Msys 14
Msys 14
Msys 14
Department of Psychology
School of Social Sciences
Tamil Nadu Open University
577, Anna Salai, Saidapet, Chennai – 600 015.
www.tnou.ac.in
May 2022
Name of the Programme: M.Sc., Psychology
Course Code: MSYS – 14/MCPS-14
Course Title: Research Methods and Applied Statistics
Curriculum Design
Dr. M. V. Sudhakaran
Professor of Psychology,
Department of Psychology,
School of Social Sciences,
Tamil Nadu Open University, Chennai – 15.
Course Writer
Dr. U. Vijayabanu
Assistant Professor & Head
Bhaktavatsalam Memorial College for Women
Venkatraman Nagar, Korattur,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600 080
Course Coordinator & Content Editor
Dr. M. V. Sudhakaran
Professor of Psychology
Department of Psychology
School of Social Sciences
Tamil Nadu Open University, Chennai – 15
@ TNOU, 2022, “Research Methods and Applied Statistics” is made available under
a Creative Commons Attribution -Share Alike 4.0 License (International)
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
At this momentous juncture, I wish you all bright and future endeavours.
(K. PARTHASARATHY)
RESEARCH METHOD AND STATISTICS - MSYS-14
SYLLABUS
BLOCKIV: Statistics
Organizing data: Frequency distribution – Graphs – Descriptive statistics: Measures of
central tendency – Measures of variation – Types of distributions. Inferential statistics:
zest – t test – Analysis of Variance – Correlation– Concepts related to correlation –
Correlation coefficient– Regression.
Non-parametric statistics: Mann-Whitney test – Wilcox on Chi-square –
Spearman Rank correlation– Kruskal-Wallistest. Analysisofdata using SPSS.
UNIT 5 SAMPLING 77
1
UNIT 1
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
10.1 Meaning – Objective Of Science
10.2 The Three Goals Of Science
10.3 Need For Research
10.4 Research Approaches
10.4.1 Quantitative approach
10.4.2 Qualitative approach
10.4.3 Mixed method research
10.5 Steps in Research
10.6 Method Vs Methodology
10.6.1 Methods
10.6.2 Methodology
10.6.3 Key differences between methods and methodology
10.7 General
Principles Let us sum
up
Check Your Progress
Answers to check your progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
2
cortical areas for language and perception, principles of classical
and operant conditioning, biases in reasoning and judgment, and
people’s surprising tendency to obey those in positions of
authority. And scientific research continues because what we
know right now only scratches the surface of what we can know.
OBJECTIVES
3
The general scientific approach has three fundamental features
(Stanovich, 2010). The first is systematic empiricism. Empiricism
refers to learning based on observation, and scientists learn about
the natural world systematically, by carefully planning, making,
recording, and analyzing observations of it. As we will see, logical
reasoning and even creativity play important roles in science too,
but scientists are unique in their insistence on checking their ideas
about the way the world is against their systematic observations.
Notice, for example, that Mehl and his colleagues did not trust
other people’s stereotypes or even their own informal
observations. Instead, they systematically recorded, counted, and
compared the number of words spoken by a large sample of
women and men. Furthermore, when their systematic observations
turned out to conflict with people’s stereotypes, they trusted their
systematic observations.
4
especially important for researchers in psychology to be mindful of
this distinction.
The first and most basic goal of science is to describe. This goal
is achieved by making careful observations. As an example,
perhaps I am interested in better understanding the medical
conditions that medical marijuana patients use marijuana to treat.
In this case, I could try to access records at several large medical
marijuana licensing centers to see which conditions people are
getting licensed to use medical marijuana. Or I could survey a
large sample of medical marijuana patients and ask them to report
which medical conditions they use marijuana to treat or manage.
Indeed, research involving surveys of medical marijuana patients
has been conducted and has found that the primary symptom
medical marijuana patients use marijuana to treat is pain, followed
by anxiety and depression (Sexton, Cuttler, Finnell, & Mischley,
2016).
5
marijuana to treat pain I can use that information to predict that an
individual who uses medical marijuana likely experiences pain. Of
course, my predictions will not be 100% accurate but if the
relationship between medical marijuana uses and pain is strong
then my predictions will have greater than chance accuracy.
6
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables
(such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
7
1.4.2 Qualitative approach
Statement of Problem
Review of literature
8
Formulation of
Hypothesis
Methodology and
design
Data collection
Analysis of data
Results and
conclusion
Step 5: After deciding the procedure for date collection actual data
collection will start. Primary data can be collected through
9
Observation, personal interview, telephone interview, mailing of
questionnaires, Schedules and Google forms
1.6.1 Methods are the specific tools and procedures which are
used to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments,
surveys, and statistical tests). In shorter scientific papers, where
the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, the researcher
might simply describe what they did in a methods section.In other
words, all those methods which are used by the researcher during
the course of studying his research problem are termed as
research methods. Since the object of research, particularly the
applied research, it to arrive at a solution for a given problem, the
available data and the unknown aspects of the problem have to be
related to each other to make a solution possible. Keeping this in
view, research methods can be put into the following three groups.
10
First group: The methods relating to data collection are covered.
Such methods are used when the existing data is not sufficient, to
reach the solution.
1.6.2 Methodology
11
i.e., he has to evaluate why and on what basis he selects
particular size, number and location of doors, windows and
ventilators, uses particular materials and not others and the like.
Similarly, in research the scientist has to expose the research
decisions to evaluation before they are implemented. He has to
specify very clearly and precisely what decisions he selects and
why he selects them so that they can be evaluated by others also.
12
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully
planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in
procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its
significance and the methods of analysis used should be
appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be
checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of
the research and limited to those for which the data provide an
adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is
experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of
integrity.
LET US SUM UP
13
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
MODEL QUESTIONS
14
• C.R. Kothari, 2004, Research Methodology – Methods and
Techniques, New Age International (P) Limited Publishers,
New Delhi.
• https://www.scribbr.com/frequently-asked-
questions/method-vs-methodology/
• https://askanydifference.com/difference-between-method-
and-methodology/
• https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-research-
method-and-research-methodology.html
• Research Methods and Statistics ( PDFDrive.com ).pdf
• https://www.forskningsetikk.no/en/guidelines/science-and-
technology/ethical-guidelines-for-the-use-of-animals-in-
research
• ttps://learning.nspcc.org.uk/research-
resources/briefings/research-with-children-ethics-safety-
avoiding-harm#article-top
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2606083/#
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3558218/
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3267294/
15
UNIT- 2
ETHICS IN RESEARCH
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
2.1. Ethics – Orientation
2.2 Ethical Guidelines
2.3 Ethical Standards in Research with Adults
2.4 Ethical Standards in Research with children
2.5 Ethical Standards in Research with animals
2.5.1 Guidelines especially for research with animals
2.6 Ethical standards in research with vulnerable population
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Answers to check your progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
16
OBJECTIVES
Ethical issues may stem from the kinds of problems investigated by social
scientists and the methods they use to obtain valid and reliable data. In
theory at least, this means that each stage in the research sequence may
be a potential source of ethical problems. Thus, they may arise from the
nature of the research project itself (ethnic differences in intelligence, for
example); the context for the research (a remand home); the procedures
to be adopted (producing high levels of anxiety); methods of data
collection (covert observation); the nature of the participants (emotionally
disturbed adolescents); the type of data collected (highly personal
information of a sensitive kind); and what is to be done with the data
(publishing in a manner that causes the participants embarrassment).
While research can help promote the value of human life, it can
also threaten it. Researchers must show respect for human dignity
in their choice of topic, in relation to their research subjects, and in
reporting research results. This implies that research processes
must be held to certain standards:
17
Researchers shall respect their subjects’ integrity, freedom and right
to participate.
The dangers for those being studied by cultural and social science
research are less dramatic than in medical research since the risk of
physical injury is minimal. By the same token, possible injuries are more
difficult to define and measure and it can be difficult to assess long-term
effects, if any. Researchers bear a responsibility for ensuring that their
research subjects are not exposed to suffering. However, the risk of
causing minor suffering must be weighed against research’s quest for the
truth and its critical function. Informants should be given an opportunity to
deal with any problems that might arise as a result of their participation in
the project.
Subjects should be given general information about the project such as its
purpose, the methods to be used, and the practical and other
consequences of participation.3 Information about the project must be
based on knowledge of the informants’ cultural background. It is also
18
important that the information be given in a language that is understood.
In some research projects, it might be necessary to use an interpreter to
provide the necessary information. Observations conducted in public
places, on streets and squares, can usually be carried out without
informing those concerned. However, the registration of behaviour using
technical equipment (camera, video, tape recorders, etc.) implies that the
observation material will be stored, and thus possibly serve as the basis
for a personal data register. For the purpose of such registration, people
must generally be informed that recordings are being made, how long the
material will be stored and who will be using it. As a general rule, research
projects that include individuals can be initiated only after securing
participants’ free and informed consent. The informants have the right to
withdraw from participation at any time, without this entailing any negative
consequences for them.
Research on children and their lives and living standards are valuable and
important. Children and young people are key contributors to this
research. Their needs and interests can be protected in ways different
from those in connection with research on adult participants. Children are
individuals under development, and they have different needs and abilities
19
in various phases. Scientists must know enough about children to be able
to adapt their methods and the substance of their research to the age of
the participants. Parental consent is usually required when children under
the age of 15 will be taking part in research. When there is a question
about including a child in research, it is nonetheless important to see the
child as an individual subject. 10 In addition to parental consent, children’s
own consent is required from the time they are old enough to express an
opinion. Accordingly, age-specific information shall be provided about the
project and its consequences, and they must be informed that
participation is voluntary and that they can withdraw from the study at any
time. Using informed voluntary consent is more difficult for research on
children than research on adult participants. Children are more often
willing to obey authority than adults are, and they often feel that they
cannot protest. Nor are they always able to see the consequences of
giving researchers information. The requirement regarding confidentiality
also applies when children are informants for research purposes. By the
same token, situations can arise in which researchers are either legally or
ethically required to provide information to and possibly have contact with
the child’s parents, adult helpers or child welfare services. This applies,
for example, in the event a researcher finds out that a child is being
exposed to mistreatment or abuse. There can also be conflicts of interest
between children and their parents or guardians. In the event, it is
important to clarify the child’s opportunity for taking an independent
decision about participating in research.
20
difficult when it comes to information about behaviour that is
communicated and stored on the Internet. 11 When using material from
such interactions, researchers must pay sufficient attention to the fact that
people’s understanding of what is private and what is public in such media
can vary.
The fact that the deceased can no longer raise objections does not reduce
the requirement for meticulous documentation. Out of respect for the
deceased and their surviving relatives, researchers must choose their
words with care. Graves and human remains must be treated with the
utmost respect where research is concerned.
i) Informed consent
21
especially important where the proposed research extends over a period
of time: days, perhaps, in the case of an ethnographic study; months (or
perhaps years!) where longitudinal research is involved.
iii) Privacy
For the most part, individual ‘right to privacy’ is usually contrasted with
public ‘right to know’ (Pring, 1984) and this has been defined in the Ethical
Guidelines for the Institutional Review Committee for Research with
Human Subjects as that which:
iv) Anonymity
22
a respondent completing a questionnaire that bears absolutely no
identifying marks—names, addresses, occupational details, or coding
symbols — are ensured complete and total anonymity.
v) Confidentiality
vi) Deception
23
To Conclude
24
2.4 ETHICAL STANDARDS IN RESEARCH WITH CHILDREN
25
support and knowing when to take appropriate action, researchers
can ensure that children feel respected and can participate safely.
i) Past experiences
26
expecting. Structure your interview schedule so that difficult topics
are given enough time and aren't crammed in at the end. Be
aware of the signs that someone might be uncomfortable
discussing a particular topic and move on or take a break as
needed.
It’s best practice for more than one adult to be present when
working with a child. If you cannot avoid being alone with a child,
you should always put safeguards in place.
Researchers should make sure they seek the views and ideas of
people from a wide range of backgrounds. Not every study can
include a complete cross-section of society. But there are simple
actions that can open up a research project to wider social and
cultural groups and improve the quality of the study. This might
include:
27
talk about whether the child is ‘Gillick competent’. Gillick
competency means a young person is mature enough to fully
understand what they are agreeing to.
You should use a consent form to record that consent has been
given before the research starts.
Personal information
Incentives
You may want to thank participants for their time by offering some
form of appreciation such as rewards and incentives. Make sure
parents and carers know in advance about any incentives you are
offering to children and young people.Any incentives you offer
should be ethical and age-appropriate.
Complaints procedure
28
2.5 ETHICAL STANDARDS IN RESEARCH WITH ANIMALS
29
Field research, because of its potential to damage sensitive ecosystems
and ethologies, should be subject to animal care committee approval.
Psychologists conducting field research should disturb their populations
as little as possible—consistent with the goals of the research. Every
effort should be made to minimize potential harmful effects of the study on
the population and on other plant and animal species in the area.
