Msys 14

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY
RESEARCH METHOD AND STATISTICS
MSYS-14 /MCPS -14

Semester - I
Department of Psychology
School of Social Sciences
Tamil Nadu Open University
577, Anna Salai, Saidapet, Chennai – 600 015.
www.tnou.ac.in
May 2022
Name of the Programme: M.Sc., Psychology
Course Code: MSYS – 14/MCPS-14
Course Title: Research Methods and Applied Statistics
Curriculum Design
Dr. M. V. Sudhakaran
Professor of Psychology,
Department of Psychology,
School of Social Sciences,
Tamil Nadu Open University, Chennai – 15.
Course Writer
Dr. U. Vijayabanu
Assistant Professor & Head
Bhaktavatsalam Memorial College for Women
Venkatraman Nagar, Korattur,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600 080
Course Coordinator & Content Editor
Dr. M. V. Sudhakaran
Professor of Psychology
Department of Psychology
School of Social Sciences
Tamil Nadu Open University, Chennai – 15
September 2022 (First Edition)

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09.05.2022
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(K. PARTHASARATHY)
RESEARCH METHOD AND STATISTICS - MSYS-14
SYLLABUS
BLOCKI: Foundations of Research

Meaning – Objectives of science – Need for research – Research approaches – Steps in
research - MethodVsMethodology.GeneralPrinciples–Ethicalissues:Children,Adults,
Animal - Research problem– Sources– Criteria of good problem- Reviewing the
literature – Research article.
BLOCKII: Hypothesis, Variables and Sampling

Hypothesis: Meaning–Types–Basic concepts related to hypothesis testing–Variables –
Definition – Ways of asking questions – measuring observed variables – Scales
ofmeasurement–Sampling–Meaning–ProbabilityandNon-probabilitysampling–
Sample&effectsize.Datacollectionmethods:Observationalresearch–Surveyresearch.
BLOCKIII: Research Designs

Experimental design: Independent groups designs – Completely randomized groups
designs, randomized factorial groups design. Dependent group’s designs: Within-
participants design, matched groups design–Mixed Designs – Single-participant
design – Baseline designs - Non-experimental designs: Quasi-experiments – Time-
series design, non-equivalent groups designs, longitudinal research, Cross-sectional
research, Case-studies, Co relational research.
BLOCKIV: Statistics
Organizing data: Frequency distribution – Graphs – Descriptive statistics: Measures of
central tendency – Measures of variation – Types of distributions. Inferential statistics:
zest – t test – Analysis of Variance – Correlation– Concepts related to correlation –
Correlation coefficient– Regression.
Non-parametric statistics: Mann-Whitney test – Wilcox on Chi-square –
Spearman Rank correlation– Kruskal-Wallistest. Analysisofdata using SPSS.
BLOCKV: Report Writing and Computers in Research

WritingProposal–Plagiarism–ReferencesandIn-textcitation–APAprimer-
Presentingresearch: Researchreport– Typing guidelines – Oreland Poster presentation –
Role of Computers in research– Internet and research.
References:
1. Coaley,K.(2009).An Introduction to Psychological Assessment And
Psychometrics. New Delhi, India: Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd.
2. Coolican,H.(2009).Research Methods in Statistics i n Psychology.New
Delhi,India:Rawat Publications.
3. Evans,A.N., & Rooney,B.J.(2008).Methodsin Psychological research.
NewDelhi, India: Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd.
4. Gravette ,F.J., & Forzana,L.A.B.(2009).Research Methods for Behavioral
Sciences.Boston,MA: Wads worth Cengage learning.
5. Jackson,S.L.(2010).Research methods and statistics. New Delhi, India:
Cengage LearningIndia Pvt. Ltd.
6. Mohanty ,B.,&Misra,S.(2019).Statistics for behavioral and social sciences.
NewDelhi, India:Sage Publications.
7. Myers,J.(2008).Methods in psychological research. NewDelhi,India:Sage

Publications.
8. Ruyon,R.P,Haber,A, Pittenger,D.J.,&Coleman,K.A.(2010).Fundamentals of be
havioural statistics. NewYork, NY:McGraw Hill.
9. Singh,A.K.(2006).Tests,measure ments and research methods in behavioural
sciences.Patna, India: Bharati Bhavan Publishers.
10. C.R. Kothari, 2004, Research Methodology – Methods and Techniques, New
Age International (P) Limited Publishers, New Delhi.
CONTENTS
Title Page
No
BLOCK – I: FOUNDATIONS OF RESEARCH 1
UNIT 1 - SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN RESEARCH 2
UNIT 2 ETHICS IN RESEARCH 16
UNIT 3 RESEARCH PROBLEMS & REVIEWS 39

BLOCK – II: HYPOTHESIS, VARIABLES AND SAMPLING 55
UNIT 4 HYPOTHESIS AND VARIABLES 56
UNIT 5 SAMPLING 77
UNIT 6 DATA COLLECTION METHODS 90
BLOCK – III: RESEARCH DESIGNS 103
UNIT 7 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS 104

UNIT 8 NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS 120
BLOCK–IV: STATISTICS 133
UNIT 9 ORGANISATIN OF DATA AND PARAMETRIC STATISTICS 134
UNIT 10 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 157
UNIT 11 NON-PARAMETRIC STATISTICS AND SPSS 178
BLOCK – V: REPORT WRTING AND COMPUTER IN RESEARCH 192
UNIT 12: WRITING RESEARCH PROPOSAL 193
UNIT 13: PRESENTING RESEARCH 209
UNIT 14: ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN RESEARCH 223
Appendix: Plagiarism Certificate 224

BLOCK I: FOUNDATIONS OF RESEARCH
UNIT 1: SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN RESEARCH
UNIT2: ETHICS IN RESEARCH
UNIT3: RESEARCH PROBLEMS & REVIEWS
1
UNIT 1
SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN RESEARCH
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
10.1 Meaning – Objective Of Science
10.2 The Three Goals Of Science
10.3 Need For Research
10.4 Research Approaches
10.4.1 Quantitative approach
10.4.2 Qualitative approach
10.4.3 Mixed method research
10.5 Steps in Research
10.6 Method Vs Methodology
10.6.1 Methods
10.6.2 Methodology
10.6.3 Key differences between methods and methodology
10.7 General
Principles Let us sum
up
Check Your Progress
Answers to check your progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
People have always been curious about the natural world,

including themselves and their behavior (in fact, this is probably
why you are studying psychology in the first place). Science grew
out of this natural curiosity and has become the best way to
achieve detailed and accurate knowledge. Keep in mind that most
of the phenomena and theories that fill psychology textbooks are
the products of scientific research. In a typical introductory
psychology textbook, for example, one can learn about specific
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cortical areas for language and perception, principles of classical
and operant conditioning, biases in reasoning and judgment, and
people’s surprising tendency to obey those in positions of
authority. And scientific research continues because what we
know right now only scratches the surface of what we can know.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
• Describe the scientific methods

• Explain the Scientific methodology
• Discuss about the approaches in research
• List out the steps in research
• Discuss about Behavioral research
• Distinguish the methods and methodology
1.1 MEANING – OBJECTIVE OF SCIENCE
Science is defined as a systematic way of gaining knowledge.

Gaining knowledge via science, then, involves a merger of
rationalism and empiricism. Scientists collect data (make empirical
observations) and test hypotheses with these data (assess them
using rationalism). The scientific method is a process of
systematically collecting and evaluating evidence to test ideas and
answer questions. While scientists may use intuition, authority,
rationalism, and empiricism to generate new ideas they don’t stop
there. Scientists go a step further by using systematic empiricism
to make careful observations under various controlled conditions in
order to test their ideas and they use rationalism to arrive at valid
conclusions. While the scientific method is the most likely of all of
the methods to produce valid knowledge, like all methods of
acquiring knowledge it also has its drawbacks. One major problem
is that it is not always feasible to use the scientific method; this
method can require considerable time and resources. Another
problem with the scientific method is that it cannot be used to
answer all questions.
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The general scientific approach has three fundamental features
(Stanovich, 2010). The first is systematic empiricism. Empiricism
refers to learning based on observation, and scientists learn about
the natural world systematically, by carefully planning, making,
recording, and analyzing observations of it. As we will see, logical
reasoning and even creativity play important roles in science too,
but scientists are unique in their insistence on checking their ideas
about the way the world is against their systematic observations.
Notice, for example, that Mehl and his colleagues did not trust
other people’s stereotypes or even their own informal
observations. Instead, they systematically recorded, counted, and
compared the number of words spoken by a large sample of
women and men. Furthermore, when their systematic observations
turned out to conflict with people’s stereotypes, they trusted their
systematic observations.
The second feature of the scientific approach—which follows in a

straightforward way from the first—is that it is concerned
with empirical questions. These are questions about the way the
world actually is and, therefore, can be answered by systematically
observing it. The question of whether women talk more than men
is empirical in this way. Either woman really does talk more than
men or they do not, and this can be determined by systematically
observing how much women and men actually talk. Having said
this, there are many interesting and important questions that are
not empirically testable and that science is not in a position to
answer. Among these are questions about values—whether things
are good or bad, just or unjust, or beautiful or ugly, and how the
world ought to be. So although the question of whether a
stereotype is accurate or inaccurate is an empirically testable one
that science can answer, the question—or, rather, the value
judgment—of whether it is wrong for people to hold inaccurate
stereotypes is not. Similarly, the question of whether criminal
behavior has a genetic basis is an empirical question, but the
question of what actions ought to be considered illegal is not. It is
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especially important for researchers in psychology to be mindful of
this distinction.
The third feature of science is that it creates public knowledge.

After asking their empirical questions, making their systematic
observations, and drawing their conclusions, scientists publish
their work. This usually means writing an article for publication in a
professional journal, in which they put their research question in
the context of previous research, describe in detail the methods
they used to answer their question, and clearly present their
results and conclusions. Increasingly, scientists are opting to
publish their work in open access journals, in which the articles are
freely available to all – scientists and nonscientists alike. This
important choice allows publicly-funded research to create
knowledge that is truly public.
1.2 The Three Goals of Science
The first and most basic goal of science is to describe. This goal
is achieved by making careful observations. As an example,
perhaps I am interested in better understanding the medical
conditions that medical marijuana patients use marijuana to treat.
In this case, I could try to access records at several large medical
marijuana licensing centers to see which conditions people are
getting licensed to use medical marijuana. Or I could survey a
large sample of medical marijuana patients and ask them to report
which medical conditions they use marijuana to treat or manage.
Indeed, research involving surveys of medical marijuana patients
has been conducted and has found that the primary symptom
medical marijuana patients use marijuana to treat is pain, followed
by anxiety and depression (Sexton, Cuttler, Finnell, & Mischley,
2016).
The second goal of science is to predict. Once we have observed

with some regularity that two behaviors or events are
systematically related to one another we can use that information
to predict whether an event or behavior will occur in a certain
situation. Once I know that most medical marijuana patients use
5
marijuana to treat pain I can use that information to predict that an
individual who uses medical marijuana likely experiences pain. Of
course, my predictions will not be 100% accurate but if the
relationship between medical marijuana uses and pain is strong
then my predictions will have greater than chance accuracy.
The third and ultimate goal of science is to explain. This goal

involves determining the causes of behavior. For example,
researchers might try to understand the mechanisms through
which marijuana reduces pain. Does marijuana reduce
inflammation which in turn reduces pain? Or does marijuana
simply reduce the distress associated with pain rather than
reducing pain itself? As you can see these questions tap at the
underlying mechanisms and causal relationships.
1.3 NEED FOR RESEARCH

The main purposes of research are to inform action, gather
evidence for theories, and contribute to developing knowledge in a
field of study through the application of scientific procedures. It’s a
tool for building knowledge and facilitating learning. While
exploring the problems we are able to understand issues and
increase public awareness if needed. Research in consumer
behavior helps us succeed in business. Need for the research
could be best understood by the aims and goals of research.
The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden
and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research
study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research
objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new
insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed as
exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in view are
known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with
which it is associated with something else (studies with this object
in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
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4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables
(such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
1.4 RESEARCH APPROACHES
The three common approaches to conducting research are

quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. The researcher
anticipates the type of data needed to respond to the research
question. For instance, is numerical, textural, or both numerical
and textural data needed? Based on this assessment, the
researcher selects one of the three aforementioned approaches to
conduct research. Researchers typically select the quantitative
approach to respond to research questions requiring numerical
data, the qualitative approach for research questions requiring
textural data, and the mixed methods approach for research
questions requiring both numerical and textural data.
1.4.1 Quantitative approach
The former involves the generation of data in quantitative form

which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a
formal and rigid fashion. This approach can be further sub-
classified into inferential, experimental and simulation approaches
to research. The purpose of inferential approach to research is to
form a data base from which to infer characteristics or
relationships of population. This usually means survey research
where a sample of population is studied (questioned or observed)
to determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the
population has the same characteristics. Experimental approach is
characterized by much greater control over the research
environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to
observe their effect on other variables. Simulation approach
involves the construction of an artificial environment within which
relevant information and data can be generated. This permits an
observation of the dynamic behaviour of a system (or its sub-
system) under controlled conditions.
7
1.4.2 Qualitative approach
Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective

assessment of attitudes, opinions and behaviour. Research in
such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and
impressions. Such an approach to research generates results
either in non-quantitative form or in the form which are not
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally, the
techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques Case
studies, grounded theory, ethnography, content analysis,
phenomenological and depth interviews are used.
1.4.3 Mixed method approach: In this approach to research,

researchers incorporate methods of collecting or analyzing data
from both the quantitative and qualitative research approaches in a
single research study. All these are explained at length in units
that follow.
1.5 STEPS IN RESEARCH PROCESS
Step 1: Identification of research problem: Any research starts with

the problem. There are various strategies in identifying the
problem.
Step 2: Review of related literature: After the identification of

research problem, with the key words review to be done in order to
understand what the researchers have found out earlier. This has
to be done in order to check if exactly the same research problem
has been addressed before or not. If yes what were the
methodologies followed, their research findings and the research
gap. Review of related literature can be done through secondary
data sources such as books, newspapers, magazines, journals,
online articles etc.
Statement of Problem
Review of literature
8
Formulation of
Hypothesis
Methodology and
design
Data collection
Analysis of data
Results and
conclusion
Step 3: Formulation of hypothesis: With the help of reviews

hypothesis would be formulated. Formulate hypothesis is tentative
assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences. Hypothesis should be very specific and
limited to the objectives of research because it has to be tested.
The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting
the area of research and to keep him on the right track.
Step 4: Methodology and design: Methodology explains about the

plan, strategy, and structure to find solution to the research
problem. It also explains about the sampling technique, sample
size operational definition of variables, and statistics used
Step 5: After deciding the procedure for date collection actual data
collection will start. Primary data can be collected through
9
Observation, personal interview, telephone interview, mailing of
questionnaires, Schedules and Google forms
Step 6: Analysis of data collected. This stage mainly include: 1.

Coding 2. Editing 3. Tabulation 4. Statistical analysis
Step 7: After the statistical analysis results will be inferred

regarding accepting or rejecting the formulated hypothesis.
Conclusion will be drawn. All the above steps will be explained in
detail in the following units.
1.6 METHOD vs METHODOLOGY
Research can be understood as the systematic and rigorous

search for appropriate information on a specific subject. It involves
enunciation of the problem, developing a hypothesis, collecting
and analyzing data and drawing conclusions, based on the facts
and data collected. And to do so, the researcher uses research
methods, during the course of conducting research. The research
methods are often confused with research methodology, which
implies the scientific analysis of the research methods, so as to
find a solution to the problem at hand. Hence, it is necessary to
clarify the differences between research method and research
methodology.
1.6.1 Methods are the specific tools and procedures which are
used to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments,
surveys, and statistical tests). In shorter scientific papers, where
the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, the researcher
might simply describe what they did in a methods section.In other
words, all those methods which are used by the researcher during
the course of studying his research problem are termed as
research methods. Since the object of research, particularly the
applied research, it to arrive at a solution for a given problem, the
available data and the unknown aspects of the problem have to be
related to each other to make a solution possible. Keeping this in
view, research methods can be put into the following three groups.
10
First group: The methods relating to data collection are covered.
Such methods are used when the existing data is not sufficient, to
reach the solution.
Second group: Incorporates the processes of analyzing data, i.e.

to identify patterns and establish a relationship between data and
unknowns.
Third group: Comprise of the methods which are used to check

the accuracy of the results obtained. Research methods falling in
the above stated last two groups are generally taken as the
analytical tools of research.
1.6.2 Methodology
Methodologyrefers to the central strategy and rationale of research

project. It involves studying the methods used in its field and the
theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an
approach that matches researchers’ objectives. In a longer or
more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation,
researcher will probably include a methodology section, where
they explain their approach to answering the research questions
and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.
It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research

methods/techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not
only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to
calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard
deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research
techniques, but they also need to know which of these methods or
techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what would they
mean and indicate and why. Researchers also need to understand
the assumptions underlying various techniques and they need to
know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques
and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others
will not. All this means that it is necessary for the researcher to
design his methodology for his problem as the same may differ
from problem to problem. For example, an architect, who designs
a building, has to consciously evaluate the basis of his decisions,
11
i.e., he has to evaluate why and on what basis he selects
particular size, number and location of doors, windows and
ventilators, uses particular materials and not others and the like.
Similarly, in research the scientist has to expose the research
decisions to evaluation before they are implemented. He has to
specify very clearly and precisely what decisions he selects and
why he selects them so that they can be evaluated by others also.
1.6.3 Key Differences between Research Method and

Research Methodology
Parameters of Method Methodology

Comparison
Definition Procedure or System of methods, use
technique applied by scientifically for solving
the researcher to the research problem.
undertake research.
Objective Find solution Determine the
appropriateness of a
method.
Function Used to select a tool o Analysis of all methods.
technique
Stages Applied during the Applied during the initia
later stage stage
Comprises of experiment, test, Learning various
surveys, interviews, techniques which can b
etc employed in the
performance of
experiment, test or surve
1.7 GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one

thing that is important is that they all meet on the common ground
of scientific method employed by them.One expects scientific
research to satisfy certain general principles as follows
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and
common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient
detail to permit another researcher to repeat the research for
further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already
been attained.
12
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully
planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in
procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its
significance and the methods of analysis used should be
appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be
checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of
the research and limited to those for which the data provide an
adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is
experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of
integrity.
LET US SUM UP
The present unit included the definition of science, methods of

science, goals of science and ethics in research. Behavioral
research is conducted by scientists who are interested in
understanding the behaviour of human beings and animals. These
scientists believe that knowledge gained through personal intuition
or the claims of others is not a sufficient basis for drawing
conclusions about behaviour. They demand that knowledge be
gained through the accumulation of empirical data, as prescribed
by the scientific method. Scientific research is often classified as
being either basic or applied.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Gaining knowledge via science, then, involves a merger of
2. Empiricism refers to learning based on

3. Three goals of science are , ,
4. is the basic processes of collecting and organizing
data and drawing conclusions about those data.
5. are personal statement whereas are
objective statements.
13
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. rationalism and empiricism

2. observation
3. describe, predict, explain
4. scientific method
5. values, facts
GLOSSARY
Action research - Action research may also be called a cycle of
action or cycle of inquiry, since it typically follows a predefined
process that is repeated over time.
Applied research - Applied research refers to scientific study and

research that seeks to solve practical problems.
Science- Science is the pursuit and application of knowledge and

understanding of the natural and social world following a
systematic methodology based on evidence.
Scientific method - it is the technique used in the construction
and testing of a scientific hypothesis.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Describe scientific method

2. What are the goals of science?
3. Describe the various approaches to research.
4. Explain the Scientific methodology.
5. Discuss about the approaches in research.
6. Enumerate the steps in research.
7. Distinguish the methods and methodology.
SUGGESTED READINGS
• https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&sourc
e=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjHyePal-
j2AhUYILcAHexqCF4QFnoECBsQAw&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fclutejournals.com%2Findex.php%2FJBER%2Farticle
%2Fdownload%2F2532%2F2578%2F10126&usg=AOvVa
w1eHUm17jICkiktQpVqyJ3q
14
• C.R. Kothari, 2004, Research Methodology – Methods and
Techniques, New Age International (P) Limited Publishers,
New Delhi.
• https://www.scribbr.com/frequently-asked-
questions/method-vs-methodology/
• https://askanydifference.com/difference-between-method-
and-methodology/
• https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-research-
method-and-research-methodology.html
• Research Methods and Statistics ( PDFDrive.com ).pdf
• https://www.forskningsetikk.no/en/guidelines/science-and-
technology/ethical-guidelines-for-the-use-of-animals-in-
research
• ttps://learning.nspcc.org.uk/research-
resources/briefings/research-with-children-ethics-safety-
avoiding-harm#article-top
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2606083/#
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3558218/
15
UNIT- 2
ETHICS IN RESEARCH
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
2.1. Ethics – Orientation
2.2 Ethical Guidelines
2.3 Ethical Standards in Research with Adults
2.4 Ethical Standards in Research with children
2.5 Ethical Standards in Research with animals
2.5.1 Guidelines especially for research with animals
2.6 Ethical standards in research with vulnerable population
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
Developments in the field of social science in recent years have been

accompanied by a growing awareness of the attendant moral issues
implicit in the work of social researchers and of their need to meet their
obligations with respect to those involved in, or affected by, their
investigations. This awareness, focusing chiefly, on the subject matter and
methods of research in so far as they affect the participants, is reflected in
the growth of relevant literature and in the appearance of regulatory codes
of research practice formulated by various agencies and professional
bodies. In this unit, we will discuss about the
16
OBJECTIVES
• Describe the Ethics in research

• Discuss about the Ethical Guidelines
• Explain the Ethical Standards in Research with adults
• Explain the Ethical Standards in Research with children
• Explain the Ethical Standards in Research with animals
• List out the Guidelines especially for research with animals
• Explain the Ethical considerations for vulnerable population
2.1 ETHICS – ORIENTATION
Ethical issues may stem from the kinds of problems investigated by social
scientists and the methods they use to obtain valid and reliable data. In
theory at least, this means that each stage in the research sequence may
be a potential source of ethical problems. Thus, they may arise from the
nature of the research project itself (ethnic differences in intelligence, for
example); the context for the research (a remand home); the procedures
to be adopted (producing high levels of anxiety); methods of data
collection (covert observation); the nature of the participants (emotionally
disturbed adolescents); the type of data collected (highly personal
information of a sensitive kind); and what is to be done with the data
(publishing in a manner that causes the participants embarrassment).
2.2 ETHICAL GUIDELINES
Researchers shall work on the basis of basic respect for human

dignity.
While research can help promote the value of human life, it can
also threaten it. Researchers must show respect for human dignity
in their choice of topic, in relation to their research subjects, and in
reporting research results. This implies that research processes
must be held to certain standards:
• ensure freedom and self-determination

• safeguard against harm and unreasonable suffering
• protect privacy and close relationships
17
Researchers shall respect their subjects’ integrity, freedom and right
to participate.
• Individuals need to be able to influence what happens to them in

important areas of their lives. Being subject to observation and
interpretation by others can be experienced as degrading. Due
caution is required, especially when:
• Self-respect or other values of importance to the individual are at
stake;
• The research subjects have little chance to avoid participating in
the research process,
• E.g. when the research is being done as field work in an institution;
• An individual actively helps furnish information, e.g. by agreeing to
be observed or interviewed;
• An individual is identifiable, e.g. when individuals and groups can
be recognised in research reports;
• The individual has limited or no ability to look after his or her own
needs and interests.
Researchers have a responsibility to prevent research subjects from
being submitted to harm or other suffering
The dangers for those being studied by cultural and social science
research are less dramatic than in medical research since the risk of
physical injury is minimal. By the same token, possible injuries are more
difficult to define and measure and it can be difficult to assess long-term
effects, if any. Researchers bear a responsibility for ensuring that their
research subjects are not exposed to suffering. However, the risk of
causing minor suffering must be weighed against research’s quest for the
truth and its critical function. Informants should be given an opportunity to
deal with any problems that might arise as a result of their participation in
the project.
Researcher has the responsibility to inform research subjects about

the consequences of participating in the research project
Subjects should be given general information about the project such as its
purpose, the methods to be used, and the practical and other
consequences of participation.3 Information about the project must be
based on knowledge of the informants’ cultural background. It is also
18
important that the information be given in a language that is understood.
In some research projects, it might be necessary to use an interpreter to
provide the necessary information. Observations conducted in public
places, on streets and squares, can usually be carried out without
informing those concerned. However, the registration of behaviour using
technical equipment (camera, video, tape recorders, etc.) implies that the
observation material will be stored, and thus possibly serve as the basis
for a personal data register. For the purpose of such registration, people
must generally be informed that recordings are being made, how long the
material will be stored and who will be using it. As a general rule, research
projects that include individuals can be initiated only after securing
participants’ free and informed consent. The informants have the right to
withdraw from participation at any time, without this entailing any negative
consequences for them.
Researchers should consider and anticipate effects on third parties

that are not directly included in the research
Interviews, archival studies and observations often result in the scientist

gaining access to information about far more individuals than those who
are the focus of the study in question, or that the research may have an
impact on the privacy and close relationships of individuals not included in
the research, but who are drawn in as parties closely related to the
informants. Qualitative investigations often take place in small,
transparent communities. The protection of third parties is especially
important in such studies. Special consideration should be given to
potential negative consequences when children are indirectly involved in
the research.
When children and young people participate in research, they are

entitled to special protection that should be commensurate with their
age and needs
Research on children and their lives and living standards are valuable and
important. Children and young people are key contributors to this
research. Their needs and interests can be protected in ways different
from those in connection with research on adult participants. Children are
individuals under development, and they have different needs and abilities
19
in various phases. Scientists must know enough about children to be able
to adapt their methods and the substance of their research to the age of
the participants. Parental consent is usually required when children under
the age of 15 will be taking part in research. When there is a question
about including a child in research, it is nonetheless important to see the
child as an individual subject. 10 In addition to parental consent, children’s
own consent is required from the time they are old enough to express an
opinion. Accordingly, age-specific information shall be provided about the
project and its consequences, and they must be informed that
participation is voluntary and that they can withdraw from the study at any
time. Using informed voluntary consent is more difficult for research on
children than research on adult participants. Children are more often
willing to obey authority than adults are, and they often feel that they
cannot protest. Nor are they always able to see the consequences of
giving researchers information. The requirement regarding confidentiality
also applies when children are informants for research purposes. By the
same token, situations can arise in which researchers are either legally or
ethically required to provide information to and possibly have contact with
the child’s parents, adult helpers or child welfare services. This applies,
for example, in the event a researcher finds out that a child is being
exposed to mistreatment or abuse. There can also be conflicts of interest
between children and their parents or guardians. In the event, it is
important to clarify the child’s opportunity for taking an independent
decision about participating in research.
Researchers shall show due respect for an individual’s privacy.

Informants are entitled to be able to check whether confidential
information about them is accessible to others.
Respect for privacy aims at protecting individuals against unwanted

interference and exposure. This applies not only to emotional issues, but
also to questions that involve sickness and health, political and religious
opinions, and sexual orientation. Researchers should be especially
compassionate when they ask questions that involve intimate issues and
they should avoid placing informants under pressure. What is perceived
as sensitive information can vary from one individual or group to the next.
Distinguishing between the private and public spheres can sometimes be
20
difficult when it comes to information about behaviour that is
communicated and stored on the Internet. 11 When using material from
such interactions, researchers must pay sufficient attention to the fact that
people’s understanding of what is private and what is public in such media
can vary.
Caution shall be exercised when deceased people are the subject of

research.
The fact that the deceased can no longer raise objections does not reduce
the requirement for meticulous documentation. Out of respect for the
deceased and their surviving relatives, researchers must choose their
words with care. Graves and human remains must be treated with the
utmost respect where research is concerned.
2.3 ETHICAL STANDARDS IN RESEARCH WITH ADULTS
i) Informed consent
Much social research necessitates obtaining the consent and co-operation

of subjects who are to assist in investigations and of significant others in
the institutions or organizations providing the research facilities. In some
cultures, informed consent is absolutely essential whenever participants
are exposed to substantial risks or asked to forfeit personal rights.
Informed consent has been defined by Diener and Crandall as ‘the

procedures in which individuals choose whether to participate in an
investigation after being informed of facts that would be likely to influence
their decisions’ (Diener and Crandall, 1978).
ii) Access and acceptance
The relevance of the principle of informed consent becomes apparent at

the initial stage of the research project—that of access to the institution or
organization where the research is to be conducted and acceptance by
those whose permission one needs before embarking on the task.
Permission to carry out an investigation must always be sought at an early
stage. As soon as you have an agreed project outline and have read
enough to convince yourself that the topic is feasible, it is advisable to
make a formal, written approach to the individuals and organization
concerned, outlining your plans. Achieving goodwill and co-operation is
21
especially important where the proposed research extends over a period
of time: days, perhaps, in the case of an ethnographic study; months (or
perhaps years!) where longitudinal research is involved.
Once this preliminary information has been collected, researchers are

duly prepared for the next stage: making actual contact in person,
perhaps after an introductory letter, with appropriate people in the
organization with a view to negotiating access. If the research is college-
based, they will have the support of their college and course supervisors.
Festinger and Katz (1966) consider that there is real economy in going to
the very top of the organization or system in question to obtain assent and
cooperation. This is particularly so where the structure is clearly
hierarchical and where lower levels are always dependent on their
superiors.
iii) Privacy
For the most part, individual ‘right to privacy’ is usually contrasted with
public ‘right to know’ (Pring, 1984) and this has been defined in the Ethical
Guidelines for the Institutional Review Committee for Research with
Human Subjects as that which:
"Extends to all information relating to a person’s physical and mental

condition, personal circumstances and social relationships which is not
already in the public domain. It gives to the individual or collectivity the
freedom to decide for themselves when and where, in what circumstances
and to what extent their personal attitudes, opinions, habits, eccentricities,
doubts and fears are to be communicated to or withheld from others.
(Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, 1981)
iv) Anonymity
The essence of anonymity is that information provided by participants

should in no way reveal their identity. The obverse of this is, as we saw
earlier, personal data that uniquely identify their supplier. A participant or
subject is therefore considered anonymous when the researcher or
another person cannot identify the participant or subject from the
information provided. Where this situation holds, a participant’s privacy is
guaranteed, no matter how personal or sensitive the information is. Thus
22
a respondent completing a questionnaire that bears absolutely no
identifying marks—names, addresses, occupational details, or coding
symbols — are ensured complete and total anonymity.
v) Confidentiality
The second way of protecting a participant’s right to privacy is through the

promise of confidentiality. This means that although researchers know
who has provided the information or are able to identify participants from
the information given, they will in no way make the connection known
publicly; the boundaries surrounding the shared secret will be protected.
The essence of the matter is the extent to which investigators keep faith
with those who have helped them. It is generally at the access stage or at
the point where researchers collect their data that they make their position
clear to the hosts and/or subjects.
vi) Deception
The use of deception in social psychological and sociological research

has attracted a certain amount of adverse publicity. In social psychological
research, the term is applied to that kind of experimental situation where
the researcher knowingly conceals the true purpose and conditions of the
research, or else positively misinforms the subjects, or exposes them to
unduly painful, stressful or embarrassing experiences, without the
subjects having knowledge of what is going on. The deception lies in not
telling the whole truth. Advocates of the method feel that if a deception
experiment is the only way to discover something of real importance, the
truth so discovered is worth the lies told in the process, so long as no
harm comes to the subject.
23
To Conclude
• It is important for the researcher to reveal fully his or her

identity and background.
• The purpose and procedures of the research should be fully
explained to the subjects at the outset (Debriefing )
• The research and its ethical consequences should be seen
from the subjects’ and institution’s point of view.
• Ascertain whether the research benefits the subjects in any
way (beneficence).
• Where necessary, ensure the research does not harm the
subjects in any way (non-maleficence).
• Possible controversial findings need to be anticipated and
where they ensue, handled with great sensitivity.
• The research should be as objective as possible. This will
require careful thought being given to the design, conduct and
reporting of research.
• Informed consent should be sought from all participants. All
agreements reached at this stage should be honoured.
• Sometimes it is desirable to obtain informed consent in
writing.
• Subjects should have the option to refuse to take part and
know this; and the right to terminate their involvement at any
time and know this also.
• Arrangements should be made during initial contacts to
provide feedback for those requesting it. It may take the form
of a written résumé of findings.
• The dignity, privacy and interests of the participants should be
respected. Subsequent privacy of the subjects after the
research is completed should be guaranteed (non-
traceability).
• Deceit should only be used when absolutely necessary.
• When ethical dilemmas arise, the researcher may need to
consult other researchers.
24
2.4 ETHICAL STANDARDS IN RESEARCH WITH CHILDREN
Special considerations arise in research studies that use children

as participants. For example, how does informed consent work
with children, and how do researchers properly debrief a child?
Informed consent must be obtained from the parents or legal
guardians for all persons under the age of 18. However, with
children who are old enough to understand language, the
researcher should also try to inform them of the nature of the
study, explain what they will be asked to do during the study, and
tell them that they do not have to participate and can request to
end their participation at any time. The question remains, however,
whether children really understand this information and whether
they would feel comfortable exercising these rights. Thus, when
doing research with children, the researcher must be especially
careful to use good judgment when deciding whether to continue
collecting data from an individual or whether to use a particular
child in the research project.
Research in children poses important challenges with regard to

informed consent and assent, vulnerability and potential conflicts
of interest (COI). Pediatric health researchers should advocate for
research participation by children, while being attentive to
mitigating risks.
Research in children is recognized as a moral duty based on

several ethical principles. These principles include distributive
justice in making high-quality health care available to all
populations, including vulnerable ones; beneficence in providing
evidence-based care and no maleficence in avoiding harmful
therapies, adopted either without evidence or extrapolated from
experience with adults.
Conducting research with children can help us understand what

they think about the issues that affect them. But any research
involving children must balance the aims of the research with the
safety and wellbeing of the participants.By providing the right
25
support and knowing when to take appropriate action, researchers
can ensure that children feel respected and can participate safely.
There are three main ways of gathering information about children

and the issues that affect their lives.
• Asking children about their feelings, opinions and

experiences:
Either in face-to-face interviews with children or by
questionnaire.
• Observing children's behaviour: Using monitored

experiments or activities or observing children in an
uncontrolled environment to see how they react during
specific situations.
• Analyzing information contained in files about children:

Reviewing information held in documents like social care case
records, case reviews or school files.
In research about people's experiences there are four key factors

that can influence whether a participant suffers harm:
i) Past experiences
When selecting participants, it's important to take personal

histories into account. Consider how participants are likely to cope
with being asked to talk about their past experiences. Children
who have been abused can be particularly vulnerable to
retraumatisation and you must take extra measures to protect
them. Being sensitive to past experiences can help minimise
distress. If you don’t need to know details about past experiences
for your research, don’t ask about them. Make sure that children
understand the remit of your research.
ii) Unexpected topics
Qualitative research methods (such as in-depth interviews) often

go into more detail than quantitative methods (such as surveys).
This allows you to build up more of a rapport with participants and
provides opportunities to discuss issues that neither of you were
26
expecting. Structure your interview schedule so that difficult topics
are given enough time and aren't crammed in at the end. Be
aware of the signs that someone might be uncomfortable
discussing a particular topic and move on or take a break as
needed.
iii) Confidentiality and reporting concerns
Discuss confidentiality at the beginning of the process. Explain that

you will not share anything discussed in research sessions with
anyone else outside of the research team. However, you should
make it clear that you will break confidentiality when necessary, for
instance if a child or adult at risk is at risk of harm and action
needs to be taken to protect them.
iv) Adult to child ratios
It’s best practice for more than one adult to be present when
working with a child. If you cannot avoid being alone with a child,
you should always put safeguards in place.
Researchers should make sure they seek the views and ideas of
people from a wide range of backgrounds. Not every study can
include a complete cross-section of society. But there are simple
actions that can open up a research project to wider social and
cultural groups and improve the quality of the study. This might
include:
• adapting research tools to meet the needs and abilities of

participants
• translating supporting documents into other languages
• Providing an easy read version.
When you ask for permission for a child to be involved in your
research, ensure that young people and their parents or carers
fully understand what is being asked of them. This is known as
informed consent.
When can a child give consent?
When practitioners are deciding whether a child is mature enough

to make decisions about things that directly affect them, they often
27
talk about whether the child is ‘Gillick competent’. Gillick
competency means a young person is mature enough to fully
understand what they are agreeing to.
Right to withdraw consent
Giving informed consent isn't a one-off process but continues for

as long as anyone is involved in the research. This means that a
child who agrees to be part of a study can change their mind and
withdraw consent at any time or their parent or carer can withdraw
consent if they no longer wish for their child to take part. This
should be made clear at the beginning of the process and
researchers should regularly check with young people and their
families to make sure they are still happy to take part.
Requesting and recording consent
You should use a consent form to record that consent has been
given before the research starts.
Personal information
Participant’s personal information should be kept confidential
Incentives
You may want to thank participants for their time by offering some
form of appreciation such as rewards and incentives. Make sure
parents and carers know in advance about any incentives you are
offering to children and young people.Any incentives you offer
should be ethical and age-appropriate.
Complaints procedure
It's good practice to have a complaints procedure when conducting

any research. If children are involved, this should include a way for
them to be able to make a complaint and be adequately
represented. You should make the complaints procedure available
when obtaining consent.
28
2.5 ETHICAL STANDARDS IN RESEARCH WITH ANIMALS
Using animals in research has become a controversial issue.

