase the availability of nutrients to plants. (Fuentes Ramírez, L.E., 2005). Effective
nutrient management requires quantifying plant nutrient requirements and soil nutrient delivery
capacity through soil testing. When nutrients are applied more than plant requirements, residual
nutrients increase and, if not used or recovered in subsequent crops, can result in off-site
transport and lead to environmental degradation. (Sattari et al., 2012).
Challenges and limitations in harnessing PGPR as biofertilizers
The beneficial mechanisms of plant growth improvement include enhanced availability of
nutrients (i.e., N, P, K, Zn and S), phytohormone modulation, biocontrol of phytopathogens and
amelioration of biotic and abiotic stresses. This plant-microbe interplay is indispensable for
sustainable agriculture and these microbes may perform an essential role as an ecological
engineer to reduce the use of chemical fertilizers. The preparation of the inoculum, the addition
of cell protectants like glycerol, lactose or starch an appropriate carrier material, suitable
packaging, and the most efficient delivery methods are some of the steps involved in creating a
solid based or liquid biofertilizer formulation. PGP microbes have several advantageous qualities
that make them useful as biofertilizers, such as the ability to break down organic matter, improve
nutrient availability, produce phytohormones, and lessen the effects of biotic and abiotic stresses.
The use of biofertilizers has currently emerged as a cost effective and ecofriendly alternative
than chemical-based fertilizers. Substantial progress has been achieved recently in the
development of effective biofertilizers for different crops. Current unravelling of the complex
microbial communities using molecular tools showed that fertile soil contains both beneficial as

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well as detrimental organisms, which act as facilitators of plant processes (Satish Kumar et al.,
2022).
Future outlook and perspectives:
Agriculture bears a great deal of responsibility because as the world’s population rises, so
does the need for food. However, biotic and abiotic stress in different forms continues to affect
agricultural productivity. Drought productivity is one significant abiotic stressor that affects
agriculture every year because it causes a range of morphological, biochemical, and
physiological changes in the plants. Reduced photosynthesis and transpiration rate, as well as
inhibited root and shoot growth, are some of these modifications., increased production of
reactive oxygen species (ROS), osmotic adjustments, and altered stress signaling pathways and
regulation of leaf senescence. Mitigation techniques need to be created since these changes could
permanently harm the plants. Drought-resistant agricultural cultivars have minimal benefits and
are more costly and labor-intensive to use. But taking advantage of plant growth-promoting
rhizobacteria (PGPR) is a tried-and-true substitute with Next generation agriculture system.
1. Integration with precision agriculture and digital technologies
Digital innovation in agriculture represents, according to the United Nations Food and
Agriculture Organization, a great opportunity to eradicate poverty and hunger and mitigate the
effects of climate change. Through digitalization, all parts of the agri-food production chain will
be modified, since connectivity and the processing of large amounts of information in an instant
allows for more efficient work, greater economic return, greater environmental benefits, and
better working conditions in the field. To adopt and execute creative ideas, governments will
need to support the growth of rural communities and small companies as well as bolster the
infrastructure in rural areas to implement these reforms. (FAO, 2020.)
2. Advancements in synthetic biology and microbiome engineering
Because drought stress has a very negative impact on plant growth and productivity,
many drought monitoring techniques have been developed, each with advantages and
disadvantages. The application of PGPR not only provides additional direct and indirect benefits
that significantly improve crop performance but is also very successful in overcoming drought
periods. (Gowtham et al., 2022).
Conclusion:
In conclusion, the synthesis of the potential of Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria
(PGPR) as next-generation biofertilizers presents a promising avenue for sustainable agriculture.
Through this research, it is evident that PGPR possess multifaceted mechanisms that contribute
to plant growth enhancement, disease suppression, and stress tolerance. The extensive
understanding of PGPR-plant interactions, molecular mechanisms, and ecological impacts
underscores their significance in modern agricultural practices.
One of the key findings is the ability of PGPR to enhance nutrient availability and uptake
by plants, leading to improved growth and yield. Moreover, the ability of certain PGPR strains to
solubilize phosphates and fix atmospheric nitrogen further emphasizes their potential as
biofertilizers, offering eco-friendly alternatives to chemical fertilizers. Additionally, the

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production of various secondary metabolites such as phytohormones and antimicrobial
compounds by PGPR contributes to plant health and resilience against pathogens and
environmental stresses.
Furthermore, the exploration of PGPR consortia and their synergistic interactions
highlights the importance of microbial community dynamics in soil health and plant
productivity. Harnessing the power of microbial consortia tailored to specific crop and soil
conditions could maximize the benefits of PGPR biofertilizers in diverse agricultural systems.
However, several challenges remain in realizing the full potential of PGPR biofertilizers,
including optimizing formulations, ensuring compatibility with other agricultural inputs, and
addressing regulatory hurdles. Moreover, further research is needed to elucidate the mechanisms
underlying PGPR-plant interactions and their long-term effects on soil health and ecosystem
sustainability.
In conclusion, the integration of PGPR-based biofertilizers into agricultural practices
holds great promise for enhancing crop productivity while minimizing environmental impacts.
Continued research and innovation in this field are essential to unlock the full potential of PGPR
as next generation biofertilizers and to facilitate their widespread adoption in sustainable
agriculture.
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