Research conducted in populated areas should be done with respect for
the property and privacy of the inhabitants of the area. Particular
justification is required for the study of endangered species. Such
research on endangered species should not be conducted unless animal
care committee approval has been obtained, and all requisite permits are
obtained.
(ii) Animals are sentient creatures with the capacity to feel pain, and the
interests of animals must therefore be taken into consideration.
30
(iii) Our treatment of animals, including the use of animals in
research, is an expression of our attitudes and influences us as
moral actors.
2.5.1 Guidelines
31
only be caused to animals if this is counterbalanced by a
substantial and probable benefit for animals, people or the
environment.
Researchers must not only consider the direct suffering that may
be endured during the experiment itself, but also the risk of
suffering before and after the experiment, including trapping,
labelling, anaesthetizing, breeding, transportation, stabling and
euthanizing. This means that researchers must also take account
of the need for periods of adaptation before and after the
experiment.
32
6. Responsibility for maintaining biological diversity
33
In general, the negative results of experiments on animals should be
public knowledge. Disclosing negative results may give other researchers
information about which experiments are not worth pursuing, shine a light
on unfortunate research design, and help reduce the use of animals in
research.
Researchers and other parties who handle live animals must have
adequately updated and documented expertise on animals. This includes
specific knowledge about the biology of the animal species in question,
and a willingness and ability to take care of animals properly.
There are national laws and rules and international conventions and
agreements regarding the use of laboratory animals, and both
researchers and research managers must comply with these. Any person
who plans to use animals in experiments must familiarize themselves with
the current rules.
34
self-determination or protect them from unreasonable suffering.
Furthermore, vulnerable groups may not want to be subject to research
for fear of being viewed by the general public in an unfavourable light. In
such cases, the requirements concerning information and consent are
particularly important. On the other hand, society has a legitimate interest
in surveying living conditions, for instance, to gauge the effectiveness of
social welfare schemes, and to learn more about the ways in and out of
destructive and anti-social behaviour. Protecting a vulnerable group can
sometimes be counter-productive. In reality, such efforts may serve to
protect society at large from gaining insight into processes that lead to
discrimination and rejection.
LET US SUM UP
Ethical issues may stem from the kinds of problems investigated by social
scientists and the methods they use to obtain valid and reliable data.
Informed consent protects the individual’s freedom of choice and respect
for the individual’s autonomy and is given voluntarily to participate in
research or not. The second way of protecting a participant’s right to
privacy is through the promise of confidentiality. Deception, kind of
experimental situation where the researcher knowingly conceals the true
purpose and conditions of the research, or else positively misinforms the
subjects, or exposes them to unduly painful, stressful or embarrassing
experiences, without the subjects having knowledge of what is going on.
Moreover ethical guidelines should be followed while conducting research
with vulnerable population
35
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Informed consent
2. Anonymous
3. Vulnerable research population.
4. Confidentiality.
5. Deception
GLOSSARY
Anonymity - that information provided by participants should in no way
reveal their identity.
36
MODEL QUESTIONS
SUGGESTED READINGS
• https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source
=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjHyePal-
j2AhUYILcAHexqCF4QFnoECBsQAw&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fclutejournals.com%2Findex.php%2FJBER%2Farticle
%2Fdownload%2F2532%2F2578%2F10126&usg=AOvVa
w1eHUm17jICkiktQpVqyJ3q
• C.R. Kothari, 2004, Research Methodology – Methods and
Techniques, New Age International (P) Limited Publishers,
New Delhi.
• https://www.scribbr.com/frequently-asked-
questions/method-vs-methodology/
• https://askanydifference.com/difference-between-method-
and-methodology/
• https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-research-
method-and-research-methodology.html
• Research Methods and Statistics ( PDFDrive.com ).pdf
• https://www.forskningsetikk.no/en/guidelines/science-and-
technology/ethical-guidelines-for-the-use-of-animals-in-
research
37
• ttps://learning.nspcc.org.uk/research-
resources/briefings/research-with-children-ethics-safety-
avoiding-harm#article-top
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC260608
3/#
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC355821
8/
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC326729
4/
38
UNIT 3
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
3.1 Definition of Research
3.2 Research Problem – Nature
3.3 Components ofa Research Problem
3.4 Sources of Research Problem
3.5 Criteria fora Good Research Problem
3.6 Technique Involved In Defining a Problem
3.7 Reviewing the Research Literature
3.7.1 Research articles
3.7.2. Scholarly books
3.8 Literature Search Strategies
3.8.1 Using Psyc INFO and Other Databases
3.8.2 Using Other Search Techniques
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Key Words
Answers to check your progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
39
OBJECTIVES
Define Research
Explain the nature of Research Problem
List out the Components of a Research Problem
Identify the Sources of Research Problem
List out the Criteria for a Good Research Problem
Explain the process of Reviewing the Research Literature
Discuss about Research articles
Explain the Literature Search Strategies
3.8.1 Using Psyc INFO and Other Databases
3.8.2 Using Other Search Techniques
3.1 DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
40
before he can diagnose correctly. To define a problem correctly, a
researcher must know: what a problem is? Good research must begin
with a good research question. Yet coming up with good research
questions is something that novice researchers often find difficult and
stressful. One reason is that this is a creative process that can appear
mysterious—even magical—with experienced researchers seeming to pull
interesting research questions out of thin air
(i) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the
problem.
(iii) There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for
obtaining the objective(s) one wishes to attain. This means that there
must be at least two means available to a researcher for if he has no
choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
(iv) There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with
regard to the selection of alternatives. This means that research must
answer the question concerning the relative efficiency of the possible
alternatives.
There are several factors which may result in making the problem
complicated. For instance, the environment may change affecting the
efficiencies of the courses of action or the values of the outcomes; the
number of alternative courses of action may be very large; persons not
involved in making the decision may be affected by it and react to it
favourably or unfavourably, and similar other factors. All such elements
(or at least the important ones) may be thought of in context of a research
problem
41
3.4SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
Probably the most common inspiration for new research ideas, however,
is previous research. Recall that science is a kind of large-scale
collaboration in which many different researchers read and evaluate each
42
other’s work and conduct new studies to build on it. Of course,
experienced researchers are familiar with previous research in their area
of expertise and probably have a long list of ideas. This suggests that
novice researchers can find inspiration by consulting with a more
experienced researcher (e.g., students can consult a faculty member). But
they can also find inspiration by picking up a copy of almost any
professional journal and reading the titles and abstracts. In one typical
issue of Psychological Science, for example, you can find articles on the
perception of shapes, anti-Semitism, police lineups, the meaning of death,
second-language learning, people who seek negative emotional
experiences, and many other topics. If you can narrow your interests
down to a particular topic, (e.g., memory) or domain (e.g., health care),
you can also look through more specific journals, such as Memory &
Cognition or Health Psychology.
1. It is systematic
2. It is logical
3. It is empirical
4. It is replicable
5. Problem must be clearly defined
6. Should provide solution to the problem
7. It is objective
8. It is verifiable
43
promote, restore, maintain, and/or protect health of individuals and
populations. Basically, the research can be classified as action, applied,
basic, clinical, empirical, administrative, theoretical, or qualitative or
quantitative research, depending on its purpose. Research plays an
important role in developing clinical practices and instituting new health
policies. Hence, there is a need for a logical scientific approach as
research has an important goal of generating new claims.
Let us start with the question: What does one mean when he/she wants
to define a research problem? The answer may be that one wants to state
the problem along with the bounds within which it is to be studied. In other
words, defining a problem involves the task of laying down boundaries
within which a researcher shall study the problem with a pre-determined
objective in view. How to define a research problem is undoubtedly a
herculean task. However, it is a task that must be tackled intelligently to
avoid the perplexity encountered in a research operation. The usual
approach is that the researcher should himself pose a question (or in case
someone else wants the researcher to carry on research, the concerned
individual, organisation or an authority should pose the question to the
researcher) and set-up techniques and procedures for throwing light on
the question concerned for formulating or defining the research problem.
But such an approach generally does not produce definitive results
because the question phrased in such a fashion is usually in broad
general terms and as such may not be in a form suitable for testing.
Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a
research study and must in no case be accomplished hurriedly. However,
in practice this frequently overlooked which causes a lot of problems later
on. Hence, the research problem should be defined in a systematic
manner, giving due weightage to all relating points.
The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following
steps generally one after the other:
44
(iii) Surveying the available literature
45
or similar other problems. The researcher should also keep in view
the environment within which the problem is to be studied and
understood.
46
approach to the given problem, techniques that might be used,
possible solutions, etc.
(e) The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the
problem is to be studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a
research problem.
47
relevant to your topic of interest. In addition to helping you
discover new research questions, reviewing the literature early in
the research process can help you in several other ways.
• It can give you ideas for how to conduct your own study.
• It can tell you how your study fits into the research literature.
48
volumes, which usually consist of all the issues for a calendar
year. Some journals are published in hard copy only, others in
both hard copy and electronic form, and still others in electronic
form only.
49
work is important, even though it is old, then, by all means, you
should include it in your review.
Second, you should look for review articles on your topic because they will
provide a useful overview of it—often discussing important definitions,
results, theories, trends, and controversies—giving you a good sense of
where your own research fits into the literature. You should also look for
empirical research reports addressing your question or similar questions,
which can give you ideas about how to operationally define your variables
and collect your data. As a general rule, it is good to use methods that
others have already used successfully unless you have good reasons not
to. Finally, you should look for sources that provide information that can
help you argue for the interestingness of your research question. For a
study on the effects of cell phone use on driving ability, for example, you
might look for information about how widespread cell phone use is, how
frequent and costly motor vehicle crashes are, and so on.
How many sources are enough for your literature review? This is a difficult
question because it depends on how extensively your topic has been
studied and also on your own goals. One study found that across a variety
of professional journals in psychology, the average number of sources
cited per article was about 50 (Adair & Vohra, 2003). This gives a rough
idea of what professional researchers consider to be adequate. As a
student, you might be assigned a much lower minimum number of
references to include, but the principles for selecting the most useful ones
remain the same
50
with each other. In general, scholarly books undergo a peer review
process similar to that used by professional journals.
The primary method used to search the research literature involves using
one or more electronic databases. These include Academic Search
Premier, JSTOR, and ProQuest for all academic disciplines, ERIC for
education, and PubMed for medicine and related fields. The most
important for our purposes, however, is PsycINFO, which is produced by
the American Psychological Association (APA). PsycINFO is so
comprehensive—covering thousands of professional journals and
scholarly books going back more than 100 years—that for most purposes
its content is synonymous with the research literature in psychology. Like
most such databases, PsycINFO is usually available through your
university library.
51
to articles in all journals published by the APA.) If not, and you want a
copy of the work, you will have to find out if your library carries the journal
or has the book and the hard copy on the library shelves. Be sure to ask a
librarian if you need help.
52
LET US SUM UP
From the above section it is clear that any research starts with the
identification of the problem in order to find solution for the
identified problem we must do review search. The above unit also
explained the method to find out good research problem and how
to do a literature review.
1. Research
2. systematic observation, clarification and interpretation of data
3. Systematic, logical, empirical and replicable
4. research question
5. Professional journals
6. Monograph
7. PsyInfo, ERIC, JSTOR, Pub Med
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Define research
2. Describe the research process
3. Explain how you would identify a good research problem.
4. What are the criteria for a good research problem?
5. Explain various techniques for literature search.
6. List out the components of A Research Problem
7. Explain the process of reviewing The Research Literature
8. Discuss about research articles
9. Explain the literature Search Strategies
10. Write a note on using psyc INFO and other Databases
53
GLOSSARY
Electronic database - An Electronic database is a computer-based
collection or listing of information.
SUGGESTED READINGS
• https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/variables
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6322175/
• https://journals.lww.com/ijo/Fulltext/2017/65060/Publication_ethics.
2.aspx
• C.R. Kothari, 2004, Research Methodology – Methods and
Techniques, New Age International (P) Limited Publishers, New
Delhi.
• Evans,A.N.,&Rooney,B.J.(2008).Methodsin
Psychologicalresearch.NewDelhi,India: Sage PublicationsIndia
Pvt. Ltd.
54
BLOCK II: HYPOTHESIS, VARIABLES AND SAMPLING
55
UNIT 4
HYPOTHESIS, MEASUREMENT
AND VARIABLES
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
4.1 Hypothesis
4.2 Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis
4.3 Types of hypotheses
4.4 Type I And Type II Errors
4.4.1 Level Of Significance
4.5 Variables
4.6 Ways of asking Research questions
4.7 Measuring Observed Variables
4.7.1 Scales of Measurement
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Answers to check your progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
In this unit, you will be introduced to the concept of hypothesis
testing—the process of determining whether a hypothesis is
supported by the results of a research project. Orientation to
hypothesis testing will include a discussion of the null and
alternative hypotheses, Type Ian Type II errors, and one- and two-
tailed tests of hypotheses. Also will understand the meaning of
measurement and variables and various types of variables.