Some people believe that no research should be conducted on
animals; others believe that research with animals is
advantageous but that measures should be taken to ensure
humane treatment. Taking the latter position, the APA has
developed Guidelines for Ethical Conduct in the Care and Use of
Animals (1996). These guidelines are presented below Developed
by the APA’s Committee on Animal Research and Ethics (CARE)
Research using animals should be undertaken with a clear

scientific purpose which would increase the understanding of the
species under study and provide results that benefit the health or
welfare of humans or animals. Psychologists should act on the
assumption that procedures that would produce pain in humans
will also do so in animals. The psychologist should always
consider the possibility of using other species, non animal
alternatives, or procedures that minimize the number of animals in
research, and should be familiar with the appropriate literature.
The psychologist should monitor the research and the animals’
welfare throughout the course of an investigation to ensure
continued justification for the research.
All procedures carried out on animals are to be reviewed by a local

animal care committee to ensure that the procedures are
appropriate and humane. The committee should have
representation from within the Institution and from the local
community. Psychologists should make every effort to ensure that
those responsible for transporting the animals to the facility
provide adequate food, water, ventilation, space, and impose no
unnecessary stress on the animals. Animals taken from the wild
should be trapped in a humane manner and in accordance with
applicable federal, state, and local regulations. Endangered
species should be used only with full attention to required permits
and ethical concerns.
29
Field research, because of its potential to damage sensitive ecosystems
and ethologies, should be subject to animal care committee approval.
Psychologists conducting field research should disturb their populations
as little as possible—consistent with the goals of the research. Every
effort should be made to minimize potential harmful effects of the study on
the population and on other plant and animal species in the area.
Research conducted in populated areas should be done with respect for
the property and privacy of the inhabitants of the area. Particular
justification is required for the study of endangered species. Such
research on endangered species should not be conducted unless animal
care committee approval has been obtained, and all requisite permits are
obtained.
Pain and distress cannot always be properly assessed in animals and

researchers must assume that animals experience pain in a manner
similar to humans. Investigators must be familiar with the normal behavior
patterns of the animal species chosen. Avoid repeated use of animals in
experiments: any animals should not be used in more than one
experiment, either in the same or different projects. Experimental duration
should be limited to that just sufficient to achieve the purpose of the
experiment. When it is necessary to kill an animal appropriate euthanasia
method, must be used. These procedures must avoid distress, be reliable
and produce rapid loss of consciousness without pain until death occurs.
The ethical assessments related to the use of animals in research are

wide-ranging. It is generally thought that it may be necessary to use
laboratory animals in some cases in order to create improvements for
people, animals or the environment. At the same time, the general opinion
is that animals have a moral status, and that our treatment of them should
be subject to ethical considerations. Such views are reflected in the
following positions:
(i) Animals have an intrinsic value which must be respected.
(ii) Animals are sentient creatures with the capacity to feel pain, and the
interests of animals must therefore be taken into consideration.
30
(iii) Our treatment of animals, including the use of animals in
research, is an expression of our attitudes and influences us as
moral actors.
2.5.1 Guidelines
1. Respect for animals' dignity
Researchers must have respect for animals' worth, regardless of

their utility value, and for animals' interests as living, sentient
creatures. Researchers must be respectful when choosing their
topic and methods, and when disseminating their research.
Researchers must provide care that is adapted to the needs of
each laboratory animal.
2. Responsibility for considering options (Replace)
Researchers are responsible for studying whether there are

alternatives to experiments on animals. Alternative options must
be prioritized if the same knowledge can be acquired without using
laboratory animals. If no good options are available, researchers
should consider whether the research can be postponed until
alternative methods have been developed. When
justifying experiments on animals, researchers therefore must be
able to account for the absence of options and the need to acquire
knowledge immediately.
3. The principle of proportionality: responsibility for

considering and balancing suffering and benefit
Researchers must consider the risk that laboratory animals

experience pain and other suffering and assess them in relation to
the value of the research for animals, people or the environment.
Researchers are responsible for considering whether the
experiment may result in improvements for animals, people or the
environment. The possible benefits of the study must
be considered, substantiated and specified in both the short and
the long term. The responsibility also entails an obligation to
consider the scientific quality of the experiments and whether the
experiments will have relevant scientific benefits. Suffering can
31
only be caused to animals if this is counterbalanced by a
substantial and probable benefit for animals, people or the
environment.
4. Responsibility for considering reducing the number

of animals (Reduce)
Researchers are responsible for considering whether it is possible

to reduce the number of animals the experiment plans to use and
must only include the number necessary to maintain the scientific
quality of the experiments and the relevance of the results. This
means, among other things, that researchers must conduct
literature studies, consider alternative experiment designs and
perform design calculations before beginning experiments.
5. Responsibility for minimizing the risk of suffering and

improving animal welfare (Refine)
Researchers are responsible for assessing the expected effect on

laboratory animals. Researchers must minimise the risk of
suffering and provide good animal welfare. Suffering includes pain,
hunger, thirst, malnutrition, abnormal cold or heat, fear, stress,
injury, illness and restrictions on the ability to behave
normally/naturally.
A researcher's assessment of what is considered acceptable

suffering should
be based on the animals that suffer the most. If there are any
doubts regarding perceived suffering, consideration of the animals
must be the deciding factor.
Researchers must not only consider the direct suffering that may
be endured during the experiment itself, but also the risk of
suffering before and after the experiment, including trapping,
labelling, anaesthetizing, breeding, transportation, stabling and
euthanizing. This means that researchers must also take account
of the need for periods of adaptation before and after the
experiment.
32
6. Responsibility for maintaining biological diversity
Researchers are responsible for ensuring that the use of

laboratory animals does not endanger biological diversity. This
means that researchers must consider the consequences to the
stock and to the ecosystem as a whole. The use of
endangered and vulnerable species must be reduced to an
absolute minimum. When there is credible, but uncertain,
knowledge that the inclusion of animals in research or the use of
certain methods may have ethically unacceptable consequences
for the stock and the ecosystem as a whole, researchers must
observe the precautionary principle.
7. Responsibility when intervening in a habitat
Researchers are responsible for reducing disruption and any

impact on the natural behaviour of individual animals, including
those that are not direct subjects of research, as well as of
populations and their surroundings. Certain research
and technology-related projects, like those regarding
environmental technology and environmental surveillance, may
impact on animals and their living conditions, for example as a
result of installing radar masts, antennas or other
measurement instruments. In such cases, researchers must seek
to observe the principle of proportionality and minimise the
possible negative impact.
8. Responsibility for openness and sharing of data and

material
Researchers are responsible for ensuring that there is

transparency about research findings and facilitating the sharing of
data and material from experiments on animals. Such
transparency and sharing are important in order to avoid
unnecessary repetition of experiments. Transparency is also
important in order to ensure that the public are informed and is
part of researchers' responsibility for dissemination.
33
In general, the negative results of experiments on animals should be
public knowledge. Disclosing negative results may give other researchers
information about which experiments are not worth pursuing, shine a light
on unfortunate research design, and help reduce the use of animals in
research.
9. Requirement of expertise on animals
Researchers and other parties who handle live animals must have
adequately updated and documented expertise on animals. This includes
specific knowledge about the biology of the animal species in question,
and a willingness and ability to take care of animals properly.
10. Requirement of due care
There are national laws and rules and international conventions and
agreements regarding the use of laboratory animals, and both
researchers and research managers must comply with these. Any person
who plans to use animals in experiments must familiarize themselves with
the current rules.
2.6 ETHICAL STANDARDS IN RESEARCH WITH VULNERABLE

POPULATION
Persons who are relatively or absolutely incapable of protecting their own

interests are termed as vulnerable research population. The very poor,
illiterate patients, children, individuals with questionable capacity to give
consent (including psychiatric patients), prisoners, foetuses, pregnant
women, terminally ill patients, students, employees, comatose patients,
tribals and the elderly are examples of vulnerable population. It is the
responsibility of the Ethical committee (EC) to see whether the inclusion of
vulnerable populations in the study is justifiable or the population is just
being exploited to generate clinical data. To prevent even minor
exploitation the EC should consult the representative of vulnerable
population that is to be researched upon while reviewing the protocol.
Vulnerable and disadvantaged individuals and groups will not always be

equipped to defend their own interests in respect of researchers.
Accordingly, researchers cannot take it for granted that ordinary
procedures for eliciting information and consent will ensure individuals’
34
self-determination or protect them from unreasonable suffering.
Furthermore, vulnerable groups may not want to be subject to research
for fear of being viewed by the general public in an unfavourable light. In
such cases, the requirements concerning information and consent are
particularly important. On the other hand, society has a legitimate interest
in surveying living conditions, for instance, to gauge the effectiveness of
social welfare schemes, and to learn more about the ways in and out of
destructive and anti-social behaviour. Protecting a vulnerable group can
sometimes be counter-productive. In reality, such efforts may serve to
protect society at large from gaining insight into processes that lead to
discrimination and rejection.
Researchers who collect information about the characteristics and

behaviour of individuals and groups should avoid using classifications or
designations that give rise to unreasonable generalization, resulting in
practice in the stigmatization of particular social groups.
LET US SUM UP
Ethical issues may stem from the kinds of problems investigated by social
scientists and the methods they use to obtain valid and reliable data.
Informed consent protects the individual’s freedom of choice and respect
for the individual’s autonomy and is given voluntarily to participate in
research or not. The second way of protecting a participant’s right to
privacy is through the promise of confidentiality. Deception, kind of
experimental situation where the researcher knowingly conceals the true
purpose and conditions of the research, or else positively misinforms the
subjects, or exposes them to unduly painful, stressful or embarrassing
experiences, without the subjects having knowledge of what is going on.
Moreover ethical guidelines should be followed while conducting research
with vulnerable population
35
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. --------------- is defined as the procedures in which individuals choose

whether to participate in an investigation after being informed of facts
that would be likely to influence their decisions.
2. A participant or subject is therefore considered --------------when the

researcher or another person cannot identify the participant or subject
from the information provided.
3. Persons who are relatively or absolutely incapable of protecting their

own interests are termed as ---------
4. The way of protecting a participant’s right to privacy is through the

promise of ------------
5. The term ---------- is applied to that kind of experimental situation where

the researcher knowingly conceals/ misinforms the true purpose and
conditions of the research.
1. Informed consent
2. Anonymous
3. Vulnerable research population.
4. Confidentiality.
5. Deception
GLOSSARY
Anonymity - that information provided by participants should in no way
reveal their identity.
Ethics in research - The term research ethics refers to a wide variety of

values, norms, and institutional arrangements that help constitute and
regulate scientific activities.
Informed consent - the procedures in which individuals choose whether

to participate in an investigation after being informed of facts that would
be likely to influence their decisions
Vulnerable population - Persons who are relatively or absolutely

incapable of protecting their own interests are termed as vulnerable
research population.
36
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Explain the ethical principles of research.
2. Explain the difference between the terms methods and

methodology in research
3. Discuss the ethical considerations to be followed while
conducting research with animal, children and adults.
4. List out the ethical considerations to be followed while
conducting research with animals.
conducting research with children.
conducting research with adults.
SUGGESTED READINGS
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=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjHyePal-
j2AhUYILcAHexqCF4QFnoECBsQAw&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fclutejournals.com%2Findex.php%2FJBER%2Farticle
%2Fdownload%2F2532%2F2578%2F10126&usg=AOvVa
w1eHUm17jICkiktQpVqyJ3q
New Delhi.
• https://www.scribbr.com/frequently-asked-
questions/method-vs-methodology/
• https://askanydifference.com/difference-between-method-
and-methodology/
• https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-research-
method-and-research-methodology.html
• https://www.forskningsetikk.no/en/guidelines/science-and-
technology/ethical-guidelines-for-the-use-of-animals-in-
research
37
• ttps://learning.nspcc.org.uk/research-
resources/briefings/research-with-children-ethics-safety-
avoiding-harm#article-top
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC260608
3/#
• Research Methods and Statistics (PDFDrive.com).pdf
8/
4/
38
UNIT 3
RESEARCH PROBLEM & REVIEWS
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
3.1 Definition of Research
3.2 Research Problem – Nature
3.3 Components ofa Research Problem
3.4 Sources of Research Problem
3.5 Criteria fora Good Research Problem
3.6 Technique Involved In Defining a Problem
3.7 Reviewing the Research Literature
3.7.1 Research articles
3.7.2. Scholarly books
3.8 Literature Search Strategies
3.8.1 Using Psyc INFO and Other Databases
3.8.2 Using Other Search Techniques
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Key Words
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
As human beings we always try to seek knowledge or rather tries

to gain knowledge. In the process of gaining knowledge we use
research as a method. In this unit let us look into the definitions of
research, criteria for good research and research process. Also let
us understand the identification of research problem and the how
to conduct the research reviews.
39
OBJECTIVES
Define Research
Explain the nature of Research Problem
List out the Components of a Research Problem
Identify the Sources of Research Problem
List out the Criteria for a Good Research Problem
Explain the process of Reviewing the Research Literature
Discuss about Research articles
Explain the Literature Search Strategies
3.1 DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
Research - research, means searching again and again until we get

solution to the problem and adds new knowledge.There are various
definitions given by various researchers.
• Grinnell (1993) defines research as a careful, systematic, patient

study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to
establish facts or principles.
• Research is a scientific method consists of systematic observation,
clarification and interpretation of data (Lundberg, 1942).
• Burns (1997) claims that research is systematic investigation to find
answers to a problem.
• Kerlinger (1986) says scientific research is a systematic, controlled,
empirical and critical investigation of propositions about the presumed
relationship about various phenomena.
3.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM - NATURE
In research process, the first and foremost step happens to be that of

selecting and properly defining a research problem. A researcher must
find the problem and formulate it so that it becomes susceptible to
research. Like a medical doctor, a researcher must examine all the
symptoms (presented to him or observed by him) concerning a problem
40
before he can diagnose correctly. To define a problem correctly, a
researcher must know: what a problem is? Good research must begin
with a good research question. Yet coming up with good research
questions is something that novice researchers often find difficult and
stressful. One reason is that this is a creative process that can appear
mysterious—even magical—with experienced researchers seeming to pull
interesting research questions out of thin air
3.3 Components of a research problem
(i) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the
problem.
(ii) There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants

nothing, one cannot have a problem.
(iii) There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for
obtaining the objective(s) one wishes to attain. This means that there
must be at least two means available to a researcher for if he has no
choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
(iv) There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with
regard to the selection of alternatives. This means that research must
answer the question concerning the relative efficiency of the possible
alternatives.
(v) There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.

Thus, a research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out
the best solution for the given problem, i.e., to find out by which course of
action the objective can be attained optimally in the context of a given
environment.
There are several factors which may result in making the problem
complicated. For instance, the environment may change affecting the
efficiencies of the courses of action or the values of the outcomes; the
number of alternative courses of action may be very large; persons not
involved in making the decision may be affected by it and react to it
favourably or unfavourably, and similar other factors. All such elements
(or at least the important ones) may be thought of in context of a research
problem
41
3.4SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
Research questions often begin as more general research ideas—usually

focusing on some behavior or psychological characteristic: talkativeness,
learning, depression, and bungee jumping, and so on. Before looking at
how to turn such ideas into empirically testable research questions, it is
worth looking at where such ideas come from in the first place. Three of
the most common sources of inspiration are informal observations,
practical problems, and previous research.
Informal observations include direct observations of our own and others’

behavior as well as secondhand observations from non-scientific sources
such as newspapers, books, blogs, and so on. For example, you might
notice that you always seem to be in the slowest moving line at the
grocery store. Could it be that most people think the same thing? Or you
might read in a local newspaper about people donating money and food to
a local family whose house has burned down and begin to wonder about
who makes such donations and why. Some of the most famous research
in psychology has been inspired by informal observations. Stanley
Milgram’s famous research on obedience to authority, for example, was
inspired in part by journalistic reports of the trials of accused Nazi war
criminals—many of whom claimed that they were only obeying orders.
This led him to wonder about the extent to which ordinary people will
commit immoral acts simply because they are ordered to do so by an
authority figure (Milgram, 1963).
Practical problems can also inspire research ideas, leading directly to

applied research in such domains as law, health, education, and sports.
Does a taking lecture note by hand improve students’ exam performance?
How effective is psychotherapy for depression compared to drug therapy?
To what extent do cell phones impair people’s driving ability? How can we
teach children to read more efficiently? What is the best mental
preparation for running a marathon?
Probably the most common inspiration for new research ideas, however,
is previous research. Recall that science is a kind of large-scale
collaboration in which many different researchers read and evaluate each
42
other’s work and conduct new studies to build on it. Of course,
experienced researchers are familiar with previous research in their area
of expertise and probably have a long list of ideas. This suggests that
novice researchers can find inspiration by consulting with a more
experienced researcher (e.g., students can consult a faculty member). But
they can also find inspiration by picking up a copy of almost any
professional journal and reading the titles and abstracts. In one typical
issue of Psychological Science, for example, you can find articles on the
perception of shapes, anti-Semitism, police lineups, the meaning of death,
second-language learning, people who seek negative emotional
experiences, and many other topics. If you can narrow your interests
down to a particular topic, (e.g., memory) or domain (e.g., health care),
you can also look through more specific journals, such as Memory &
Cognition or Health Psychology.
3.5CRITERIA FOR A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM
1. It is systematic
2. It is logical
3. It is empirical
4. It is replicable
5. Problem must be clearly defined
6. Should provide solution to the problem
7. It is objective
8. It is verifiable
A good research question (RQ) forms backbone of a good research,

which in turn is vital in unraveling mysteries of nature and giving insight
into a problem. RQ identifies the problem to be studied and guides to the
methodology. It leads to building up of an appropriate hypothesis (Hs).
Hence, RQ aims to explore an existing uncertainty in an area of concern
and points to a need for deliberate investigation. A good RQ helps support
a focused arguable thesis and construction of a logical argument. Hence,
formulation of a good RQ is undoubtedly one of the first critical steps in
the research process, especially in the field of social and health research,
where the systematic generations of knowledge that can be used to
43
promote, restore, maintain, and/or protect health of individuals and
populations. Basically, the research can be classified as action, applied,
basic, clinical, empirical, administrative, theoretical, or qualitative or
quantitative research, depending on its purpose. Research plays an
important role in developing clinical practices and instituting new health
policies. Hence, there is a need for a logical scientific approach as
research has an important goal of generating new claims.
3.6 TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM
Let us start with the question: What does one mean when he/she wants
to define a research problem? The answer may be that one wants to state
the problem along with the bounds within which it is to be studied. In other
words, defining a problem involves the task of laying down boundaries
within which a researcher shall study the problem with a pre-determined
objective in view. How to define a research problem is undoubtedly a
herculean task. However, it is a task that must be tackled intelligently to
avoid the perplexity encountered in a research operation. The usual
approach is that the researcher should himself pose a question (or in case
someone else wants the researcher to carry on research, the concerned
individual, organisation or an authority should pose the question to the
researcher) and set-up techniques and procedures for throwing light on
the question concerned for formulating or defining the research problem.
But such an approach generally does not produce definitive results
because the question phrased in such a fashion is usually in broad
general terms and as such may not be in a form suitable for testing.
Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a
research study and must in no case be accomplished hurriedly. However,
in practice this frequently overlooked which causes a lot of problems later
on. Hence, the research problem should be defined in a systematic
manner, giving due weightage to all relating points.
The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following
steps generally one after the other:
(i) Statement of the problem in a general way;
(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem;
44
(iii) Surveying the available literature
(iv) Developing the ideas through discussions; and
(v) Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition. A

brief description of all these points will be helpful.
(i) Statement of the problem in a general way: First of all the

problem should be stated in a broad general way, keeping in view
either some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual
interest. For this purpose, the researcher must immerse himself
thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he wishes to
pose a problem. In case of social research, it is considered
advisable to do some field observation and as such the researcher
may undertake some sort of preliminary survey or what is often
called pilot survey. Then the researcher can himself state the
problem or he can seek the guidance of the guide or the subject
expert in accomplishing this task. Often, the guide puts forth the
problem in general terms, and it is then up to the researcher to
narrow it down and phrase the problem in operational terms. In
case there is some directive from an organisational authority, the
problem then can be stated accordingly. The problem stated in a
broad general way may contain various ambiguities which must be
resolved by cool thinking and rethinking over the problem. At the
same time the feasibility of a particular solution has to be
considered and the same should be kept in view while stating the
problem.
(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in

defining the problem is to understand its origin and nature clearly.
The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with
those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem
originally came about and with what objectives in view. If the
researcher has stated the problem himself, he should consider
once again all those points that induced him to make a general
statement concerning the problem. For a better understanding of
the nature of the problem involved, he can enter into discussion
with those who have a good knowledge of the problem concerned
45
or similar other problems. The researcher should also keep in view
the environment within which the problem is to be studied and
understood.
(iii) Surveying the available literature: All available literature

concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and
examined before a definition of the research problem is given. This
means that the researcher must be well-conversant with relevant
theories in the field, reports and records as also all other relevant
literature. He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research
already undertaken on related problems. This is done to find out
what data and other materials, if any, are available for operational
purposes. This would also help a researcher to know if there are
certain gaps in the theories, or whether the existing theories
applicable to the problem under study are inconsistent with each
other, or whether the findings of the different studies do not follow
a pattern consistent with the theoretical expectations and so on.
Studies on related problems are useful for indicating the type of
difficulties that may be encountered in the present study as also
the possible analytical shortcomings. At times such studies may
also suggest useful and even new lines of approach to the present
problem.
(iv) Developing the ideas through discussions: Discussion

concerning a problem often produces useful information. Various
new ideas can be developed through such an exercise. Hence, a
researcher must discuss his problem with his colleagues and
others who have enough experience in the same area or in
working on similar problems. This is quite often known as an
experience survey. People with rich experience are in a position to
enlighten the researcher on different aspects of his proposed study
and their advice and comments are usually invaluable to the
researcher. They help him sharpen his focus of attention on
specific aspects within the field. Discussions with such persons
should not only be confined to the formulation of the specific
problem at hand, but should also be concerned with the general
46
approach to the given problem, techniques that might be used,
possible solutions, etc.
(v) Rephrasing the research problem: Finally, the researcher

must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working
proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been clearly
understood, the environment (within which the problem has got to
be studied) has been defined, discussions over the problem have
taken place and the available literature has been surveyed and
examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational
terms is not a difficult task. Through rephrasing, the researcher
puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible so that
it may become operationally viable and may help in the
development of working hypotheses. In addition to what has been
stated above, the following points must also be observed while
defining a research problem
(a) Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings

used in the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined.
(b) Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the

research problem should be clearly stated.
(c) A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation

(i.e., the criteria for the selection of the problem) should be
provided.
(d) The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data

available must also be considered by the researcher in defining
the problem.
(e) The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the
problem is to be studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a
research problem.
3.7 REVIEWING THE RESEARCH LITERATURE
Once again, one of the most common sources of inspiration is

previous research. Therefore, it is important to review the literature
early in the research process. Reviewing the research literature
means finding, reading, and summarizing the published research
47
relevant to your topic of interest. In addition to helping you
discover new research questions, reviewing the literature early in
the research process can help you in several other ways.
• It can tell you if a research question has already been

answered.
• It can help you evaluate the interestingness of a research

question.
• It can give you ideas for how to conduct your own study.
• It can tell you how your study fits into the research literature.
The research literature in any field is all the published research in

that field. The research literature in psychology is enormous—
including millions of scholarly articles and books dating to the
beginning of the field—and it continues to grow. Although its
boundaries are somewhat fuzzy, the research literature definitely
does not include self-help and other pop psychology books,
dictionary and encyclopedia entries, websites, and similar sources
that are intended mainly for the general public. These are
considered unreliable because they are not reviewed by other
researchers and are often based on little more than common
sense or personal experience. Wikipedia contains much valuable
information, but the fact that its authors are anonymous and may
not have any formal training or expertise in that subject area, and
its content continually changes makes it unsuitable as a basis of
sound scientific research. For our purposes, it helps to define the
research literature as consisting almost entirely of two types of
sources: articles in professional journals, and scholarly books in
psychology and related fields.
3.7.1 Research articles
Professional journals are periodicals that publish original

research articles. There are thousands of professional journals
that publish research in psychology and related fields. They are
usually published monthly or quarterly in individual issues, each of
which contains several articles. The issues are organized into
48
volumes, which usually consist of all the issues for a calendar
year. Some journals are published in hard copy only, others in
both hard copy and electronic form, and still others in electronic
form only.
Most articles in professional journals are one of two basic types:

empirical research reports and review
articles. Empirical research reports describe one or more new
empirical studies conducted by the authors. They introduce a
research question, explain why it is interesting, review previous
research, describe their method and results, and draw their
conclusions. Review articles summarize previously published
research on a topic and usually present new ways to organize or
explain the results. When a review article is devoted primarily to
presenting a new theory, it is often referred to as
a theoretical article.
When you do a literature review, you need to be selective. Not

every article, book unit, and book that relates to your research idea
or question will be worth obtaining, reading, and integrating into
your review. Instead, you want to focus on sources that help you
do four basic things: (a) refine your research question, (b) identify
appropriate research methods, (c) place your research in the
context of previous research, and (d) write an effective research
report. Several basic principles can help you find the most useful
sources.
First, it is best to focus on recent research, keeping in mind that

what counts as recent depends on the topic. For newer topics that
are actively being studied, “recent” might mean published in the
past year or two. For older topics that are receiving less attention
right now, “recent” might mean within the past 10 years. You will
get a feel for what counts as recent for your topic when you start
your literature search. A good general rule, however, is to start
with sources published in the past five years. The main exception
to this rule would be classic articles that turn up in the reference
list of nearly every other source. If other researchers think that this
49
work is important, even though it is old, then, by all means, you
should include it in your review.
Second, you should look for review articles on your topic because they will
provide a useful overview of it—often discussing important definitions,
results, theories, trends, and controversies—giving you a good sense of
where your own research fits into the literature. You should also look for
empirical research reports addressing your question or similar questions,
which can give you ideas about how to operationally define your variables
and collect your data. As a general rule, it is good to use methods that
others have already used successfully unless you have good reasons not
to. Finally, you should look for sources that provide information that can
help you argue for the interestingness of your research question. For a
study on the effects of cell phone use on driving ability, for example, you
might look for information about how widespread cell phone use is, how
frequent and costly motor vehicle crashes are, and so on.
How many sources are enough for your literature review? This is a difficult
question because it depends on how extensively your topic has been
studied and also on your own goals. One study found that across a variety
of professional journals in psychology, the average number of sources
cited per article was about 50 (Adair & Vohra, 2003). This gives a rough
idea of what professional researchers consider to be adequate. As a
student, you might be assigned a much lower minimum number of
references to include, but the principles for selecting the most useful ones
remain the same
3.7.2 Scholarly Books
Scholarly books are books written by researchers and practitioners

mainly for use by other researchers and practitioners. A monograph is
written by a single author or a small group of authors and usually, gives a
coherent presentation of a topic much like an extended review
article. Edited volumes have an editor or a small group of editors who
recruit many authors to write separate units on different aspects of the
same topic. Although edited volumes can also give a coherent
presentation of the topic, it is not unusual for each unit to take a different
perspective or even for the authors of different units to openly disagree
50
with each other. In general, scholarly books undergo a peer review
process similar to that used by professional journals.
3. 8 LITERATURE SEARCH STRATEGIES
The primary method used to search the research literature involves using
one or more electronic databases. These include Academic Search
Premier, JSTOR, and ProQuest for all academic disciplines, ERIC for
education, and PubMed for medicine and related fields. The most
important for our purposes, however, is PsycINFO, which is produced by
the American Psychological Association (APA). PsycINFO is so
comprehensive—covering thousands of professional journals and
scholarly books going back more than 100 years—that for most purposes
its content is synonymous with the research literature in psychology. Like
most such databases, PsycINFO is usually available through your
university library.
PsycINFO consists of individual records for each article, book chapter, or

book in the database. Each record includes basic publication information,
an abstract or summary of the work (like the one presented at the start of
this chapter), and a list of other works cited by that work. A computer
interface allows entering one or more search terms and returns any
records that contain those search terms. (These interfaces are provided
by different vendors and therefore can look somewhat different depending
on the library you use.) Each record also contains lists of keywords that
describe the content of the work and also a list of index terms. The index
terms are especially helpful because they are standardized. Research on
differences between women and men, for example, is always indexed
under “Human Sex Differences.” Research on note-taking is always
indexed under the term “Learning Strategies.” If you do not know the
appropriate index terms, PsycINFO includes a thesaurus that can help
you find them.
Depending on the vendor that provides the interface to PsycINFO, you

may be able to save, print, or e-mail the relevant PsycINFO records. The
records might even contain links to full-text copies of the works
themselves. (PsycARTICLES is a database that provides full-text access
51
to articles in all journals published by the APA.) If not, and you want a
copy of the work, you will have to find out if your library carries the journal
or has the book and the hard copy on the library shelves. Be sure to ask a
librarian if you need help.
In addition to entering search terms into PsycINFO and other databases,

there are several other techniques you can use to search the research
literature. First, if you have one good article or book chapter on your
topic—a recent review article is best—you can look through the reference
list of that article for other relevant articles, books, and book chapters. In
fact, you should do this with any relevant article or book chapter you find.
You can also start with a classic article or book chapter on your topic, find
its record in PsycINFO (by entering the author’s name or article’s title as a
search term), and link from there to a list of other works in PsycINFO that
cite that classic article. This works because other researchers working on
your topic are likely to be aware of the classic article and cite it in their
own work. You can also do a general Internet search using search terms
related to your topic or the name of a researcher who conducts research
on your topic. This might lead you directly to works that are part of the
research literature (e.g., articles in open-access journals or posted on
researchers’ own websites). The search engine Google Scholar is
especially useful for this purpose. A general Internet search might also
lead you to websites that are not part of the research literature but might
provide references to works that are. Finally, you can talk to people (e.g.,
your instructor or other faculty members in psychology) who know
something about your topic and can suggest relevant articles and book
chapters.
52
LET US SUM UP
From the above section it is clear that any research starts with the
identification of the problem in order to find solution for the
identified problem we must do review search. The above unit also
explained the method to find out good research problem and how
to do a literature review.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. , means searching again and again

2. Research is a scientific method consists of
3. Good research is , ,
and
4. Good research must begin with a good
5. are periodicals that publish original research articles
6. A is written by a single author
7. Electronic search include
1. Research
2. systematic observation, clarification and interpretation of data
3. Systematic, logical, empirical and replicable
4. research question
5. Professional journals
6. Monograph
7. PsyInfo, ERIC, JSTOR, Pub Med
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Define research
2. Describe the research process
3. Explain how you would identify a good research problem.
4. What are the criteria for a good research problem?
5. Explain various techniques for literature search.
6. List out the components of A Research Problem
7. Explain the process of reviewing The Research Literature
8. Discuss about research articles
9. Explain the literature Search Strategies
10. Write a note on using psyc INFO and other Databases
53
GLOSSARY
Electronic database - An Electronic database is a computer-based
collection or listing of information.
Empirical - based on, concerned with or verifiable by observation or

experience rather than theory or pure logic.
Hypothesis - a supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of

limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation
Journals - A journal is a scholarly publication containing articles written

by researchers, professors and other experts.
Monograph - A monograph is a specialist work of writing (in contrast to

reference works) or exhibition on a single subject or an aspect of a
subject, often by a single author or artist, and usually on a scholarly
subject.
Observation – A way to gather data in research by watching people,

events, or noting physical characteristics in their natural setting.
Research problem - A research problem is a statement about an area of

concern, a condition to be improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a
troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or in practice
that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate
investigation.
Review of literature A literature review consists of an overview, a

summary, and an evaluation (“critique”) of the current state of knowledge
about a specific area of research.
SUGGESTED READINGS
• https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/variables
• https://journals.lww.com/ijo/Fulltext/2017/65060/Publication_ethics.
2.aspx
Techniques, New Age International (P) Limited Publishers, New
Delhi.
• Evans,A.N.,&Rooney,B.J.(2008).Methodsin
Psychologicalresearch.NewDelhi,India: Sage PublicationsIndia
Pvt. Ltd.
54
BLOCK II: HYPOTHESIS, VARIABLES AND SAMPLING
UNIT 4: HYPOTHESIS AND VARIABLES

UNIT 5: SAMPLING
UNIT 6: DATA COLLECTION METHODS
55
UNIT 4
HYPOTHESIS, MEASUREMENT
AND VARIABLES
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
4.1 Hypothesis
4.2 Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis
4.3 Types of hypotheses
4.4 Type I And Type II Errors
4.4.1 Level Of Significance
4.5 Variables
4.6 Ways of asking Research questions
4.7 Measuring Observed Variables
4.7.1 Scales of Measurement
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
In this unit, you will be introduced to the concept of hypothesis
testing—the process of determining whether a hypothesis is
supported by the results of a research project. Orientation to
hypothesis testing will include a discussion of the null and
alternative hypotheses, Type Ian Type II errors, and one- and two-
tailed tests of hypotheses. Also will understand the meaning of
measurement and variables and various types of variables.
56
OBJECTIVES
• Explain the meaning of hypothesis
• Discuss about the process of hypothesis testing
• Highlight the errors in hypothesis testing
• Explain the meaning and types of variables
• Explain the scales of measurement
4.1 HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is a specific prediction about a new phenomenon that
should be observed if a particular theory is accurate. It is an
explanation that relies on just a few key concepts. Hypotheses are
often specific predictions about what will happen in a particular
study. They are developed by considering existing evidence and
using reasoning to infer what will happen in the specific context of
interest. Hypotheses are often but not always derived from
theories. So a hypothesis is often a prediction based on a theory
but some hypotheses are a-theoretical and only after a set of
observations have been made, are a theory developed. This is
because theories are broad in nature and they explain larger
bodies of data.
4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS

There are three general characteristics of a good hypothesis. First,
a good hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable. We must be
able to test the hypothesis using the methods of science and if
you’ll recall Popper’s falsifiability criterion, it must be possible to
gather evidence that will disconfirm the hypothesis if it is indeed
false. Second, a good hypothesis must be logical. As described
above, hypotheses are more than just a random guess.
Hypotheses should be informed by previous theories or
observations and logical reasoning. Typically, we begin with a
broad and general theory and use deductive reasoning to generate
a more specific hypothesis to test based on that theory.
Occasionally, however, when there is no theory to inform our
57
hypothesis, we use inductive reasoning which involves using
specific observations or research findings to form a more general
hypothesis. Finally, the hypothesis should be positive. That is, the
hypothesis should make a positive statement about the existence
of a relationship or effect, rather than a statement that a
relationship or effect does not exist. As scientists, we don’t set out
to show that relationships do not exist or that effects do not occur
so our hypotheses should not be worded in a way to suggest that
an effect or relationship does not exist. The nature of science is to
assume that something does not exist and then seek to find
evidence to prove this wrong, to show that really it does exist.
4.3 TYPES OF HYPOTHESES
Let’s use our sample hypothesis to demonstrate what we mean.
We want to show that children who attend academic after-school
programs have different (higher) IQ scores than those who do not.
We understand that statistics cannot demonstrate the truth of this
statement. We therefore construct what is known as a null
hypothesis (H0). Whatever the research topic, the null
hypothesis always predicts that there is no difference between
the groups being compared. This is typically what the researcher
does not expect to find. Think about the meaning of null—nothing
or zero. The null hypothesis means we have found nothing—no
difference between the groups.
For the sample study, the null hypothesis is that children who
attend academic after-school programs have the same intelligence
level as other children. Remember, we said that statistics allow us
to disprove or falsify a hypothesis. Therefore, if the null hypothesis
is not supported, then our original hypothesis—that children who
attend academic after-school programs have different IQs than
other children—is all that is left.
The purpose of the study, then, is to decide whether H0 is
probably true or probably false. The hypothesis that the researcher
wants to support is known as the alternative hypothesis (Ha), or
the research hypothesis (H1). The third one is called as
directional hypothesis, which directly denotes about the
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relationship between the variables. This may indicate, if the
variables are related are not as the case may be. For example as
given above, i.e. children who attend academic after-school
programs have different (higher) IQ scores, the hypothesis may be
formed as” there will be a significant increase in the IQ after
attending the academic after-school programmes”. This will be
better explained in the following section.
i) One tailed and two tailed hypothesis
The manner in which the previous research hypothesis (Ha) was
stated reflects what is known statistically as a one-tailed
hypothesis, or a directional hypothesis—an alternative
hypothesis in which the researcher predicts the direction of the
expected difference between the groups. In this case, the
researcher predicted the direction of the difference—namely, that
children in academic after-school programs will be more intelligent
than children in the general population. When we use a directional
alternative hypothesis, the null hypothesis is also, in some sense,
directional. If the alternative hypothesis is that children in
academic after-school programs will have higher intelligence test
scores, then the null hypothesis is that being in academic after-
school programs either will have no effect on intelligence test
scores or will decrease intelligence test scores.
ii) Two-tailed hypothesis
The alternative to a one-tailed or directional test is a two-tailed
hypothesis, or a non directional hypothesis—an alternative
hypothesis in which the researcher expects to find differences
between the groups but is unsure what the differences will be. In
our example, the researcher would predict a difference in IQ
scores between children in academic after-school programs and
those in the general population, but the direction of the difference
would not be predicted. Those in academic programs would be
expected to have either higher or lower IQs but not the same IQs
as the general population of children.
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4.4 TYPE I AND TYPE II ERRORS
Table: Statistical decision making
Truth Unknown to the Researcher
Researcher's decision H0 is true H0 is false
Reject H0(say it is false) Type I error Correct decision
Fail to reject H0 (say it is Correct decision Type II error

true)
If we reject the null hypothesis (that there is no IQ difference

between groups), we may be correct in our decision, or we may be
incorrect. If our decision to reject H0 is correct, that means there
truly is a difference in IQ between children in academic after-
school programs and the general population of children. However,
our decision could be incorrect. The result may have been due to
chance. Even though we observed a significant difference in IQs
between the children in our study and the general population, the
result might have been a fluke—maybe the children in our sample
just happened to guess correctly on a lot of the questions. In this
case, we have made what is known as a Type I error—we
rejected H0, when in reality, we should have failed to reject it (it is
true that there really is no IQ difference between the sample and
the population). Type I errors can be thought of as false alarms—
we said there was a difference, but in reality, there is no
difference.
What if our decision is to not reject H0, meaning we conclude that

there is no difference in IQs between the children in academic
afterschool programs and children in the general population? This
decision could be correct, meaning that in reality, there is no IQ
difference between the sample and the population. However, it
could also be incorrect. In this case, we would be making a Type II
error—saying there is no difference between groups when, in
reality, there is a difference. Somehow we have missed the
difference that really exists and have failed to reject the null
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hypothesis when it is false. These possibilities are summarized in
Table.
4.4.1 Level of Significance
The significance level, also denoted as alpha or α, is the
probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. For
example, a significance level of 0.05 indicates a 5% risk of
concluding that a difference exists when there is no actual
difference.
4.5 VARIABLES
A variable in research simply refers to a person, place, thing, or
phenomenon that you are trying to measure in some way. The
best way to understand the difference between a dependent and
independent variable is that the meaning of each is implied by
what the words tell us about the variable you are using.
A variable in research simply refers to a person, place, thing, or
phenomenon that you are trying to measure in some way. The
best way to understand the difference between a dependent and
independent variable is that the meaning of each is implied by
what the words tell us about the variable you are using. You can
do this with a simple exercise from the website, Graphic Tutorial.
Take the sentence, "The [independent variable] causes a change
in [dependent variable] and it is not possible that [dependent
variable] could cause a change in [independent variable]." Insert
the names of variables you are using in the sentence in the way
that makes the most sense. This will help you identify each type of
variable. If you're still not sure, consult with your professor before
you begin to write.
The process of examining a research problem in the social and
behavioral sciences is often framed around methods of analysis
that compare, contrast, correlate, average, or integrate
relationships between or among variables. Techniques include
associations, sampling, random selection, and blind selection.
Designation of the dependent and independent variable involves
unpacking the research problem in a way that identifies a general
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cause and effect and classifying these variables as either
independent or dependent.
The variables should be outlined in the introduction of your paper
and explained in more detail in the methods section. There are no
rules about the structure and style for writing about independent or
dependent variables but, as with any academic writing, clarity and
being succinct is most important.
Any things which varies in value is variable, in other words which
takes up different numbers or values is variable. For example if
we measure the self-esteem of 100 students, we may get 100
different values of self-esteem. In mathematical term if x is a
variable it can take up any value.
The means of classifying variables is in terms of their utility in the
research. The first one by virtue of their nature that is whether they
are discrete or continuous in nature. The second way of
classification is by virtue of their application in the experimental
research, that is dependent, independent and intervening
variables.
i) Discrete variables usually consist of whole number units or
categories. They are made up of chunks or units that are detached
and distinct from one another. A change in value occurs a whole
unit at a time, and decimals do not make sense with discrete
scales. Most nominal and ordinal data are discrete. For example,
gender, political party, and ethnicity are discrete scales. Some
interval or ratio data can be discrete. For example, the number of
children someone has is reported as a whole number (discrete
data), yet it is also ratio data (you can have a true zero and form
ratios).
ii) Continuous variables usually fall along a continuum and allow
for fractional amounts. The term continuous means that it
“continues” between the whole number units. Examples of
continuous variables are age (22.7 years), height (64.5 inches),
and weight (113.25 pounds). Most interval and ratio data are
continuous in nature.
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iii) Categorical variables: The next classification is the
Categorical Variable. Categorical variables are the one which
takes values that are in names or labels. For example color of the
eye ball, brown, black, blue etc.
Independent, dependent and extraneous variables
In an experimental research design researcher measures
independent and dependent variables. Aspect of the environment
which is experimentally manipulated is called independent
variable.
a) Independent Variable
The variable that is stable and unaffected by the other variables
you are trying to measure. It refers to the condition of an
experiment that is systematically manipulated by the investigator.
It is the presumed cause.
Independent variable is the variable the experimenter
manipulates or changes, and is assumed to have a direct effect on
the dependent variable. For example, allocating participants to
either drug or placebo conditions (independent variable) in order to
measure any changes in the intensity of their anxiety (dependent
variable).
In a well-designed experimental study, the independent variable is

the only important difference between the experimental (e.g.
treatment) and control (e.g. placebo) groups.
b) Dependent Variable
The variable that depends on other factors that are measured.
These variables are expected to change as a result of an
experimental manipulation of the independent variable or
variables. It is the presumed effect.
Dependent variable is the variable being tested and measured in
an experiment, and is 'dependent' on the independent variable. An
example of a dependent variable is depression symptoms, which
depends on the independent variable (type of therapy).
Independent variable is the cause and dependent variable is

the effect. In an experiment to find out the effectiveness of
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mindfulness based stress reduction therapy, mindfulness training
is independent variable and stress is dependent variable. Change
in the level of stress depends upon the intervention given.
Therefore stress is dependent variable.
c) Extraneous variable
The variable which also influences the dependent variable is
called extraneous variable. In a research to find out the influence
of memory on test performance, test anxiety and stress is
considered to be the extraneous variable. Usually extraneous
variable is controlled either ethologically or statistically.
i) Participant variables: These extraneous variables are related
to the individual characteristics of each study participant that may
impact how they respond. These factors can include background
differences, mood, anxiety, intelligence, awareness, and other
characteristics that are unique to each person.
ii) Situational variables: These extraneous variables are related
to things in the environment that may impact how each participant
responds. For example, if a participant is taking a test in a chilly
room, the temperature would be considered an extraneous
variable. Some participants may not be affected by the cold, but
others might be distracted or annoyed by the temperature of the
room.
4.6 WAYS OF ASKING RESEARCH QUESTIONS
A research question is a specific inquiry which the research seeks

to provide a response to. It resides at the core of systematic
investigation, and it helps you to clearly define a path for the
research process. A research question is usually the first step in
any research project. Basically, it is the primary interrogation point
of your research, and it sets the pace for your work. Typically, a
research question focuses on the research, determines the
methodology and hypothesis, and guides all stages of inquiry,
analysis, and reporting. With the right research questions, you will
be able to gather useful information for your investigation.
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Types of Research Questions
Research questions are broadly categorized into two; that is,
qualitative research questions and quantitative research questions.
Qualitative and quantitative research questions can be used
independently and co-dependently in line with the overall focus
and objectives of your research.
If your research aims at collecting quantifiable data, you will need

to make use of quantitative research questions. On the other hand,
qualitative questions help you to gather qualitative data bothering
on the perceptions and observations of your research subjects.
Qualitative Research Questions

A qualitative research question is a type of systematic inquiry that
aims at collecting qualitative data from research subjects. The aim
of qualitative research questions is to gather non-statistical
information pertaining to the experiences, observations, and
perceptions of the research subjects in line with the objectives of
the investigation.
Types of Qualitative Research Questions
• Ethnographic Research Questions
As the name clearly suggests, ethnographic research questions

are inquiries presented in ethnographic research. Ethnographic
research is a qualitative research approach that involves observing
variables in their natural environments or habitats in order to arrive
at objective research outcomes. These research questions help
the researcher to gather insights into the habits, dispositions,
perceptions, and behaviors of research subjects as they interact in
specific environments.
Ethnographic research questions can be used in education,

business, medicine, and other fields of study, and they are very
useful in contexts aimed at collecting in-depth and specific
information that are peculiar to research variables. For instance,
asking educational ethnographic research questions can help you
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understand how pedagogy affects classroom relations and
behaviors.
This type of research question can be administered physically

through one-on-one interviews, naturalism (live and work), and
participant observation methods. Alternatively, the researcher can
ask ethnographic research questions via online surveys and
questionnaires.
Examples of Ethnographic Research Questions
Why do you use this product?

Have you noticed any side effects since you started using this
drug?
Does this product meet your needs?
• Case Studies
A case study is a qualitative research approach that involves

carrying out a detailed investigation into a research subject(s) or
variable(s). In the course of a case study, the researcher gathers a
range of data from multiple sources of information via different
data collection methods, and over a period of time.
The aim of a case study is to analyze specific issues within definite

contexts and arrive at detailed research subject analyses by
asking the right questions. This research method can be
explanatory, descriptive, or exploratory depending on the focus of
your systematic investigation or research.
An explanatory case study is one that seeks to gather information

on the causes of real-life occurrences. This type of case study
uses "how" and "why" questions in order to gather valid
information about the causative factors of an event.
Descriptive case studies are typically used in business research,

and they aim at analyzing the impact of changing market dynamics
on businesses. On the other hand, exploratory case studies aim at
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providing answers to "whom" and "what" questions using data
collection tools like interviews and questionnaires.
Example of Case Study:
Some questions you can include in your case studies are:
Why did you choose our services?

How has this policy affected your business output?
What benefits have you recorded since you started using our
product?
• Interviews
An interview is a qualitative research method that involves asking

respondents a series of questions in order to gather information
about a research subject. Interview questions can be close-ended
or open-ended, and they prompt participants to provide valid
information that is useful to the research.
An interview may also be structured, semi-structured, or

unstructured, and this further influences the types of questions
they include. Structured interviews are made up of more close-
ended questions because they aim at gathering quantitative data
while unstructured interviews consist, primarily, of open-ended
questions that allow the researcher to collect qualitative
information from respondents.
You can conduct interview research by scheduling a physical

meeting with respondents, through a telephone conversation, and
via digital media and video conferencing platforms like Skype and
Zoom
Examples of interview questions include:
What challenges did you face while using our product?

What specific needs did our product meet?
What would you like us to improve our service delivery?
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Examples of a Good Research Question
Since research questions lie at the core of any systematic investigations,

it is important to know how to frame a good research question. The right
research questions will help you to gather the most objective responses
that are useful to your systematic investigation.
A good research question is one that requires impartial responses and

can be answered via existing sources of information. Also, a good
research question seeks answers that actively contribute to a body of
knowledge; hence, it is a question that is yet to be answered in your
specific research context.
Open-Ended Questions
An open-ended question is a type of research question that does not

restrict respondents to a set of premeditated answer options. In other
words, it is a question that allows the respondent to freely express his or
her perceptions and feelings towards the research subject.
Examples of Open-ended Questions
1. How do you deal with stress in the workplace?

2. What is a typical day at work like for you?
Close-ended Questions
A close-ended question is a type of survey question that restricts

respondents to a set of predetermined answers such as multiple-choice
questions. Close-ended questions typically require yes or no answers and
are commonly used in quantitative research to gather data from research
participants.
Examples of Close-ended Questions
Did you enjoy this event?
1. Yes
2. No
How likely are you to recommend our services?
1. Very Likely
2. Somewhat Likely
3. Unlikely
Likert Scale Questions
A Likert scale question is a type of close-ended question that is structured

as a 3-point, 5-point, or 7-point psychometric scale. Usually a 5-point
scale is used. This type of question is used to measure the survey
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respondent's disposition towards multiple variables and it can be unipolar
or bipolar in nature.
Example of Likert Scale Questions
Are you satisfied with our service delivery?

1. Very dissatisfied
2. Not satisfied
3. Undecided
4. Satisfied
5. Very satisfied
Rating Scale Questions
A rating scale question is a type of close-ended question that

seeks to associate a specific qualitative measure (rating) with the
different variables in research. It is commonly used in customer
experience surveys, market research surveys, employee reviews,
and product evaluations.
Example of Rating Questions
How would you rate our service delivery?
1. Excellent
2. Good
3. Neutral
4. Bad
5. Very bad
Examples of a Bad Research Question

Knowing what bad research questions are would help you avoid them in
the course of your systematic investigation. These types of questions are
usually unfocused and often result in research biases that can negatively
impact the outcomes of your systematic investigation.
Loaded Questions
A loaded question is a question that subtly presupposes one or more

unverified assumptions about the research subject or participant. This
type of question typically boxes the respondent in a corner because it
suggests implicit and explicit biases that prevent objective responses.
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Example of Loaded Questions
1. Have you stopped smoking?

2. Where did you hide the money?
Negative Questions
A negative question is a type of question that is structured with an implicit

or explicit negator. Negative questions can be misleading because they
upturn the typical yes/no response order by requiring a negative answer
for affirmation and an affirmative answer for negation.
Examples of Negative Questions
1. Would you mind dropping by my office later today?

2. Didn't you visit last week?
Leading Questions
An leading question is a type of survey question that moves the

respondent towards an already-determined answer. It is highly
suggestive in nature and typically consists of biases and unverified
assumptions that point towards its premeditated responses.
Examples of Leading Questions
1. If you enjoyed this service, would you be willing to try out our
other packages?
2. Our product met your needs, didn't it?
4.7 MEASURING OBSERVED VARIABLES

Formally, measurement refers to the assignment of numbers to objects
or events according to specific rules (Coombs, 1964). We assign numbers
to events in everyday life, for instance, when we rate a movie as a “nine
out of ten” or when a hotel is rated “three star.”
Fundamentals of measurement
You will recall from previous unit that the research hypothesis involves a
prediction about the relationship between or among two or more
variables—for instance, the relationship between self-esteem and college
performance or between study time and memory. When stated in an
abstract manner, the ideas that form the basis of a research hypothesis
are known as conceptual Variables
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Behavioral scientists have been interested in such conceptual
variables as self-esteem, parenting style, depression, and
cognitive development. Measurement involves turning conceptual
variables into measured variables, which consist of numbers that
represent the conceptual variables. The measured variables are
frequently referred to as measures of the conceptual variables. In
some cases, the transformation from conceptual to measured
variable is direct. For instance, the conceptual variable “study
time” is straightforwardly represented as the measured variable
“seconds of study.” But other conceptual variables can be
assessed by many different measures. For instance, the
conceptual variable “liking” could be assessed by a person rating,
from one to ten, how much he or she likes another person.
Alternatively, liking could be measured in terms of how often a
person looks at or touches another person or the number of love
letters that he or she writes. And liking could also be measured
using physiological indicators such as an increase in heart rate
when two people are in the vicinity of each other.
Operational definition
The term operational definition refers to a precise statement of
how a conceptual variable is turned into a measured variable.
Research can only proceed once an adequate operational
definition has been defined. In some cases the conceptual variable
may be too vague to be operationalised, and in other cases the
variable cannot be operationalised because the appropriate
technology has not been developed.
4.7.1 Scales of Measurement
Specifying the relationship between the numbers on a quantitative
measured variable and the values of the conceptual variable is
known as scaling. In some cases in the natural sciences, the
mapping between the measure and the conceptual variable is
quite precise. As an example, we are all familiar with the use of the
Fahrenheit scale to measure temperature. In the Fahrenheit scale,
the relationship between the measured variable (degrees
Fahrenheit) and the conceptual variable (temperature) is so
71
precise that we can be certain that changes in the measured
variable correspond exactly to changes in the conceptual variable.
i) Nominal Scale
A nominal scale is one in which objects or individuals are
assigned to categories that have no numerical properties. Nominal
scales have the characteristic of identity but lack the other
properties. Variables measured on a nominal scale are often
referred to as categorical variables because the measuring scale
involves dividing the data into categories. However, the categories
carry no numerical weight. Some examples of categorical
variables, or data measured on a nominal scale, are ethnicity,
gender, and political affiliation. We can assign numerical values to
the levels of a nominal variable. For example, for ethnicity, we
could label Asian Americans as 1, African Americans as 2, Latin
Americans as 3, and so on. However, these scores do not carry
any numerical weight; they are simply names for the categories. In
other words, the scores are used for identity but not for magnitude,
equal unit size, or absolute value. We cannot order the data and
claim that 1s are more than or less than 2s. We cannot analyze
these data mathematically.
ii) Ordinal Scale
In an ordinal scale, objects or individuals are categorized, and the
categories form a rank order along a continuum. Data measured
on an ordinal scale have the properties of identity and magnitude
but lack equal unit size and absolute zero. Ordinal data are often
referred to as ranked data because the data are ordered from
highest to lowest or biggest to smallest. For example, reporting
how students did on an exam based simply on their rank (highest
score, second highest, and so on) is an ordinal scale. This variable
carries identity and magnitude because each individual receives a
rank (a number) that carries identity, and that rank also conveys
information about order or magnitude (how many students
performed better or worse in the class).
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iii) Interval Scale
In an interval scale, the units of measurement (intervals) between
the numbers on the scale are all equal in size. When you use an
interval scale, the criteria of identity, magnitude, and equal unit
size are met. For example, the Fahrenheit temperature scale is an
interval scale of measurement. A given temperature carries
identity (days with different temperatures receive different scores
on the scale), magnitude (cooler days receive lower scores, and
hotter days receive higher scores), and equal unit size (the
difference between 50 and 51 degrees is the same as that
between 90 and 91 degrees). However, the Fahrenheit scale does
not have an absolute zero. Because of this, you cannot form ratios
based on this scale (for example, 100 degrees is not twice as hot
as 50 degrees). You can still perform mathematical computations
on interval data.
iv) Ratio Scale
In a ratio scale, in addition to order and equal units of
measurement, an absolute zero indicates an absence of the
variable being measured. Ratio data have all four properties of
measurement—identity, magnitude, equal unit size, and absolute
zero. Examples of ratio scales of measurement include weight,
time, and height. Each of these scales has identity (individuals
who weigh different amounts receive different scores), magnitude
(those who weigh less receive lower scores than those who weigh
more), and equal unit size (1 pound is the same weight anywhere
along the scale and for any person using the scale). Ratio scales
also have an absolute zero, which means that a score of zero
reflects an absence of that variable. This also means that ratios
can be formed. For example, a weight of 100 pounds is twice as
much as a weight of 50 pounds. As with interval data,
mathematical computations can be performed on ratio data.
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LET US SUM UP
In the present unit we have discussed the meaning of hypothesis
(tentative solution to the problem), types of hypothesis as null and
alternate. The null hypothesis always predicts that there is no
difference whereas alternate hypothesis indicate that there exist a
significant difference between the groups being compared.
Anything which varies in value is called variable. Though different
authors describe variables differently, variables are categorized
only in two ways discrete or continuous; quantitative or categorical.
Specifying the relationship between the numbers on a quantitative
measured variable and the values of the conceptual variable is
known as scaling, and the different scales of measurement are
nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. is the variable the experimenter
manipulates or changes, and is assumed to have a direct
effect on the dependent variable.
2. refers to a precise statement
of how a conceptual variable is turned into a measured
variable.
3. refers to the assignment of numbers to
objects or events according to specific rules.
4. refers to theone in which
objects or individuals are assigned to categories that have no
numerical properties.

1. Independent variable
2. Operational definition
3. Measurement
4. Nominal scale
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GLOSSARY
Case study: qualitative research approach that involves carrying

out a detailed investigation into a research subject(s) or
variable(s).
Continuous variables: usually fall along a continuum and allow
for fractional amounts.
Dependent Variable: The variable that depends on other factors
that are measured.
Descriptive research questions: inquiries that researchers use
to gather quantifiable data about the attributes and characteristics
of research subjects.
Discrete variables: usually consist of whole number units or
categories
Extraneous variable: Any variable which also influences the
dependent variable
Hypothesis testing: the process of determining whether a
hypothesis is supported by the results of a research project
Interval scale - the units of measurement (intervals) between the
numbers on the scale are all equal in size.
Interview - qualitative research method that involves asking
respondents a series of questions in order to gather information
about a research subject.
Likert scale - type of close-ended question that is structured as a
3-point, 5-point, or 7-point psychometric scale.
Nominal scale: in which objects or individuals are assigned to
categories that have no numerical properties.
Operational definition refers to a precise statement of how a
conceptual variable is turned into a measured variable
Ordinal scale - objects or individuals are categorized, and the
categories form a rank order along a continuum.
Ratio scale - in addition to order and equal units of measurement,
an absolute zero indicates an absence of the variable being
measured.
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MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Define hypothesis and its types
2. Explain the various scales of measurements used in measuring
variables
3. Define variable. Illustrate the types of variables with examples
4. Explain the types of error in hypothesis testing
SUGGESTED READINGS
• McLeod, S. A. (2018, August 10). What is a hypothesis? Simply
Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/what-is-a-
hypotheses.html
• https://www.formpl.us/blog/research-question
• https://www.simplypsychology.org/variables.html
• https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-variable-2795789
Delhi.
Pvt. Ltd.
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UNIT- 5
SAMPLING
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
5.1 Population
5.1.2 Definitions of Key Terms
5.2 Sampling
5.3 Probability Sampling
5.4 Non-Probability Sampling
5.5 Effective Sample size
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Key Words
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
Questions of sampling arise directly out of the issue of defining the
population on which the research will focus. Researchers must
take sampling decisions early in the overall planning of a piece of
research. Factors such as expense, time and accessibility
frequently prevent researchers from gaining information from the
whole population. Therefore they often need to be able to obtain
data from a smaller group or subset of the total population in such
a way that the knowledge gained is representative of the total
population (however defined) under study. This smaller group or
subset is the sample.
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OBJECTIVES
• Explain the concept of sampling
• Describe the probability sampling techniques
• Illustrate the probability sampling techniques
5.1 POPULATION
Drawing conclusions about some very large group of people is
called the population. It could be all Indian teenagers, children
with autism, professional athletes, or even just human beings—
depending on the interests and goals of the researcher.
5.1.2 Definitions of Key Terms

Sample: Subset of the population is called sample. True
representative from the population is called sample.
Sampling: It is the method through which the sample is selected.
Judgments have to be made about four key factors in sampling:
1 the sample size;
2 the representativeness and parameters of the sample;
3 access to the sample;
4 the sampling strategy to be used.
Sample size: A question that often plagues novice researchers is
just how large their samples for the research should be. There is
no clear-cut answer, for the correct sample size depends on the
purpose of the study and the nature of the population under
scrutiny. However it is possible to give some advice on this matter.
Thus, a sample size of thirty is held by many to be the minimum
number of cases if researchers plan to use some form of statistical
analysis on their data.
As a rough guide in a random sample, the larger the sample, the
greater is its chance of being representative. Borg and Gall
(1979:195) suggest that, as a general rule, sample sizes should be
large where:
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• There are many variables;
• Only small differences or small relationships are expected or
predicted;
• The sample will be broken down into subgroups;
• The sample is heterogeneous in terms of the variables under
study;
• Reliable measures of the dependent variable are unavailable.
While calculating the sample size in an experimental research
design effect size from previous research reviews is taken. Effect
size tells about the significant difference between the two groups,
it is the simple way of quantifying the difference between two
groups
5.2 SAMPLING
The goal of sampling strategies in survey research is to obtain a
sufficient sample that is representative of the population of
interest. It is often not feasible to collect data from an entire
population of interest (e.g., all individuals with lung cancer);
therefore, a subset of the population or sample is used to estimate
the population responses (e.g., individuals with lung cancer
currently receiving treatment). A large random sample increases
the likelihood that the responses from the sample will accurately
reflect the entire population. In order to accurately draw
conclusions about the population, the sample must include
individuals with characteristics similar to the population.
It is therefore necessary to correctly identify the population of
interest (e.g., individuals with lung cancer currently receiving
treatment vs. all individuals with lung cancer). The sample will
ideally include individuals who reflect the intended population in
terms of all characteristics of the population (e.g., sex,
socioeconomic characteristics, symptom experience) and contain
a similar distribution of individuals with those characteristics. As
discussed by Madly Stovall beginning on page 162, Fujimori et al.
(2014), for example, were interested in the population of
oncologists. The authors obtained a sample of oncologists from
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two hospitals in Japan. These participants may or may not have
similar characteristics to all oncologists in Japan.
Participant recruitment strategies can affect the adequacy and
representativeness of the sample obtained. Using diverse
recruitment strategies can help improve the size of the sample and
help ensure adequate coverage of the intended population. For
example, if a survey researcher intends to obtain a sample of
individuals with breast cancer representative of all individuals with
breast cancer in the United States, the researcher would want to
use recruitment strategies that would recruit women and men,
individuals from rural and urban settings, individuals receiving and
not receiving active treatment, and so on. Because of the difficulty
in obtaining samples representative of a large population,
researchers may focus the population of interest to a subset of
individuals (e.g., women with stage III or IV breast cancer). Large
census surveys require extremely large samples to adequately
represent the characteristics of the population because they are
intended to represent the entire population.
There are two main methods of sampling (Cohen and Holliday,
1979, 1982, 1996; Schofield, 1996). The researcher must decide
whether to opt for a probability (also known as a random sample)
or a non-probability sample (also known as a purposive sample).
The difference between them is this: in a probability sample the
chances of members of the wider population being selected for the
sample are known, whereas in a non-probability sample the
chances of members of the wider population being selected for the
sample are unknown. In the former (probability sample) every
member of the wider population has an equal chance of being
included in the sample.
5.3 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
A probability sample, because it draws randomly from the wider
population, will be useful if the researcher wishes to be able to
make generalizations, because it seeks representativeness of the
wider population. This is a form of sampling that is popular in
randomized controlled trials. On the other hand, a non-probability
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sample deliberately avoids representing the wider population; it
seeks only to represent a particular group, a particular named
section of the wider population, e.g. a class of students, a group of
students who are taking a particular examination, a group of
teachers.
A probability sample will have less risk of bias than a non-
probability sample, whereas, by contrast, a non-probability sample,
being unrepresentative of the whole population, may demonstrate
skewness or bias. There are several types of probability samples:
simple random samples; systematic samples; stratified samples;
cluster samples; stage samples, and multi-phase samples. They
all have a measure of randomness built into them and therefore
have a degree of generalizability.
5.3.1 Simple random sampling
In simple random sampling, each member of the population under
study has an equal chance of being selected and the probability of
a member of the population being selected is unaffected by the
selection of other members of the population, i.e. each selection is
entirely independent of the next. The method involves selecting at
random from a list of the population (a sampling frame) the
required number of subjects for the sample. This can be done by
drawing names out of a hat until the required number is reached,
or by using a table of random numbers set out in matrix form.
5.3.2 Systematic sampling
This method is a modified form of simple random sampling. It
involves selecting subjects from a population list in a systematic
rather than a random fashion. For example, if from a population of,
say, 2,000, a sample of 100 is required, then every twentieth
person can be selected. The starting point for the selection is
chosen at random. There the question of the order in which names
are listed in systematic sampling, but there is also the issue that
this process may violate one of the fundamental premises of
probability sampling, namely that every person has an equal
chance of being included in the sample.
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5.3.3 Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into
homogenous groups, each group containing subjects with similar
characteristics. For example, group A might contain males and
group B, females. In order to obtain a sample representative of the
whole population in terms of sex, a random selection of subjects
from group A and group B must be taken. If needed, the exact
proportion of males to females in the whole population can be
reflected in the sample. The researcher will have to identify those
characteristics of the wider population which must be included in
the sample, i.e. to identify the parameters of the wider population.
This is the essence of establishing the sampling frame.
To organize a stratified random sample is a simple two-stage
process. First, identify those characteristics which appear in the
wider population which must also appear in the sample, i.e. divide
the wider population into homogeneous and, if possible, discrete
groups (strata), for example males and females. Second, randomly
sample within these groups, the size of each group being
determined either by the judgment of the researcher or by
reference.
5.3.4 Cluster sampling
When the population is large and widely dispersed, gathering a
simple random sample poses administrative problems. Suppose
we want to survey students’ fitness levels in a particularly large
community. It would be completely impractical to select students
and spend an inordinate amount of time travelling about in order to
test them. By cluster sampling, the researcher can select a specific
number of schools and test all the students in those selected
schools, i.e. a geographically close cluster is sampled. Cluster
samples are widely used in small scale research. In a cluster
sample the parameters of the wider population are often drawn
very sharply; a researcher, therefore, would have to comment on
the generalizability of the findings. The researcher may also need
to stratify within this cluster sample if useful data.
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5.3.5 Stage sampling
Stage sampling is an extension of cluster sampling. It involves
selecting the sample in stages that is, taking samples from
samples. Using the large community example in cluster sampling,
one type of stage sampling might be to select a number of schools
at random, and from within each of these schools, select a number
of classes at random, and from within those classes select a
number of students.
5.3.6 Multi Phase Sampling
In a multi-phase sample the purposes change at each phase, for
example, at phase one the selection of the sample might be based
on the criterion of geography (e.g. students living in a particular
region); phase two might be based on an economic criterion (e.g.
schools whose budgets are administered in markedly different
ways); phase three might be based on a political criterion (e.g.
schools whose students are drawn from areas with a tradition of
support for a particular political party), and so on.
5.4 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
The selectivity which is built into a non-probability sample derives
from the researcher targeting a particular group, in the full
knowledge that it does not represent the wider population; it simply
represents itself. This is frequently the case in small scale
research, for example, as with one or two schools, two or three
groups of students, or a particular group of teachers, where no
attempt to generalize is desired; this is frequently the case for
some ethnographic research, action research or case study
research.
Just as there are several types of probability sample, so there are
several types of non-probability sample: convenience sampling,
quota sampling, dimensional sampling, purposive sampling and
snowball sampling.
5.4.1 Convenience sampling
Convenience sampling—or as it is sometimes called, accidental or
opportunity sampling—involves choosing the nearest individuals to
serve as respondents and continuing that process until the
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required sample size has been obtained. Captive audiences such
as students or student teachers often serve as respondents based
on convenience sampling. The researcher simply chooses the
sample from those to whom she has easy access.
5.4.2 Quota sampling
Quota sampling has been described as the non-probability
equivalent of stratified sampling (Bailey, 1978). Like a stratified
sample, a quota sample strives to represent significant
characteristics (strata) of the wider population; unlike stratified
sampling it sets out to represent these in the proportions in which
they can be found in the wider population. A quota sample, then,
seeks to give proportional weighting to selected factors (strata)
which reflects their weighting in which they can be found in the
wider population. The researcher wishing to devise a quota
sample can proceed in three stages:
Stage 1 Identify those characteristics (factors) which appear in the
wider population which must also appear in the sample, i.e. divide
the wider population into homogeneous and, if possible, discrete
groups (strata), for example, males and females, Asian, Chinese
and Afro-Caribbean.
Stage 2 Identify the proportions in which the selected
characteristics appear in the wider population, expressed as a
percentage.
Stage 3 Ensure that the percentage proportions of the
characteristics selected from the wider population appear in the
sample.
Ensuring correct proportions in the sample may be difficult to
achieve where the proportions in the wider community are
unknown; sometimes a pilot survey might be necessary in order to
establish those proportions.
5.4.3 Purposive sampling
In purposive sampling, researchers handpick the cases to be
included in the sample on the basis of their judgment of their
typicality. In this way, they build up a sample that is satisfactory to
their specific needs. As its name suggests, the sample has been
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chosen for a specific purpose, for example: (a) a group of
principals and senior managers of secondary schools is chosen as
the research is studying the incidence of stress amongst senior
managers.
5.4.4 Dimensional sampling
One way of reducing the problem of sample size in quota sampling
is to opt for dimensional sampling. Dimensional sampling is a
further refinement of quota sampling. It involves identifying various
factors of interest in a population and obtaining at least one
respondent of every combination of those factors. Thus, in a study
of race relations, for example, researchers may wish to distinguish
first, second and third generation immigrants. Their sampling plan
might take the form of a multi-dimensional table with ‘ethnic group’
across the top and ‘generation’ down the side.
5.4.5 Snowball sampling
In snowball sampling researchers identify a small number of
individuals who have the characteristics in which they are
interested. These people are then used as informants to identify,
or put the researchers in touch with, others who qualify for
inclusion and these, in turn, identify yet others—hence the term
snowball sampling. This method is useful for sampling a
population where access is difficult, maybe because it is a
sensitive topic (e.g. teenage solvent abusers) or where
communication networks are undeveloped.
5.5 EFFECTIVE SAMPLE SIZE
The effective sample size is an estimate of the sample size