56
OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
• Explain the meaning of hypothesis
• Discuss about the process of hypothesis testing
• Highlight the errors in hypothesis testing
• Explain the meaning and types of variables
• Explain the scales of measurement
4.1 HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is a specific prediction about a new phenomenon that
should be observed if a particular theory is accurate. It is an
explanation that relies on just a few key concepts. Hypotheses are
often specific predictions about what will happen in a particular
study. They are developed by considering existing evidence and
using reasoning to infer what will happen in the specific context of
interest. Hypotheses are often but not always derived from
theories. So a hypothesis is often a prediction based on a theory
but some hypotheses are a-theoretical and only after a set of
observations have been made, are a theory developed. This is
because theories are broad in nature and they explain larger
bodies of data.
57
hypothesis, we use inductive reasoning which involves using
specific observations or research findings to form a more general
hypothesis. Finally, the hypothesis should be positive. That is, the
hypothesis should make a positive statement about the existence
of a relationship or effect, rather than a statement that a
relationship or effect does not exist. As scientists, we don’t set out
to show that relationships do not exist or that effects do not occur
so our hypotheses should not be worded in a way to suggest that
an effect or relationship does not exist. The nature of science is to
assume that something does not exist and then seek to find
evidence to prove this wrong, to show that really it does exist.
4.3 TYPES OF HYPOTHESES
Let’s use our sample hypothesis to demonstrate what we mean.
We want to show that children who attend academic after-school
programs have different (higher) IQ scores than those who do not.
We understand that statistics cannot demonstrate the truth of this
statement. We therefore construct what is known as a null
hypothesis (H0). Whatever the research topic, the null
hypothesis always predicts that there is no difference between
the groups being compared. This is typically what the researcher
does not expect to find. Think about the meaning of null—nothing
or zero. The null hypothesis means we have found nothing—no
difference between the groups.
For the sample study, the null hypothesis is that children who
attend academic after-school programs have the same intelligence
level as other children. Remember, we said that statistics allow us
to disprove or falsify a hypothesis. Therefore, if the null hypothesis
is not supported, then our original hypothesis—that children who
attend academic after-school programs have different IQs than
other children—is all that is left.
The purpose of the study, then, is to decide whether H0 is
probably true or probably false. The hypothesis that the researcher
wants to support is known as the alternative hypothesis (Ha), or
the research hypothesis (H1). The third one is called as
directional hypothesis, which directly denotes about the
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relationship between the variables. This may indicate, if the
variables are related are not as the case may be. For example as
given above, i.e. children who attend academic after-school
programs have different (higher) IQ scores, the hypothesis may be
formed as” there will be a significant increase in the IQ after
attending the academic after-school programmes”. This will be
better explained in the following section.
i) One tailed and two tailed hypothesis
The manner in which the previous research hypothesis (Ha) was
stated reflects what is known statistically as a one-tailed
hypothesis, or a directional hypothesis—an alternative
hypothesis in which the researcher predicts the direction of the
expected difference between the groups. In this case, the
researcher predicted the direction of the difference—namely, that
children in academic after-school programs will be more intelligent
than children in the general population. When we use a directional
alternative hypothesis, the null hypothesis is also, in some sense,
directional. If the alternative hypothesis is that children in
academic after-school programs will have higher intelligence test
scores, then the null hypothesis is that being in academic after-
school programs either will have no effect on intelligence test
scores or will decrease intelligence test scores.
ii) Two-tailed hypothesis
The alternative to a one-tailed or directional test is a two-tailed
hypothesis, or a non directional hypothesis—an alternative
hypothesis in which the researcher expects to find differences
between the groups but is unsure what the differences will be. In
our example, the researcher would predict a difference in IQ
scores between children in academic after-school programs and
those in the general population, but the direction of the difference
would not be predicted. Those in academic programs would be
expected to have either higher or lower IQs but not the same IQs
as the general population of children.
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4.4 TYPE I AND TYPE II ERRORS
Table: Statistical decision making
Truth Unknown to the Researcher
60
hypothesis when it is false. These possibilities are summarized in
Table.
4.4.1 Level of Significance
The significance level, also denoted as alpha or α, is the
probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. For
example, a significance level of 0.05 indicates a 5% risk of
concluding that a difference exists when there is no actual
difference.
4.5 VARIABLES
A variable in research simply refers to a person, place, thing, or
phenomenon that you are trying to measure in some way. The
best way to understand the difference between a dependent and
independent variable is that the meaning of each is implied by
what the words tell us about the variable you are using.
A variable in research simply refers to a person, place, thing, or
phenomenon that you are trying to measure in some way. The
best way to understand the difference between a dependent and
independent variable is that the meaning of each is implied by
what the words tell us about the variable you are using. You can
do this with a simple exercise from the website, Graphic Tutorial.
Take the sentence, "The [independent variable] causes a change
in [dependent variable] and it is not possible that [dependent
variable] could cause a change in [independent variable]." Insert
the names of variables you are using in the sentence in the way
that makes the most sense. This will help you identify each type of
variable. If you're still not sure, consult with your professor before
you begin to write.
The process of examining a research problem in the social and
behavioral sciences is often framed around methods of analysis
that compare, contrast, correlate, average, or integrate
relationships between or among variables. Techniques include
associations, sampling, random selection, and blind selection.
Designation of the dependent and independent variable involves
unpacking the research problem in a way that identifies a general
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cause and effect and classifying these variables as either
independent or dependent.
The variables should be outlined in the introduction of your paper
and explained in more detail in the methods section. There are no
rules about the structure and style for writing about independent or
dependent variables but, as with any academic writing, clarity and
being succinct is most important.
Any things which varies in value is variable, in other words which
takes up different numbers or values is variable. For example if
we measure the self-esteem of 100 students, we may get 100
different values of self-esteem. In mathematical term if x is a
variable it can take up any value.
The means of classifying variables is in terms of their utility in the
research. The first one by virtue of their nature that is whether they
are discrete or continuous in nature. The second way of
classification is by virtue of their application in the experimental
research, that is dependent, independent and intervening
variables.
i) Discrete variables usually consist of whole number units or
categories. They are made up of chunks or units that are detached
and distinct from one another. A change in value occurs a whole
unit at a time, and decimals do not make sense with discrete
scales. Most nominal and ordinal data are discrete. For example,
gender, political party, and ethnicity are discrete scales. Some
interval or ratio data can be discrete. For example, the number of
children someone has is reported as a whole number (discrete
data), yet it is also ratio data (you can have a true zero and form
ratios).
ii) Continuous variables usually fall along a continuum and allow
for fractional amounts. The term continuous means that it
“continues” between the whole number units. Examples of
continuous variables are age (22.7 years), height (64.5 inches),
and weight (113.25 pounds). Most interval and ratio data are
continuous in nature.
62
iii) Categorical variables: The next classification is the
Categorical Variable. Categorical variables are the one which
takes values that are in names or labels. For example color of the
eye ball, brown, black, blue etc.
Independent, dependent and extraneous variables
In an experimental research design researcher measures
independent and dependent variables. Aspect of the environment
which is experimentally manipulated is called independent
variable.
a) Independent Variable
The variable that is stable and unaffected by the other variables
you are trying to measure. It refers to the condition of an
experiment that is systematically manipulated by the investigator.
It is the presumed cause.
Independent variable is the variable the experimenter
manipulates or changes, and is assumed to have a direct effect on
the dependent variable. For example, allocating participants to
either drug or placebo conditions (independent variable) in order to
measure any changes in the intensity of their anxiety (dependent
variable).
b) Dependent Variable
The variable that depends on other factors that are measured.
These variables are expected to change as a result of an
experimental manipulation of the independent variable or
variables. It is the presumed effect.
Dependent variable is the variable being tested and measured in
an experiment, and is 'dependent' on the independent variable. An
example of a dependent variable is depression symptoms, which
depends on the independent variable (type of therapy).
63
mindfulness based stress reduction therapy, mindfulness training
is independent variable and stress is dependent variable. Change
in the level of stress depends upon the intervention given.
Therefore stress is dependent variable.
c) Extraneous variable
The variable which also influences the dependent variable is
called extraneous variable. In a research to find out the influence
of memory on test performance, test anxiety and stress is
considered to be the extraneous variable. Usually extraneous
variable is controlled either ethologically or statistically.
i) Participant variables: These extraneous variables are related
to the individual characteristics of each study participant that may
impact how they respond. These factors can include background
differences, mood, anxiety, intelligence, awareness, and other
characteristics that are unique to each person.
ii) Situational variables: These extraneous variables are related
to things in the environment that may impact how each participant
responds. For example, if a participant is taking a test in a chilly
room, the temperature would be considered an extraneous
variable. Some participants may not be affected by the cold, but
others might be distracted or annoyed by the temperature of the
room.
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Types of Research Questions
Research questions are broadly categorized into two; that is,
qualitative research questions and quantitative research questions.
Qualitative and quantitative research questions can be used
independently and co-dependently in line with the overall focus
and objectives of your research.
65
understand how pedagogy affects classroom relations and
behaviors.
• Case Studies
66
providing answers to "whom" and "what" questions using data
collection tools like interviews and questionnaires.
• Interviews
67
Examples of a Good Research Question
Open-Ended Questions
Close-ended Questions
1. Yes
2. No
1. Very Likely
2. Somewhat Likely
3. Unlikely
68
respondent's disposition towards multiple variables and it can be unipolar
or bipolar in nature.
1. Excellent
2. Good
3. Neutral
4. Bad
5. Very bad
Loaded Questions
69
Example of Loaded Questions
Negative Questions
Leading Questions
1. If you enjoyed this service, would you be willing to try out our
other packages?
2. Our product met your needs, didn't it?
70
Behavioral scientists have been interested in such conceptual
variables as self-esteem, parenting style, depression, and
cognitive development. Measurement involves turning conceptual
variables into measured variables, which consist of numbers that
represent the conceptual variables. The measured variables are
frequently referred to as measures of the conceptual variables. In
some cases, the transformation from conceptual to measured
variable is direct. For instance, the conceptual variable “study
time” is straightforwardly represented as the measured variable
“seconds of study.” But other conceptual variables can be
assessed by many different measures. For instance, the
conceptual variable “liking” could be assessed by a person rating,
from one to ten, how much he or she likes another person.
Alternatively, liking could be measured in terms of how often a
person looks at or touches another person or the number of love
letters that he or she writes. And liking could also be measured
using physiological indicators such as an increase in heart rate
when two people are in the vicinity of each other.
Operational definition
The term operational definition refers to a precise statement of
how a conceptual variable is turned into a measured variable.
Research can only proceed once an adequate operational
definition has been defined. In some cases the conceptual variable
may be too vague to be operationalised, and in other cases the
variable cannot be operationalised because the appropriate
technology has not been developed.
4.7.1 Scales of Measurement
Specifying the relationship between the numbers on a quantitative
measured variable and the values of the conceptual variable is
known as scaling. In some cases in the natural sciences, the
mapping between the measure and the conceptual variable is
quite precise. As an example, we are all familiar with the use of the
Fahrenheit scale to measure temperature. In the Fahrenheit scale,
the relationship between the measured variable (degrees
Fahrenheit) and the conceptual variable (temperature) is so
71
precise that we can be certain that changes in the measured
variable correspond exactly to changes in the conceptual variable.
i) Nominal Scale
A nominal scale is one in which objects or individuals are
assigned to categories that have no numerical properties. Nominal
scales have the characteristic of identity but lack the other
properties. Variables measured on a nominal scale are often
referred to as categorical variables because the measuring scale
involves dividing the data into categories. However, the categories
carry no numerical weight. Some examples of categorical
variables, or data measured on a nominal scale, are ethnicity,
gender, and political affiliation. We can assign numerical values to
the levels of a nominal variable. For example, for ethnicity, we
could label Asian Americans as 1, African Americans as 2, Latin
Americans as 3, and so on. However, these scores do not carry
any numerical weight; they are simply names for the categories. In
other words, the scores are used for identity but not for magnitude,
equal unit size, or absolute value. We cannot order the data and
claim that 1s are more than or less than 2s. We cannot analyze
these data mathematically.
ii) Ordinal Scale
In an ordinal scale, objects or individuals are categorized, and the
categories form a rank order along a continuum. Data measured
on an ordinal scale have the properties of identity and magnitude
but lack equal unit size and absolute zero. Ordinal data are often
referred to as ranked data because the data are ordered from
highest to lowest or biggest to smallest. For example, reporting
how students did on an exam based simply on their rank (highest
score, second highest, and so on) is an ordinal scale. This variable
carries identity and magnitude because each individual receives a
rank (a number) that carries identity, and that rank also conveys
information about order or magnitude (how many students
performed better or worse in the class).