required to achieve the same level of precision if that sample was
a simple random sample. Mathematically, it is defined as n/D,
where n is the sample size and D is the design effect. It is used as
a way of summarizing the amount of information in data. It has
three main areas of application: survey analysis, time series
analysis, and Bayesian statistics.
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How to use the effective sample size
The main application of effective sample size calculations is for

qualitative assessments of the sample size. The sample
size measures the number of individual samples measured or
observations used in a survey or experiment. It is believed that a
sample size of 30 is required for an analysis to be valid, and then
the effective sample size – rather than the actual sample size – is
used in such an assessment.
Sometimes effective sample sizes are used as an input into

statistical calculations in place of the actual sample size. This
practice is better than using the actual sample size but is only a
rough heuristic. (In general, a better approach is to use statistical
techniques specifically designed for non-simple random samples,
such as complex samples regression.)
Effective sample size in surveys
In survey analysis, the way that a survey is designed affects the

precision of survey estimates (i.e., the standard error of statistics).
Stratification, clustering, and weighting all usually increase the
standard errors of estimates in real-world surveys.
Most commonly, the effective sample size is used as a way of

quantifying the effect of weighting a survey. For example, if a
survey of 1,000 people has an effective sample size for a statistic
of 500, it means that the amount of sampling error is equivalent to
that which would have been obtained by a study of 500 people that
did not need to be weighted.
LET US SUM UP
This unit deliberates the importance of sampling that every
element of the research should not be arbitrary but planned and
deliberate, and that, as before, the criterion of planning must be
fitness for purpose. The selection of a sampling strategy must be
governed by the criterion of suitability and it falls under two
categories probability and non-probability Sampling methods. The
86
sampling chosen must be appropriate for all of these factors if
validity is to be served.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Universe refers to the
2. is the true representatives
3. Probability sampling is otherwise called
4. Not giving equal chance to all participants is
5. Taking one group as sample instead of one individual is
6. Effect size is way to find out the significant difference

between groups
7. allows the researcher to see what their subjects
really do when confronted with various choices or situations.
8. A is a set of fixed-format, self-report items that is
completed by respondents at their own pace, often without
supervision.
9. A is a series of self-report measures administered
either through an interview or a written questionnaire.
10. involves dividing the population into homogenous
groups, each group containing subjects with similar
characteristics.

1. Population
2. Sample
3. Random sampling
4. Non-probability
5. Cluster
6. Quantitative
7. Observational research
8. Questionnaire
9. Survey
10. Stratified sampling
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GLOSSARY
Non Probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is a
sampling method in which not all members of the population have
an equal chance of participating in the study
Observational research: Observational research is a qualitative
research method where the target respondent/subject is observed
and analyzed in their natural/real-world setting.
Population:Drawing conclusions about some very large group of
people is called the population
Probability sampling: is when the researcher chooses subjects

randomly to be part of a sample.
Sample: Subset of the population is called sample.
Sampling Size: Sample size refers to the number of

participants or observations included in a study.
Structured Interviews: Structured interview is the one involving a

fixed set of predetermined questions
Survey Research: refers tothe collection of information from a
sample of individuals through their responses to questions.
Unstructured Interviews: Unstructured interview is the one
where the interviewer initiates casual conversation with the
candidate. There is no pattern or fixed format set in advance that
allows the interviewer to indulge in informal discussion mixed with
interview questions.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Define the steps in selecting the sample
2. Explain different types of sampling techniques
3. Explain various methods of data collection
4. What is a self-report measure?
5. How to determine sample size?
6. State the difference between Structured and unstructured
interview
88
SUGGESTED READINGS
• S.J. Grove, R.P. Fisk-Journal of Academy Marketing

Science 1992. Observation data collection methods for
services marketing. An overview
• Price, R. Jhangiani, I. Chant, A. Chiang, D.C. Leighton, C.
Cutlet Research methods in Psychology. 2017. Chapter 6.5
Observational research
• https://provalisresearch.com/blog/observational-research/
89
UNIT- 6
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
6.1 Data Collection Methods
6.1.1 Primary Data Collection Methods

6.1.2 Secondary Data Collection Methods
6.2 Interviews
6.2.1 Structured Interviews
6.2.2 Unstructured Interviews
6.3 Questionnaires
6.4 Observational Research
6.5 Survey Research
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Key Words
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
The data collection will help in making some conclusions about the
certain phenomenon. Thus, data collection is essential to analyze
the performance of a business unit, solving a problem and making
assumptions about specific things when required. In this unit we
will discuss about data collection and how it can be collected.
Moreover, the usage of interviews, questionnaires, observation
methods and survey methods are discussed in this unit.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this you will be able to:
• List out the various Data collection by observation
90
• Discuss about the Interviews
• Explain the usage of questionnaire in data collection
• Discuss about the key elements in observational research
• Describe the survey method
6.1 DATA COLLECTION METHODS
In Statistics, data collection is a process of gathering information

from all the relevant sources to find a solution to the research
problem. It helps to evaluate the outcome of the problem. The data
collection methods allow a person to conclude an answer to the
relevant question. Most of the organizations use data collection
methods to make assumptions about future probabilities and
trends. Once the data is collected, it is necessary to undergo
the data organization process.
The main sources of the data collections methods are “Data”. Data
can be classified into two types, namely primary data and
secondary data. The primary importance of data collection in any
research or business process is that it helps to determine many
important things about the company, particularly the performance.
So, the data collection process plays an important role in all the
streams. Depending on the type of data, the data collection
method is divided into two categories namely,
• Primary Data Collection methods
• Secondary Data Collection methods
In the following section, the different types of data collection

methods and their advantages and limitations are explained.
6.1.1 Primary Data Collection Methods
Primary data or raw data is a type of information that is obtained

directly from the first-hand source through experiments, surveys or
observations. The primary data collection method is further
classified into two types. They are
• Quantitative Data Collection Methods
• Qualitative Data Collection Methods
91
Let us discuss the different methods performed to collect the data
under these two data collection methods.
Quantitative Data Collection Methods
It is based on mathematical calculations using various formats like

close-ended questions, correlation and regression methods, mean,
median or mode measures. This method is cheaper than
qualitative data collection methods and it can be applied in a short
duration of time.
Qualitative Data Collection Methods
It does not involve any mathematical calculations. This method is

closely associated with elements that are not quantifiable. This
qualitative data collection method includes interviews,
questionnaires, observations, case studies, etc. There are several
methods to collect this type of data. They are
Observation Method
Observation method is used when the study relates to behavioural

science. This method is planned systematically. It is subject to
many controls and checks. The different types of observations are:
• Structured and unstructured observation
• Controlled and uncontrolled observation
• Participant, non-participant and disguised observation
Interview Method
The method of collecting data in terms of oral or verbal responses.

It is achieved in two ways, such as
• Personal Interview – In this method, a person known as an

interviewer is required to ask questions face to face to the other
person. The personal interview can be structured or
unstructured, direct investigation, focused conversation, etc.
• Telephonic Interview – In this method, an interviewer obtains

information by contacting people on the telephone to ask the
questions or views orally.
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Questionnaire Method
In this method, the set of questions are mailed to the respondent.

They should read, reply and subsequently return the
questionnaire. The questions are printed in the definite order on
the form. A good survey should have the following features:
• Short and simple
• Should follow a logical sequence
• Provide adequate space for answers
• Avoid technical terms
• Should have good physical appearance such as colour,

quality of the paper to attract the attention of the respondent
Schedules
This method is similar to the questionnaire method with a slight

difference. The enumerations are specially appointed for the
purpose of filling the schedules. It explains the aims and objects of
the investigation and may remove misunderstandings, if any have
come up. Enumerators should be trained to perform their job with
hard work and patience.
6.1.2 Secondary Data Collection Methods
Secondary data is data collected by someone other than the actual

user. It means that the information is already available, and
someone analyses it. The secondary data includes magazines,
newspapers, books, journals, etc. It may be either published data
or unpublished data. Published data are available in various
resources including
• Government publications
• Public records
• Historical and statistical documents
• Business documents
• Technical and trade journals
Unpublished data includes
• Diaries
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• Letters
• Unpublished biographies, etc.
The importance of data collection methods and how it can be
collected is explained above. However, the usual methods of data
collection methods are Interviews, through using questionnaires,
observation and survey methods. This will be discussed
elaborately in the following sections.
Dillman et al. (2014) have described and tested a tailored design

method for survey research. Improving the visual appeal and
graphics of surveys by using a font size appropriate for the
respondents, ordering items logically without creating unintended
response bias, and arranging items clearly on each page can
increase the response rate to electronic questionnaires. Attending
to these and other issues in electronic questionnaires can help
reduce measurement error (i.e., lack of validity or reliability) and
help ensure a better response rate.
Some authors advocate for using mixed methods for survey

research when no one method is adequate to address the planned
research aims, to reduce the potential for measurement and non-
response error, and to better tailor the study methods to the
intended sample (Dillman et al., 2014; Singleton & Straits, 2009).
For example, a mixed methods survey research approach may
begin with distributing a questionnaire and following up with
telephone interviews to clarify unclear survey responses (Singleton
& Straits, 2009). Mixed methods might also be used when visual or
auditory deficits preclude an individual from completing a
questionnaire or participating in an interview.
6.2 INTERVIEWS
Conducting interviews is another approach to data collection
used in survey research. Interviews may be conducted by phone,
computer, or in person and have the benefit of visually identifying
the nonverbal response(s) of the interviewee and subsequently
being able to clarify the intended question. An interviewer can use
probing comments to obtain more information about a question or
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topic and can request clarification of an unclear response
(Singleton & Straits, 2009). Interviews can be costly and time
intensive, and therefore are relatively impractical for large
samples.
Surveys are usually administered in the form of an interview, in

which questions are read to the respondent in person or over the
telephone. One advantage of in-person interviews is that they may
allow the researcher to develop a close rapport and sense of trust
with the respondent. This may motivate the respondent to continue
with the interview and may lead to more honest and open
responding. However, face-to-face interviews are extremely
expensive to conduct, and consequently telephone surveys are
now more common. In a telephone interview all of the interviewers
are located in one place, the telephone numbers are generated
automatically, and the questions are read from computer terminals
in front of the researchers. This procedure provides such efficiency
and coordination among the interviewers that many surveys can
be conducted in one day
6.2.1 Structured Interviews
Because researchers usually want more objective data, the
structured interview, which uses quantitative fixed-format items, is
most common. The questions are prepared ahead of time, and the
interviewer reads the questions to the respondent. The structured
interview has the advantage over an unstructured interview of
allowing better comparisons of the responses across different
individuals because the questions, time frame, and response
format are controlled to be the same for each respondent.
6.2.2 Unstructured Interviews
Interviews may use either free-format or fixed format self-report
measures. In an unstructured interview the interviewer talks freely
with the person being interviewed about many topics. Although a
general list of the topics of interest is prepared beforehand, the
actual interview focuses in on those topics that the respondent is
most interested in or most knowledgeable about. Because the
questions asked in an unstructured interview differ from
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respondent to respondent, the interviewer must be trained to ask
questions in a way that gets the most information from the
respondent and allows the respondent to express his or her true
feelings. One type of a face-to-face unstructured interview in which
a number of people are interviewed at the same time and share
ideas both with the interviewer and with each other is called a
focus group. Unstructured interviews may provide in-depth
information about the particular concerns of an individual or a
group of people, and thus, may produce ideas for future research
projects or for policy decisions. It is, however, very difficult to
adequately train interviewers to ask questions in an unbiased
manner and to be sure that they have actually done so.
6.3 QUESTIONNAIRES
A questionnaire is a set of fixed-format, self-report items that is
supervision. Questionnaires are generally cheaper than interviews
because a researcher can mail the questionnaires to many people
or have them complete the questionnaires in large groups.
Questionnaires may also produce more honest responses than
interviews, particularly when the questions involve sensitive issues
such as sexual activity or annual income, because respondents
are more likely to perceive their responses as being anonymous
than they are in interviews. In comparison to interviews,
questionnaires are also likely to be less influenced by the
characteristics of the experimenter. For instance, if the topic
concerns race-related attitudes, how the respondent answers
might depend on the race of the interviewer and how the
respondent thinks the interviewer wants him or her to respond.
Because the experimenter is not present when a questionnaire is
completed, or at least is not directly asking the questions, such
problems are less likely.
Questionnaires may be in paper form and mailed to participants,
delivered in an electronic format via email or an Internet-based
program such as Survey Monkey, or a combination of both, giving
the participant the option to choose which method is preferred
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(Ponto et al., 2010). Using a combination of methods of survey
administration can help to ensure better sample coverage (i.e., all
individuals in the population having a chance of inclusion in the
sample) therefore reducing coverage error (Dillman, Smyth, &
Christian, 2014; Singleton & Straits, 2009). For example, if a
researcher were to only use an Internet-delivered questionnaire,
individuals without access to a computer would be excluded from
participation. Self-administered mailed, group, or Internet-based
questionnaires are relatively low cost and practical for a large
sample (Check & Schutt, 2012).
6.4 OBSERVATION RESEARCH

Observational research involves making observations of behavior
and recording those observations in an objective manner. The
observational approach is the oldest method of conducting
research and is used routinely in psychology, anthropology,
sociology, and many other fields. In addition to deciding whether to
be a participant, the researcher must also decide whether to let the
people being observed know that the observation is occurring—
that is, to be acknowledged or unacknowledged to the population
being studied. Because the decision about whether to be
participant or nonparticipant can be independent of the decision to
be acknowledged or unacknowledged.
Watch what I do, not what I say, could be a good lead-in for
Observational Research. People in focus groups or in surveys may
say one thing such as, “I always buy green apples” but perhaps
when observed they buy the less costly apples, or the freshest
looking apples. Observational research allows the researcher to
see what their subjects really do when confronted with various
choices or situations.
The term refers to the study of non-experimental situations in

which behavior is observed and recorded. It could also be termed,
“what’s going on or what’s she doing.” The research is classified
as non-experimental because the variables are neither controlled
97
nor manipulated. The results are both qualitative and quantitative
in nature.
Different types of observational research
There are different types of observational research and they have

their strengths and weaknesses. The technique is used in
marketing and the social sciences. As stated earlier variables are
not created or manipulated. In natural observational research the
researcher is simply recording what they are seeing in front of
them. What their subjects are doing and how they are interacting.
This could be observing animals in the wild from behind blind,
shoppers in a grocery store, students in a classroom or soldiers on
the battlefield. Another type is participant observation where the
researcher is involved and interacting with the subjects by asking
questions (usually unstructured) taking notes, photographs,
drawings and other record-keeping tasks. Case studies and
archival research are two other forms of observational research.
Case studies usually involve a more in-depth study of an
individual, group or event and can be natural or participatory.
Archival is the observation of previous data that has been
collected and analyzed often for another purpose.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Observational Research
The strengths of the observational method in market research is

that it is less hypothetical since it captures what people are
purchasing as opposed to what they say they will do or have done.
It also allows the researchers to observe people’s behavior when
confronted with actual displays, price choices rather than predict
their behaviour based on survey or focus group answers. Some of
the weaknesses are human bias since the observer is a human
with their own bias. Also, one cannot know what the subject is
thinking, their mid-set or decision-making process. For example,
did they choose something because they were just in a hurry, did
they actually see that display, was cost not a factor because they
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are very wealthy. Desired demographics may be difficult to
achieve.
Qualitative and mixed methods software like QDA Miner and

a Text Mining Tool like WordStat can help organize and analyze
observational research. The software allows to merge many
observational studies on the same subject, code and quantify
those observations. WordStat’s text mining capabilities help to
explore large amounts of archival research.
6.5 SURVEY RESEARCH

Survey research may use a variety of data collection methods
with the most common being questionnaires and interviews.
Questionnaires may be self-administered or administered by a
professional, may be administered individually or in a group, and
typically include a series of items reflecting the research aims.
Questionnaires may include demographic questions in addition to
valid and reliable research instruments.
Survey research is defined as "the collection of information from a

sample of individuals through their responses to questions" (Check
& Schutt, 2012, p. 160). This type of research allows for a variety
of methods to recruit participants, collect data, and utilize various
methods of instrumentation. Survey research can use quantitative
research strategies (e.g., using questionnaires with numerically
rated items), qualitative research strategies (e.g., using open-
ended questions), or both strategies (i.e., mixed methods). As it is
often used to describe and explore human behavior, surveys are
therefore frequently used in social and psychological research
(Singleton & Straits, 2009).
A survey is a series of self-report measures administered either

through an interview or a written questionnaire. Surveys are the
most widely used method of collecting descriptive information
about a group of people. You may have received a phone call (it
usually arrives in the middle of the dinner hour when most people
are home) from a survey research group asking you about your
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taste in music, your shopping habits, or your political preferences.
The goal of a survey, as with all descriptive research, is to produce
a “snapshot” of the opinions, attitudes, or behaviors of a group of
people at a given time. Because surveys can be used to gather
information about a wide variety of information in a relatively short
time, they are used extensively by businesspeople, advertisers,
and politicians to help them learn what people think, feel, or do.
Information has been obtained from individuals and groups
through the use of survey research for decades. It can range from
asking a few targeted questions of individuals on a street corner to
obtain information related to behaviors and preferences, to a more
rigorous study using multiple valid and reliable instruments.
Common examples of less rigorous surveys include marketing or
political surveys of consumer patterns and public opinion polls.
Survey research has historically included large population-based

data collection. The primary purpose of this type of survey
research was to obtain information describing characteristics of a
large sample of individuals of interest relatively quickly. Large
census surveys obtaining information reflecting demographic and
personal characteristics and consumer feedback surveys are
prime examples. These surveys were often provided through the
mail and were intended to describe demographic characteristics of
individuals or obtain opinions on which to base programs or
products for a population or group.
More recently, survey research has developed into a rigorous

approach to research, with scientifically tested strategies detailing
who to include (representative sample), what and how to distribute
(survey method), and when to initiate the survey and follow up with
non-responders (reducing nonresponse error), in order to ensure a
high-quality research process and outcome. Currently, the term
"survey" can reflect a range of research aims, sampling and
recruitment strategies, data collection instruments, and methods of
survey administration.
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Given this range of options in the conduct of survey research, it is
imperative for the consumer/reader of survey research to
understand the potential for bias in survey research as well as the
tested techniques for reducing bias, in order to draw appropriate
conclusions about the information reported in this manner.
LET US SUM UP
The choice of which strategy to adopt must be mindful of the

purposes of the research, the time scales and constraints on the
research, the methods of data collection, and the methodology of
the research. In the above section, the different types of data
collection methods namely Primary Data Collection and Secondary
Data Collection methods as well as their advantages and
limitations are explained. Data collection can be done by survey
and observational methods. Observational research allows the
researcher to see what their subjects really do when confronted
with various choices or situations. Survey method involves the
collection of information from a sample of individuals through their
responses to questions.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. allows the researcher to see what their subjects
really do when confronted with various choices or situations.
2. A is a set of fixed-format, self-report items that is
supervision.
3. A is a series of self-report measures administered
either through an interview or a written questionnaire.

1. Observational research
2. Questionnaire
3. Survey
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GLOSSARY
Observational research - Observational research is a qualitative
research method where the target respondent/subject is observed
and analyzed in their natural/real-world setting.
Structured Interviews - Structured interview is the one involving a
fixed set of predetermined questions
Survey Research - "the collection of information from a sample of
individuals through their responses to questions"
Unstructured Interviews - Unstructured interview is the one
where the interviewer initiates casual conversation with the
candidate. There is no pattern or fixed format set in advance that
allows the interviewer to indulge in informal discussion mixed with
interview questions.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Explain various methods of data collection
2. What is a self-report measure?
3. How to determine sample size?
4. State the difference between Structured and unstructured
interview
SUGGESTED READINGS
• S.J. Grove, R.P. Fisk-Journal of Academy Marketing

Science 1992. Observation data collection methods for
services marketing. An overview
• Price, R. Jhangiani, I. Chant, A. Chiang, D.C. Leighton,
C. Cutlet Research methods in Psychology. 2017.
Chapter 6.5 Observational research
• https://provalisresearch.com/blog/observational-
research/
/
• https://byjus.com/maths/data-collection-methods/
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BLOCK III: RESEARCH DESIGNS
UNIT 7: EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
UNIT8: NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
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UNIT- 7
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Principles Underlying Experimental Design
7.3 Independent Group’s Designs
7.3.1 Completely Randomized Research Design
7.3.2 Randomized bock design
7.3.4 Randomized factorial Design
7.4 Dependent group’s Designs
7.4.1 Within Participant Research Design
7.4.2 Matched Group Designs
7.4.3 Mixed Designs
7.4.4 Single participant subject research design
7.4.5 Baseline Designs
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Key Words
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
Research designs are plans and the procedures for research that span
the decisions from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data
collection and analysis. This plan involves several decisions, and they
need not be taken in the order in which they make sense to me and the
order of their presentation here. The overall decision involves which
design should be used to study a topic. There are two broad category of
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research designs i.e. Experimental and non- experimental research
designs. This unit deals with experimental research designs
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you will be able to
Understand the underlying the nature of experimental research design
Describe the various types of experimental research designs
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Three types of designs are advanced: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed

methods. Unquestionably, the three approaches are not as discrete as
they first appear. Qualitative and quantitative approaches should not be
viewed as polar opposites or dichotomies; instead, they represent
different ends on a continuum (Newman &Benz, 1998). A study tends to
be more qualitative than quantitative or vice versa. Mixed methods
research resides in the middle of this continuum because it incorporates
elements of both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Often the
distinction between qualitative and quantitative research is framed in
terms of using words (qualitative) rather than numbers (quantitative), or
using closed-ended questions (quantitative hypotheses) rather than open-
ended questions (qualitative interview questions).
The other method of categorizing the research design is dividing it as

experimental and non-experimental research design. In an experiment,
investigators may also identify a sample and generalize to a population;
however, the basic intent of an experimental design is to test the impact
of a treatment (or an intervention) on an outcome, controlling for all other
factors that might influence that outcome. Assigning participants randomly
to the groups. When individuals can be randomly assigned to groups, the
procedure is called a true experiment.
In many experiments, however, only a convenience sample is possible
because the investigator must use naturally formed groups (e.g., a
classroom, an organization, and a family unit) or volunteers. When
individuals are not randomly assigned, the procedure is called a quasi-
experiment.
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Non-experimental design is research that lacks the manipulation
of an independent variable. Rather than manipulating an
independent variable, researchers conducting non-experimental
research simply measure variables as they naturally occur (in the
lab or real world).Non-experimental research is usually descriptive
or correlational, which means that you are either describing a
situation or phenomenon simply as it stands, or you are describing
a relationship between two or more variables, all without any
interference from the researcher. This means that you do not
manipulate any variables (e.g., change the conditions that an
experimental group undergoes) or randomly assign participants to
a control or treatment group.
7.2 PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental

designs: (1) the Principle of Replication; (2) the Principle of
Randomization; and the (3) Principle of Local Control.
1) According to the Principle of Replication, the experiment

should be repeated more than once. Thus, each treatment is
applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing so
the statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased. For
example, suppose we are to examine the effect of two varieties
of rice. For this purpose we may divide the field into two parts
and grow one variety in one part and the other variety in the
other part. We can then compare the yield of the two parts and
draw conclusion on that basis. But if we are to apply the
principle of replication to this experiment, then we first divide
the field into several parts, grow one variety in half of these
parts and the other variety in the remaining parts. We can then
collect the data of yield of the two varieties and draw
conclusion by comparing the same. The result so obtained will
be more reliable in comparison to the conclusion we draw
without applying the principle of replication. The entire
experiment can even be repeated several times for better
results.
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2) Principle of Randomization provides protection, when we
conduct an experiment, against the effect of extraneous factors
by randomization. In other words, this principle indicates that
we should design or plan the experiment in such a way that the
variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined
under the general heading of “chance.” For instance, if we
grow one variety of rice, say, in the first half of the parts of a
field and the other variety is grown in the other half, then it is
just possible that the soil fertility may be different in the first
half in comparison to the other half. If this is so, our results
would not be realistic. In such a situation, we may assign the
variety of rice to be grown in different parts of the field on the
basis of some random sampling technique i.e., we may apply
randomization principle and protect ourselves against the
effects of the extraneous factors (soil fertility differences in the
given case).
3) According to the principle of local control, we first divide the
field into several homogeneous parts, known as blocks, and
then each such block is divided into parts equal to the number
of treatments. Then the treatments are randomly assigned to
these parts of a block. Dividing the field into several
homogenous parts is known as ‘blocking’. In brief, through the
principle of local control we can eliminate the variability due to
extraneous factor(s) from the experimental error.
7. 3 INDEPENDENT GROUPS DESIGNS
7.3.1 Completely Randomized Research Design
Because it is generally extremely difficult for experimenters to

eliminate bias using only their expert judgment, the use
of randomization in experiments is common practice. In a
randomized experimental design, objects or individuals are
randomly assigned (by chance) to an experimental group. Using
randomization is the most reliable method of creating
homogeneous treatment groups, without involving any potential
biases or judgments.
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Completely randomized design (C.R. design) Involves only two
principles viz., the principle of replication and the principle of
randomization of experimental designs. It is the simplest possible
design and its procedure of analysis is also easier. The essential
characteristic of the design is that subjects are randomly assigned
to experimental treatments (or vice-versa). For instance, if we
have 10 subjects and if we wish to test 5 under treatment A and 5
under treatment B, the randomization process gives every possible
group of 5 subjects selected from a set of 10 an equal opportunity
of being assigned to treatment A and treatment B.
7.3.2 Randomized block design (R.B. design) is an

improvement over the C.R. design. In the R.B. design the principle
of local control can be applied along with the other two principles
of experimental designs. In the R.B. design, subjects are first
divided into groups, known as blocks, such that within each group
the subjects are relatively homogeneous in respect to some
selected variable. The variable selected for grouping the subjects
is one that is believed to be related to the measures to be obtained
in respect of the dependent variable. The number of subjects in a
given block would be equal to the number of treatments and one
subject in each block would be randomly assigned to each
treatment. In general, blocks are the levels at which we hold the
extraneous factor fixed, so that its contribution to the total
variability of data can be measured. The main feature of the R.B.
design is that in this each treatment appears the same number of
times in each block. The R.B. design is analyzed by the two-way
analysis of variance (two-way ANOVA)* technique.
Let us illustrate the R.B. design with the help of an example.