72
iii) Interval Scale
In an interval scale, the units of measurement (intervals) between
the numbers on the scale are all equal in size. When you use an
interval scale, the criteria of identity, magnitude, and equal unit
size are met. For example, the Fahrenheit temperature scale is an
interval scale of measurement. A given temperature carries
identity (days with different temperatures receive different scores
on the scale), magnitude (cooler days receive lower scores, and
hotter days receive higher scores), and equal unit size (the
difference between 50 and 51 degrees is the same as that
between 90 and 91 degrees). However, the Fahrenheit scale does
not have an absolute zero. Because of this, you cannot form ratios
based on this scale (for example, 100 degrees is not twice as hot
as 50 degrees). You can still perform mathematical computations
on interval data.
iv) Ratio Scale
In a ratio scale, in addition to order and equal units of
measurement, an absolute zero indicates an absence of the
variable being measured. Ratio data have all four properties of
measurement—identity, magnitude, equal unit size, and absolute
zero. Examples of ratio scales of measurement include weight,
time, and height. Each of these scales has identity (individuals
who weigh different amounts receive different scores), magnitude
(those who weigh less receive lower scores than those who weigh
more), and equal unit size (1 pound is the same weight anywhere
along the scale and for any person using the scale). Ratio scales
also have an absolute zero, which means that a score of zero
reflects an absence of that variable. This also means that ratios
can be formed. For example, a weight of 100 pounds is twice as
much as a weight of 50 pounds. As with interval data,
mathematical computations can be performed on ratio data.
73
LET US SUM UP
In the present unit we have discussed the meaning of hypothesis
(tentative solution to the problem), types of hypothesis as null and
alternate. The null hypothesis always predicts that there is no
difference whereas alternate hypothesis indicate that there exist a
significant difference between the groups being compared.
Anything which varies in value is called variable. Though different
authors describe variables differently, variables are categorized
only in two ways discrete or continuous; quantitative or categorical.
Specifying the relationship between the numbers on a quantitative
measured variable and the values of the conceptual variable is
known as scaling, and the different scales of measurement are
nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales.
74
GLOSSARY
75
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Define hypothesis and its types
2. Explain the various scales of measurements used in measuring
variables
3. Define variable. Illustrate the types of variables with examples
4. Explain the types of error in hypothesis testing
SUGGESTED READINGS
• McLeod, S. A. (2018, August 10). What is a hypothesis? Simply
Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/what-is-a-
hypotheses.html
• https://www.formpl.us/blog/research-question
• https://www.simplypsychology.org/variables.html
• https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-variable-2795789
• C.R. Kothari, 2004, Research Methodology – Methods and
Techniques, New Age International (P) Limited Publishers, New
Delhi.
• Evans,A.N.,&Rooney,B.J.(2008).Methodsin
Psychologicalresearch.NewDelhi,India: Sage PublicationsIndia
Pvt. Ltd.
76
UNIT- 5
SAMPLING
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
5.1 Population
5.1.2 Definitions of Key Terms
5.2 Sampling
5.3 Probability Sampling
5.4 Non-Probability Sampling
5.5 Effective Sample size
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Key Words
Answers to check your progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
Questions of sampling arise directly out of the issue of defining the
population on which the research will focus. Researchers must
take sampling decisions early in the overall planning of a piece of
research. Factors such as expense, time and accessibility
frequently prevent researchers from gaining information from the
whole population. Therefore they often need to be able to obtain
data from a smaller group or subset of the total population in such
a way that the knowledge gained is representative of the total
population (however defined) under study. This smaller group or
subset is the sample.
77
OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
• Explain the concept of sampling
• Describe the probability sampling techniques
• Illustrate the probability sampling techniques
5.1 POPULATION
Drawing conclusions about some very large group of people is
called the population. It could be all Indian teenagers, children
with autism, professional athletes, or even just human beings—
depending on the interests and goals of the researcher.
78
• There are many variables;
• Only small differences or small relationships are expected or
predicted;
• The sample will be broken down into subgroups;
• The sample is heterogeneous in terms of the variables under
study;
• Reliable measures of the dependent variable are unavailable.
While calculating the sample size in an experimental research
design effect size from previous research reviews is taken. Effect
size tells about the significant difference between the two groups,
it is the simple way of quantifying the difference between two
groups
5.2 SAMPLING
The goal of sampling strategies in survey research is to obtain a
sufficient sample that is representative of the population of
interest. It is often not feasible to collect data from an entire
population of interest (e.g., all individuals with lung cancer);
therefore, a subset of the population or sample is used to estimate
the population responses (e.g., individuals with lung cancer
currently receiving treatment). A large random sample increases
the likelihood that the responses from the sample will accurately
reflect the entire population. In order to accurately draw
conclusions about the population, the sample must include
individuals with characteristics similar to the population.
It is therefore necessary to correctly identify the population of
interest (e.g., individuals with lung cancer currently receiving
treatment vs. all individuals with lung cancer). The sample will
ideally include individuals who reflect the intended population in
terms of all characteristics of the population (e.g., sex,
socioeconomic characteristics, symptom experience) and contain
a similar distribution of individuals with those characteristics. As
discussed by Madly Stovall beginning on page 162, Fujimori et al.
(2014), for example, were interested in the population of
oncologists. The authors obtained a sample of oncologists from
79
two hospitals in Japan. These participants may or may not have
similar characteristics to all oncologists in Japan.
Participant recruitment strategies can affect the adequacy and
representativeness of the sample obtained. Using diverse
recruitment strategies can help improve the size of the sample and
help ensure adequate coverage of the intended population. For
example, if a survey researcher intends to obtain a sample of
individuals with breast cancer representative of all individuals with
breast cancer in the United States, the researcher would want to
use recruitment strategies that would recruit women and men,
individuals from rural and urban settings, individuals receiving and
not receiving active treatment, and so on. Because of the difficulty
in obtaining samples representative of a large population,
researchers may focus the population of interest to a subset of
individuals (e.g., women with stage III or IV breast cancer). Large
census surveys require extremely large samples to adequately
represent the characteristics of the population because they are
intended to represent the entire population.
There are two main methods of sampling (Cohen and Holliday,
1979, 1982, 1996; Schofield, 1996). The researcher must decide
whether to opt for a probability (also known as a random sample)
or a non-probability sample (also known as a purposive sample).
The difference between them is this: in a probability sample the
chances of members of the wider population being selected for the
sample are known, whereas in a non-probability sample the
chances of members of the wider population being selected for the
sample are unknown. In the former (probability sample) every
member of the wider population has an equal chance of being
included in the sample.
5.3 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
A probability sample, because it draws randomly from the wider
population, will be useful if the researcher wishes to be able to
make generalizations, because it seeks representativeness of the
wider population. This is a form of sampling that is popular in
randomized controlled trials. On the other hand, a non-probability
80
sample deliberately avoids representing the wider population; it
seeks only to represent a particular group, a particular named
section of the wider population, e.g. a class of students, a group of
students who are taking a particular examination, a group of
teachers.
A probability sample will have less risk of bias than a non-
probability sample, whereas, by contrast, a non-probability sample,
being unrepresentative of the whole population, may demonstrate
skewness or bias. There are several types of probability samples:
simple random samples; systematic samples; stratified samples;
cluster samples; stage samples, and multi-phase samples. They
all have a measure of randomness built into them and therefore
have a degree of generalizability.
5.3.1 Simple random sampling
In simple random sampling, each member of the population under
study has an equal chance of being selected and the probability of
a member of the population being selected is unaffected by the
selection of other members of the population, i.e. each selection is
entirely independent of the next. The method involves selecting at
random from a list of the population (a sampling frame) the
required number of subjects for the sample. This can be done by
drawing names out of a hat until the required number is reached,
or by using a table of random numbers set out in matrix form.
5.3.2 Systematic sampling
This method is a modified form of simple random sampling. It
involves selecting subjects from a population list in a systematic
rather than a random fashion. For example, if from a population of,
say, 2,000, a sample of 100 is required, then every twentieth
person can be selected. The starting point for the selection is
chosen at random. There the question of the order in which names
are listed in systematic sampling, but there is also the issue that
this process may violate one of the fundamental premises of
probability sampling, namely that every person has an equal
chance of being included in the sample.
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5.3.3 Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into
homogenous groups, each group containing subjects with similar
characteristics. For example, group A might contain males and
group B, females. In order to obtain a sample representative of the
whole population in terms of sex, a random selection of subjects
from group A and group B must be taken. If needed, the exact
proportion of males to females in the whole population can be
reflected in the sample. The researcher will have to identify those
characteristics of the wider population which must be included in
the sample, i.e. to identify the parameters of the wider population.
This is the essence of establishing the sampling frame.
To organize a stratified random sample is a simple two-stage
process. First, identify those characteristics which appear in the
wider population which must also appear in the sample, i.e. divide
the wider population into homogeneous and, if possible, discrete
groups (strata), for example males and females. Second, randomly
sample within these groups, the size of each group being
determined either by the judgment of the researcher or by
reference.
5.3.4 Cluster sampling
When the population is large and widely dispersed, gathering a
simple random sample poses administrative problems. Suppose
we want to survey students’ fitness levels in a particularly large
community. It would be completely impractical to select students
and spend an inordinate amount of time travelling about in order to
test them. By cluster sampling, the researcher can select a specific
number of schools and test all the students in those selected
schools, i.e. a geographically close cluster is sampled. Cluster
samples are widely used in small scale research. In a cluster
sample the parameters of the wider population are often drawn
very sharply; a researcher, therefore, would have to comment on
the generalizability of the findings. The researcher may also need
to stratify within this cluster sample if useful data.
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5.3.5 Stage sampling
Stage sampling is an extension of cluster sampling. It involves
selecting the sample in stages that is, taking samples from
samples. Using the large community example in cluster sampling,
one type of stage sampling might be to select a number of schools
at random, and from within each of these schools, select a number
of classes at random, and from within those classes select a
number of students.
5.3.6 Multi Phase Sampling
In a multi-phase sample the purposes change at each phase, for
example, at phase one the selection of the sample might be based
on the criterion of geography (e.g. students living in a particular
region); phase two might be based on an economic criterion (e.g.
schools whose budgets are administered in markedly different
ways); phase three might be based on a political criterion (e.g.
schools whose students are drawn from areas with a tradition of
support for a particular political party), and so on.
5.4 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
The selectivity which is built into a non-probability sample derives
from the researcher targeting a particular group, in the full
knowledge that it does not represent the wider population; it simply
represents itself. This is frequently the case in small scale
research, for example, as with one or two schools, two or three
groups of students, or a particular group of teachers, where no
attempt to generalize is desired; this is frequently the case for
some ethnographic research, action research or case study
research.
Just as there are several types of probability sample, so there are
several types of non-probability sample: convenience sampling,
quota sampling, dimensional sampling, purposive sampling and
snowball sampling.
5.4.1 Convenience sampling
Convenience sampling—or as it is sometimes called, accidental or
opportunity sampling—involves choosing the nearest individuals to
serve as respondents and continuing that process until the
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required sample size has been obtained. Captive audiences such
as students or student teachers often serve as respondents based
on convenience sampling. The researcher simply chooses the
sample from those to whom she has easy access.
5.4.2 Quota sampling
Quota sampling has been described as the non-probability
equivalent of stratified sampling (Bailey, 1978). Like a stratified
sample, a quota sample strives to represent significant
characteristics (strata) of the wider population; unlike stratified
sampling it sets out to represent these in the proportions in which
they can be found in the wider population. A quota sample, then,
seeks to give proportional weighting to selected factors (strata)
which reflects their weighting in which they can be found in the
wider population. The researcher wishing to devise a quota
sample can proceed in three stages:
Stage 1 Identify those characteristics (factors) which appear in the
wider population which must also appear in the sample, i.e. divide
the wider population into homogeneous and, if possible, discrete
groups (strata), for example, males and females, Asian, Chinese
and Afro-Caribbean.
Stage 2 Identify the proportions in which the selected
characteristics appear in the wider population, expressed as a
percentage.
Stage 3 Ensure that the percentage proportions of the
characteristics selected from the wider population appear in the
sample.
Ensuring correct proportions in the sample may be difficult to
achieve where the proportions in the wider community are
unknown; sometimes a pilot survey might be necessary in order to
establish those proportions.
5.4.3 Purposive sampling
In purposive sampling, researchers handpick the cases to be
included in the sample on the basis of their judgment of their
typicality. In this way, they build up a sample that is satisfactory to
their specific needs. As its name suggests, the sample has been
84
chosen for a specific purpose, for example: (a) a group of
principals and senior managers of secondary schools is chosen as
the research is studying the incidence of stress amongst senior
managers.
5.4.4 Dimensional sampling
One way of reducing the problem of sample size in quota sampling
is to opt for dimensional sampling. Dimensional sampling is a
further refinement of quota sampling. It involves identifying various
factors of interest in a population and obtaining at least one
respondent of every combination of those factors. Thus, in a study
of race relations, for example, researchers may wish to distinguish
first, second and third generation immigrants. Their sampling plan
might take the form of a multi-dimensional table with ‘ethnic group’
across the top and ‘generation’ down the side.
5.4.5 Snowball sampling
In snowball sampling researchers identify a small number of
individuals who have the characteristics in which they are
interested. These people are then used as informants to identify,
or put the researchers in touch with, others who qualify for
inclusion and these, in turn, identify yet others—hence the term
snowball sampling. This method is useful for sampling a
population where access is difficult, maybe because it is a
sensitive topic (e.g. teenage solvent abusers) or where
communication networks are undeveloped.
5.5 EFFECTIVE SAMPLE SIZE
85
How to use the effective sample size
LET US SUM UP
This unit deliberates the importance of sampling that every
element of the research should not be arbitrary but planned and
deliberate, and that, as before, the criterion of planning must be
fitness for purpose. The selection of a sampling strategy must be
governed by the criterion of suitability and it falls under two
categories probability and non-probability Sampling methods. The
86
sampling chosen must be appropriate for all of these factors if
validity is to be served.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Universe refers to the
2. is the true representatives
3. Probability sampling is otherwise called
4. Not giving equal chance to all participants is
5. Taking one group as sample instead of one individual is
87
GLOSSARY
Non Probability sampling: Non-probability sampling is a
sampling method in which not all members of the population have
an equal chance of participating in the study
Observational research: Observational research is a qualitative
research method where the target respondent/subject is observed
and analyzed in their natural/real-world setting.
Population:Drawing conclusions about some very large group of
people is called the population
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Define the steps in selecting the sample
2. Explain different types of sampling techniques
3. Explain various methods of data collection
4. What is a self-report measure?
5. How to determine sample size?
6. State the difference between Structured and unstructured
interview
88
SUGGESTED READINGS
89
UNIT- 6
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
6.1 Data Collection Methods
OVERVIEW
The data collection will help in making some conclusions about the
certain phenomenon. Thus, data collection is essential to analyze
the performance of a business unit, solving a problem and making
assumptions about specific things when required. In this unit we
will discuss about data collection and how it can be collected.
Moreover, the usage of interviews, questionnaires, observation
methods and survey methods are discussed in this unit.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this you will be able to:
• List out the various Data collection by observation
90
• Discuss about the Interviews
• Explain the usage of questionnaire in data collection
• Discuss about the key elements in observational research
• Describe the survey method
6.1 DATA COLLECTION METHODS
The main sources of the data collections methods are “Data”. Data
can be classified into two types, namely primary data and
secondary data. The primary importance of data collection in any
research or business process is that it helps to determine many
important things about the company, particularly the performance.
So, the data collection process plays an important role in all the
streams. Depending on the type of data, the data collection
method is divided into two categories namely,
91
Let us discuss the different methods performed to collect the data
under these two data collection methods.
Observation Method
Interview Method
92
Questionnaire Method
Schedules
• Government publications
• Public records
• Historical and statistical documents
• Business documents
• Technical and trade journals
Unpublished data includes
• Diaries
93
• Letters
• Unpublished biographies, etc.
The importance of data collection methods and how it can be
collected is explained above. However, the usual methods of data
collection methods are Interviews, through using questionnaires,
observation and survey methods. This will be discussed
elaborately in the following sections.
6.2 INTERVIEWS
Conducting interviews is another approach to data collection
used in survey research. Interviews may be conducted by phone,
computer, or in person and have the benefit of visually identifying
the nonverbal response(s) of the interviewee and subsequently
being able to clarify the intended question. An interviewer can use
probing comments to obtain more information about a question or
94
topic and can request clarification of an unclear response
(Singleton & Straits, 2009). Interviews can be costly and time
intensive, and therefore are relatively impractical for large
samples.
95
respondent to respondent, the interviewer must be trained to ask
questions in a way that gets the most information from the
respondent and allows the respondent to express his or her true
feelings. One type of a face-to-face unstructured interview in which
a number of people are interviewed at the same time and share
ideas both with the interviewer and with each other is called a
focus group. Unstructured interviews may provide in-depth
information about the particular concerns of an individual or a
group of people, and thus, may produce ideas for future research
projects or for policy decisions. It is, however, very difficult to
adequately train interviewers to ask questions in an unbiased
manner and to be sure that they have actually done so.
6.3 QUESTIONNAIRES
A questionnaire is a set of fixed-format, self-report items that is
completed by respondents at their own pace, often without
supervision. Questionnaires are generally cheaper than interviews
because a researcher can mail the questionnaires to many people
or have them complete the questionnaires in large groups.
Questionnaires may also produce more honest responses than
interviews, particularly when the questions involve sensitive issues
such as sexual activity or annual income, because respondents
are more likely to perceive their responses as being anonymous
than they are in interviews. In comparison to interviews,
questionnaires are also likely to be less influenced by the
characteristics of the experimenter. For instance, if the topic
concerns race-related attitudes, how the respondent answers
might depend on the race of the interviewer and how the
respondent thinks the interviewer wants him or her to respond.
Because the experimenter is not present when a questionnaire is
completed, or at least is not directly asking the questions, such
problems are less likely.
Questionnaires may be in paper form and mailed to participants,
delivered in an electronic format via email or an Internet-based
program such as Survey Monkey, or a combination of both, giving
the participant the option to choose which method is preferred
96
(Ponto et al., 2010). Using a combination of methods of survey
administration can help to ensure better sample coverage (i.e., all
individuals in the population having a chance of inclusion in the
sample) therefore reducing coverage error (Dillman, Smyth, &
Christian, 2014; Singleton & Straits, 2009). For example, if a
researcher were to only use an Internet-delivered questionnaire,
individuals without access to a computer would be excluded from
participation. Self-administered mailed, group, or Internet-based
questionnaires are relatively low cost and practical for a large
sample (Check & Schutt, 2012).
97
nor manipulated. The results are both qualitative and quantitative
in nature.
98
are very wealthy. Desired demographics may be difficult to
achieve.
99
taste in music, your shopping habits, or your political preferences.
The goal of a survey, as with all descriptive research, is to produce
a “snapshot” of the opinions, attitudes, or behaviors of a group of
people at a given time. Because surveys can be used to gather
information about a wide variety of information in a relatively short
time, they are used extensively by businesspeople, advertisers,
and politicians to help them learn what people think, feel, or do.
Information has been obtained from individuals and groups
through the use of survey research for decades. It can range from
asking a few targeted questions of individuals on a street corner to
obtain information related to behaviors and preferences, to a more
rigorous study using multiple valid and reliable instruments.
Common examples of less rigorous surveys include marketing or
political surveys of consumer patterns and public opinion polls.
100
Given this range of options in the conduct of survey research, it is
imperative for the consumer/reader of survey research to
understand the potential for bias in survey research as well as the
tested techniques for reducing bias, in order to draw appropriate
conclusions about the information reported in this manner.
LET US SUM UP
101
GLOSSARY
Observational research - Observational research is a qualitative
research method where the target respondent/subject is observed
and analyzed in their natural/real-world setting.
Structured Interviews - Structured interview is the one involving a
fixed set of predetermined questions
Survey Research - "the collection of information from a sample of
individuals through their responses to questions"
Unstructured Interviews - Unstructured interview is the one
where the interviewer initiates casual conversation with the
candidate. There is no pattern or fixed format set in advance that
allows the interviewer to indulge in informal discussion mixed with
interview questions.
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Explain various methods of data collection
2. What is a self-report measure?
3. How to determine sample size?
4. State the difference between Structured and unstructured
interview
SUGGESTED READINGS
102
BLOCK III: RESEARCH DESIGNS
103
UNIT- 7
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Principles Underlying Experimental Design
7.3 Independent Group’s Designs
7.3.1 Completely Randomized Research Design
7.3.2 Randomized bock design
7.3.4 Randomized factorial Design
7.4 Dependent group’s Designs
7.4.1 Within Participant Research Design
7.4.2 Matched Group Designs
7.4.3 Mixed Designs
7.4.4 Single participant subject research design
7.4.5 Baseline Designs
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Key Words
Answers to check your progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
Research designs are plans and the procedures for research that span
the decisions from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data
collection and analysis. This plan involves several decisions, and they
need not be taken in the order in which they make sense to me and the
order of their presentation here. The overall decision involves which
design should be used to study a topic. There are two broad category of
104
research designs i.e. Experimental and non- experimental research
designs. This unit deals with experimental research designs
OBJECTIVES
7.1 INTRODUCTION
105
Non-experimental design is research that lacks the manipulation
of an independent variable. Rather than manipulating an
independent variable, researchers conducting non-experimental
research simply measure variables as they naturally occur (in the
lab or real world).Non-experimental research is usually descriptive
or correlational, which means that you are either describing a
situation or phenomenon simply as it stands, or you are describing
a relationship between two or more variables, all without any
interference from the researcher. This means that you do not
manipulate any variables (e.g., change the conditions that an
experimental group undergoes) or randomly assign participants to
a control or treatment group.
106
2) Principle of Randomization provides protection, when we
conduct an experiment, against the effect of extraneous factors
by randomization. In other words, this principle indicates that
we should design or plan the experiment in such a way that the
variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined
under the general heading of “chance.” For instance, if we
grow one variety of rice, say, in the first half of the parts of a
field and the other variety is grown in the other half, then it is
just possible that the soil fertility may be different in the first
half in comparison to the other half. If this is so, our results
would not be realistic. In such a situation, we may assign the
variety of rice to be grown in different parts of the field on the
basis of some random sampling technique i.e., we may apply
randomization principle and protect ourselves against the
effects of the extraneous factors (soil fertility differences in the
given case).
3) According to the principle of local control, we first divide the
field into several homogeneous parts, known as blocks, and
then each such block is divided into parts equal to the number
of treatments. Then the treatments are randomly assigned to
these parts of a block. Dividing the field into several
homogenous parts is known as ‘blocking’. In brief, through the
principle of local control we can eliminate the variability due to
extraneous factor(s) from the experimental error.
107
Completely randomized design (C.R. design) Involves only two
principles viz., the principle of replication and the principle of
randomization of experimental designs. It is the simplest possible
design and its procedure of analysis is also easier. The essential
characteristic of the design is that subjects are randomly assigned
to experimental treatments (or vice-versa). For instance, if we
have 10 subjects and if we wish to test 5 under treatment A and 5
under treatment B, the randomization process gives every possible
group of 5 subjects selected from a set of 10 an equal opportunity
of being assigned to treatment A and treatment B.
108
Form 1 Student A Student Student C Student Student
B D
Form 2 82 67 57 71 73
Form 3 90 68 54 70 81
Form 4 86 73 51 69 84
93 77 60 65 71
109
For example, suppose a botanist wants to understand the effects
of sunlight (low vs. high) and watering frequency (daily vs. weekly)
on the growth of a certain species of plant. This is an example of a
2×2 factorial design because there are two independent
variables, each with two levels:
Watering frequency
Sunlight
110
growth growth growth
111
Example:
A researcher wants to know which educational method is best for
teaching students a new concept.
A group of students is split into two different groups. The
researchers would look at standardized test scores and grades
and try to match each student with another student that has the
same test scores and grades. So, a student with a test score of 95
who made as would be in Group A while another student with the
same scores would be placed in Group B. This process would be
done for all the students in the experiment.
112
data on the same topic” (Morse, 1991, p. 122) to best understand
the research problem. The intent in using this design is to bring
together the differing strengths and non-overlapping weaknesses
of quantitative methods (large sample size, trends, generalization)
with those of qualitative methods (small, details, in-depth) (Patton,
1990). For Example, this design is used when a researcher
wants to directly compare and contrast quantitative statistical
results with qualitative findings or to validate or expand
quantitative results with qualitative data.
ii) The Embedded Design
The Embedded Design is a mixed-methods design in which one
data set
provides a supportive, secondary role in a study based primarily
on the other data type (Creswell, Plano Clark, et al., 2003). The
premises of this design are that a single data set is not sufficient,
that different questions need to be answered, and that each type
of question requires different types of data. For Example, this
design is particularly useful when a researcher needs to embed a
qualitative component within a quantitative design, as in the case
of an experimental or correlational design. In the experimental
example, the investigator includes qualitative data for several
reasons, such as to develop a treatment, to examine the process
of an intervention or the mechanisms that relate variables, or to
follow up on the results of an experiment
113
iv) The Exploratory Design
Does the noise level affect head banging in a child with autism?
114
Does teacher eye contact (or proximity, or threats of
punishment...) decrease disruptive behavior of a problem student?
115
positive attention for studying could be used one day and mild
punishment for not studying the next, and so on. Or one treatment
could be implemented in the morning and another in the afternoon.
The alternating treatments design can be a quick and effective
way of comparing treatments, but only when the treatments are
fast acting.
116
would test whether the treatment improved school performance or
whether the student was struggling with the current material but
improved naturally as the school year progressed.
LET US SUM UP
MODEL QUESTIONS
117
GLOSSARY
SUGGESTED READINGS
118
• https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/10-2-single-
subject-research-designs/
• https://webcourses.ucf.edu/courses/950845/pages/single-
subject-research-designs
• https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/en/web/products-statistical-
working-papers/-/ks-ra-09-003
• https://qcpages.qc.cuny.edu/~dfienup/multiplebaselineinfo.
html
119
UNIT – 8
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
8.1 Quasi Experimental Research Designs
8.1.1 .Non equivalent group
8.2 Ex-Post Facto Research Design
8.3 Time Series Design
8.4 Longitudinal Research Design
8.5 Cross Sectional Research Design
8.5.1 Difference between cross sectional and longitudinal study
8.6 Case Study
8.7 Correlational Research
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Key Words
Answers to check your progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
120
correlation etc., in this present unit let us look into non-experimental
research designs.