Suppose four different forms of a standardized test in statistics
were given to each of five students (selected one from each of the
five I.Q. blocks) and following are the scores which they obtained.
Very low low IQ Average High IQ Very

IQ IQ high IQ
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Form 1 Student A Student Student C Student Student
B D
Form 2 82 67 57 71 73
Form 3 90 68 54 70 81
Form 4 86 73 51 69 84
93 77 60 65 71
7.3.4 Randomized Factorial Group Designs
Factorial designs: Factorial designs are used in experiments where

the effects of varying more than one factor are to be determined.
They are especially important in several economic and social
phenomena where usually a large number of factors affect a
particular problem. Factorial designs can be of two types: (i) simple
factorial designs and (ii) complex factorial designs. We take them
separately (i) Simple factorial designs: In case of simple factorial
designs, we consider the effects of varying two factors on the
dependent variable, but when an experiment is done with more than
two factors, we use complex factorial designs. Simple factorial
design is also termed as a ‘two-factor-factorial design’, whereas
complex factorial design is known as ‘multifactor-factorial design.’
i) Simple factorial design may either be a 2 × 2 simple factorial

design, or it may be, say, 3 × 4 or 5 × 3 or the of simple factorial
design. We illustrate some simple factorial designs as under like type
A 2×2 factorial design is a type of experimental design that

allows researchers to understand the effects of two independent
variables (each with two levels) on a single dependent variable.
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For example, suppose a botanist wants to understand the effects
of sunlight (low vs. high) and watering frequency (daily vs. weekly)
on the growth of a certain species of plant. This is an example of a
2×2 factorial design because there are two independent
variables, each with two levels:
Independent variable #1: Sunlight

Levels: Low, High
Independent variable #2: Watering Frequency
Levels: Daily, Weekly
ii) Complex factorial designs: Experiments with more than two

factors at a time involve the use of complex factorial designs. A
design which considers three or more independent variables
simultaneously is called a complex factorial design. In case of
three factors with one experimental variable having two treatments
and two control variables, each one of which having two levels, the
design used will be termed 2 × 2 × 2 complex factorial design
which will contain a total of eight cells as shown below in Fig. 3.13
Plant With fertilizers Plant Withou

fertilizers
Watering frequency
Sunlight
Daily Weekly Daily Weekly
Low Plant growth Plant Plant Plant

growth growth growth
High Plant growth Plant Plant Plant
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growth growth growth
7.4 DEPENDENTGROUP’S DESIGNS
7.4.1 within Participant Research Design
Within-participant research designs are frequently used within the

field of behavior analysis to document changes in behavior before,
during, and after treatment. In a study conducted to find out the
neuro cognitive disorders (NCD) with older adults within
participant’s research design was used. This design is especially
used to provide valid information about whether the changes that
are observed in the dependent variable are caused by
manipulations of the independent variable, or whether the change
may be due to other variables.
An example of within-participant design study is a study where the

goal was to retrain activities of daily living (such as making a tea or
coffee, using a CD player, or changing batteries in a remote
control) in 14 NCD patients (mini–mental state examination
ranging from 10 to 26). There were three types of training
conditions in the study: errorless learning, modeling, and trial and
error. Each condition lasted for 1 week, and the three conditions
were counterbalanced for each participant during the 3-week
period. The results from the study were taken together to form
averages across participants, and showed that the errorless
learning condition and the modeling condition had the greatest
effect for the participants
7.4.2 Matched Group Designs
Matched group design (also known as matched subjects design) is

used in experimental research for different experimental
conditions, to be observed while being able to control for the
individual difference by matching similar subjects or groups with
each other.
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Example:
A researcher wants to know which educational method is best for
teaching students a new concept.
A group of students is split into two different groups. The
researchers would look at standardized test scores and grades
and try to match each student with another student that has the
same test scores and grades. So, a student with a test score of 95
who made as would be in Group A while another student with the
same scores would be placed in Group B. This process would be
done for all the students in the experiment.
Then the experimenters would use one educational method on

Group A and another method on Group B. They could then see
how the different methods influenced the students' learning of the
concept. By using matched groups method, the researchers can
see how the different conditions were influential and know that the
results were not confounded by the students' individual differences
because they had been evenly distributed across the two groups.
Individual differences can confound experimental results, so by

controlling this, researchers can be more confident in the results of
the different conditions.
7.4.3 Mixed Designs
Mixed methods research is the type of research in which

a researcher or team of researchers combines elements of
qualitative and quantitative research approaches (e. g., use of
qualitative and quantitative viewpoints, data collection, analysis,
inference techniques) for the broad purposes of breadth and depth
of understanding and corroboration.
Types of Mixed Design Research

The four major types of mixed methods designs are:
i) The Triangulation Design
The most common and well-known approach to mixing methods is
the
Triangulation Design (Creswell, Plano Clark, et al., 2003). The
purpose of this design is “to obtain different but complementary
112
data on the same topic” (Morse, 1991, p. 122) to best understand
the research problem. The intent in using this design is to bring
together the differing strengths and non-overlapping weaknesses
of quantitative methods (large sample size, trends, generalization)
with those of qualitative methods (small, details, in-depth) (Patton,
1990). For Example, this design is used when a researcher
wants to directly compare and contrast quantitative statistical
results with qualitative findings or to validate or expand
quantitative results with qualitative data.
ii) The Embedded Design
The Embedded Design is a mixed-methods design in which one
data set
provides a supportive, secondary role in a study based primarily
on the other data type (Creswell, Plano Clark, et al., 2003). The
premises of this design are that a single data set is not sufficient,
that different questions need to be answered, and that each type
of question requires different types of data. For Example, this
design is particularly useful when a researcher needs to embed a
qualitative component within a quantitative design, as in the case
of an experimental or correlational design. In the experimental
example, the investigator includes qualitative data for several
reasons, such as to develop a treatment, to examine the process
of an intervention or the mechanisms that relate variables, or to
follow up on the results of an experiment
iii) The Explanatory Design
Explanatory Design (also known as the Explanatory Sequential

Design) is a two-phase mixed methods design .This design starts
with the collection and analysis of quantitative data. This first
phase is followed by the subsequent collection and analysis of
qualitative data. The second, qualitative phase of the study is
designed so that it follows from (or connects to) the results of the
first quantitative phase. Because this design begins quantitatively,
investigators typically place greater emphasis on the quantitative
methods than the qualitative methods.
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iv) The Exploratory Design
Like the Explanatory Design, the Exploratory Design is also a two-

phase approach, and writers refer to it as the Exploratory
Sequential Design (Creswell, Plano Clark, et al., 2003). This
design starts with qualitative data, to explore a phenomenon, and
then builds to a second, quantitative phase (see Figure 4.4a).
Researchers using this design build on the results of the
qualitative phase by developing an instrument, identifying
variables, or stating propositions for testing based on an emergent
theory or framework. These developments connect the initial
qualitative phase to the subsequent quantitative component of the
study. Because the design begins qualitatively, a greater emphasis
is often placed on the qualitative data. They first explore the topic
qualitatively and develop themes from their qualitative data. They
then develop an instrument based on these results and
subsequently use this instrument in the second, quantitative phase
of the study.
7.4.4 Single participant subject research design
Single subject designs are thought to be a direct result of the

research of B.F. Skinner who applied the techniques of operant
conditioning to subjects and measured the outcomes at various
points in time. Because of this, single subject designs are often
considered the design of choice when measuring behavioural
change or when performing behavioural modification. Rather than
comparing groups of subjects, this design relies on the comparison
of treatment effects on a single subject or group of single subjects.
Single subject designs are often used in clinical settings to answer

questions such as:
Does the noise level affect head banging in a child with autism?
Does therapist self-disclosure increase client self-disclosure?
Will praising the dog when he fetches the newspaper

increase fetching behavior?
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Does teacher eye contact (or proximity, or threats of
punishment...) decrease disruptive behavior of a problem student?
i) A-B-A Single-Subject Design
The most basic single-subject research design is the reversal

design, also called the ABA design. During the first phase, A, a
baseline is established for the dependent variable. This is the level
of responding before any treatment is introduced, and therefore
the baseline phase is a kind of control condition. When steady
state responding is reached, phase B begins as the researcher
introduces the treatment. There may be a period of adjustment to
the treatment during which the behavior of interest becomes more
variable and begins to increase or decrease. Again, the researcher
waits until that dependent variable reaches a steady state so that it
is clear whether and how much it has changed. Finally, the
researcher removes the treatment and again waits until the
dependent variable reaches a steady state. This basic reversal
design can also be extended with the reintroduction of the
treatment (ABAB), another return to baseline (ABABA), and so on.
ii) multiple-treatment reversal design
In a multiple-treatment reversal design, a baseline phase is

followed by separate phases in which different treatments are
introduced. For example, a researcher might establish a baseline
of studying behavior for a disruptive student (A), then introduce a
treatment involving positive attention from the teacher (B), and
then switch to a treatment involving mild punishment for not
studying (C). The participant could then be returned to a baseline
phase before reintroducing each treatment—perhaps in the
reverse order as a way of controlling for carryover effects. This
particular multiple-treatment reversal design could also be referred
to as an ABCACB design.
iii) alternating treatments design
In an alternating treatments design, two or more treatments are

alternated relatively quickly on a regular schedule. For example,
115
positive attention for studying could be used one day and mild
punishment for not studying the next, and so on. Or one treatment
could be implemented in the morning and another in the afternoon.
The alternating treatments design can be a quick and effective
way of comparing treatments, but only when the treatments are
fast acting.
7.4. 5 Baseline Designs

An experimental approach in which two or more behaviors are
assessed to determine their initial, stable expression (i.e.,
baseline) and then an intervention or manipulation is applied to
one of the behaviors while the others are unaffected.
After a period, the manipulation is then applied to the next

behavior while the remaining behaviors are unaltered, and so forth
until the experimental manipulation has been applied in sequential
fashion to all of the behaviors in the design. In successively
administering a manipulation to different behaviors after initial
behaviors have been recorded, a multiple baseline design allows
for inferences about the effect of the intervention.
There are 3 primary ways multiple baseline designs are

implemented. For the multiple-baseline-across-behaviors design,
multiple behaviors of the same individual are studied. In the
settings design, an individual’s behavior is studied across multiple
settings and situations. Lastly, in the multiple-baseline-across-
subjects design, the same behavior is studied for multiple
individuals.
This design has many advantages. Besides not requiring

withdrawal of the intervention, it is fairly easy to conceptualize and
is commonly accepted in applied settings by parents and teachers.
This design does requires more time and resources to implement
because treatment needs to be withheld during the extended
baselines of the second and third legs in order to determine if its
effects are due to the intervention or simply due to the passage of
time. For instance, three participants with a learning disability may
be given an identical treatment at different times. This design
116
would test whether the treatment improved school performance or
whether the student was struggling with the current material but
improved naturally as the school year progressed.
LET US SUM UP
The present unit explained the basic principles used in

experimental research design and various other types of research
design including Independent groups designs and dependent
group design.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of
as (1) the Principle of Replication; (2) the Principle
of Randomization; and the (3) Principle of Local Control.
2. Simple factorial research design
3. The group which received treatment is called
4. are frequently used within the field of behavior
analysis to document changes in behavior before, during, and
after treatment.
5. The is analyzed by the two-way analysis of variance
(two-way ANOVA)* technique

1. experimental designs
2. 2 x2
3. Experimental group
4. Within-participant research designs
5. Randomized Block design
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Explain the principles of experimental research design.

2. Explain matched group research design.
3. Explain randomized research design
4. Describe factorial research design with examples.
5. Explain single subject research design.
117
GLOSSARY
A baseline study - an analysis of the current situation to identify the

starting points for a Research programme or project.
A single-subject design or N of 1 design - involves observing the

behaviour of a single individual (or a small number of individuals) over
time.
Completely randomized design - objects or subjects are assigned to

groups completely at random.
Factorial design – Factorial designs are a form of true experiment, where

multiple factors (the researcher-controlled independent variables) are
manipulated or allowed to vary
Mixed Designs – A study that combines features of both a between-

subjects design and a within-subjects design.
Non-experimental research - Non experimental research is research

that lacks the manipulation of an independent variable, random
assignment of participants to conditions or orders of conditions, or both.
Quasi-experiment - A quasi-experiment is an empirical interventional

study used to estimate the causal impact of an intervention on target
population without random assignment.
True experiment - An experimental research design that uses

manipulation of independent variable and random distribution of
participants into groups in a controlled environment to derive cause and
effect relationships through a statistical analysis.
SUGGESTED READINGS
• Research Methodology C R Kothari (Eng) 1.81 MB.pdf

• https://www.statology.org/2x2-factorial-design/
• https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Matched+
Group+Design
• https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Matched+
Group+Design
o https://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-
binaries/10982_Chapter_4.pdf
118
• https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/10-2-single-
subject-research-designs/
• https://webcourses.ucf.edu/courses/950845/pages/single-
subject-research-designs
• https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/en/web/products-statistical-
working-papers/-/ks-ra-09-003
• https://qcpages.qc.cuny.edu/~dfienup/multiplebaselineinfo.
html
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UNIT – 8
NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
8.1 Quasi Experimental Research Designs
8.1.1 .Non equivalent group
8.2 Ex-Post Facto Research Design
8.3 Time Series Design
8.4 Longitudinal Research Design
8.5 Cross Sectional Research Design
8.5.1 Difference between cross sectional and longitudinal study
8.6 Case Study
8.7 Correlational Research
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Key Words
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
The essential feature of experimental research is that investigators

deliberately control and manipulate the conditions which determine the
events in which they are interested. At its simplest, an experiment
involves making a change in the value of one variable—called the
independent variable—and observing the effect of that change on another
variable—called the dependent variable. Since it is impossible to do all
the research as true experimental design, researchers do non-
experimental designs such a s quasi experimental Expost-facto,
120
correlation etc., in this present unit let us look into non-experimental
research designs.
OBJECTIVES
• After reading this unit you will be able to:
• List out the various types of non-experimental research
designs
• Explain the Quasi Experimental Research Designs
• Discuss about the Ex-Post Facto Research Design
• Describe the Time Series Design
• Highlight the role of Longitudinal Research Design
• Explain the Cross Sectional Research Design
• Explain about the Case Study
• Discuss the Correlational Research
Non-experimental research is usually descriptive or correlational, which
means that you are either describing a situation or phenomenon simply as
it stands, or you are describing a relationship between two or more
variables, all without any interference from the researcher. This type of
research is used when the researcher has no specific research question
about a causal relationship between 2 different variables, and
manipulation of the independent variable is impossible. They are also
used when:
• subjects cannot be randomly assigned to conditions.

• the research subject is about a causal relationship but
the independent variable cannot be manipulated.
• the research is broad and exploratory
• the research pertains to a non-causal relationship
between variables.
• limited information can be accessed about the research
subject.
8.1 QUASI EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
Often in behavioural research, it is simply not possible for investigators to

undertake true experiments. Like a true experiment, a quasi-experimental
design aims to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between an
independent and dependent variable. However, unlike a true experiment,
a quasi-experiment does not rely on random assignment. Instead,
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subjects are assigned to groups based on non-random criteria. Quasi-
experimental design is a useful tool in situations where true experiments
cannot be used for ethical or practical reasons.
Example: Quasi-experimental design
You discover that a few of the psychotherapists in the clinic have decided
to try out the new therapy, while others who treat similar patients have
chosen to stick with the normal protocol.
You can use these pre-existing groups to study the symptom progression
of the patients treated with the new therapy versus those receiving the
standard course of treatment. Although the groups were not randomly
assigned, if you properly account for any systematic differences between
them, you can be reasonably confident any differences must arise from
the treatment and not other confounding variables.
8.1.1 .Non equivalent group
The Non-Equivalent Groups Design (NEGD) is probably the most

frequently used design in social research. It is structured like a pretest-
posttest randomized experiment. In the NEGD, It most often uses intact
groups that are similar as the treatment and control groups. In education,
we might pick two comparable classrooms or schools. In community-
based research, we might use two similar communities. We try to select
groups that are as similar as possible so we can fairly compare the
treated one with the comparison one. But we can never be sure the
groups are comparable. Or, put another way, it’s unlikely that the two
groups would be as similar as they would if we assigned them through a
random lottery. Because it’s often likely that the groups are not equivalent,
this designed was named the nonequivalent groups design to remind us.
In psychology and other social sciences, these designs often involve self-
selection, in which the members of the treatment group are those who
volunteer or otherwise seek the treatment whereas the comparison group
members do not. Since participants are not assigned to conditions at
random, the two groups are likely to exhibit preexisting differences on
both measured and unmeasured factors that must be taken into account
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during statistical analyses. Also called nonequivalent comparison-group
design; nonequivalent control-group design.
Some of the Nonequivalent Group Designs

• Posttest Only Nonequivalent Groups Design
• Pretest-Posttest Nonequivalent Groups Design
• Interrupted Time-Series Design with Nonequivalent Groups
• Pretest-Posttest Design With Switching Replication
• Switching Replication with Treatment Removal Design
8.2 EX-POST FACTO RESEARCH DESIGN
When translated literally, ex post facto means ‘from what is done

afterwards’. In the context of social research the phrase means ‘after the
fact’ or ‘retrospectively’ and refers to those studies which investigate
possible cause-and-effect relationships by observing an existing condition
or state of affairs and searching back in time for plausible causal factors.
In effect, researchers ask themselves what factors seem to be associated
with certain occurrences, or conditions, or aspects of behaviour. Ex post
facto research, then, is a method of teasing out possible antecedents of
events that have happened and cannot, therefore, be engineered or
manipulated by the researcher.
Kerlinger (1970) has defined ex post facto research more formally as that
in which the independent variable or variables have already occurred and
in which the researcher starts with the observation of a dependent
variable or variables. Spector (1993:42) suggests that ex post facto
research is a procedure that is intended to transform a non-experimental
research design into a pseudo-experimental.
Ex post facto designs are appropriate in circumstances where the more

powerful experimental method is not possible. These would arise when,
for example, it is not possible to select, control and manipulate the factors
necessary to study cause-and-effect relationships directly; or when the
control of all variables except a single independent variable may be
unrealistic and artificial, preventing the normal interaction with other
influential variables; or when laboratory controls for many research
purposes would be impractical, costly or ethically undesirable.
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Examples of the method are plenty in these areas: the research on
cigarette smoking and lung cancer, for instance; or studies of teacher
characteristics; or studies examining the relationship between political and
religious affiliation and attitudes; or investigations into the relationship
between school achievement and independent variables such as social
class, race, sex and intelligence.
8.3 TIME SERIES DESIGN
Time series design is an experimental design that involves the

observation of units (e.g., people, countries) over a defined time period.
Data collected from such designs may be evaluated with time-series
analysis. Time series designs are a subcategory of longitudinal research
designs which feature analyses on “large series of observations made on
the same variable consecutively over time”. While time series designs
could explore repeated observations from the same unit of analysis, such
as an individual's pattern of offending at each year across the life course,
these studies are impractical in criminology because of obvious
challenges in data collection. Interrupted time series are a unique version
of the traditional quasi-experimental research design for program
evaluation. A major threat to internal validity for interrupted time series
designs is history or “the possibility that forces other than the treatment
under investigation influenced the dependent variable at the same time at
which the intervention was introduced”.
Types of Times Series Design

There are three categories of time series designs:
• Descriptive
• Correlational,
• Interrupted time series designs.
8.4 LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH DESIGN
The term ‘longitudinal’ is used to describe a variety of studies that are

conducted over a period of time. Often, as we have seen, the word
‘developmental’ is employed in connection with longitudinal studies that
deal specifically with aspects of human growth. A clear distinction is
drawn between longitudinal and cross-sectional studies. The longitudinal
study gathers data over an extended period of time; a short-term
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investigation may take several weeks or months; a long-term study can
extend over many years. Where successive measures are taken at
different points in time from the same respondents, the term ‘follow-up
study’ or ‘cohort study’ is used in the British literature, the equivalent term
in the United States being the ‘panel study’ Where different respondents
are studied at different points in time, the study is called ‘cross-sectional’.
Where a few selected factors are studied continuously over time, the term
‘trend study’ is employed.
8.5 CROSS SECTIONAL RESEARCH DESIGN
A cross-sectional study is one that produces a ‘snapshot’ of a population

at a particular point in time. More typically in developmental psychology,
cross-sectional studies involve indirect measures of the nature and rate of
changes in the physical and intellectual development of samples of
children drawn from representative age levels. Typical example of
longitudinal study is investigating the physical growth of the child from
birth up to adolescence. Cross-sectional studies aim to describe a
variable, not measure it. They can be beneficial for describing a
population, or “taking a snapshot” of a group of individuals, at a single
moment in time.
In epidemiology and public health research, cross-sectional studies are

used to assess exposure (cause) and a disease (effect) and compare the
rates of diseases and symptoms of an exposed group with an unexposed
group. Cross-sectional studies are also unique because researchers are
able to look at numerous characteristics at once. For example, a cross-
sectional study could be used to investigate whether exposure to certain
factors, such as overeating, might correlate to particular outcomes, such
as obesity. While this study cannot prove that overeating caused obesity,
it can draw attention to a relationship that might be worth investigating.
125
Advantages
Simple and Inexpensive
These studies are quick, cheap, and easy to conduct as they do

not require any follow-up with subjects and can be done through
self-report surveys.
Minimal room for error
Because all of the variables are analyzed at once and data does
not need to be collected multiple times, there will likely be fewer
mistakes as a higher level of control is obtained.
Multiple variables and outcomes can be researched and compared

at once Researchers are able to look at numerous characteristics
(ie: age, gender, ethnicity, education level) in one study.
The data can be a starting point for future research
The information obtained from cross-sectional studies enables

researchers to conduct further data analyses to explore any causal
relationships in more depth.
Limitations
Does not help determine cause and effect
Cross-sectional studies can be influenced by antecedent

consequent bias which occurs when it cannot be determined
whether exposure preceded disease. (Alexander et al.)
Report bias is probable
Cross-sectional studies rely on surveys and questionnaires which

might not result in accurate reporting as there is no way to verify
the information presented.
Timing of the snapshot is not always representative
Cross-sectional studies do not provide information from before or

after the report was recorded and only offer a single snapshot of a
point in time.
Cannot be used to analyze behavior over a period to time
126
Cross-sectional studies are designed to look at a variable at a
particular moment, while longitudinal studies are more beneficial
for analyzing relationships over extended periods.
Examples
• Comparing grades of elementary school students whose

parents come from different income levels
• Determining the association between gender and HIV
status (Setia, 2016)
• Investigating suicide rates among individuals who have at
least one parent with chronic depression
8.5.1 Difference between cross sectional and longitudinal

study
Cross-sectional study Longitudinal study

Cross-sectional studies are
Longitudinal studies may vary
quick to conduct as
from a few years to even
compared to longitudinal
decades.
studies.
A longitudinal study requires a
A cross-sectional study is
researcher to revisit
conducted at a given point in
participants of the study at
time.
proper intervals.
Cross-sectional study is Longitudinal study is
conducted with different conducted with the same
samples. sample over the years.
Cross-sectional studies
Longitudinal study can justify
cannot pin down cause-and-
cause-and-effect relationship.
effect relationship.
Multiple variables can be Only one variable is
studied at a single point in considered to conduct the
time. study.
Since the study goes on for
Cross-sectional study is
years longitudinal study tends
comparatively cheaper.
to get expensive.
8.6 CASE STUDY

A case study is a specific instance that is frequently designed to
illustrate a more general principle (Nisbet and Watt, 1984:72), it is
‘the study of an instance in action’ (Adelman et al., 1980). Case
studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event
127
or community. Typically, data are gathered from a variety of
sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations
& interviews).
The case study research method originated in clinical medicine

(the case history, i.e. the patient’s personal history). In psychology,
case studies are often confined to the study of a particular
individual. The information is mainly biographical and relates to
events in the individual's past (i.e. retrospective), as well as to
significant events which are currently occurring in his or her
everyday life.
Unlike the experimenter who manipulates variables to determine

their causal significance or the surveyor who asks standardized
questions of large, representative samples of individuals, the case
study researcher typically observes the characteristics of an
individual unit—a child, a clique, a class, a school or a community.
The purpose of such observation is to probe deeply and to analyse
intensively the multifarious phenomena that constitute the life cycle
of the unit with a view to establishing generalizations about the
wider population to which that unit belongs.
There are two principal kinds of observation in case study—

participant observation and non-participant observation. In the
former, observers engage in the very activities they set out to
observe. Non-participant observers, on the other hand, stand aloof
from the group activities they are investigating and avoid group
membership.
Case studies are widely used in psychology and amongst the best
known were the ones carried out by Sigmund Freud, including
Anna O and Little Hans. Freud (1909a, 1909b) conducted very
detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an
attempt to both understand and help them overcome their
illnesses. Even today case histories are one of the main methods
of investigation in abnormal psychology and psychiatry. The data
collected can be analyzed using different theories (e.g. grounded
128
theory, interpretative phenomenological analysis, text
interpretation, e.g. thematic coding).
Limitations of Case Studies
• Lacking scientific rigour and providing little basis for

generalization of results to the wider population.
• Researchers' own subjective feeling may influence the case
study (researcher bias).
• Difficult to replicate.
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in
place, impacted on the depth of analysis that was possible
within the available resources.
8.7 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
Human behaviour at both the individual and social level is

characterized by great complexity, a complexity about which we
understand comparatively little, given the present state of social
research. One approach to a fuller understanding of human
behaviour is to begin by teasing out simple relationships between
those factors and elements deemed to have some bearing on the
phenomena in question. The value of correlational research is that
it is able to achieve this end.
Correlational research is a type of non-experimental research in

which the researcher measures two variables and assesses the
statistical relationship (i.e., the correlation) between them with little
or no effort to control extraneous variables.
Correlational techniques are generally intended to answer three

questions about two variables or two sets of data. First, ‘Is there a
relationship between the two variables (or sets of data)?’ If the
answer to this question is ‘yes’, then two other questions follow:
‘What is the direction of the relationship?’ and ‘What is the
magnitude?’
Correlation refers to the relationship between two variables. For

example if the researcher wants to find out the relationship
between motivation and achievement then it is correlation study.
129
Another reason that researchers would choose to use a
correlational study rather than an experiment is that the statistical
relationship of interest is thought to be causal, but the researcher
cannot manipulate the independent variable because it is
impossible, impractical, or unethical. For example, while I might be
interested in the relationship between the frequency people use
cannabis and their memory abilities I cannot ethically manipulate
the frequency that people use cannabis. As such, I must rely on
the correlational research strategy; I must simply measure the
frequency that people use cannabis and measure their memory
abilities using a standardized test of memory and then determine
whether the frequency people use cannabis use is statistically
related to memory test performance.
LET US SUM UP
The present unit explained the various types of non-experimental

research design. Non-experimental research design is employed
where manipulation of independent variables is not possible, and
the condition or variable is already been exposed to the
participants. When researcher intended to find out the relationship
between two variables correlation study is used. Typically
longitudinal and cross sectional research design is used in
developmental psychology.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Say true or false
1. Independent variables is manipulated in non-experimental

research design
2. Studying an attribute over a period of time is longitudinal study
3. Comparing the Indian students with American students on
study skills is an example for cross sectional
4. Finding the difference between boys and girls on emotional
intelligence is correlation study
5. Relationship between stress and coping is ex-post facto study
6. Randomization is not done in non-equivalent group
7. Graph is used in single subject design
130
8. Exposing the participants to all different condition is Solomon
four group designs.
1. False
2. True
3. True
4. False
5. True
6. True
7. True
8. False
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Explain when a research is called non-experimental?

2. Explain with example Ex-post facto research design
3. Describe various types of non-equivalent group research
designs.
4. Explain various types of time series research study.
5. Differentiate between longitudinal and cross sectional
research design.
6. Define correlation
GLOSSARY
Case study – A case study is an in-depth study of one person,

group, or event.
Correlation Study: refers to the relationship between two
variables.
Cross-sectional study: A cross-sectional study is one that
produces a ‘snapshot’ of a population at a particular point in time.
Ex-post facto research design: refers to those studies which
investigate possible cause-and-effect relationships by observing
an existing condition or state of affairs and searching back in time
for plausible causal factors.
131
SUGGESTED READINGS
https://www.simplypsychology.org/what-is-a-cross-sectional-
study.htm
• https://www.statisticssolutions.com/research-designs-non-
experimental-vs-experimental/
• ttps://www.formpl.us/blog/experimental-non-experimental-
research
• https://dictionary.apa.org/time-series-design
• https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781119111
931.ch69
• https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/quasi-experimental-
design/
• https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093
/oso/9780190661557.001.0001/oso-9780190661557-
chapter-1
• https://conjointly.com/kb/two-group-experimental-designs/
132
BLOCK IV: STATISTICS
UNIT – 9 ORGANISATIN OF DATA AND PARAMETRIC

STATISTICS
UNIT – 10 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
UNIT - 11 NON-PARAMETRIC STATISTICS AND SPSS
133
UNIT – 9
ORGANIZATION OF DATA AND

PARAMETRIC STATISTICS
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
9.1 Introduction to Statistics
9.2 Organisation of Data
9.3 Graphs
9.4 Descriptive Statistics
9.5 Measures of Central Tendencies
9.6 Measures of Variation
9.7 Types of Distributions
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Key Words
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
Individuals who study behavioural sciences always have the

question of “why I should study statistics”. I am going to do
research with human sample and how statistics is going to help
me. Probably after completing this block you might be able to
understand the real meaning of statistics and why statistics is so
important in any research and especially in social science
research.
134
OBJECTIVES
Explain the Meaning of statistics
Highlight the Different methods of organization of data
Describe about the Measures of central tendency
Describe about the Measures of variation
9.1 INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

The word statistics is used in at least three different ways,
statistics refers to a set of procedures and rules (not always
computational or mathematical) for reducing large masses of data
to manageable proportions and for allowing us to draw conclusions
from those data. A second, and very common, meaning of the
term is expressed by such statements as “statistics show that the
number of people applying for unemployment benefits has fallen
for the third month in a row.” In this case statistics is used in place
of the much better word data. A third meaning of the term is in
reference to the result of some arithmetic or algebraic
manipulation applied to data. Thus, the mean (average) of a set of
numbers is a statistic.
We thus have two proper uses of the term: (1) a set of procedures
and rules and (2) The outcome of the application of those rules
and procedures to samples of data.
The word statistics in general connotes the following
1. It refers to numerical facts e.g. No. of birth, death etc.
2. It is a science of collecting, summarizing, analyzing and
interpreting numerical facts.
3. It also refers to summarized figures of numerical fact such as
percentages, averages, means etc.
According to Tate (1955), "you compute statistics from statistics by

statistics.
9.1.1 Need and Importance of Statistics in day to day life
1. To know the individual difference

2. To guide the individuals
3. Comparing one technique over the other
135
4. Comparing one system of evaluation over another
5. Making prediction
6. Summarize the result and draw conclusion
7. To classify the numerical data
9.1.2 Use of statistics in behavioural research
1. Understanding statistics is crucial to being able to read research

articles
2. Understanding statistics is crucial to doing research yourself
3. Understanding statistics develops your analytic and critical
thinking
4. To draw general conclusion
5. To enable to predict and explain the phenomena
9.1.3 Basic terminology

Statistical procedures can be separated into roughly two
overlapping areas: descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.
9.2 ORGANIZING DATA
Two methods of organizing data are frequency distributions and

graphs.
9.2.1 Frequency Distribution
One of the first steps in organizing these data might b to rearrange

them from highest to lowest or from lowest to highest. After the
scores are ordered, you can condense the data into a frequency
distribution—a table in which all of the scores are listed along
with the frequency with which each occurs. You can also show the
relative frequency, which is the proportion of the total observations
included in each score. When a relative frequency is multiplied by
100, it is read as a percentage. For example, a relative frequency
of .033 would mean that 3.3% of the sample received that score. A
frequency distribution and a relative frequency distribution of the
exam data are presented. The frequency distribution is a way of
presenting data that makes the pattern of the data easier to see.
136
In a class interval frequency distribution, individual scores are
combined into categories, or intervals, and then listed along with
the frequency of scores in each interval. In the exam score
example, the scores range from 45 to 95—a 50-point range. A rule
of thumb when creating class intervals is to have between 10 and
20 categories (Hinkle, Wiersma, &Jurs, 1988). A quick method of
calculating what the width of the interval should be is to subtract
the lowest score from the highest score and then divide the result
by the number of intervals you want (Schweigert, 1994). If we want
10 intervals in our example, we proceed as follows:
95 - 45/ 10
50/ 10
=5
Example
Table 1
Items Frequency
Apples 10
Oranges 15
Banana 30
Guava 17
Pomegranate 20
Table 2:
Class-interval Frequency
10 – 20 5
20 – 30 8
30 – 40 7
40 – 50 6
9.3 Graphs
Frequency distributions provide valuable information, but

sometimes a picture is of greater value. Several types of pictorial
representations can be used to represent data. The choice
137
depends on the type of data collected and what the researcher
hopes to emphasize or illustrate.
Bar Graphs and Histograms: Bar graphs and histograms are

frequently confused. If the data collected are on a nominal scale,
or if the variable is a qualitative variable (a categorical variable
for which each value represents a discrete category), then a bar
graph is most appropriate. A bar graph is a graphical
representation of a frequency distribution in which vertical bars are
centered above each category along the x-axis and are separated
from each other by a space, indicating that the levels of the
variable represent distinct, unrelated categories. If the variable is a
quantitative variable (the scores represent a change in quantity),
or if the data collected are ordinal, interval, or ratio in scale, then a
histogram can be used.
A histogram is also a graphical representation of a frequency

distribution in which vertical bars are centered above scores on the
x-axis; however, in a histogram, the bars touch each other to
indicate that the scores on the variable represent related,
increasing values. In both a bar graph and a histogram, the height
of each bar indicates the frequency for that level of the variable on
the x-axis.
138
Frequency Polygons: You can also depict the data in a
histogram as a frequency polygon—a line graph of the
frequencies of individual scores or intervals. Mid points of all the
classes or intervals are calculated and plotted on the x-axis and
frequencies on the y-axis. After all the frequencies are plotted, the
data points are connected.
9.4 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Whenever your purpose is merely to describe a set of data, you

are employing descriptive statistics. A statement about the
139
average length of time it takes a normal mouse to lick its paw
when placed on a warm surface would be a descriptive statistic.
Examples from other situations might include an examination of
dieting scores on the Eating Restraint Scale, crime rates as
reported by the Department of Justice, and certain summary
information concerning examination grades in a particular course.
Notice that in each of these examples we are just describing what
the data have to say about some phenomenon.
9.5 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
Measures of Central Tendency

A measure of central tendency is a representative number that
characterizes the “middleness” of an entire set of data. The three
measures of central tendency are the mean, the median, and the
mode.
Mean. The most commonly used measure of central tendency is
the mean— the arithmetic average of a group of scores. You are
probably familiar with this idea. We can calculate the mean for our
distribution of exam scores by adding all of the scores together
and dividing the sum by the total number of scores.
Mathematically, this is
µ = ∑X/N
Where
µ (pronounced “mu”) represents the symbol for the population
mean;
∑ represents the symbol for “the sum of”;
X represents the individual scores; and
N represents the number of scores in the distribution.
To calculate the mean, we sum all of the Xs, or scores, and divide
by the
Total number of scores in the distribution (N).
You may have also seen this formula represented as
M = ∑X/ N
140
This is the formula for calculating a sample mean, where
Represents the sample mean and N represents the number of
scores in the sample. The use of the mean is constrained by the
nature of the data: The mean is appropriate for interval and ratio
data but not for ordinal or nominal data.
Let X1, X2, X3, X4, X5, X6, X7, X8, X9, X10to the scores obtained by
10 students on achievement list, then the arithmetic mean of the
student can be calculate as
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + x6 + x7 + x8 + x9 + x10
M=
10
M= x
N
When  x stands for the sum of scores or values of the items

and N for the total number of items in a series or group.
Calculation of mean in case of ungrouped data
Example: Let 30, 16, 20, 26, 18, 24, 36, 18 be the scores obtained
by 8 students on achievement list, then the arithmetic mean of the
students can be. Calculated as
30 +16 + 20 + 26 +18 + 24 + 36 +18
M=
8
188
=
8
M = 23.5
Calculation of mean in case of grouped data (Data in the form
of frequency distribution)
In a frequency distribution where all the frequencies

are greater than one, the mean is calculated by the formula:
M=
f (x)
N
x- Midpoint of the class interval

f – Frequency
N – Total of all frequencies
141
Income 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
No of 4 7 16 20 15 8
person
Income in No of Person (f) X=Mid value F(x)

Purpose
10-20 4 15 60
20-30 7 25 175
30-40 16 35 560
40-50 20 45 900
50-60 15 55 825
60-70 8 65 520
N=70
 f (x) =3040
Mean = 
f (x)
N
3040
=
70
= 43.428
M = 43.43
Median:Another measure of central tendency, the median, is used in

situations in which the mean might not be representative of a distribution.
The median is the middle score in a distribution after the scores have
been arranged from highest to lowest or lowest to highest.
In case of odd scores median value is the middle most value for e.g. if we
have 25 data, after arranging in ascending order 13th data or score is the
media value. If it is even number, then the average of two middle values
will be the median value. If it has 30 scores, the median is the average of
the 15th and 16th scores (the two middle scores).
 n +1
th
Median =  2 term for odd data


 
n= No of items
Odd data = 3,4,7,9,1
142
5 +1
=
2
6
=
2
= 3rd item
Arrange the data in the ascending order
1347 9
4 is the median
Median for even data

 n  n 
 +  +1  
Median =  2  2 
2
Even data = 2 4 5 6 7 9
3rd item +4th item /2
5+6
=
2
11
=
2
Median = 5.5
Median
Weekly No o Cumulative
wages workers Frequency
(f) (Cf)
50-55 6 6
55-60 10 16
60-65 22 38
65-70 30 68
70-75 16 84
75-80 12 96
80-85 15 111
Total N=111
Class Interval =5
 2 − Cf 
N
Median = L + i
 
 f 
 
Where L= Exact lower limit of median class
Cf =Cumulative frequency
f = Simple Frequency median class
i = Class interval
143
Median class=N/2=111/2 = 55.5
Median lies in the class of 65-70
Exact lower limit (L) =65
Cf = 38
f =30
 2 − Cf 
N
= L+ i
 
 f 
 
55.5 − 38 
= 65 + 
30 
5
 
= 65 + 2.91
M d = 67.91
Mode:The third measure of central tendency is the mode—the

score in a distribution that occurs with the greatest frequency.
Computation of mode for ungrouped data
Suppose we have to find out the value of the mode from the
following scores of students.
25, 29,24, 25, 27, 25, 28, 25, 29
Here the score 25 is repeated maximum number of times and thus
the mode is this case is 25.
Computation of mode for grouped data
(i) When mean and median are given