OBJECTIVES
• After reading this unit you will be able to:
• List out the various types of non-experimental research
designs
• Explain the Quasi Experimental Research Designs
• Discuss about the Ex-Post Facto Research Design
• Describe the Time Series Design
• Highlight the role of Longitudinal Research Design
• Explain the Cross Sectional Research Design
• Explain about the Case Study
• Discuss the Correlational Research
Non-experimental research is usually descriptive or correlational, which
means that you are either describing a situation or phenomenon simply as
it stands, or you are describing a relationship between two or more
variables, all without any interference from the researcher. This type of
research is used when the researcher has no specific research question
about a causal relationship between 2 different variables, and
manipulation of the independent variable is impossible. They are also
used when:
121
subjects are assigned to groups based on non-random criteria. Quasi-
experimental design is a useful tool in situations where true experiments
cannot be used for ethical or practical reasons.
You discover that a few of the psychotherapists in the clinic have decided
to try out the new therapy, while others who treat similar patients have
chosen to stick with the normal protocol.
You can use these pre-existing groups to study the symptom progression
of the patients treated with the new therapy versus those receiving the
standard course of treatment. Although the groups were not randomly
assigned, if you properly account for any systematic differences between
them, you can be reasonably confident any differences must arise from
the treatment and not other confounding variables.
In psychology and other social sciences, these designs often involve self-
selection, in which the members of the treatment group are those who
volunteer or otherwise seek the treatment whereas the comparison group
members do not. Since participants are not assigned to conditions at
random, the two groups are likely to exhibit preexisting differences on
both measured and unmeasured factors that must be taken into account
122
during statistical analyses. Also called nonequivalent comparison-group
design; nonequivalent control-group design.
Kerlinger (1970) has defined ex post facto research more formally as that
in which the independent variable or variables have already occurred and
in which the researcher starts with the observation of a dependent
variable or variables. Spector (1993:42) suggests that ex post facto
research is a procedure that is intended to transform a non-experimental
research design into a pseudo-experimental.
123
Examples of the method are plenty in these areas: the research on
cigarette smoking and lung cancer, for instance; or studies of teacher
characteristics; or studies examining the relationship between political and
religious affiliation and attitudes; or investigations into the relationship
between school achievement and independent variables such as social
class, race, sex and intelligence.
124
investigation may take several weeks or months; a long-term study can
extend over many years. Where successive measures are taken at
different points in time from the same respondents, the term ‘follow-up
study’ or ‘cohort study’ is used in the British literature, the equivalent term
in the United States being the ‘panel study’ Where different respondents
are studied at different points in time, the study is called ‘cross-sectional’.
Where a few selected factors are studied continuously over time, the term
‘trend study’ is employed.
125
Advantages
Because all of the variables are analyzed at once and data does
not need to be collected multiple times, there will likely be fewer
mistakes as a higher level of control is obtained.
Limitations
126
Cross-sectional studies are designed to look at a variable at a
particular moment, while longitudinal studies are more beneficial
for analyzing relationships over extended periods.
Examples
127
or community. Typically, data are gathered from a variety of
sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations
& interviews).
Case studies are widely used in psychology and amongst the best
known were the ones carried out by Sigmund Freud, including
Anna O and Little Hans. Freud (1909a, 1909b) conducted very
detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an
attempt to both understand and help them overcome their
illnesses. Even today case histories are one of the main methods
of investigation in abnormal psychology and psychiatry. The data
collected can be analyzed using different theories (e.g. grounded
128
theory, interpretative phenomenological analysis, text
interpretation, e.g. thematic coding).
129
Another reason that researchers would choose to use a
correlational study rather than an experiment is that the statistical
relationship of interest is thought to be causal, but the researcher
cannot manipulate the independent variable because it is
impossible, impractical, or unethical. For example, while I might be
interested in the relationship between the frequency people use
cannabis and their memory abilities I cannot ethically manipulate
the frequency that people use cannabis. As such, I must rely on
the correlational research strategy; I must simply measure the
frequency that people use cannabis and measure their memory
abilities using a standardized test of memory and then determine
whether the frequency people use cannabis use is statistically
related to memory test performance.
LET US SUM UP
130
8. Exposing the participants to all different condition is Solomon
four group designs.
1. False
2. True
3. True
4. False
5. True
6. True
7. True
8. False
MODEL QUESTIONS
GLOSSARY
131
SUGGESTED READINGS
https://www.simplypsychology.org/what-is-a-cross-sectional-
study.htm
• https://www.statisticssolutions.com/research-designs-non-
experimental-vs-experimental/
• ttps://www.formpl.us/blog/experimental-non-experimental-
research
• https://dictionary.apa.org/time-series-design
• https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781119111
931.ch69
• https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/quasi-experimental-
design/
• https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093
/oso/9780190661557.001.0001/oso-9780190661557-
chapter-1
• https://conjointly.com/kb/two-group-experimental-designs/
132
BLOCK IV: STATISTICS
133
UNIT – 9
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
9.1 Introduction to Statistics
9.2 Organisation of Data
9.3 Graphs
9.4 Descriptive Statistics
9.5 Measures of Central Tendencies
9.6 Measures of Variation
9.7 Types of Distributions
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Key Words
Answers to check your progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
134
OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
Explain the Meaning of statistics
Highlight the Different methods of organization of data
Describe about the Measures of central tendency
Describe about the Measures of variation
135
4. Comparing one system of evaluation over another
5. Making prediction
6. Summarize the result and draw conclusion
7. To classify the numerical data
136
In a class interval frequency distribution, individual scores are
combined into categories, or intervals, and then listed along with
the frequency of scores in each interval. In the exam score
example, the scores range from 45 to 95—a 50-point range. A rule
of thumb when creating class intervals is to have between 10 and
20 categories (Hinkle, Wiersma, &Jurs, 1988). A quick method of
calculating what the width of the interval should be is to subtract
the lowest score from the highest score and then divide the result
by the number of intervals you want (Schweigert, 1994). If we want
10 intervals in our example, we proceed as follows:
95 - 45/ 10
50/ 10
=5
Example
Table 1
Items Frequency
Apples 10
Oranges 15
Banana 30
Guava 17
Pomegranate 20
Table 2:
Class-interval Frequency
10 – 20 5
20 – 30 8
30 – 40 7
40 – 50 6
9.3 Graphs
137
depends on the type of data collected and what the researcher
hopes to emphasize or illustrate.
138
Frequency Polygons: You can also depict the data in a
histogram as a frequency polygon—a line graph of the
frequencies of individual scores or intervals. Mid points of all the
classes or intervals are calculated and plotted on the x-axis and
frequencies on the y-axis. After all the frequencies are plotted, the
data points are connected.
139
average length of time it takes a normal mouse to lick its paw
when placed on a warm surface would be a descriptive statistic.
Examples from other situations might include an examination of
dieting scores on the Eating Restraint Scale, crime rates as
reported by the Department of Justice, and certain summary
information concerning examination grades in a particular course.
Notice that in each of these examples we are just describing what
the data have to say about some phenomenon.
Where
µ (pronounced “mu”) represents the symbol for the population
mean;
∑ represents the symbol for “the sum of”;
X represents the individual scores; and
N represents the number of scores in the distribution.
To calculate the mean, we sum all of the Xs, or scores, and divide
by the
Total number of scores in the distribution (N).
You may have also seen this formula represented as
M = ∑X/ N
140
This is the formula for calculating a sample mean, where
Represents the sample mean and N represents the number of
scores in the sample. The use of the mean is constrained by the
nature of the data: The mean is appropriate for interval and ratio
data but not for ordinal or nominal data.
Let X1, X2, X3, X4, X5, X6, X7, X8, X9, X10to the scores obtained by
10 students on achievement list, then the arithmetic mean of the
student can be calculate as
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + x6 + x7 + x8 + x9 + x10
M=
10
M= x
N
Example: Let 30, 16, 20, 26, 18, 24, 36, 18 be the scores obtained
by 8 students on achievement list, then the arithmetic mean of the
students can be. Calculated as
30 +16 + 20 + 26 +18 + 24 + 36 +18
M=
8
188
=
8
M = 23.5
Calculation of mean in case of grouped data (Data in the form
of frequency distribution)
M=
f (x)
N
141
Income 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
No of 4 7 16 20 15 8
person
Mean =
f (x)
N
3040
=
70
= 43.428
M = 43.43
n +1
th
142
5 +1
=
2
6
=
2
= 3rd item
Arrange the data in the ascending order
1347 9
4 is the median
Median
Weekly No o Cumulative
wages workers Frequency
(f) (Cf)
50-55 6 6
55-60 10 16
60-65 22 38
65-70 30 68
70-75 16 84
75-80 12 96
80-85 15 111
Total N=111
Class Interval =5
2 − Cf
N
Median = L + i
f
Where L= Exact lower limit of median class
Cf =Cumulative frequency
f = Simple Frequency median class
i = Class interval
143
Median class=N/2=111/2 = 55.5
Median lies in the class of 65-70
Exact lower limit (L) =65
Cf = 38
f =30
2 − Cf
N
= L+ i
f
55.5 − 38
= 65 +
30
5
= 65 + 2.91
M d = 67.91
Suppose we have to find out the value of the mode from the
following scores of students.
25, 29,24, 25, 27, 25, 28, 25, 29
Here the score 25 is repeated maximum number of times and thus
the mode is this case is 25.
Computation of mode for grouped data
Mean(M) =44.6
Median (Md) =44.05
Mode (Mo) =3 Md – 2M
=3(44.05) – 2 (44.6)
=132.15-89.2
Mo =42.95
144
(ii) When mean and median are not given
f
M = L + f +1 f i
o
1 −1
L = Lower limit of the model class (class in which mode may be
supposed to lie)
i = Class interval
f1 = Frequency above the modal class
f-1= Frequency below the modal class
65-69 1
60-64 3
55-59 4
50-54 7
45-49 9 f1
40-44 Moda 11 highest frequency
class
35-39 8 f-1
30-34 4
25-29 2
20-24 1
f
M = L + f +1 f i
o
1 −1
9
M = 39.5 + 5
o
9+8
M o = 42.15
Measures of Variation/Dispersion
A measure of central tendency provides information about the
“middleness” of a distribution of scores but not about the width or
spread of the distribution. To assess the width of a distribution, we
need a measure of variation or dispersion. A measure of
variation indicates the degree to which scores are either clustered
or spread out in a distribution or The degree to which individual
data points are distributed around the mean.
145
Range: The simplest measure of variation is the range—the
difference between the lowest and the highest scores in a
distribution. For example, in the distribution of 30 exam scores in
Table 5.5, only 2 of the 30 scores are used in calculating the range
(95-45 = 50).
Range =L-S
(Largest item – Smallest item)
L−S
Range Co-efficient =
L+S
Grouped data – For grouped data, range is the difference between
upper limit of the highest class and the lower limit of the lower
class.
Formula: AD =
x
N
Where x = X − M deviation of the raw score from the mean of the
series and x signifies that in the deviation values we ignore the
algebraic signs +ve or -ve
146
Scores Deviation x
(x) from the
mean (x-m
=x
15 15-10=5 5
10 10-10=0 0
6 6-10=-4 4
8 8-10=-2 2
11 11-10=1 1
N=5
x = 12
By applying the formula
12
AD =
5
AD = 2.4
AD = fx
N
Example:
Scores f Midpoint fx x = X −M fx fx
x
60-64 6 62 372 62-47.3=14.7 88.2 88.2
55-59 5 57 285 57-47.3=9.7 48.5 48.5
50-54 7 52 364 52-47.3-4.7 32.9 32.9
45-49 16 47 752 47-47.3=-03 -4.8 4.8
40-44 6 42 252 42-47.3=-5.3 - 31.8
31.8
35-39 4 37 148 37-47.3=- - 41.2
10.3 41.2
30.34 6 32 192 32-47.3=- - 91.8
15.3 91.8
50 2365
fx
339.2
Step1
Find mean
AD = fx = 2365 = 47.3
N 50
Step 2
147
AD = fx
=
339.2
= 6.784
N 50
AD = 6.8
Example 2:
Calculate the SD for the following
15,10,6,8,11
X X–M x2
15 5 5
10 0 0
6 -4 16
8 -2 4
11 1 1
Mean = 50/5 = 10
( x)
2
SD =
( N −1)
2
= 1.28
Standard Deviation
Standard deviation (SD)is the average distance of all the scores
in the distribution from the mean or central point of the distribution
or is the square root of mean of the average squared deviations
from the mean. The formula for finding our SD or
= Nx 2
148
Mean = x = 170 = 34
N 5
M = 34
SD( ) = Nx 2
40
SD( ) =
5
SD( ) = 8
SD( ) = 2.83
SD( ) = fx2
N
IQ f x x = X −M x2 fx2
SCARED
127-129 1 128 128-115=13 169 169
124-126 2 125 125-115=10 100 200
121-123 3 122 122-115=7 49 147
118-120 1 116 116-115=4 16 16
115-117 6 116 116-115=1 1 6
112-114 4 113 113-115=-2 4 16
109-111 3 110 110-115—5 25 75
106-108 2 107 107-115=-8 64 128
103-105 1 104 104-115=-11 121 121
100-102 1 101 101-115=-14 196 196
N=24
fx2 = 1074
Mean =115
SD( ) = fx2 =
1074
= 44.75
N 24
SD( ) = 6.69
149
Note: If the mean value is not given then it is to computed with the
formula
M=
fx
N
Quartile deviation: (Q.D)
Quartile deviation (Q.D), can be defined as half of the difference
between 75th percentile and the 25 the percentile. Hence it is one-
half the scale distance between the 75 th&25th percentile in a
frequency distribution.
Q3 − Q1
Q.D =
2
Q75 − Q25
Q.D =
2
150
Q3 − Q1
Q.D =
2
44 − 32
Q.D =
2
8
Q.D =
2
Q.D = 4
(ii) Computation of Quartile deviation from grouped data
Q3 − Q1
Q.D =
2
N 50
Q = = = 12.5th item
1
4 4
3N 3 50
Q = = = 37.5th item
3
4 4
N
−
4 Cf
Q = L+ i
1
f
12.5 −10
Q1 = 24.5 + 5
4
12.5
Q = 24.5 +
1
4
Q1 = 24.5 + 3.15
Q1 = 27.625
151
3N
4 − Cf i
Q = L+
3
f
37.5 − 30
Q3 = 39.5 + 5
8
7.5
Q = 39.5 + 5
3 8
Q3 = 39.5 + 4.68
Q3 = 44.18
Q3 − Q1 44.18 − 27.625
Q.D = =
2 2
Q.D = 8.277
Q.D = 8.28
152
Modality: The number of meaningful peaks in a frequency
distribution of the data.
Negatively skewed: A distribution that trails off to the left.
Positively skewed: A distribution that trails off to the right.
Skewness: A measure of the degree to which a distribution is
asymmetrical
Normal Distribution: When a distribution of scores is fairly large
(N = 30), it often tends to approximate a pattern called a normal
distribution. When plotted as a frequency polygon, a normal
distribution forms a symmetrical, bell-shaped pattern often called a
normal curve .We say that the pattern approximates a normal
distribution because a true normal distribution is a theoretical
construct not actually observed in the real world.
The normal distribution is a theoretical frequency distribution that
has certain special characteristics. First, it is bell-shaped and
symmetrical—the right half is a mirror image of the left half.
Second, the mean, median, and mode are equal and are located
at the center of the distribution. Third, the normal distribution is
unimodal—it has only one mode. Fourth, most of the observations
are clustered around the center of the distribution, with far fewer
observations at the ends or “tails” of the distribution. Last, when
standard deviations are plotted on the x-axis, the percentage of
scores falling between the mean and any point on the x-axis is the
same for all normal curves.
Kurtosis refers to how flat or peaked a normal distribution is. In
other words, kurtosis refers to the degree of dispersion among the
scores, or whether the distribution is tall and skinny or short and
fat. Mesokurtic curves have peaks of medium height, and the
distributions are moderate in breadth. Leptokurtic curves are tall
and thin, with only a few scores in the middle of the distribution
having a high frequency. Platykurtic curves are short and more
dispersed (broader). In a Platykurtic curve, there are many scores
around the middle score that all have a similar frequency.
153
Standard normal distribution: A normal distribution with a mean
equal to 0 and a standard deviation equal to 1; denoted as N(0,1).
LET US SUM UP
The word statistics is used in at least three different ways,
statistics refers to a set of procedures and rules (not always
computational or mathematical) for reducing large masses of data
to manageable proportions and for allowing us to draw conclusions
from those data. Statistical data may be presented in the form of
graphics aids such as pictures and graphs such as bar diagram,
pie diagram, histogram, pictograph, frequency polygon, cumulative
frequency polygon and Ogive curve. The statistics mean median
and mode are known to be commonest measures of central
tendency. There is a tendency for data to be dispersed, scattered
or to show variability around the average or the central value. This
tendency is known as measures of dispersion. When data were
plotted as a frequency polygon, a normal distribution forms a
symmetrical, bell-shaped pattern often called a normal curve.
Deviation from the normality tends to vary either in terms of
skewness or in terms of kurtosis.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. A is a representative number that characterizes the
“middleness” of an entire set of data.
2. The measure of central tendency where the score in a
distribution that occurs with the greatest frequency.
3. A --indicates the degree to which scores are either
clustered or spread out in a distribution
4. is the square root of the average squared deviation
from the mean.
154
5. are short and more dispersed (broader) in
which there are many scores around the middle score that all have
a similar frequency.
6. refers to the measure of the degree to which a
distribution is asymmetrical.
KEY TERMS
Frequency distribution
Skewness
Kurtosis
Central tendency
Deviation/ dispersion
GLOSSARY
Frequency distribution: a table in which all of the scores are
listed along with the frequency with which each occurs.
Frequency Polygons: A frequency polygon is a type of line graph
where the class frequency is plotted against the class midpoint
and the points are joined by a line segment creating a curve.
Histogram: A histogram is a graphical representation that
organizes a group of data points into user-specified ranges.
Kurtosis: refers to how flat or peaked a normal distribution is.
Measure of central tendency: representative number that
characterizes the “middleness” of an entire set of data.
Measure of variation indicates the degree to which scores are
either clustered or spread out in a distribution around the mean
155
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by the term, ‘measures of central
tendency? Point out the most common measures of central
tendency.
2. What are the different measures of variability? Discuss them in
brief.
3. What is normal distribution curve?
4. Define and explain the terms skewness and kurtosis along with
their main types.
SUGGESTED READINGS
156
UNIT- 10
INFERENTIAL STATISTICSSTRUCTURE
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
10.1 Inferential Statistics – Introduction
10.2 When to use Parametric Tests and Non-Parametric Tests
10.3 Significance of difference between two means
10.3.1 Z-Test
10.3.2 Student ‘t’ Test
10.3.3 Paired ‘t’ test
10.4 ANOVA- More than Two Group Design
10.5 Correlation Coefficient
10.6 Regressions Analysis
10.7 Multiple regression analysis
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Answers to check your progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you will be able to
Understand various tests of inferential statistics
Understand the difference between parametric and non-parametric
tests and their applications
Understand the significance of the difference between means
Explain the concept of Correlation coefficient
Explain the usage of ‘t test
Explain the Analysis of variance
157
10.1 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS - INTRODUCTION
All of us at some time or another have been guilty of making
unreasonable generalizations on the basis of limited data. You
might hear or read that tall people tend to be more graceful than
short people and conclude that that is true because you once had
a very tall roommate who was particularly graceful. You
conveniently forget about the 6’ 4” klutz down the hall who couldn’t
even put on his pants standing up without tripping over them.
Similarly, the man who says that girls develop motor skills earlier
than boys because his daughter walked at 10 months and his son
didn’t walk until 14 months is guilty of the same kind of error:
generalizing from single (or too limited) observations.
In all the above cases we need to know the variability. How one
varies from other in certain phenomena. We use inferential
statistics to draw conclusions and to make inferences that are
based on the numbers from a research study but that go beyond
the numbers. For example, inferential statistics allow researchers
to make inferences about a large group of individuals based on a
research study in which a much smaller number of individuals took
part. We cannot make unlimited observations - we must draw a
sample from a population.
158
When the measurement is When the measurement is
interval or ratio scale nominal or ordinal scale
Karl Pearson product momen Rank order correlation, ch
correlation, t test, F test square, Mann Whitney U test
10.3.1 Z Test
A z-test is a statistical test to determine whether two population
means are different when the variances are known and the sample
size is large. A z-test is a hypothesis test in which the z-statistic
follows a normal distribution. A z-statistic, or z-score, is a number
representing the result from the z-test. For example, if someone
said they had found a new drug that cures cancer, you would want
to be sure it was probably true. A hypothesis test will tell you if it’s
probably true, or probably not true. A Z test, is used when your
data is approximately normally distributed (i.e. the data has the
shape of a bell curve when you graph it).
Compute Z test, if.
159
• Your sample size is greater than 30. Otherwise, use a t test.
• Data points should be independent from each other. In other
words, one data point isn’t related or doesn’t affect another data
point.
• Your data should be normally distributed. However, for large
sample sizes (over 30) this doesn’t always matter.
• Your data should be randomly selected from a population, where
each item has an equal chance of being selected.
• Sample sizes should be equal if at all possible.
12 22
D = +
N1 N2
Where 1, 2 are the standard deviation of sample 1 and 2
respectively, N1 an N2 are the size of sample in sample 1 and 2
respectively.
160
the means M, and M. (M1-M 2) gives the relative effectives of
teaching method. In order to check how signify this difference
should be to help decide whether method.
M1 − M 2
t=
D
=
x +x 2
1
2
2
( N1 −1) + ( N2 −1)
Where x 2
1 and x2 1 are the sum of the deviations of values
Group 10 9 8 7 7 8 6 5 6 4
I
Group 9 8 6 7 8 8 11 12 6 5
II
Compute the means for both groups and test the significance of
the difference between these two mean.
161
Solution:
10 7 3 9 9 8 1 1
9 7 2 4 8 8 0 0
8 7 2 4 8 8 0 0
7 7 0 0 7 8 -2 4
7 7 0 0 8 8 0 0
8 7 1 1 11 8 0 0
6 7 -1 1 12 8 4 16
5 7 -2 4 12 8 4 16
6 7 -1 1 6 8 -2 4
4 7 -3 9 5 8 -3 9
70 x2 = 30
1
80 x2 = 44
2
Mean
70
M = =7
1
10
80
M = =8
2
10
162
= x +x 2
1
2
2
( N1 −1) + ( N2 −1)
30 + 44
=
9+9
74
=
18
= 4.1111
= 2.03
1 1
D = +
N1 N2
1 1
D = 2.03 +
10 10
1
D = 2.03
5
D = 0.9078
M1 − M 2
t=
D
7 −8
t=
0.908
−1
t=
0.908
t = −1.1
= 10+10-2
df=18
We find from the table, the critical value of ‘t’ with 18 degrees of
freedom is of at 5% level of significance is 2.01. The computed
value is 1.1 which is quite smaller than the critical value 2.10
hence it is not significant. Hence the new hypothesis is accepted
stating that the given difference in sample means are insignificant
can only be attributed to some chance factors or sampling
fluctuations.
163
10.3.3 PAIRED ‘T’ TEST
In many (but certainly not all) situations in which we will use the form of
the test, we will have two sets of data from the same participants. i)
Related samples: An experimental design in which the same participant
is observed under more than one treatment. ii) Repeated measures: An
experimental design in which the same participant is observed under
more than one treatment. iii) Matched samples: An experimental design
in which the participants are paired and one is assigned to each
treatment.
For example, we might ask 20 people to rate their level of anxiety before
and after donating blood. We would have 20 sets of numbers, two
numbers for each person, and we would expect these two sets of
numbers (variables) to be correlated. We need to take this correlation into
account in planning our test. In the example of anxiety about donating
blood, people differ widely in level of anxiety. Some seem to be anxious
all the time no matter what happens, and others just take things as they
come and don’t worry about anything. Thus, there should be a relationship
between an individual’s anxiety level before donating blood and the
anxiety level after donating blood. In other words, if we know that a person
was one of the more anxious people before donation, we can make a
reasonable guess that the same person was one of the more anxious
people after donation.
Given:
M1 − M 2
t=
D
D = M2 + M2 − 2r M M
1 2 1 2
164
M This is the standard error of the Initial test.
1
1 8
M = = 8 = = 1.6
1
N1 25 5
2 10
M = 2
= =2
N2 25
D = M2 + M2 − 2r M M
1 2 1 2
T ratio
M1 − M 2
t=
D
80 − 84
t=
2
4
t=
2
t=2
Not that in all the research we have two groups. We do have more
than two groups. In that case we use ANOVA.
• Analysis of variance (ANOVA): A statistical technique for
testing for differences in the means of several groups.
• One-way ANOVA: An analysis of variance wherein the groups
are defined on only one independent variable.
165
abbreviated as ANOVA.(The F is for Sir Ronald Fisher, an
eminent statistician who developed the analysis of variance)
166
Source Sum of squares Df Mean square
variance
2/
Between Sb2 K–1 Sb /df
group
Within Sw2 N–K Sw2/df
group
167
represented by a correlation coefficient. We can use a number of
different correlation coefficients, depending primarily on the
underlying nature of the measurements.
Magnitude
The magnitude or strength of a relationship is determined by the
correlation coefficient describing the relationship. A correlation
coefficient is a measure of the degree of relationship between two
variables; it can vary between _1.00 and _1.00. The stronger the
relationship between the variables, the closer the coefficient is to
either _1.00 or _1.00. The weaker the relationship between the
variables, the closer the coefficient is to 0.