Mode (Mo) = 3Md – 2M
Where Md is the median and M is the mean of the given data.
Example: Find the mode of the given data when the mean and
median are already computed as 44.6 and 44.05 respectively.
Mean(M) =44.6
Median (Md) =44.05
Mode (Mo) =3 Md – 2M
=3(44.05) – 2 (44.6)
=132.15-89.2
Mo =42.95
144
(ii) When mean and median are not given
 f 
M = L + f +1 f  i
o 
 1 −1 
L = Lower limit of the model class (class in which mode may be
supposed to lie)
i = Class interval
f1 = Frequency above the modal class
f-1= Frequency below the modal class
65-69 1
60-64 3
55-59 4
50-54 7
45-49 9 f1
40-44 Moda 11 highest frequency
class
35-39 8 f-1
30-34 4
25-29 2
20-24 1
 f 
M = L + f +1 f  i
o 
 1 −1 
 9 
M = 39.5 + 5
 
o
 9+8
M o = 42.15
9.6 MEASURES OF VARIATION
Measures of Variation/Dispersion
A measure of central tendency provides information about the
“middleness” of a distribution of scores but not about the width or
spread of the distribution. To assess the width of a distribution, we
need a measure of variation or dispersion. A measure of
variation indicates the degree to which scores are either clustered
or spread out in a distribution or The degree to which individual
data points are distributed around the mean.
145
Range: The simplest measure of variation is the range—the
difference between the lowest and the highest scores in a
distribution. For example, in the distribution of 30 exam scores in
Table 5.5, only 2 of the 30 scores are used in calculating the range
(95-45 = 50).
Range =L-S
(Largest item – Smallest item)
L−S
Range Co-efficient =
L+S
Grouped data – For grouped data, range is the difference between
upper limit of the highest class and the lower limit of the lower
class.
Average Deviation and Standard Deviation: More sophisticated

measures of variation use all of the scores in the distribution in
their calculation. The most commonly used measure of variation is
the standard deviation. The word deviation means to diverge,
move away from, or digress. Putting these terms together, we see
that the standard deviation means the average movement away
from something.
Average Deviation:
Garrett(1971) defines Average Deviation (AD) as a means of

deviation of all the separate scores in the series taken from their
mean (occasionally form the median or mode)
(i) Computation of average deviation from ungrouped data
Formula: AD =
x
N
Where x = X − M deviation of the raw score from the mean of the
series and x signifies that in the deviation values we ignore the
algebraic signs +ve or -ve
Example: find the average deviation of the scores 15+10+6+8+11

of a series.
Solution: The mean of the given series is
15 +10 + 6 + 8 +11 50
M= = = 10 add 6
5 5
M = 10
146
Scores Deviation x
(x) from the
mean (x-m
=x
15 15-10=5 5
10 10-10=0 0
6 6-10=-4 4
8 8-10=-2 2
11 11-10=1 1
N=5
 x = 12
By applying the formula
12
AD =
5
AD = 2.4
(II) Computation of average deviation from grouped data from

the grouped data, AD can be calculated by the
Formula
AD =  fx
N
Example:
Scores f Midpoint fx x = X −M fx fx
x
60-64 6 62 372 62-47.3=14.7 88.2 88.2
55-59 5 57 285 57-47.3=9.7 48.5 48.5
50-54 7 52 364 52-47.3-4.7 32.9 32.9
45-49 16 47 752 47-47.3=-03 -4.8 4.8
40-44 6 42 252 42-47.3=-5.3 - 31.8
31.8
35-39 4 37 148 37-47.3=- - 41.2
10.3 41.2
30.34 6 32 192 32-47.3=- - 91.8
15.3 91.8
50 2365
 fx
339.2
Step1
Find mean
AD =  fx = 2365 = 47.3
N 50
Step 2
147
AD =  fx
=
339.2
= 6.784
N 50
AD = 6.8
Example 2:
Calculate the SD for the following
15,10,6,8,11
X X–M x2
15 5 5
10 0 0
6 -4 16
8 -2 4
11 1 1
Mean = 50/5 = 10
 ( x)
2
SD =
( N −1)
2
= 1.28
Standard Deviation
Standard deviation (SD)is the average distance of all the scores
in the distribution from the mean or central point of the distribution
or is the square root of mean of the average squared deviations
from the mean. The formula for finding our SD or 
= Nx 2
(i) Calculation of standard deviation from ungrouped data

Score x x = X −M x2 (squared deviation)
38 38-34=4 16
36 36-34=2 4
34 34-34=0 0
32 32-34=-2 4
30 30-34=-4 16
 x2 = 40
148
Mean =  x = 170 = 34
N 5
M = 34
SD( ) = Nx 2
40
SD( ) =
5
SD( ) = 8
SD( ) = 2.83
(ii) Calculation of standard deviation from grouped data

standard deviation in case grouped data can be
computed by the formula.
SD( ) =  fx2
N
Example: Compute SD for the frequency distribution given below

with a mean value of 115.
IQ f x x = X −M x2 fx2
SCARED
127-129 1 128 128-115=13 169 169
124-126 2 125 125-115=10 100 200
121-123 3 122 122-115=7 49 147
118-120 1 116 116-115=4 16 16
115-117 6 116 116-115=1 1 6
112-114 4 113 113-115=-2 4 16
109-111 3 110 110-115—5 25 75
106-108 2 107 107-115=-8 64 128
103-105 1 104 104-115=-11 121 121
100-102 1 101 101-115=-14 196 196
N=24
 fx2 = 1074
Mean =115
SD( ) =  fx2 =
1074
= 44.75
N 24
SD( ) = 6.69
149
Note: If the mean value is not given then it is to computed with the
formula
M=
 fx
N
Quartile deviation: (Q.D)
Quartile deviation (Q.D), can be defined as half of the difference
between 75th percentile and the 25 the percentile. Hence it is one-
half the scale distance between the 75 th&25th percentile in a
frequency distribution.
Q3 − Q1
Q.D =
2
Q75 − Q25
Q.D =
2
Q3 = 75th percentile or third quartile on the score. Scale the

point below which
75% of the scores lie.
Q1 = 25th percentile first quartile on the score scale the point
below which
25 % of the score lie
(i) Computation of Quartile deviation from Quartile

deviation from Ungrouped data
60
58
57
55
 3N 316 
44 -12th item Q3 → = = 12
 4 4 
 
42
41
40
38
37
36
34
 N 16 
32 – 4TH item Q1 → = =4
4 4 
 
31
29
25
150
Q3 − Q1
Q.D =
2
44 − 32
Q.D =
2
8
Q.D =
2
Q.D = 4
(ii) Computation of Quartile deviation from grouped data
Q3 − Q1
Q.D =
2
Scores F Less than CF

60-64 1 50
55-59 2 49
50-54 4 47
45-49 5 47
40-44 8 38
35-39 10 30 below 37.5 (Q3)
30-34 6 20
25-29 4 14
20-24 4 10 below 12.5 (Q1)
15-19 2 6
10-14 3 4
5-9 1 1
50
N 50
Q = = = 12.5th item
1
4 4
3N 3 50
Q = = = 37.5th item
3
4 4
N 
−
 4 Cf 
Q = L+ i
1  
f
 
 
12.5 −10 
Q1 = 24.5 +  5
4
 
12.5
Q = 24.5 +
1
4
Q1 = 24.5 + 3.15
Q1 = 27.625
151
 3N
4 − Cf  i
Q = L+
3  
f
 
 
 37.5 − 30 
Q3 = 39.5 +  5
8
 
 7.5 
Q = 39.5 + 5
3  8 
 
Q3 = 39.5 + 4.68
Q3 = 44.18
Q3 − Q1 44.18 − 27.625
Q.D = =
2 2
Q.D = 8.277
Q.D = 8.28
9.7 TYPES OF DISTRIBUTIONS

In simple terms distribution refers to how the data or score
appears in the graph. The distributions of scores can be more or
less regularly shaped distributions, rising to a maximum and then
dropping away smoothly. Not all distributions are like that.
Symmetric: Having the same shape on both sides of the center.

Bimodal: A distribution having two distinct peaks.
Unimodal: A distribution having one distinct peak.
152
Modality: The number of meaningful peaks in a frequency
distribution of the data.
Negatively skewed: A distribution that trails off to the left.
Positively skewed: A distribution that trails off to the right.
Skewness: A measure of the degree to which a distribution is
asymmetrical
Normal Distribution: When a distribution of scores is fairly large
(N = 30), it often tends to approximate a pattern called a normal
distribution. When plotted as a frequency polygon, a normal
distribution forms a symmetrical, bell-shaped pattern often called a
normal curve .We say that the pattern approximates a normal
distribution because a true normal distribution is a theoretical
construct not actually observed in the real world.
The normal distribution is a theoretical frequency distribution that
has certain special characteristics. First, it is bell-shaped and
symmetrical—the right half is a mirror image of the left half.
Second, the mean, median, and mode are equal and are located
at the center of the distribution. Third, the normal distribution is
unimodal—it has only one mode. Fourth, most of the observations
are clustered around the center of the distribution, with far fewer
observations at the ends or “tails” of the distribution. Last, when
standard deviations are plotted on the x-axis, the percentage of
scores falling between the mean and any point on the x-axis is the
same for all normal curves.
Kurtosis refers to how flat or peaked a normal distribution is. In
other words, kurtosis refers to the degree of dispersion among the
scores, or whether the distribution is tall and skinny or short and
fat. Mesokurtic curves have peaks of medium height, and the
distributions are moderate in breadth. Leptokurtic curves are tall
and thin, with only a few scores in the middle of the distribution
having a high frequency. Platykurtic curves are short and more
dispersed (broader). In a Platykurtic curve, there are many scores
around the middle score that all have a similar frequency.
153
Standard normal distribution: A normal distribution with a mean
equal to 0 and a standard deviation equal to 1; denoted as N(0,1).
LET US SUM UP
The word statistics is used in at least three different ways,
statistics refers to a set of procedures and rules (not always
computational or mathematical) for reducing large masses of data
to manageable proportions and for allowing us to draw conclusions
from those data. Statistical data may be presented in the form of
graphics aids such as pictures and graphs such as bar diagram,
pie diagram, histogram, pictograph, frequency polygon, cumulative
frequency polygon and Ogive curve. The statistics mean median
and mode are known to be commonest measures of central
tendency. There is a tendency for data to be dispersed, scattered
or to show variability around the average or the central value. This
tendency is known as measures of dispersion. When data were
plotted as a frequency polygon, a normal distribution forms a
symmetrical, bell-shaped pattern often called a normal curve.
Deviation from the normality tends to vary either in terms of
skewness or in terms of kurtosis.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. A is a representative number that characterizes the
“middleness” of an entire set of data.
2. The measure of central tendency where the score in a
distribution that occurs with the greatest frequency.
3. A --indicates the degree to which scores are either
clustered or spread out in a distribution
4. is the square root of the average squared deviation
from the mean.
154
5. are short and more dispersed (broader) in
which there are many scores around the middle score that all have
a similar frequency.
6. refers to the measure of the degree to which a
distribution is asymmetrical.

1. measures of central tendency
2. Mode
3. measure of variation
4. average deviation
5. platykurtic curves
6. skewness
KEY TERMS
Frequency distribution
Skewness
Kurtosis
Central tendency
Deviation/ dispersion
GLOSSARY
Frequency distribution: a table in which all of the scores are
listed along with the frequency with which each occurs.
Frequency Polygons: A frequency polygon is a type of line graph
where the class frequency is plotted against the class midpoint
and the points are joined by a line segment creating a curve.
Histogram: A histogram is a graphical representation that
organizes a group of data points into user-specified ranges.
Kurtosis: refers to how flat or peaked a normal distribution is.
Measure of central tendency: representative number that
characterizes the “middleness” of an entire set of data.
Measure of variation indicates the degree to which scores are
either clustered or spread out in a distribution around the mean
155
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by the term, ‘measures of central
tendency? Point out the most common measures of central
tendency.
2. What are the different measures of variability? Discuss them in
brief.
3. What is normal distribution curve?
4. Define and explain the terms skewness and kurtosis along with
their main types.
SUGGESTED READINGS

Delhi.
Pvt. Ltd.
156
UNIT- 10
INFERENTIAL STATISTICSSTRUCTURE
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
10.1 Inferential Statistics – Introduction
10.2 When to use Parametric Tests and Non-Parametric Tests
10.3 Significance of difference between two means
10.3.1 Z-Test
10.3.2 Student ‘t’ Test
10.3.3 Paired ‘t’ test
10.4 ANOVA- More than Two Group Design
10.5 Correlation Coefficient
10.6 Regressions Analysis
10.7 Multiple regression analysis
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
OBJECTIVES
Understand various tests of inferential statistics
Understand the difference between parametric and non-parametric
tests and their applications
Understand the significance of the difference between means
Explain the concept of Correlation coefficient
Explain the usage of ‘t test
Explain the Analysis of variance
157
10.1 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS - INTRODUCTION
All of us at some time or another have been guilty of making
unreasonable generalizations on the basis of limited data. You
might hear or read that tall people tend to be more graceful than
short people and conclude that that is true because you once had
a very tall roommate who was particularly graceful. You
conveniently forget about the 6’ 4” klutz down the hall who couldn’t
even put on his pants standing up without tripping over them.
Similarly, the man who says that girls develop motor skills earlier
than boys because his daughter walked at 10 months and his son
didn’t walk until 14 months is guilty of the same kind of error:
generalizing from single (or too limited) observations.
In all the above cases we need to know the variability. How one
varies from other in certain phenomena. We use inferential
statistics to draw conclusions and to make inferences that are
based on the numbers from a research study but that go beyond
the numbers. For example, inferential statistics allow researchers
to make inferences about a large group of individuals based on a
research study in which a much smaller number of individuals took
part. We cannot make unlimited observations - we must draw a
sample from a population.
10.2 WHEN TO USE PARAMETRIC TESTS AND NON-

PARAMETRIC TESTS
Parametric tests Non-parametric tests

Statistical tests that involve Statistical tests that do not rely
assumptions about, o on parameter estimation o
estimation of, population precise distributiona
parameters assumptions
When the scores are normally Skewed distribution
distributed
When the variable is When the variable is discrete
continuous variable variable
158
When the measurement is When the measurement is
interval or ratio scale nominal or ordinal scale
Karl Pearson product momen Rank order correlation, ch
correlation, t test, F test square, Mann Whitney U test
10.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO MEANS
In the field of social sciences as well as in other fields, there are

many occasions when we are more interested in knowing about
the significance of the difference between the two same means
(independent or correlated), drawn from the same population or
different population. A t-test is a type of inferential statistic used to
determine if there is a significant difference between the means of
two groups, which may be related in certain features. A t-test (also
known as Student's t-test) is a tool for evaluating the means of one
or two populations using hypothesis testing. A t-test may be used
to evaluate whether a single group differs from a known value (a
one-sample t-test), whether two groups differ from each other (an
independent two-sample t-test), or whether there is a significant
difference in paired measurements (a paired, or dependent
samples t-test).
10.3.1 Z Test
A z-test is a statistical test to determine whether two population
means are different when the variances are known and the sample
size is large. A z-test is a hypothesis test in which the z-statistic
follows a normal distribution. A z-statistic, or z-score, is a number
representing the result from the z-test. For example, if someone
said they had found a new drug that cures cancer, you would want
to be sure it was probably true. A hypothesis test will tell you if it’s
probably true, or probably not true. A Z test, is used when your
data is approximately normally distributed (i.e. the data has the
shape of a bell curve when you graph it).
Compute Z test, if.
159
• Your sample size is greater than 30. Otherwise, use a t test.
• Data points should be independent from each other. In other
words, one data point isn’t related or doesn’t affect another data
point.
• Your data should be normally distributed. However, for large
sample sizes (over 30) this doesn’t always matter.
• Your data should be randomly selected from a population, where
each item has an equal chance of being selected.
• Sample sizes should be equal if at all possible.
It is computed using the formula,

M1 − M 2
D
Where M1 –M2 are the difference between the means ,
 D standard error of difference between means.
 D is calculated using the formula
 12  22 
D =  + 
 N1 N2 
Where 1, 2 are the standard deviation of sample 1 and 2
respectively, N1 an N2 are the size of sample in sample 1 and 2
respectively.
10.3.2 Independent Sample ‘t’ test

William Goosset eventually published his finding under the
pseudonym “Student,” and with the help of Karl Pearson, a
mathematician, he developed a general formula for the t
distributions. We refer to t distributions in the plural because unlike
the z distribution, of which there is only one, the t distributions are
a family of symmetrical distributions that differ for each sample
size. Suppose a teacher wants to know the difference or relative
effectiveness of two teaching methods. One group is taught by
her with method and the other group of students by method B.
After a month, and achievement test was given to both of these
groups and computes the means of the respective achievement
scores of the two groups say M and M. The difference between
160
the means M, and M. (M1-M 2) gives the relative effectives of
teaching method. In order to check how signify this difference
should be to help decide whether method.
It is computed using the formula,
M1 − M 2
t=
D
difference between means

t=
standard error of difference between
 D Is calculated using the formula

1 1
D = +
N1 N2
Where  is the pooled standard deviation

 is calculated using the formula
=
x +x 2
1
2
2
( N1 −1) + ( N2 −1)
Where x 2
1 and  x2 1 are the sum of the deviations of values
from Mean 1 and 2 respectively. N1 and N2 are the number of

samples of group 1 and 2 respectively.
Example: Two groups of 10 students each got the following scores

on altitude scales
Group 10 9 8 7 7 8 6 5 6 4
I
Group 9 8 6 7 8 8 11 12 6 5
II
Compute the means for both groups and test the significance of
the difference between these two mean.
161
Solution:
First Sample Second Sample

X1 M (X1-M1) x12 X2 M2 (X2-M2) x22
1 x1 x2
10 7 3 9 9 8 1 1
9 7 2 4 8 8 0 0
8 7 2 4 8 8 0 0
7 7 0 0 7 8 -2 4
7 7 0 0 8 8 0 0
8 7 1 1 11 8 0 0
6 7 -1 1 12 8 4 16
5 7 -2 4 12 8 4 16
6 7 -1 1 6 8 -2 4
4 7 -3 9 5 8 -3 9
70  x2 = 30
1
80  x2 = 44
2
Mean
70
M = =7
1
10
80
M = =8
2
10
Rooted Standard Deviation
162
= x +x 2
1
2
2
( N1 −1) + ( N2 −1)
30 + 44
=
9+9
74
=
18
 = 4.1111
 = 2.03
Standard Error of Difference D
1 1
D = +
N1 N2
1 1
 D = 2.03 +
10 10
1
 D = 2.03
5
 D = 0.9078
M1 − M 2
t=
D
7 −8
t=
0.908
−1
t=
0.908
t = −1.1
Degrees of freedom (df)= N1+N2-2
= 10+10-2
df=18
We find from the table, the critical value of ‘t’ with 18 degrees of
freedom is of at 5% level of significance is 2.01. The computed
value is 1.1 which is quite smaller than the critical value 2.10
hence it is not significant. Hence the new hypothesis is accepted
stating that the given difference in sample means are insignificant
can only be attributed to some chance factors or sampling
fluctuations.
163
10.3.3 PAIRED ‘T’ TEST
In many (but certainly not all) situations in which we will use the form of
the test, we will have two sets of data from the same participants. i)
Related samples: An experimental design in which the same participant
is observed under more than one treatment. ii) Repeated measures: An
experimental design in which the same participant is observed under
more than one treatment. iii) Matched samples: An experimental design
in which the participants are paired and one is assigned to each
treatment.
For example, we might ask 20 people to rate their level of anxiety before
and after donating blood. We would have 20 sets of numbers, two
numbers for each person, and we would expect these two sets of
numbers (variables) to be correlated. We need to take this correlation into
account in planning our test. In the example of anxiety about donating
blood, people differ widely in level of anxiety. Some seem to be anxious
all the time no matter what happens, and others just take things as they
come and don’t worry about anything. Thus, there should be a relationship
between an individual’s anxiety level before donating blood and the
anxiety level after donating blood. In other words, if we know that a person
was one of the more anxious people before donation, we can make a
reasonable guess that the same person was one of the more anxious
people after donation.
Given:
Initial test data Final test data

Mean 80 84
SD 8 10
N 25 25
Correlation between Initial list and final list ( r) is 0.40
M1 − M 2
t=
D
 D =  M2 +  M2 − 2r M  M
1 2 1 2
164
 M This is the standard error of the Initial test.
1
 M This is the standard error of the final test.

1
1 8
M = = 8 = = 1.6
1
N1 25 5
2 10
M = 2
= =2
N2 25
Applying the formula for D
 D =  M2 +  M2 − 2r M  M
1 2 1 2
 D = (1.6)2 + (2)2 − 2  0.4 1.6  2

D = 4
D = 2
T ratio
M1 − M 2
t=
D
80 − 84
t=
2
4
t=
2
t=2
10.4 ANOVA - MORE THAN TWO GROUP DESIGNS
Not that in all the research we have two groups. We do have more
than two groups. In that case we use ANOVA.
• Analysis of variance (ANOVA): A statistical technique for
testing for differences in the means of several groups.
• One-way ANOVA: An analysis of variance wherein the groups
are defined on only one independent variable.
The statistical procedure for testing variation among the means of

more than two groups is called the analysis of variance,
165
abbreviated as ANOVA.(The F is for Sir Ronald Fisher, an
eminent statistician who developed the analysis of variance)
F = Mean Square variance between the group/Mean Square

variance within group
Steps in calculating the ANOVA

Let us assume that the researcher wants to find out the difference
in the performance level of three groups A, B and C
The scores of group A is denoted by X1, ;B by X2 ; and C by X3
Step 1: Arrangement of scores in columns and calculation of

initial values
To calculate ∑ X1, ; ∑ X2 ;∑ X3
Mean value of all groups
Grand mean ∑X/N N = n1+n2+n3
Correction term C = (∑X)2/ N
Step 2: Arrange the given table into squared table and find the
sum
Calculate ∑ X12, ; ∑ X22;∑ X32 ;∑X2
Step 3: Calculation of total sum of squares
St2 = ∑X2 - C
Step 4: Calculation of between group sum of squares
Sb2 = (∑ X1)2/ n1 + ( ∑ X2)2/n2 +(∑ X3)2/n3 - C
Step 5: Calculation of within group sum of squares
Sw2 =
St2 -Sb2
Step 6: Calculation of degrees of freedom
Total sum of squares = N – 1
Between group sum of squares = K – 1
Within group sum of squares = N – K
N = total no. of participant
K = number of groups
Step 7 : Calculation of F ratio
166
Source Sum of squares Df Mean square
variance
2/
Between Sb2 K–1 Sb /df
group
Within Sw2 N–K Sw2/df
group
F = Mean square variance between groups

Mean square variance within groups
Step 8: Decision making
Calculated value is compared with the table value, if the calculated

value is greater than the table value we reject the null hypothesis.
10.5 CORRELATION COEFFICIENT

As a research method, Correlational designs allow you to describe
the relationship between two measured variables. A correlation
coefficient (descriptive statistic) helps by assigning a numerical
value to the observed relationship. We will begin with a discussion
of how to conduct correlational research, the magnitude and the
direction of correlations, and graphical representations of
correlations.
To illustrate the kinds of studies that might involve two variables

(denoted X and Y ), consider the following research questions:
• Does the incidence of breast cancer (Y ) vary with the amount of

sunlight (X ) in a particular location?
• Does Life Expectancy (Y ) for individual countries vary as a
function of the per capita consumption of alcohol (X )?
• Does the rating of an individual’s “likability” (Y ) have anything to
do with physical attractiveness (X )?
In each case we are asking if one variable (Y ) is related to

another variable (X ). When we are dealing with the relationship
between two variables, we are concerned with correlation, and our
measure of the degree or strength of this relationship is
167
represented by a correlation coefficient. We can use a number of
different correlation coefficients, depending primarily on the
underlying nature of the measurements.
Magnitude
The magnitude or strength of a relationship is determined by the
correlation coefficient describing the relationship. A correlation
coefficient is a measure of the degree of relationship between two
variables; it can vary between _1.00 and _1.00. The stronger the
relationship between the variables, the closer the coefficient is to
either _1.00 or _1.00. The weaker the relationship between the
variables, the closer the coefficient is to 0.
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT STRENGTH OF RELATIONSHIP
• +.70 - 1.00 Strong

• + .30 - .69 Moderate
• + .00 - .29 None (.00) to
weak
Scatter plots
A scatter plot or scatter gram, a figure showing the relationship between

two variables, graphically represents a correlation coefficient. For
example, a scatter plot of the height and weight relationship for 20 adults,
two measurements are represented for each participant by the placement
of a marker. In horizontal x-axis shows the participant’s weight, and the
vertical y-axis shows height. In preparing a scatter diagram the predictor
variable, or independent variable, is traditionally presented on the X
(horizontal) axis, and the criterion variable, or dependent variable, on the
Y (vertical) axis. If the eventual purpose of the study is to predict one
variable from knowledge of the other, the distinction is obvious: The
criterion variable is the one to be predicted, whereas the predictor variable
is the one from which the prediction is made. If the problem is simply one
of obtaining a correlation coefficient, the distinction may be obvious
(incidence of cancer would be dependent on amount smoked rather than
the reverse, and thus incidence would appear on the ordinate). On the
other hand, the distinction may not be obvious (neither running speed nor
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number of correct choices—common dependent variables in an animal
learning study—is obviously in a dependent position relative to the other).
Where the distinction is not obvious, it is irrelevant which variable is
labeled X and which Y.
Positive Relationship
The relationship represented in Figure4 shows a positive correlation, one

in which a direct relationship exists between the two variables. This
means that an increase in one variable is related to an increase in the
other, and a decrease in one is related to a decrease in the other. In other
words, an increase (decrease) in one variable is accompanied by an
increase (decrease) in the other variable—as variable x increases (or
decreases), variable y does the same.
Negative Relationships
Figure 5 represents a negative relationship between two variables. Notice
that in this scatter plot, the data points extend from the upper left to the
lower right. This negative correlation indicates that an increase in one
variable is accompanied by a decrease in the other variable. This
represents an inverse relationship: The more of variable x that we have,
the less we have of variable y.
No relationships
As shown in Figure 6, it is also possible to observe no meaningful

relationship between two variables. In this scatter plot, the data points are
scattered in a random fashion..
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Figure 4: Positive relationships
Figure 5: Negative relationship
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Figure 6: No relationships
Linear relationship: A situation in which the best-fitting regression

line is a straight line.
Curvilinear relationship: A situation that is best represented by
something other than a straight line.
Statistical Assessment of relationship
10.5.1 The Pearson Correlation Coefficient
Pearson product–moment correlation coefficient is normally used

to summarize and communicate the strength and direction of the
association between two quantitative variables. The Pearson
correlation coefficient, frequently referred to simply as the
correlation coefficient, is designated by the letter r. The correlation
coefficient is a number that indicates both the direction and the
magnitude of association. Values of the correlation coefficient
range from r = -1.00 to r =+1.00. The direction of the relationship is
indicated by the sign of the correlation coefficient. Positive values
of r (such as r = .54 or r = .67) indicate that the relationship is
positive linear (that is, that the regression line runs from the lower
left to the upper right), whereas negative values of r (such as r =-.3
or r =-.72) indicate negative linear relationships (that is, that the
regression line runs from the upper left to the lower right).
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Pearson product–moment correlation is indicated by the formula
r = ∑xy/√∑x2 X∑y2
Example 3:
Find out the correlation coefficient
X: 15, 25, 20, 30, 35
Y: 60, 70, 40, 50, 30
X Y x Y xy x2 y2
15 60 -10 10 -100 100 100
25 70 0 20 0 0 400
20 40 -5 -10 50 25 100
30 50 5 0 0 25 0
35 30 10 -20 -200 100 400
125 250 -250 250 1000
Mean of X = 25
Mean of Y = 50
x = X – Mean of X
y= Y – Mean of Y
r = ∑xy/√∑x2 * ∑y2
= -0.5
10.6 REGRESSION ANALYSIS

Regression analysis will provide you with an equation for a graph
so that you can make predictions about your data. For example, if
you’ve been putting on weight over the last few years, it can
predict how much you’ll weigh in ten years time if you continue to
put on weight at the same rate. It will also give you a slew of
statistics (including a p-value and a correlation coefficient) to tell
you how accurate your model is.
For example, global warming may be reducing average snowfall in
your town and you are asked to predict how much snow you think
will fall this year. Looking at the following table you might guess
somewhere around 10-20 inches. That’s a good guess, but you
could make a better guess, by using regression.
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Essentially, regression is the “best guess” at using a set of data to
make some kind of prediction. It’s fitting a set of points to a graph.
There’s a whole host of tools that can run regression for you,
including Excel, which I used here to help make sense of that
snowfall data:
Just by looking at the regression line running down through the

data, you can fine tune your best guess a bit. You can see that the
original guess (20 inches or so) was way off. For 2015, it looks like
the line will be somewhere between 5 and 10 inches! That might
be “good enough”, but regression also gives you a useful equation,
which for this chart is:
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y = -2.2923x + 4624.4.
What that means are you can plug in an x value (the year) and get
a pretty good estimate of snowfall for any year. For example,
2005:
y = -2.2923(2005) + 4624.4 = 28.3385 inches, which is pretty close
to the actual figure of 30 inches for that year.
Best of all, you can use the equation to make predictions. For
example, how much snow will fall in 2017?
y = 2.2923(2017) + 4624.4 = 0.8 inches.
Regression also gives you an R squared value, which for this

graph is 0.702. This number tells you how good your model is. The
values range from 0 to 1, with 0 being a terrible model and 1 being
a perfect model. As you can probably see, 0.7 is a fairly decent
model so you can be fairly confident in your weather prediction!
10.7 Multiple regression analysis

Although the goal of correlational research is frequently to study
the relationship between two measured variables, it is also
possible to study relationships among more than two measures at
the same time. Consider, for example, a scientist whose goal is to
predict the grade-point averages of a sample of college students.
The scientist uses three predictor variables (perceived social
support, number of study hours per week, and SAT score) to do
so. Such a research design, in which more than one predictor
variable is used to predict a single outcome variable, is analyzed
through multiple regressions(Aiken & West, 1991). Multiple
regression is a statistical technique based on Pearson correlation
coefficients both between each of the predictor variables and the
outcome variable and among the predictor variables themselves.
In this case, the original correlations that form the input to the
regression analysis are shown in the correlation matrix.
The ability of all of the predictor variables together to predict the

outcome variable is indicated by a statistic known as the multiple
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correlation coefficients, symbolized by the letter R. The
regression coefficients are not exactly the same as the zero-order
correlations because they represent the effects of each of the
predictor measures in the regression analysis, holding constant or
controlling for the effects of the other predictor variables. This
control is accomplished statistically. The result is that the
regression coefficients can be used to indicate the relative
contributions of each of the predictor variables.
LET US SUM UP
Most of the statistical procedures we have discussed in the unit

have involved the estimation of one or more parameters of the
distribution of scores in the population(s) from which the data were
sampled and assumptions concerning the shape of that
distribution. For example, the t test makes use of the sample
variance as an estimate of the population variance and also
requires the assumption that the population from which we
sampled is normal (or at least that the sampling distribution of the
mean is normal). Tests, such as the t test, that involves
assumptions either about specific parameters or about the
distribution of the population is referred to as parametric tests. The
statistical procedure for testing variation among the means of more
than two groups is called the analysis of variance, abbreviated as
ANOVA. As a research method, Correlational designs allow to
describe the relationship between two measured variables. A
correlation coefficient is a statistical procedure for finding the
relationship between variables. Moreover it is also possible to
study relationships among more than two measures at the same
time using multiple regression.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Correlational statistics:
2. Repeated measures:
3. Difference between two groups:
4. More than two groups:
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1. Karl Pearson product-moment correlation
2. Paired t test
3. Independent t test
4. ANOVA
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between parametric and non-parametric statistics.
2. Explain scatter-plot diagram
3. Explain measures of central tendency.
4. Illustrate with example of when to use paired t test and
independent t test
5. Explain the steps in testing ANOVA.
6. State the uses of Pearson product moment correlation method
and how it is different from multiple regression
GLOSSARY
Anova: One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) tells you if there
are any statistical differences between the means of three or more
independent groups.
Multiple Regressions: a statistical technique based on Pearson
correlation coefficients both between each of the predictor
variables and the outcome variable and among the predictor
variables themselves.
Non-parametric tests: Statistical tests that do not rely on
parameter estimation or precise distributional assumptions
Parametric tests: Statistical tests that involve assumptions about,
or estimation of, population parameters
Pearson product–moment correlation coefficient: normally
used to summarize and communicate the strength and direction of
the association between two quantitative variables.
Scatter plot: also called as scatter gram, a figure showing the
relationship between two variables, graphically represents a
correlation coefficient.
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t- test: The t test tells explains how significant the differences
between groups
Z test: a statistical test to determine whether two population
means are different when the variances are known and the sample
size is large.
SUGGESTED READINGS
• https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-
statistics/regression-analysis/
• https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-
statistics/hypothesis-testing/z-test/
• Mangal, S.K. (2010). Statistics in Psychology and
Education, Second Edition. PHI learning private limited,
New Delhi.
New Delhi.
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UNIT-11
NON-PARAMETRIC STATISTICS
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
11.1 Non-Parametric Tests Introduction
11.2 Mann-Whitney Test
11.3 Wilcoxon’s Matched-Pairs Signed-Ranks Test
11.4 The Chi-Square Statistic
11.5 Kruskal–Wallis One-Way Analysis of Variance (H Test)
11.6 Spearman Rank Order Correlation
11.7 Using SPSS in Data Analysis
11.8 Data Entry
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
One class of tests, however, places less reliance on parameter
estimation and/or distribution assumptions. Such tests usually are
referred to as nonparametric tests or distribution-free tests. By and
large if a test is nonparametric, it is also distribution-free; in fact, it
is the distribution-free nature of the test that is most valuable to us.
In this unit let us look into the various non-parametric statistics.
OBJECTIVES

• Explain the underlying concepts of non-parametric tests
• Describe the Various non-parametric tests
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11.1 NON- PARAMETRIC TESTS- INTRODUCTION
11.2 MANN–WHITNEY TEST
A nonparametric test is being used for comparing the means of
two independent samples. One of the most common and best
known of the distribution-free tests is the Mann–Whitney test for
two independent samples. This test often is thought of as the
distribution-free analogue of the test for two independent samples,
although it tests a slightly different, and broader, null hypothesis.
Its null hypothesis is the hypothesis that the two samples were
drawn at random from identical populations (not just populations
with the same mean), but it is especially sensitive to population
differences in central tendency. Thus rejection of generally is
interpreted to mean that the two distributions had different central
tendencies, but it is possible that rejection actually resulted from
some other difference between the populations.
The logical basis of the Mann-Whitney test is particularly easy to
understand. Assume that we have two independent treatment
groups, with observations in Group 1 and observations in Group 2.
To make it concrete, assume that there are 8 observations in each
group. Further assume that we don’t know whether or not the null
hypothesis is true, but we happen to obtain the following data:
Raw Scores
Group 1 18, 16, 17, 21, 15, 13, 24, 20
Group 2 35, 38, 31, 27, 37, 26, 28, 25
Well, it looks as if Group 2 outscored Group 1 by a substantial

margin. Now suppose that we rank the data from lowest to highest,
without regard to group membership.
Ranked Scores
Group 1 5, 3, 4, 7, 2, 1, 8, 6 = ∑ 36
Group 2 14, 16, 13, 11, 15, 10, 12, 9 = ∑ 100
The lowest total has to be taken as U value that is 36 for testing

null hypothesis. This is compared with table value and we accept
or reject the hypothesis.
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11.3 WILCOXON’S MATCHED-PAIRS SIGNED-RANKS TEST:
A nonparametric test for comparing the mean of two matched
(related) samples. Frank Wilcoxon is credited with developing the
most popular distribution-free test for independent groups, which I
referred to as the Mann–Whitney test to avoid confusion and
because of their work on it. He also developed the most popular
test for matched groups (or paired scores). This test is the
distribution-free analogue of the test for related samples. It tests
the null hypothesis that two related (matched) samples were
drawn either from identical populations or from symmetric
populations with the same mean. More specifically it tests the null
hypothesis that the distribution of difference scores (in the
population) is symmetric about zero.
In carrying out the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test we
first calculate the difference score for each pair of measurements.
We then rank all difference scores without regard to the sign of the
difference, give the algebraic sign of the differences to the ranks
themselves, and finally sum the positive and negative ranks
separately.
Example
Children Family School Difference Absolute R(+) R(-

rank )
difference
A 6 3 3 4,5 4.5
B 18 15 3 4.5 4.5
C 14 16 -2 2.5 2.5
D 10 12 -2 2.5 2.5
E 20 13 7 8 8
F 17 11 6 7 7
G 12 8 4 6 6
H 8 9 -1 1 1
8 30 6
The smaller of the (R+) and (R-) is taken as calculated value.

Here the T statistics is 6
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11.4 THE CHI-SQUARE STATISTIC
Although the correlation coefficient is used to assess the
relationship between two quantitative variables, an alternative
statistic, known as the chi-square (χ2) statistic, must be used to
assess the relationship between two nominal variables (the
statistical test is technically known as the chi square test of
independence). Consider as an example a researcher who is
interested in studying the relationship between a person’s ethnicity
and his or her attitude toward a new low-income housing project in
the neighborhood. A random sample of 300 individuals from the
neighborhood is asked to express opinions about the housing
project.
Calculating the Chi-Square Statistic:
To calculate χ2, the researcher first constructs a contingency
table, which displays the number of individuals in each of the
combinations of the two nominal variables. The contingency table
in Table 1 shows the number of individuals from each ethnic group
who favor or oppose the housing project. The next step is to
calculate the number of people who would be expected to fall into
each of the entries in the table given the number of individuals with
each value on the original two variables. If the number of people
actually falling into the entries is substantially different from the
expected values, then there is an association between the
variables, and if this relationship is strong enough, the chi-square
test will be statistically significant and the null hypothesis that the
two variables are independent can be rejected.
Table 1
Opinion
Ethnicity Favour Oppose None
White 54 104 160
African 51 11 62
American
Asian 31 29 60
Hispanic 14 4 18
Total 152 148 300
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In the above table we check whether the opinion is independent of
the ethnicity using chi square test.
χ2 = ∑(O – E)2 /E
Where, O is the observed frequency and E is the expected
frequency
Example 1:
The opinions of 90 unmarried persons and 100 married persons
were secured on an attitude scale. Do the data indicate a
significant difference in opinion in terms of marital status of the
individuals?
Agree Disagree Neutral Total
Unmarried 14 66 10 90
Married 27 66 7 100
Total 41 132 17 190
Compute expected frequency

90 x 41/190 = 100 x 41 /190 = 21.6
19.4
90 x 132/190 = 100 x 132/190 = 69.5
62.5
90 x 17/190 = 100 x 17/190 = 9
8.05
χ2 = (14 – 19.4)2/19.4 +( 66 – 62.5)2/62.5 + (10 – 8.5)2 /8.5 + (27 –

21.6)2/21.6 +
(66 – 69.5)2/69.5 + (7 – 9)2/9
= 4.16
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11.5 KRUSKAL–WALLIS ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
(H TEST):
A nonparametric test equivalent to the standard one-way analysis
of variance is H test. . It tests the hypothesis that all samples were
drawn from identical populations and is particularly sensitive to
differences in central tendency.
To perform the Kruskal–Wallis test, we simply rank all scores
without regard to group membership and then compute the sum of
the ranks for each group. The sums are denoted by Rj If the null
hypothesis were true, we would expect the Rjs to be more or less
equal (aside from differences due to the size of the samples). A
measure of the degree to which the Rjs differ from one another is
provided by
H = 12 ∑ Rj2 - 3 (N + 1)
N (N+1) nj
nj =
number of observations in the jth group
Rj =
sum of the ranks in the jth group
N = total number of participants
11.6 SPEARMAN RANK ORDER CORRELATION

When one or more of the variables is measured on an ordinal
(ranking) scale, the appropriate correlation coefficient is
Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficient. For example
when we ask judges to rank items on two dimensions; we then
want to correlate the two sets of ranks. For example, we might ask
one judge to rank the quality of the “Statement of Purpose” found
in 10 applications to graduate school in terms of clarity, specificity,
and apparent sincerity. The weakest would be assigned a rank of
1, the next weakest a rank of 2, and so on. Another judge might
rank the overall acceptability of these same 10 applicants based
on all other available information, and we might be interested in
the degree to which well written statements of purpose are
associated with highly admissible applicants. When we have such
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ranked data, we frequently use what is known as Spearman’s
correlation coefficient for ranked data (ρ)
ρ = 1 - 6∑d2/N(N2 – 1)
d= difference in ranks
Example
Individuals X Y R1 R2 d d2
A 80 82 1 2 -1 1
B 45 86 5 1 4 16
C 55 50 4 4 0 0
D 56 48 3 5 -2 4
E 58 60 2 3 -1 1
ρ = 1 - 6∑d2/N(N2 – 1)
= 1 – 6 x 22/5(25 – 1)
= 1 – 1.1 = -0.1
The value indicates a very low correlation
11.7 USING SPSS IN DATA ANALYSIS
The “Statistical Package for the Social Sciences” (SPSS) is a
package of programs for manipulating, analyzing, and presenting
data; the package is widely used in the social and behavioral
sciences. There are several forms of SPSS. The core program is
called SPSS Base and there are a number of add-on modules that
extend the range of data entry, statistical, or reporting capabilities.
In our experience, the most important of these for statistical
analysis are the SPSS Advanced Models and SPSS Regression
Models add-on modules. SPSS Inc. also distributes stand-alone
programs that work with SPSS.
This software makes the calculation work much easier for large
pool of data. This is made user friendly as help options are
provided for the beginners.
Help — Statistics Coach helps users unfamiliar with SPSS or the
statistical procedures available in SPSS to get started. This facility
prompts the user with simple questions in nontechnical language
about the purpose of the statistical analysis and provides visual
184
examples of basic statistical and charting features in SPSS. The
facility covers only a selected subset of procedures.
Help — Tutorial provides access to an introductory SPSS tutorial,
including a comprehensive overview of SPSS basics. It is
designed to provide a step-by-step guide for carrying out a
statistical analysis in SPSS. All files shown in the examples are
installed with the tutorial so the user can repeat the analysis steps.
Help — Topics opens the Help Topics: SPSS for Windows box,
which provides access to Contents, Index, and Find tabs. Under
the Contents tab, double-clicking items with a book symbol
expands or collapses their contents (the Open and Close buttons
do the same).
The Index tab provides an alphabetical list of topics. Once a topic
is selected (by double-clicking), or the first few letters of the word
are typed in, the Display button provides a description. The Find
tab allows for searching the help files for specific words and
phrases.
11.8 DATA ENTRY

When SPS S is first opened, a default dialogue box appears that
gives the user a number of options. The Tutorial can be accessed
at this stage. Most likely users will want to enter data or open an
existing data file. When Type in data is selected, the SPSS Data
Editor appears as an empty spreadsheet. At the top of the screen
is a menu bar and at the bottom a status bar.
The Data Editor consists of two windows. By default the Data
View, which allows the data to be entered and viewed. The other
window is the Variable View, which allows the types of variables to
be specified and viewed. The user can toggle between the
windows by clicking on the appropriate tabs on the bottom left of
the screen.
Data values can be entered in the Data View spreadsheet. For
most analysis SPSS assumes that rows represent cases and
columns variables. By default SPSS aligns numerical data entries
185
to the right-hand side of the cells and text (string) entries to the
left-hand side.
The appearance of the Data View spreadsheet is controlled by the
View drop-down menu. This can be used to change the font in the
cells, remove lines, and make value labels visible. When labels
have been assigned to the category codes of a categorical
variable, these can be displayed by checking Value Labels (or by
selecting on the toolbar).Once the category labels are visible,
highlighting a cell produces a button with a downward arrow on the
right-hand side of the cell. Clicking on this arrow produces a drop-
down list with all the available category labels for the variable.
Clicking on any of these labels results in the respective category
and label being inserted in the cell. This feature is useful for editing
the data.
The Variable View spreadsheet serves to define the variables.
Each variable definition occupies a row of this spreadsheet. As
soon as data is entered under a column in the Data View, the
default name of the column occupies a row in the Variable View.
There are 10 characteristics to be specified under this:

1. Name — the chosen variable name. This can be up to eight
alphanumeric characters but must begin with a letter. While the
underscore (_) is allowed, hyphens (-), ampersands (&), and
spaces cannot be used. Variable names are not case sensitive.
2. Type — the type of data. SPSS provides a default variable type
once variable values have been entered in a column of the Data
View. The type can be changed by highlighting the respective
entry in the second column of the Variable View and clicking the
three-period symbol (...) appearing on the right-hand side of the
cell. This results in the Variable Type box being opened, which
offers a number of types of data including various formats for
numerical data, dates, or currencies. (Note that a common mistake
made by first-time users is to enter categorical variables as type
“string” by typing text into the Data View. To enable later analyses,
186
categories should be given artificial number codes and defined to
be of type “numeric.”)
3. Width — the width of the actual data entries. The default width
of numerical variable entries is eight. The width can be increased
or decreased by highlighting the respective cell in the third column
and employing the upward or downward arrows appearing on the
right-hand side of the cell or by simply typing a new number in the
cell.
4. Decimals — the number of digits to the right of the decimal
place to be displayed for data entries. This is not relevant for string
data and for such variables the entry under the fourth column is
given as a greyed-out zero. The value can be altered in the same
way as the value of Width.
5. Label — a label attached to the variable name. In contrast to the
variable name, this is not confined to eight characters and spaces
can be used. It is generally a good idea to assign variable labels.
They are helpful for reminding users of the meaning of variables
(placing the cursor over the variable name in the Data View will
make the variable label appear) and can be displayed in the output
from statistical analyses.
6. Values — labels attached to category codes. For categorical
variables, an integer code should be assigned to each category
and the variable defined to be of type “numeric.” When this has
been done, clicking on the respective cell under the sixth column
of the Variable View makes the three-period symbol appear, and
clicking this opens the Value Labels dialogue box, which in turn
allows assignment of labels to category codes. For example, our
data set included a categorical variable sex indicating the gender
of the subject, where numerical code “0” was declared to represent
females and code “1” males.
7. Missing — missing value codes. SPSS recognizes the period
symbol as indicating a missing value. If other codes have been
used (e.g., 99, 999) these have to be declared to represent
missing values by highlighting the respective cell in the seventh
187
column, clicking the three-periods symbol and filling in the
resulting Missing Values dialogue box accordingly.
8. Columns — width of the variable column in the Data View. The
default cell width for numerical variables is eight. Note that when
the Width value is larger than the Columns value, only part of the
data entry might be seen in the Data View. The cell width can be
changed in the same way as the width of the data entries or simply
by dragging the relevant column boundary. (Place cursor on right-
hand boundary of the title of the column to be resized. When the
cursor changes into a vertical line with a right and left arrow, drag
the cursor to the right or left to increase or decrease the column
width.)
9. Align — alignment of variable entries. The SPSS default is to
align numerical variables to the right-hand side of a cell and string
variables to the left. It is generally helpful to adhere to this default;
but if necessary, alignment can be changed by highlighting the
relevant cell in the ninth column and choosing an option from the
drop-down list.
10. Measure — measurement scale of the variable. The default
chosen by SPSS depends on the data type. For example, for
variables of type “numeric,” the default measurement scale is a
continuous or interval scale (referred to by SPSS as “scale”). For
variables of type “string,” the default is a nominal scale. The third
option, “ordinal,” is for categorical variables with ordered
categories but is not used by default.
As soon as the data is entered and the variable view is filled with
necessary details save the file in document.
The drop-down menus available after selecting Data, Transform,
Analyze, or Graphs from the menu bar provide procedures
concerned with different aspects of a statistical analysis. They
allow manipulation of the format of the data spreadsheet to be
used for analysis (Data), generation of new variables (Transform),
running of statistical procedures (Analyze), and construction of
graphical displays (Graphs).
188
Based on the hypothesis testing the required statistics will be done
by clicking analyze bar. Performing a variety of statistical analyses
using SPSS is done by making extensive use of the statistical
procedures offered under the Analyze drop-down menu.
Variable view
LET US SUM UP
The present unit illustrated with example the method of calculating

various non-parametric statistics. A non parametric test
(sometimes called a distribution free test) does not assume
anything about the underlying normal distribution. Wilcoxon signed
rank test is used to estimate the population median and compare
it to a reference/target value. Kruskal-Wallis test. Use this test
189
instead of a one-way ANOVA to find out if two or more medians
are different. Ranks of the data points are used for the
calculations, rather than the data points themselves. Mann-
Whitney test. Use this test to compare differences between two
independent groups when dependent variables are either ordinal
or continuous. Spearman Rank Correlation is used to find a
correlation between two sets of data. The equivalent statistics for
parametric tests are also explained. Using SPSS data analysis is
made easy even with 1000s of data. In a fraction of second
analysis will be done and interpretation also made available. This
unit explained how to do the data entry in SPSS and how to do the
analysis.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Chi-square
2. Rank order
3. Mann Whitney U test
4. Wilcoxon test
5. Kruskal Wallis H test

1. Association of variables
2. Relationship when data is ordinal
3. Difference between two independent groups
4. Difference between same group
5. When the group is more than two
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Explain various non-parametric tests
2. Explain the data entry procedure in SPSS.
GLOSSARY
Chi-square (χ2) statistic: used to assess the relationship

between two nominal variables (the statistical test is technically
Kruskal–Wallis test:A nonparametric test equivalent to the

standard one-way analysis of variance is H test
190
Mann–Whitney test: A nonparametric test for comparing the
means of two independent samples
Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficient:used to find
correlation among one or more of the variables is measured on an
ordinal (ranking) scale.
Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test: A nonparametric

test for comparing the mean of two matched (related) samples
SUGGESTED READINGS
• C.R. Kothari, 2004, Research Methodology – Methods

and Techniques, New Age International (P) Limited
Publishers, New Delhi.
Psychologicalresearch.NewDelhi,India: Sage
PublicationsIndia Pvt. Ltd.
191
BLOCK V: REPORT WRTING AND COMPUTER IN RESEARCH
UNIT 12: WRITING RESEARCH PROPOSAL

UNIT 13: PRESENTING RESEARCH
UNIT 14: ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN RESEARCH
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UNIT – 12
WRITING A RESEARCH PRPOSAL
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
12.1 Writing a Research Proposal
12.2 Plagiarism and Self-Plagiarism
12.3 References and In-text Citations
12.4 Usage of Electronic Source
12.5 APA Primer
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Key Words
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
In the previous units we have learnt the entire methodology

including statistics while doing a research Irrespective of the
course research scholars are expected to submit the proposal in
order to identify the area of interest and their knowledge in the
field. In this unit let us look into the process of writing a research
proposal.
OBJECTIVES
• The contents to be included in research proposal

• How to avoid plagiarism and self-plagiarism
• How to write the reference and in-text citations
• How to make use of computer and citation of internet search
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12.1 WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
A research proposal is a concise and coherent summary of your

proposed research. It sets out the central issues or questions that
you intend to address. It outlines the general area of study within
which your research falls, referring to the current state of
knowledge and any recent debates on the topic. It also
demonstrates the originality of your proposed research.
The proposal is the most important document that you submit as

part of the application process. It gives you an opportunity to
demonstrate that you have the aptitude for graduate level
research, for example, by demonstrating that you have the ability
to communicate complex ideas clearly, concisely and critically.
The proposal also helps us to match your research interest with an
appropriate supervisor.
What is your research proposal used for and why is it

important?
• It is used to establish whether there is expertise to support

your proposed area of research
• It forms part of the assessment of your application
• The research proposal you submit as part of your application

is just the starting point, as your ideas evolve your proposed
research is likely to change
Regardless of whether you are applying for the M.Phil or PhD

programmes or for any project, your research proposal should
normally include the following information:
1. TITLE
The title should give a clear indication of the proposed research

approach or key question. A title should summarize the main idea
of the manuscript simply and, if possible, with style. It should be a
concise statement of the main topic and should identify the
variables or theoretical issues under investigation and the
relationship between them. An example of a good title is “Effect of
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Transformed Letters on Reading Speed.” A title should be fully
explanatory when standing alone.
2. BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE
This should include the back ground and issue of the proposed
research, introduction to the variables and samples. A short
review of literature should be included to identify the research gap
and to explain the need for the study.
3. RESEARCH QUESTION(S)
Research question should be formulated clearly, giving an

explanation as to what problems and issues are to be explored
and why they are worth exploring
4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This unit should include:
• Research objectives and hypotheses
• In case of testing models, theoretical frame work of the model

to be explained
• Research design, variables of the study, operational definition

of the variables
• The tools used for measuring the variables
• Sampling technique with inclusion and exclusion criteria and

sample size
• Statistical analysis based on the hypothesis framed
• Ethical consideration
• Administration procedure
5. PLAN OF WORK & TIME SCHEDULE
While writing the project proposal, an outline of the various stages

and corresponding time lines for developing and implementing the
research, including writing up of the thesis should be included. In
case of project proposal, the financial estimate to be given. Time
frame for every step in research process is very important.
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6. REFERENCE
List of references to key articles and texts discussed within the

research proposal should be included. In case of computer
search, web address from the sources is retrieved should be
included.
12.2 PLAGIARISM AND SELF-PLAGIARISM
Cite the work of those individuals whose ideas, theories, or

research have directly influenced the research work. They may
provide key background information, support or dispute the thesis,
or offer critical definitions and data. Citation of an article implies
that the researcher have personally read the cited work. In addition
to crediting the ideas of others that have been used to build the
thesis, provide documentation for all facts and figures that are not
common knowledge.
Plagiarism: Researchers do not claim the words and ideas of

another as their own; they give credit where credit is due (APA
Ethics Code Standard 8.11, Plagiarism). Quotation marks should
be used to indicate the exact words of another. Each time you
paraphrase another author (i.e., summarize a passage or
rearrange the order of a sentence and change some of the words),
you need to credit the source in the text. The key element of this
principle is that authors do not present the work of another as if it
were their own work. This can extend to ideas as well as written
words. If authors model a study after one done by someone else,
the originating author should be given credit. If the rationale for a
study was suggested in the Discussion section of someone else’s
article, that person should be given credit. Given the free
exchange of ideas, which is very important to the health of
intellectual discourse, authors may not know where an idea for a
study originated. If authors do know, however, they should
acknowledge the source; this includes personal communications.
196
Self-plagiarism: Just as researchers do not present the work of
others as their own (plagiarism), they do not present their own
previously published work as new scholarship (self-plagiarism).
There are, however, limited circumstances (e.g., describing the
details of an instrument or an analytic approach) under which
authors may wish to duplicate without attribution (citation) their
previously used words, feeling that extensive self referencing is
undesirable or awkward. When the duplicated words are limited in
scope, this approach is permissible. When duplication of one’s
own words is more extensive, citation of the duplicated words
should be the norm. What constitutes the maximum acceptable
length of duplicated material is difficult to define but must conform
to legal notions of fair use. The general view is that the core of the
new document must constitute an original contribution to
knowledge, and only the amount of previously published material
necessary to understand that contribution should be included,
primarily in the discussion of theory and methodology. When
feasible, all of the author’s own words that are cited should be
located in a single paragraph or a few paragraphs, with a citation
at the end of each. Opening such paragraphs with a phrase like
“as I have previously discussed” will also alert readers to the
status of the upcoming material.
12.3 REFERENCES AND INTEXT CITATIONS
In order to avoid plagiarism let us look into how to cite the referred
articles. When quoting, always provide the author, year, and
specific page citation or paragraph number for non-paginated
material in the text and include a complete reference in the
reference list.
• If the quotation comprises fewer than 40 words, incorporate

it into text and enclose the quotation with double quotation
marks.
• If the quotation comprises 40 or more words, display it in a

freestanding block of text and omit the quotation marks.
Start such a block quotation on a new line and indent the
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block about a half inch from the left margin (in the same
position as a new paragraph).
When paraphrasing or referring to an idea contained in another

work, provide a page or paragraph number, especially when it
would help an interested reader locate the relevant passage in a
long or complete text.
Written permission from the owner of copyrighted work is required

if you include lengthy quotations or if you include reprinted or
adapted tables or figures. Reprinting indicates that the material is
reproduced exactly as it appeared originally, without modifications,
in the way in which it was intended. Adaptation refers to the
modification of material so that it is suitable for a new purpose
(e.g., paraphrasing or presenting an original theory or idea
discussed in a long passage in a published article in a new way
that suits your study; using part of a table or figure in a new table
or figure in your manuscript).
References in APA publications are cited in text with an author–

date citation system and are listed alphabetically in the reference
list. This style of citation briefly identifies the source for readers
and enables them to locate the source of information in the
alphabetical reference list at the end of the article. Each reference
cited in text must appear in the reference list, and each entry in the
reference list must be cited in text.
Method of citation requires that the surname of the author (do not
include suffixes such as Jr.) and the year of publication be inserted
in the text at the appropriate point
✓ Kessler (2003) found that among epidemiological

samples
✓ Early onset results in a more persistent and severe

course (Kessler, 2003).
• If the name of the author appears as part of the narrative,

as in the first example, cite only the year of publication in
parentheses. Otherwise, place both the name and the year,
198
separated by a comma, in parentheses (as in the second
example).
• When a work has two authors, cite both names every time
the reference occurs in text. When a work has three, four,
or five authors, cite all authors the first time the reference
occurs; in subsequent citations, include only the surname
of the first author followed by et al. and the year if it is the
first citation of the reference within a paragraph.
✓ Kisangau, Lyaruu, Hosea, and Joseph (2007) found

[Use as first citation in text.]
✓ Kisangau et al. (2007) found [Use as subsequent

first citation per paragraph thereafter.]
• When a work has six or more authors, cite only the

surname of the first author followed by et al.
• Order the citations of two or more works within the same
parentheses alphabetically in the same order in which they
appear in the reference list.
• Arrange two or more works by the same authors (in the
same order) by year of publication.
• The reference list at the end of a thesis provides the
information necessary to identify and retrieve each source.
Choose references judiciously and include only the sources
that you used in the research and preparation of the article.
APA journals and other journals using APA Style generally
require reference lists, not bibliographies. In general, a
reference should contain the author name, date of
publication, title of the work, and publication data.
Example for writing reference for journal article
Janet, P. (1906). The pathogenesis of some impulsions. Journal of

Abnormal Psychology, 1, 1–17.
In a reference to an edited book, place the editors’ names in the

author position, and enclose the abbreviation Ed. or Eds. in
199
parentheses after the last editor’s name. The period follows the
parenthetical abbreviation (Eds.).
Author, A. A. (2008). Title of the chapter. In E. E. Editor (Ed.), Title

of book (pp. xx–xx). Location: Publisher
Write In press in parentheses (in Press) for articles that have been
accepted for publication but that have not yet been published.
12.4 USAGE OF ELECTRONIC SOURCE
Publishing in the online environment has greatly increased the

efficiency of publication processes and has contributed to a more
vibrant and timely sharing of research results. However, the
electronic dissemination of information has also led to a number of
new publishing models. Unedited articles can now be
disseminated on the Internet in advance of publication.
Researchers now-a-days always make use of e resources for
related review of literature. And it is easy now to get articles in net
more easily than printed journals. At the same time we need to
mention in the reference the source from where the information is
sought. The URL is used to map digital information on the Internet.
The components of a URL are as follows:
Protocol /Host name /Path to document / file name of specific

document
http://www.apa.org/monitor/oct00/workplace.html
Developed by a group of international publishers, the DOI System

provides a means of persistent identification for managing
information on digital networks (see http://www.doi.org/). The DOI
System is implemented through registration agencies such as
Cross Ref, which provides citation-linking services for the scientific
publishing sector. According to their mission statement, CrossRef
is dedicated “to enable easy identification and use of trustworthy
200
electronic content by promoting the cooperative development and
application of a sustainable infrastructure.
A DOI is a unique alphanumeric string assigned by a registration

agency (the International DOI Foundation) to identify content and
provide a persistent link to its location on the Internet. The
publisher assigns a DOI when your article is published and made
available electronically. All DOI numbers begin with a 10 and
contain a prefix and a suffix separated by a slash. The prefix is a
unique number of four or more digits assigned to organizations;
the suffix is assigned by the publisher and was designed to be
flexible with publisher identification standards.
Provide the DOI, if one has been assigned to the content.

Publishers who follow best practices publish the DOI prominently
on the first page of an article. Because the DOI string can be long,
it is safest to copy and paste whenever possible. Provide the
alphanumeric string for the DOI exactly as published in the article.
This is not a style issue but a retrieval issue.
Use this format for the DOI in references: doi:xxxxxxx
When a DOI is used, no further retrieval information is needed to

identify or locate the content. If no DOI has been assigned to the
content, provide the home page URL of the journal or of the book
or report publisher.
Test URLs in your references at each stage prior to the

submission and/or publication of your work.
If no DOI is assigned to the content and you retrieved it online,

include the home page URL for the journal, newsletter, or
magazine in the reference. Use this format: Retrieved from
http://www.xxxxxxxx
For an entire book, use the following reference formats:
✓ Author, A. A. (1997). Title of work. Retrieved from

http://www.xxxxxxx
✓ Author, A. A. (2006). Title of work. doi:xxxxx
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For a chapter in a book or entry in a reference book, use the
following formats:
✓ Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (1993). Title of chapter or

entry. In A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pp. xxx–
xxx). Retrieved from http://www.xxxxxxx
✓ Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (1995). Title of chapter or
entry. In A. Editor, B. Editor, & C. Editor (Eds.), Title of
book (pp. xxx–xxx). doi:xxxxxxxx
Electronic version of print book
✓ Shotton, M. A. (1989). Computer addiction? A study of

computer dependency [DX Reader version]. Retrieved from
http://www.ebookstore.tandf.co.uk /html/index.asp
12.5 APA PRIMER
What is APA?: American Psychological Association (APA)

founded in 1892 is the scientific and professional organization
representing psychology in the United States, with more than
133,000 researchers, educators, clinicians, consultants, and
students as its members. Its mission is to promote the
advancement, communication, and application of psychological
science and knowledge to benefit society and improve lives.
What is APA Primer?
APA primer is nothing, but the guidelines provided by the

American Psychological Association that would codify the many
components of scientific writing to increase the ease of reading
comprehension.
APA Style originated in 1929, when a group of psychologists,

anthropologists, and business managers convened and sought to
establish a simple set of procedures, or style guidelines.
Since then, the scope and length of the Publication Manual have
grown in response to the needs of researchers, students, and
educators across the social and behavioral sciences, health care,
202
natural sciences, humanities, and more; however, the spirit of the
original authors’ intentions remains.
Why is APA Style needed?
Uniformity and consistency enable readers to (a) focus on the

ideas being presented rather than formatting and (b) scan works
quickly for key points, findings, and sources.
Style guidelines encourage authors to fully disclose essential

information and allow readers to dispense with minor distractions,
such as inconsistencies or omissions in punctuation, capitalization,
in-text citations, references, and presentation of statistics.
Does APA Style cover everything about writing?
APA Style covers the aspects of scholarly writing most pertinent to

writing in psychology, nursing, business, communications,
engineering, and related fields. It specifically addresses the
preparation of draft manuscripts being submitted for publication in
a journal and the preparation of student papers being submitted for
a course assignment.
The Publication Manual does not cover general rules explained in

widely available style books and examples of usage with little
relevance to the behavioral and social sciences. Among the most
helpful general guides to editorial style are Words into Type (Skillin
& Gay, 1974) and the Chicago Manual of Style (17th ed.;
University of Chicago Press, 2017).
Style and Grammar Guidelines of APA
Paper Format: It deals with

• Accessibility of APA Style
• Font
• Headings
• Line Spacing
• Margins
• Order of Pages
• Page Header
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• Paragraph Alignment and Indentation
• Sample Papers
• Title Page Setup
• In-Text Citations: It deals with
• Appropriate Level of Citation
• Basic Principles of Citation
• Classroom or Intranet Sources
• Paraphrasing
• Personal Communications
• Plagiarism
• Quotations
• Quotations From Research Participants
• Secondary Sources
Mechanics of Style: It deals with
• Abbreviations
• Capitalization
• Italics and Quotation Marks
• Lists
• Numbers
• Punctuation
• Spelling and Hyphenation
Bias-Free Language: It deals with
• Age
• Disability
• Gender
• General Principles for Reducing Bias
• Historical Context
• Intersectionality
• Participation in Research
• Racial and Ethnic Identity
• Sexual Orientation
• Socioeconomic Status
204
Tables and Figures: It deals with
• Accessible Use of Color in Figures

• Figure Setup
• Sample Figures
• Sample Tables
• Table Setup
References: It deals with
• Archival Documents and Collections

• Basic Principles of Reference List Entries
• Database Information in References
• DOIs and URLs
• Elements of Reference List Entries
• Missing Reference Information
• Reference Examples
• Reference Lists Versus Bibliographies
• Works Included in a Reference List
Grammar: It deals with
• Active and Passive Voice

• Anthropomorphism
• First-Person Pronouns
• Logical Comparisons
• Singular “They”
• Verb Tense
Publication Process: It deals with
• Adapting a Dissertation or Thesis into a Journal Article

• Correction Notices
• Cover Letters
• Journal Article Reporting Standards
• Response to Reviewers
205
LET US SUM UP
The present unit explained the method of writing research proposal along
with the ways of giving credit to the authors whose works the researcher
refers to. More over orientation about APA Primer, plagiarism and self-
plagiarism and Ways to avoid are also highlighted. Also the unit explained
how to write the reference unit both from internet resources and printed
materials.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. A is a concise and coherent summary of your proposed

research
2. A summarizes the main idea of the manuscript.
3. Writing someone’s work as theirs is .
4. Presenting their own previously published work as new
scholarship is .
5. Journal name should be written in
6. to be mentioned if researcher reproduces the exact word of the
other author.
7. While quoting other’s word should start as
1. research proposal
2. title
3. plagiarism
4. self-plagiarism
5. italics
6. Page number
7. New paragraph
206
GLOSSARY
American Psychological Association (APA): is the scientific and

professional organization representing psychology in the United States,
with more than 133,000 researchers, educators, clinicians, consultants,
and students as its members.
Citation: A bibliographic citation is a reference to a book, article, web

page, or other published item
DOI: Digital Object Identifier (DOI) is a unique alphanumeric string

assigned by a registration agency (the International DOI Foundation) to
identify content and provide a persistent link to its location on the Internet.
Electronic source: Electronic resources (or e-resources) are materials in

digital format accessible electronically.
Plagiarism: Plagiarism is presenting someone else's work or ideas as

your own, with or without their consent, by incorporating it into your work
without full acknowledgement.
Self plagiarism: Self-plagiarism means reusing work that you have

already published or submitted for a class.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Explain how to write a research proposal.

2. What is a research proposal?
3. Define plagiarism
4. Define self-plagiarism
5. Explain how to avoid plagiarism.
6. Explain various ways to cite internet resources.
SUGGESTED READINGS
• Source : https://apastyle.apa.org/&https://www.apa.org/

Delhi.
207
Pvt. Ltd.
208
UNIT – 13
PRESENTING RESEARCH
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Research Report
13.3 Strategies to Improve Writing Style
13.4 Typing Guidelines
13.5 Oral and Paper Presentation
13.6 Presenting Research
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Key Words
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
The present unit explains how to write the article for paper
presentation and for poster presentation. It also includes the font
size, spacing and other rules according APA for writing an article
and thesis.
OBJECTIVES

• How to write the research article with APA standards
• How to present research paper
• The APA format in writing the article and thesis
209
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Before beginning to write, consider the best length and structure

for the findings you wish to share. Ordering your thoughts logically,
both at the paragraph and at the sentence level will strengthen the
impact of your writing. Let us first look into the ideal length of the
research work.
Length: The optimal length of a manuscript is the number of pages

needed to effectively communicate the primary ideas of the study,
review, or theoretical analysis. As a rule “less is more.”
Concise headings help the reader anticipate key points and track
the development of the argument.
13.2 RESEARCH REPORT
The prime objective of scientific reporting is clear communication.

You can achieve this by presenting ideas in an orderly manner and
by expressing yourself smoothly and precisely. Establishing a tone
that conveys the essential points of your study in an interesting
manner will engage readers and communicate your ideas more
effectively. The following things to be considered while writing the
thesis
a) Continuity in the presentation of ideas

b) Smoothness in expression
c) Present the ideas and findings directly
d) Short words and short sentences are easier to comprehend
than are long ones.
e) Make certain that every word means exactly what you intend it
to mean.
f) Should avoid using jargon and colloquial language
13.3 STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE WRITING STYLE
Authors use various strategies in putting their thoughts on paper.

The fit between author and strategy is more important than the
particular strategy used. Three approaches to achieving
professional and effective communication are (a) writing from an
outline; (b) putting aside the first draft, then rereading it later; and
210
(c) asking a colleague to review and critique the draft. Apart from
these strategies researcher should reduce the bias in the
language. While writing the results and discussion should avoid
the bias in interpreting the results.
13.3.1 Guidelines to reduce the bias
a) Precision is essential in scientific writing; when you refer to a

person or persons, choose words that are accurate, clear, and free
from bias. For example use the word Gender as it is cultural and
is the term to use when referring to women and men as social
groups. Sex is biological; use it when the biological distinction is
predominant.
b) Avoid labeling people when possible. For example while doing

research with sensitive participants like transgender, should
address them carefully.
c) Write about the people in the study in a way that acknowledges

their participation.
d) At most care should be taken while addressing to gender roles,

sexual orientation, disabilities and any other sensitive issues.
e) Verbs are vigorous, direct communicators. Use the active rather

than the passive voice, and select tense and mood carefully.
f) Use the past tense to express an action or a condition that

occurred at a specific, definite time in the past, as when discussing
another researcher’s work and when reporting the results.
g) An adjective or an adverb, whether a single word or a phrase,

must clearly refer to the word it modifies.
h) To enhance the reader’s understanding, present parallel ideas

in parallel or coordinate form.
13.4 TYPING GUIDELINES
While presenting or submitting the findings, the following aspects

has to be taken care of by the researcher, as many a times it may
give a ambiguity in the presentation of the salient findings. Hence,
certain important items were discussed below:
211
13.4.1 Punctuation
Punctuation establishes the rhythm of a sentence, telling the

reader where to pause (comma, semicolon, and colon), stop
(period and question mark), or take a detour (dash, parentheses,
and brackets). Punctuation of a sentence usually denotes a pause
in thought; different kinds of punctuation indicate different kinds
and lengths of pauses.
Use the following techniques in punctuation
a) Insert one space after commas, colons, and semicolons.

b) Use a period to end a complete sentence.
c) Use a dash to indicate only a sudden interruption in the
continuity of a sentence. (-)
d) Use parenthesis while using abbreviation.
13.4.2 Spellings
Spelling should conform to standard American English as

exemplified in Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (2005), the
standard spelling reference for APA journals and books; spelling of
psychological terms should conform to the APA Dictionary of
Psychology (VandenBos, 2007).
Compound words take many forms; that is, two words may be
written as (a) two separate words; (b) a hyphenated word; or (c)
one unbroken, “solid” word.
Capitalize the first word in a complete sentence.
To maximize clarity, use abbreviations sparingly.
Because the abbreviations that psychologists use in their daily

writing may not be familiar to students or to readers in other
disciplines or other countries, a term to be abbreviated must, on its
first appearance, be written out completely and followed
immediately by its abbreviation in parentheses.
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13.4.3 Font Size And Line Spacing
Research report should be typed in times new roman font with 12

sizes with double line spacing. Headings should be typed in 14
sizes.
13.5 ORAL & PAPER PRESENTATION
Oral presentations usually introduce a discussion of a topic or

research paper. A good oral presentation is focused, concise, and
interesting in order to trigger a discussion.
Components for an effective oral presentation
• Be well prepared; write a detailed outline.
• Introduce the subject.
• Talk about the sources and the method.
• Indicate if there are conflicting views about the subject

(conflicting views trigger discussion).
• Make a statement about your new results (if this is your

research paper).
• Use visual aids or handouts if appropriate.
Source :
https://guides.library.ucla.edu/c.php?g=180334&p=1188045#s-lg-
box-3594142
A guide to oral presentations
The ability to undertake an oral presentation is a valuable skill for

assessment tasks, interviews and your future career. This skill can
be developed by everyone and is not reserved to those who are
"naturally" confident at public speaking. This guide will provide you
with some tips and techniques for ensuring your presentation is
well planned, structured and delivered.
213
1. Plan
Analyze your audience
Some questions to consider include:
• Who is your audience?
• What do they know about the subject? What terminology will

they know?
• What do they want to know?
• How can you engage this audience? What matters to them?
Determine the purpose
The purpose of a presentation may be to provide information,

persuade the audience to accept a point of view, or encourage
them to take action. Knowing your purpose will help you decide
what to include and how to structure your presentation.
Select effective information
• What kind of information will best support the presentation?
• What kind of information will appeal to the audience?
• Are there some useful examples or case studies to illustrate

an idea?
2. Prepare
Structure provides a framework for your presentation.
1. Introduction - an overview of the issue and the main ideas to

be considered. Explain the issue, the background and key
terms.
2. Body - the main ideas, reasoning, evidence and explanation

provided. Avoid overloading your audience with too much
information. Categories your information into key ideas.
3. Conclusion - a summary of what you have considered with

repetition of key ideas.
Consider how long you can spend on each section, given the time
available.
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Select appropriate visual aids
Remember that the visuals are not the presentation. Their purpose
is to enhance what you are saying by providing a visual link.
3. Practice and present
The key to a good delivery is to practice your speech and your

body language. Here are some tips to assist you:
• Practice your presentation several times, aloud and standing

up.
• Time the presentation. If it is too long, remove and/or

simplify information, rather than speaking more quickly.
• Stand straight with your feet "planted" in the ground. This will
eliminate swaying and nervous movements in the legs. You
can move but do so with purpose.
• Establish a "resting place" for your hands at the front of

your body, such as cupped at waist level.
• Eye contact is a powerful means to engage your audience so

look at your audience when you speak.
• Speak more slowly and clearly than you normally would.

Provide emphasis through voice intonation, volume and
pausing.
What is Paper Presentation?
Scientific oral and paper presentations are not simply readings of

scientific manuscripts at an overall level; your scientific talk should
be organized into sections that parallel the sections in the scientific
paper. As in the scientific paper, the key sections are:
INTRODUCTION: The rationale for the experiment (why did you
doit?)
METHODS: The methods that were used (how did you do it?)
RESULTS: The results obtained (what did you find?)
DISCUSSION: An interpretation of those results (what does this
mean?)
215
Although not part of a standard oral presentation, you should end
your talk with:
5) CRITIQUE AND GROUP DISCUSSION: Your job as
presenter is to not only present the paper, but also lead class
discussion of its strengths, weaknesses, and broader implications.
To help focus the class discussion, end your presentation with a list of
approximately three major questions/issues worthy of further discussion
(see below). Plan on about 20 minutes for 1-4, and 10 minutes for 5.
INTRODUCTION
The first 1 or 2 slides should introduce your subject to the audience. Very
briefly (you only have about 20-25 minutes total) give a concise
background. Explicitly state the question addressed in the paper. Start
with the “big picture” and then immediately drive to how your study fits in
the big picture (one or two sentences.) One key difference of the talk
versus the paper is that you should state your major conclusion(s) up
front. That is, in a few sentences, tell the audience where you will lead
them in this presentation. (e.g. “Although previous studies have
found that intertemporal neuronal receptive fields are very large, in this
talk I will show that, under certain conditions, IT receptive fields are
remarkably small.”)
2. METHODS
There should be 1 or 2 methods slides that allow the audience to

understand how the experiment was conducted. You might include a flow
chart describing the “recipe” of the experiment. Do not put in details that
might be appropriate in a paper (people can ask about them at the end if
they are interested).
3. RESULTS
The next slides should show the major results. If appropriate, it is nice to
start with a slide showing the basic phenomenon it reminds your audience
of the variables that were manipulated and introduces your audience to
the basic unit of measure. Next, show figures that clearly illustrate the
main results. Do not show charts of raw data. All figures should be
clearly labeled. When showing figures, be sure to explain the figure axes
216
before you talk about the data (e.g., “the X axis shows time. The Y-axis
shows level of activity”).
4. DISCUSSION (Conclusions)
List the conclusions in clear, easy to understand language. You can read
them to the audience. Also give one or two sentences about what this
likely means (your interpretation) in the big picture (i.e. come full circle
back to your introduction) and perhaps some future directions.
5. CRITIQUE
Please end your presentation with at least two or three major things that
should be discussed. These should consist of things like: things that might
be improved in the study, additional experiments that you think might be
appropriate (better?), and general issues about object recognition (i.e. put
the study in the “big picture” of the course). Discussion from the audience
should be especially encouraged at this point, but you should be prepared
to foster this by raising these issues (e.g. one slide with a list of issues).
13.6 PRESENTING RESEARCH
13.6.1 Article and Poster
Reporting standards provide a degree of comprehensiveness in the

information that is routinely included in reports of empirical investigations.
The motivation for the development of reporting standards has come from
within the disciplines of the behavioral, social, educational, and medical
sciences. Uniform reporting standards make it easier to generalize across
fields, to more fully understand the implications of individual studies, and
to allow techniques of meta-analysis to proceed more efficiently.
The following elements should included while presenting research papers
13.6.2 Title
Every empirical research report should have title which is self explanatory
about the entire research. Title should not begin like A study on………..
13.6.3 Author’s name and institutional affiliation
The preferred form of an author’s name is first name, middle initial(s), and
last name; this form reduces the likelihood of mistaken identity. The
217
affiliation identifies the location where the author or authors were when
the research was conducted, which is usually an institution.
13.6.4 Abstract
An abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the

article; it allows readers to survey the contents of an article quickly and,
like a title, it enables persons interested in the document to retrieve it from
abstracting and indexing databases. The label Abstract should appear in
uppercase and lowercase letters, centered, at the top of the page. Type
the abstract itself as a single paragraph without paragraph indentation.
13.6.5 Introduction
The body of a manuscript opens with an introduction that presents the

specific problem under study. A scholarly description of earlier work in the
introduction provides a summary of the most recent directly related work
and recognizes the priority of the work of others. Demonstrate the logical
continuity between previous and present work. After you have introduced
the problem and have developed the background material, explain your
approach to solving the problem. In empirical studies, this usually involves
stating your hypotheses or specific question and describing how these
were derived from theory or are logically connected to previous data and
argumentation. Clearly develop the rationale for each.
13.6.6 Method
The Method section describes in detail how the study was conducted,
including conceptual and operational definitions of the variables used in
the study. Different types of studies will rely on different methodologies;
however, a complete description of the methods used enables the reader
to evaluate the appropriateness of the methods and the reliability and the
validity of the results. It also includes description of (a) any experimental
manipulations or interventions used and how they were delivered—for
example, any mechanical apparatus used to deliver them; (b) sampling
procedures and sample size and precision; (c) measurement approaches
(including the psychometric properties of the instruments used); and (d)
the research design
218
Describe the sample adequately. Detail the sample’s major
demographic characteristics, such as age; sex; ethnic and/or racial
group; level of education; socioeconomic, generational, or
immigrant status; disability status; sexual orientation; gender
identity; and language preference as well as important topic-
specific characteristics (e.g., achievement level in studies of
educational interventions). Describe the procedures for selecting
participants, including (a) the sampling method. Specify the
research design in the Method section.
If interventions or experimental manipulations were used in the

study, describe their specific content. Include the details of the
interventions or manipulations intended for each study condition,
including control groups (if any), and describe how and when
interventions (experimental manipulations) were actually
administered.
13.5.7 Results
In the Results section, summarize the collected data and the

analysis performed on those data relevant to the discourse that is
to follow. Report the data in sufficient detail to justify the
conclusions. Mention all relevant results, including those that run
counter to expectation; be sure to include small effect sizes (or
statistically non-significant findings) when theory predicts large (or
statistically significant) ones. Do not hide uncomfortable results by
omission.
Analysis of data and the reporting of the results of those analyses

are fundamental aspects of the conduct of research. When
reporting the results of inferential statistical tests or when providing
estimates of parameters or effect sizes, include sufficient
information to help the reader fully understand the analyses
conducted and possible alternative explanations for the outcomes
of those analyses.
219
13.6.8 Discussion
Open the Discussion section with a clear statement of the support

or nonsupport for your original hypotheses, distinguished by
primary and secondary hypotheses. If hypotheses were not
supported, offer post hoc explanations. Similarities and differences
between your results and the work of others should be used to
contextualize, confirm, and clarify your conclusions. Do not simply
reformulate and repeat points already made; each new statement
should contribute to the interpretation and to the reader’s
understanding of the problem.
Acknowledge the limitations of your research, and address

alternative explanations of the results. Discuss the generalizability,
or external validity, of the findings.
13.6.9 References
References are used to document statements made about the

literature, just as data in the manuscript support interpretations
and conclusions. The references cited in the manuscript do not
need to be exhaustive but should be sufficient to support the need
for the research and to ensure that readers can place it in the
context of previous research and theorizing. Footnotes are used
to provide additional content or to acknowledge copyright
permission status.
13.6.10 Appendices
This section includes the material that has been used to collect
data and materials used in interventions
Both the paper presentation and poster presentation will have the
same content. In poster all the heading will appear in the same
poster whereas in paper presentation.
220
LET US SUM UP
The present unit presented the method of presenting the research

work through Oral and Poster presentation with a clear explanation
of the language to be used, titles, spacing, and interpretation of
results.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What are the headings to be used in research article?

2. font to be used in research article
3. size font to be used in research paper
4. spacing to be used
1. Title, affiliation, abstract, introduction, method, results,

discussion and reference
2. Time new roman
3. 12
4. Double
GLOSSARY
Empirical article - An empirical research article reports research

based on actual observation or experiment.
Oral Presentation - is a formal, research-based presentation of

your work.
Poster presentation - A poster presentation is a way to

communicate your research or your understanding of a topic in a
short and concise format
References- used to document statements made about the

literature, just as data in the manuscript support interpretations
and conclusions.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Explain the language to be used while writing research article.

2. Describe different heading to be included in presenting
research papers.
221
SUGGESTED READINGS
• https://www.monash.edu/rlo/quick-study-guides/a-guide-to-oral-
presentations# text
• https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/brain-and-cognitive-sciences/9-916-
the-neural-basis-of-visual-object-recognition-in-monkeys-and-
humans-spring-2005/assignments/how_to_pres_pap.pdf
Delhi.
Pvt. Ltd.
222
UNIT-14
ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN RESEARCH
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
14.1 Role of computers in Research- Introduction
14.1.1 Some of the key roles of computers in Research
14.1.2 Role of Computers in the phases of research process
14.2 Internet and Research
14.2.1 Search Tools
14.2.2 Website authorship
14.2.3 Internet research software
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Key Words
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
Research activities enhance credibility, and also add value both to

immediate community and the larger global community. In modern
scientific and social scientific research, computers opened up new
opportunities regarding how data can be processed to yield valuable
information and knowledge. The importance of computers in research is
exceptionally high and the use of a computer can help scientific research
immensely. It is an almost invaluable and priceless tool. This unit details
the Role of computers in each phases of scientific research.
223
OBJECTIVES
• Discuss the importance of computers in modern research

• Explain the role played by the computer in each phases of
research
• Discuss about the Search Tools
• Explain the Website authorship
• Utility of Internet research software
14.1 ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN RESEARCH
Since time immemorial man has been feeling the need to compute, count,
store and get accurate results all the time and always. The development
of electronic devices, especially the computers, has given added impetus
to these activities. Problems which could not be solved earlier due to
sheer amount of computations involved can be tackled with the aid of
computers accurately and rapidly. Computer is certainly one of the most
versatile and ingenious developments of the modern technological age.
Today people use computers in almost every walk of life. Computers are
no longer just high speed arithmetic machines as they have the ability to
use principles of philosophy, psychology, mathematics and linguistics to
produce output that mimic the human mind.
The sophistication in computer technology has reached the stage that it

will no more be long before it is impossible to tell whether you are talking
to man or machine. Indeed, the advancement in computers is astonishing.
To the researcher, the use of computer to analyse complex data has
made complicated research designs practical. Electronic computers have
by now become an indispensable part of research in the physical and
behavioural sciences as well as in the humanities. The importance of
computers in research is exceptionally high and the use of a computer
can help scientific research immensely, and is an almost invaluable and
priceless tool in modern research.
Kothari (2004) computers can perform many statistical calculations easily

and quickly. Computation of means, standard deviations, correlation
224
coefficients, ‘t’ tests, analysis of variance, analysis of covariance, multiple
regression, factor analysis and various nonparametric analyses are just a
few out of the operations that computers are used to handle efficiently in
research processes. Also, researchers in economics and other social
sciences have found computers to constitute an indispensable part of their
research equipment. Analyzing tons of statistical data is made possible
using specially designed algorithms that are implemented by computers.
This makes the extremely time-consuming job of data analysis to be a
matter of a few minutes. In addition, according to Omkar (2016) Data can
be processed and analyzed with greater ease and speed. Moreover, the
results obtained are generally correct and reliable. Researcher can
generate statistical data, put findings of the collective data, make the
design; pictorial graphing and report are being developed with the help of
computers. So, this is the crucial and most essential part for the
researcher which can perform easily with the Microsoft office tool like
word, excel, power point etc.
Another role of computer in research is the use of online full text

databases and online research libraries/virtual libraries which are the
direct outcome of the growth in telecommunications networks and
technology. These databases and libraries provide researchers with
online access to the contents of hundreds of thousands of books from
major publishing houses, research reports, and peer- reviewed articles in
electric journals (Sakar, 2012). Additionally, Omkar (2016) mentioned that
computers have provided an entirely new way to share knowledge.
Today, anyone can access the latest research papers that are made
available for free on websites. Sharing of knowledge and collaboration
through the internet has made international cooperation on scientific
projects possible. He went further to say that through various kinds of
analytical software programs; computers are contributing to scientific
research in every discipline, ranging from biology to astrophysics,
discovering new patterns and providing novel insights. When the work in
neural network based artificial intelligence advances and ISSN: 2289-
7615 Page 32 computers are granted with the ability to learn and think;
future advances in technology and research will be even more rapid.
225
Jibbrin, Musa & Shittu. (2018). Role of computer in scientific research
process. International Journal of Information System and Engineering.
Vol. 6 (No.1), April, 2018 ISSN: 2289-7615 DOI:
10.24924/ijise/2018.04/v6.iss1/27.3
14.1.1 Some of the key roles of computers in Research
Internet
Before you start research, you often want to quickly learn about possible
issues or topics of study by searching available sources of information.
Nearly all academic journals are available online, and many are organized
into online databases. Government agencies often have demographic or
economic information online you can use in your research.
Information Storage
Computers store vast amounts of information. You can quickly and

efficiently organize and search information, making for easier retrieval
than paper storage. You can store your raw data in multiple formats.
Some researchers conduct their research online, often through the use of
surveys.
Computational Tools
Computers began as powerful calculators, and that service is important to

research today. Regardless of the amount of data you have, you can do
more with it with a computer's help. Statistical programs, modeling
programs and spatial mapping tools are all possible because of
computers. Researchers can use information in new ways, such as
layering different types of maps on one another to discover new patterns
in how people use their environment.
Communication
Building knowledge through research requires communication between

experts to identify new areas requiring research and debating results.
Before computers, this was accomplished through papers and workshops.
Now, the world’s experts can communicate via email or web chats.
Information can be spread by virtual conferences. Knowledge from
marginalized groups, such as African scholars, is now more visible.
226
Mobility
Researchers can take computers anywhere, making it easier to conduct

field research and collect data. New areas of research in remote areas or
at a community level are opened up by the mobility of computers. Social
media sites have become a new medium for interaction and information.
14.1.2 Role of Computers in the phases of research process
There are five major phases of the research process where computer
plays different vital roles. They are: 1) Role of Computer in Conceptual
phase 2) Role of Computer in Design and planning phase 3) Role of
Computer in Empirical phase 4) Role of Computer in Analytic phase and
5) Role of Computer in Dissemination phase
1) Role of Computer in Conceptual Phase
The conceptual phase consists of formulation of research problem, review

of literature, theoretical frame work and formulation of hypothesis.
Role of Computers in Literature Review:
Computers help for searching the literatures (for review of literature) and
bibliographic references stored in the electronic databases of the World
Wide Web’s. It can thus be used for storing relevant published articles to
be retrieved whenever needed. This has the advantage over searching
the literatures in the form of books, journals and other newsletters at the
libraries which consume considerable amount of time and effort.
2) Role of Computers in Design and planning phase
Design and planning phase consist of research design, population,

research variables, sampling plan, reviewing research plan and pilot
study.
3) Role of Computers for Sample Size Calculation:
Several software’s are available to calculate the sample size required for
a proposed study. NCSS-PASS-GESS is such software. The standard
deviation of the data from the pilot study is required for the sample size
calculation.
4) Role of Computers in Empirical phase
227
Empirical phase consist of collecting and preparing the data for analysis.
Data Storage:
The data obtained from the subjects are stored in computers as word files
or excel spread sheets. This has the advantage of making necessary
corrections or editing the whole layout of the tables if needed, which is
impossible or time-consuming in case of writing in papers. Thus,
computers help in data entry, data editing, data management including
follow up actions etc. Computers also allow for greater flexibility in
recording the data while they are collected as well as greater ease during
the analysis of these data. In research studies, the preparation and
inputting data is the most labour-intensive and time consuming aspect of
the work. Typically the data will be initially recorded on a questionnaire or
record form suitable for its acceptance by the computer. To do this the
researcher in conjunction with the statistician and the programmer, will
convert the data into Microsoft word file or excel spread sheet. These
spread sheets can be directly opened with statistical software’s for
analysis.
4) Role of Computers in Data Analysis
This phase consist of statistical analysis of the data and interpretation of

results.
Data Analysis: Much software is now available to perform the

‘mathematical part ‘of the research process i.e. the calculations using
various statistical methods.
Software’s like SPSS, NCSS-PASS, STATA and Sysat are some of the
widely used. They can be like calculating the sample size for a proposed
study, hypothesis testing and calculating the power of the study.
Familiarity with any one package will suffice to carry out the most intricate
statistical analyses. Computers are useful not only for statistical analyses,
but also to monitor the accuracy and completeness of the data as they are
collected.
Use of Computer in Data Processing and Tabulation
Research involves large amounts of data, which can be handled

manually or by computers. Computers provide the best alternative
228
for more than one reason. Besides its capacity to process large
amounts of data, it also analyses data with the help of a number of
statistical procedures. Computers carry out processing and
analysis of data flawlessly and with a very high speed. The
statistical analysis that took months earlier takes now a few
seconds or few minutes. Today, availability of statistical software
and access to computers has increased substantially over the last
few years all over the world. While there are many specialised
software application packages for different types of data analysis,
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) is one such
package that is often used by researchers for data processing and
analysis. It is preferred choice for social sciences research
analysis due to its easy to use interface and comprehensive range
of data manipulation and analytical tools.
5) Role of Computers in Research Dissemination
Research publishing: The research article is typed in word format

and converted to portable data format (PDF) and stored and/or
published in the World Wide Web.
14.2 INTERNET AND RESEARCH
Internet research is the practice of using Internet information,

especially free information on the World Wide Web, or Internet-
based resources (like Internet discussion forum) in research.
Internet research has had a profound impact on the way ideas are
formed and knowledge is created. Common applications of
Internet research include personal research on a particular subject
(something mentioned on the news, a health problem, etc.),
students doing research for academic projects and papers, and
journalists and other writers researching stories.
Research is a broad term. Here, it is used to mean "looking

something up (on the Web)". It includes any activity where a topic
is identified, and an effort is made to actively gather information for
the purpose of furthering understanding. It may include some post-
collection analysis like a concern for quality or synthesis.
229
Through searches on the Internet hundreds or thousands of pages
can often be quickly found with some relation to a given topic. In
addition, email (including mailing lists), online discussion forums
(aka message boards, BBS's), and other personal communication
facilities (instant messaging, IRC, newsgroups, etc.) can provide
direct access to experts and other individuals with relevant
interests and knowledge.
Internet research is distinct from library research (focusing on

library-bound resources) and commercial database research
(focusing on commercial databases). While many commercial
databases are delivered through the Internet, and some libraries
purchase access to library databases on behalf of their patrons,
searching such databases is generally not considered part of
“Internet research”. It should also be distinguished from scientific
research (research following a defined and rigorous process)
carried out on the Internet, from straightforward retrieving of details
like a name or phone number, and from research about the
Internet.
Internet research can provide quick, immediate, and worldwide

access to information, although results may be affected by
unrecognized bias, difficulties in verifying a writer's credentials
(and therefore the accuracy or pertinence of the information
obtained) and whether the searcher has sufficient skill to draw
meaningful results from the abundance of material typically
available.[1] The first resources retrieved may not be the most
suitable resources to answer a particular question. Popularity is
often a factor used in structuring Internet search results but
popular information is not always most correct or representative of
the breadth of knowledge and opinion on a topic.
While conducting commercial research fosters a deep concern

with costs, and library research fosters a concern with access,
Internet research fosters a deep concern for quality, managing the
abundance of information and with avoiding unintended bias. This
is partly because Internet research occurs in a less mature
230
information environment: an environment with less sophisticated /
poorly communicated search skills and much less effort in
organizing information. Library and commercial research has many
search tactics and strategies unavailable on the Internet and the
library and commercial environments invest more deeply in
organizing and vetting their information.
14.2.1 Search tools
The most popular search tools for finding information on the

Internet include Web search engines, meta search engines, Web
directories, and specialty search services. A Web search engine
uses software known as a Web crawler to follow the hyperlinks
connecting the pages on the World Wide Web. The information on
these Web pages is indexed and stored by the search engine. To
access this information, a user enters keywords in a search form
and the search engine queries its algorithms, which take into
consideration the location and frequency of keywords on a Web
page, along with the quality and number of external hyperlinks
pointing at the Web page.
A Meta search engine enables users to enter a search query once

and it runs against multiple search engines simultaneously,
creating a list of aggregated search results. Since no single search
engine covers the entire web, a meta search engine can produce a
more comprehensive search of the web. Most Meta search
engines automatically eliminate duplicate search results. However,
Meta search engines have a significant limitation because the
most popular search engines, such as Google, are not included
because of legal restrictions.
A Web directory organizes subjects in a hierarchical fashion that

lets users investigate the breadth of a specific topic and drill down
to find relevant links and content. Web directories can be
assembled automatically by algorithms or handcrafted. Human-
edited Web directories have the distinct advantage of higher
quality and reliability, while those produced by algorithms can offer
more comprehensive coverage. The scope of Web directories are
231
generally broad, such as DOZ, Yahoo! and The WWW Virtual
Library, covering a wide range of subjects, while others focus on
specific topics.
Specialty search tools enable users to find information that

conventional search engines and Meta search engines cannot
access because the content is stored in databases. In fact, the
vast majority of information on the web is stored in databases that
require users to go to a specific site and access it through a
search form. Often, the content is generated dynamically. As a
consequence, Web crawlers are unable to index this information.
In a sense, this content is "hidden" from search engines, leading to
the term invisible or deep Web. Specialty search tools have
evolved to provide users with the means to quickly and easily find
deep Web content. These specialty tools rely on advanced robot
and intelligent agent technologies to search the deep Web and
automatically generate specialty Web directories, such as the
Virtual Private Library.
14.2.2 Website authorship
When using the Internet for research, countless websites appear

for whatever search query is entered. Each of these sites has one
or more authors or associated organizations. Who authored or
sponsored a website is very important to the accuracy and
reliability of the information presented on the website.
While it is very imperative that the authorship be determined for

every website during Internet research, which authored or
sponsored a website, is essential culture when one cares about
the accuracy and reliability of the information, bias, and/or web
safety. For example, a website about civil rights that is authored by
a member of an extremist group most likely will not contain
accurate or unbiased information.
The author or sponsoring organization of a website may be found

in several ways. Sometimes the author or organization can be
found at the bottom of the website home page. Another way is by
looking in the ‘Contact Us’ section of the website. It may be directly
232
listed, determined from the email address, or by emailing and
asking. If the author's name or sponsoring organization cannot be
determined, one should question the trustworthiness of the
website. If the author's name or sponsoring organization is found,
a simple Internet search can provide information that can be used
to determine if the website is reliable and unbiased.
14.2.3 Internet research software
Internet research software captures information while performing

Internet research. This information can then be organized in
various ways included tagging and hierarchical trees. The goal is
to collect information relevant to a specific research project in one
place, so that it can be found and accessed again quickly.
These tools also allow captured content to be edited and

annotated and some allow the ability to export to other formats.
Other features common to outliners include the ability to use full
text search which aids in quickly locating information and filters
enable you to drill down to see only information relevant to a
specific query. Captured and kept information also provides an
additional backup in case web pages and sites disappear or are
inaccessible later.
LET US SUM UP
Computers have always assisted to solve the problems faced by

the mankind, research is not an exception. There are five major
phases of the research process where computer plays different
vital roles. They are: 1) Role of Computer in Conceptual phase 2)
Role of Computer in Design and planning phase 3) Role of
Computer in Empirical phase 4) Role of Computer in Analytic
phase and 5) Role of Computer in Dissemination phase. Though
computers are machines that only compute, but do not think; there
is the need for researchers to acquire the necessary skills and
knowledge required to efficiently conduct research using computer
technology. A basic understanding of the ways and manners in
233
which a computer works will help researchers to apply and
appreciate the utility of this powerful tool.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. is a software’s available to calculate the sample size

required for a proposed study.
2. SPSS, NCSS-PASS, STATA and Sysat are the software’s

widely used for
3. (aka message boards, BBS's) can provide direct

access to experts and other individuals with relevant interests and
knowledge.
4. Web search engines, Meta search engines, Web directories,

and specialty search services are the most popular for
finding information on the Internet.
5. can produce a more comprehensive search of the web

and also it automatically eliminate duplicate search results.
1. NCSS-PASS-GESS
2. Data analysis
3. Online discussion forums
4. Search tools
5. Meta search engines
GLOSSARY
Internet research software:are used for finding information on

the Internet include Web search engines, Meta search engines,
Web directories, and specialty search services.
Internet-based research:method refers to any research method

that uses the Internet to collect data.
Website authorship:refers to one or more authors or associated

organizations that authored or sponsored a website.
MODEL QUESTIONS
234
1. Explain in detail about the role of computers in data collection and data
processing in research.
2. Discuss about the usage of computers in collecting the review of

related literature
3. What are internet research softwares? How it facilitates the research

process?
SUGESSTED READINGS
• Source :https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_research
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MASTER OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY

RESEARCH METHOD AND STATISTICS

MSYS-14 /MCPS -14

September 2022 (First Edition)

Printed by: Co-operative Press LTD, No.6, Vanthavasi Salai, Kancheepuram-631501.

My Dear Beloved Learners!

With warm regards,

BLOCKI: Foundations of Research

BLOCKII: Hypothesis, Variables and Sampling

BLOCKIII: Research Designs

BLOCKV: Report Writing and Computers in Research

7. Myers,J.(2008).Methods in psychological research. NewDelhi,India:Sage

UNIT 1 - SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN RESEARCH 2

UNIT 2 ETHICS IN RESEARCH 16

UNIT 3 RESEARCH PROBLEMS & REVIEWS 39

UNIT 4 HYPOTHESIS AND VARIABLES 56

UNIT 6 DATA COLLECTION METHODS 90

BLOCK – III: RESEARCH DESIGNS 103

UNIT 7 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS 104

UNIT 9 ORGANISATIN OF DATA AND PARAMETRIC STATISTICS 134

UNIT 10 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 157

UNIT 11 NON-PARAMETRIC STATISTICS AND SPSS 178

BLOCK – V: REPORT WRTING AND COMPUTER IN RESEARCH 192

UNIT 12: WRITING RESEARCH PROPOSAL 193

UNIT 13: PRESENTING RESEARCH 209

UNIT 14: ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN RESEARCH 223

Appendix: Plagiarism Certificate 224

UNIT 1: SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN RESEARCH

UNIT2: ETHICS IN RESEARCH

UNIT3: RESEARCH PROBLEMS & REVIEWS

SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN RESEARCH

People have always been curious about the natural world,

After reading this unit you will be able to:

• Describe the scientific methods

Science is defined as a systematic way of gaining knowledge.

The second feature of the scientific approach—which follows in a

The third feature of science is that it creates public knowledge.

1.2 The Three Goals of Science

The second goal of science is to predict. Once we have observed

The third and ultimate goal of science is to explain. This goal

1.3 NEED FOR RESEARCH

1.4 RESEARCH APPROACHES

The three common approaches to conducting research are

1.4.1 Quantitative approach

The former involves the generation of data in quantitative form

Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective

1.4.3 Mixed method approach: In this approach to research,

1.5 STEPS IN RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 1: Identification of research problem: Any research starts with

Step 2: Review of related literature: After the identification of

Step 3: Formulation of hypothesis: With the help of reviews

Step 4: Methodology and design: Methodology explains about the

Step 6: Analysis of data collected. This stage mainly include: 1.

Step 7: After the statistical analysis results will be inferred

1.6 METHOD vs METHODOLOGY

Research can be understood as the systematic and rigorous

Second group: Incorporates the processes of analyzing data, i.e.

Third group: Comprise of the methods which are used to check

Methodologyrefers to the central strategy and rationale of research