168
number of correct choices—common dependent variables in an animal
learning study—is obviously in a dependent position relative to the other).
Where the distinction is not obvious, it is irrelevant which variable is
labeled X and which Y.
Positive Relationship
Negative Relationships
Figure 5 represents a negative relationship between two variables. Notice
that in this scatter plot, the data points extend from the upper left to the
lower right. This negative correlation indicates that an increase in one
variable is accompanied by a decrease in the other variable. This
represents an inverse relationship: The more of variable x that we have,
the less we have of variable y.
No relationships
169
Figure 4: Positive relationships
170
Figure 6: No relationships
171
Pearson product–moment correlation is indicated by the formula
r = ∑xy/√∑x2 X∑y2
Example 3:
Find out the correlation coefficient
X: 15, 25, 20, 30, 35
Y: 60, 70, 40, 50, 30
X Y x Y xy x2 y2
15 60 -10 10 -100 100 100
25 70 0 20 0 0 400
20 40 -5 -10 50 25 100
30 50 5 0 0 25 0
35 30 10 -20 -200 100 400
125 250 -250 250 1000
Mean of X = 25
Mean of Y = 50
x = X – Mean of X
y= Y – Mean of Y
r = ∑xy/√∑x2 * ∑y2
= -0.5
172
Essentially, regression is the “best guess” at using a set of data to
make some kind of prediction. It’s fitting a set of points to a graph.
There’s a whole host of tools that can run regression for you,
including Excel, which I used here to help make sense of that
snowfall data:
173
y = -2.2923x + 4624.4.
What that means are you can plug in an x value (the year) and get
a pretty good estimate of snowfall for any year. For example,
2005:
y = -2.2923(2005) + 4624.4 = 28.3385 inches, which is pretty close
to the actual figure of 30 inches for that year.
Best of all, you can use the equation to make predictions. For
example, how much snow will fall in 2017?
y = 2.2923(2017) + 4624.4 = 0.8 inches.
174
correlation coefficients, symbolized by the letter R. The
regression coefficients are not exactly the same as the zero-order
correlations because they represent the effects of each of the
predictor measures in the regression analysis, holding constant or
controlling for the effects of the other predictor variables. This
control is accomplished statistically. The result is that the
regression coefficients can be used to indicate the relative
contributions of each of the predictor variables.
LET US SUM UP
175
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Karl Pearson product-moment correlation
2. Paired t test
3. Independent t test
4. ANOVA
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between parametric and non-parametric statistics.
2. Explain scatter-plot diagram
3. Explain measures of central tendency.
4. Illustrate with example of when to use paired t test and
independent t test
5. Explain the steps in testing ANOVA.
6. State the uses of Pearson product moment correlation method
and how it is different from multiple regression
GLOSSARY
Anova: One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) tells you if there
are any statistical differences between the means of three or more
independent groups.
Multiple Regressions: a statistical technique based on Pearson
correlation coefficients both between each of the predictor
variables and the outcome variable and among the predictor
variables themselves.
Non-parametric tests: Statistical tests that do not rely on
parameter estimation or precise distributional assumptions
Parametric tests: Statistical tests that involve assumptions about,
or estimation of, population parameters
Pearson product–moment correlation coefficient: normally
used to summarize and communicate the strength and direction of
the association between two quantitative variables.
Scatter plot: also called as scatter gram, a figure showing the
relationship between two variables, graphically represents a
correlation coefficient.
176
t- test: The t test tells explains how significant the differences
between groups
Z test: a statistical test to determine whether two population
means are different when the variances are known and the sample
size is large.
SUGGESTED READINGS
• https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-
statistics/regression-analysis/
• https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-
statistics/hypothesis-testing/z-test/
• Mangal, S.K. (2010). Statistics in Psychology and
Education, Second Edition. PHI learning private limited,
New Delhi.
• C.R. Kothari, 2004, Research Methodology – Methods and
Techniques, New Age International (P) Limited Publishers,
New Delhi.
177
UNIT-11
NON-PARAMETRIC STATISTICS
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
11.1 Non-Parametric Tests Introduction
11.2 Mann-Whitney Test
11.3 Wilcoxon’s Matched-Pairs Signed-Ranks Test
11.4 The Chi-Square Statistic
11.5 Kruskal–Wallis One-Way Analysis of Variance (H Test)
11.6 Spearman Rank Order Correlation
11.7 Using SPSS in Data Analysis
11.8 Data Entry
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Answers to check your progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
One class of tests, however, places less reliance on parameter
estimation and/or distribution assumptions. Such tests usually are
referred to as nonparametric tests or distribution-free tests. By and
large if a test is nonparametric, it is also distribution-free; in fact, it
is the distribution-free nature of the test that is most valuable to us.
In this unit let us look into the various non-parametric statistics.
OBJECTIVES
178
11.1 NON- PARAMETRIC TESTS- INTRODUCTION
11.2 MANN–WHITNEY TEST
A nonparametric test is being used for comparing the means of
two independent samples. One of the most common and best
known of the distribution-free tests is the Mann–Whitney test for
two independent samples. This test often is thought of as the
distribution-free analogue of the test for two independent samples,
although it tests a slightly different, and broader, null hypothesis.
Its null hypothesis is the hypothesis that the two samples were
drawn at random from identical populations (not just populations
with the same mean), but it is especially sensitive to population
differences in central tendency. Thus rejection of generally is
interpreted to mean that the two distributions had different central
tendencies, but it is possible that rejection actually resulted from
some other difference between the populations.
The logical basis of the Mann-Whitney test is particularly easy to
understand. Assume that we have two independent treatment
groups, with observations in Group 1 and observations in Group 2.
To make it concrete, assume that there are 8 observations in each
group. Further assume that we don’t know whether or not the null
hypothesis is true, but we happen to obtain the following data:
Raw Scores
Group 1 18, 16, 17, 21, 15, 13, 24, 20
Group 2 35, 38, 31, 27, 37, 26, 28, 25
179
11.3 WILCOXON’S MATCHED-PAIRS SIGNED-RANKS TEST:
A nonparametric test for comparing the mean of two matched
(related) samples. Frank Wilcoxon is credited with developing the
most popular distribution-free test for independent groups, which I
referred to as the Mann–Whitney test to avoid confusion and
because of their work on it. He also developed the most popular
test for matched groups (or paired scores). This test is the
distribution-free analogue of the test for related samples. It tests
the null hypothesis that two related (matched) samples were
drawn either from identical populations or from symmetric
populations with the same mean. More specifically it tests the null
hypothesis that the distribution of difference scores (in the
population) is symmetric about zero.
In carrying out the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test we
first calculate the difference score for each pair of measurements.
We then rank all difference scores without regard to the sign of the
difference, give the algebraic sign of the differences to the ranks
themselves, and finally sum the positive and negative ranks
separately.
Example
180
11.4 THE CHI-SQUARE STATISTIC
Although the correlation coefficient is used to assess the
relationship between two quantitative variables, an alternative
statistic, known as the chi-square (χ2) statistic, must be used to
assess the relationship between two nominal variables (the
statistical test is technically known as the chi square test of
independence). Consider as an example a researcher who is
interested in studying the relationship between a person’s ethnicity
and his or her attitude toward a new low-income housing project in
the neighborhood. A random sample of 300 individuals from the
neighborhood is asked to express opinions about the housing
project.
Calculating the Chi-Square Statistic:
To calculate χ2, the researcher first constructs a contingency
table, which displays the number of individuals in each of the
combinations of the two nominal variables. The contingency table
in Table 1 shows the number of individuals from each ethnic group
who favor or oppose the housing project. The next step is to
calculate the number of people who would be expected to fall into
each of the entries in the table given the number of individuals with
each value on the original two variables. If the number of people
actually falling into the entries is substantially different from the
expected values, then there is an association between the
variables, and if this relationship is strong enough, the chi-square
test will be statistically significant and the null hypothesis that the
two variables are independent can be rejected.
Table 1
Opinion
Ethnicity Favour Oppose None
White 54 104 160
African 51 11 62
American
Asian 31 29 60
Hispanic 14 4 18
Total 152 148 300
181
In the above table we check whether the opinion is independent of
the ethnicity using chi square test.
χ2 = ∑(O – E)2 /E
Where, O is the observed frequency and E is the expected
frequency
Example 1:
The opinions of 90 unmarried persons and 100 married persons
were secured on an attitude scale. Do the data indicate a
significant difference in opinion in terms of marital status of the
individuals?
Agree Disagree Neutral Total
Unmarried 14 66 10 90
Married 27 66 7 100
Total 41 132 17 190
182
11.5 KRUSKAL–WALLIS ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
(H TEST):
A nonparametric test equivalent to the standard one-way analysis
of variance is H test. . It tests the hypothesis that all samples were
drawn from identical populations and is particularly sensitive to
differences in central tendency.
To perform the Kruskal–Wallis test, we simply rank all scores
without regard to group membership and then compute the sum of
the ranks for each group. The sums are denoted by Rj If the null
hypothesis were true, we would expect the Rjs to be more or less
equal (aside from differences due to the size of the samples). A
measure of the degree to which the Rjs differ from one another is
provided by
H = 12 ∑ Rj2 - 3 (N + 1)
N (N+1) nj
nj =
number of observations in the jth group
Rj =
sum of the ranks in the jth group
N = total number of participants
183
ranked data, we frequently use what is known as Spearman’s
correlation coefficient for ranked data (ρ)
ρ = 1 - 6∑d2/N(N2 – 1)
d= difference in ranks
Example
Individuals X Y R1 R2 d d2
A 80 82 1 2 -1 1
B 45 86 5 1 4 16
C 55 50 4 4 0 0
D 56 48 3 5 -2 4
E 58 60 2 3 -1 1
ρ = 1 - 6∑d2/N(N2 – 1)
= 1 – 6 x 22/5(25 – 1)
= 1 – 1.1 = -0.1
The value indicates a very low correlation
11.7 USING SPSS IN DATA ANALYSIS
The “Statistical Package for the Social Sciences” (SPSS) is a
package of programs for manipulating, analyzing, and presenting
data; the package is widely used in the social and behavioral
sciences. There are several forms of SPSS. The core program is
called SPSS Base and there are a number of add-on modules that
extend the range of data entry, statistical, or reporting capabilities.
In our experience, the most important of these for statistical
analysis are the SPSS Advanced Models and SPSS Regression
Models add-on modules. SPSS Inc. also distributes stand-alone
programs that work with SPSS.
This software makes the calculation work much easier for large
pool of data. This is made user friendly as help options are
provided for the beginners.
Help — Statistics Coach helps users unfamiliar with SPSS or the
statistical procedures available in SPSS to get started. This facility
prompts the user with simple questions in nontechnical language
about the purpose of the statistical analysis and provides visual
184
examples of basic statistical and charting features in SPSS. The
facility covers only a selected subset of procedures.
Help — Tutorial provides access to an introductory SPSS tutorial,
including a comprehensive overview of SPSS basics. It is
designed to provide a step-by-step guide for carrying out a
statistical analysis in SPSS. All files shown in the examples are
installed with the tutorial so the user can repeat the analysis steps.
Help — Topics opens the Help Topics: SPSS for Windows box,
which provides access to Contents, Index, and Find tabs. Under
the Contents tab, double-clicking items with a book symbol
expands or collapses their contents (the Open and Close buttons
do the same).
The Index tab provides an alphabetical list of topics. Once a topic
is selected (by double-clicking), or the first few letters of the word
are typed in, the Display button provides a description. The Find
tab allows for searching the help files for specific words and
phrases.
185
to the right-hand side of the cells and text (string) entries to the
left-hand side.
The appearance of the Data View spreadsheet is controlled by the
View drop-down menu. This can be used to change the font in the
cells, remove lines, and make value labels visible. When labels
have been assigned to the category codes of a categorical
variable, these can be displayed by checking Value Labels (or by
selecting on the toolbar).Once the category labels are visible,
highlighting a cell produces a button with a downward arrow on the
right-hand side of the cell. Clicking on this arrow produces a drop-
down list with all the available category labels for the variable.
Clicking on any of these labels results in the respective category
and label being inserted in the cell. This feature is useful for editing
the data.
The Variable View spreadsheet serves to define the variables.
Each variable definition occupies a row of this spreadsheet. As
soon as data is entered under a column in the Data View, the
default name of the column occupies a row in the Variable View.
186
categories should be given artificial number codes and defined to
be of type “numeric.”)
3. Width — the width of the actual data entries. The default width
of numerical variable entries is eight. The width can be increased
or decreased by highlighting the respective cell in the third column
and employing the upward or downward arrows appearing on the
right-hand side of the cell or by simply typing a new number in the
cell.
4. Decimals — the number of digits to the right of the decimal
place to be displayed for data entries. This is not relevant for string
data and for such variables the entry under the fourth column is
given as a greyed-out zero. The value can be altered in the same
way as the value of Width.
5. Label — a label attached to the variable name. In contrast to the
variable name, this is not confined to eight characters and spaces
can be used. It is generally a good idea to assign variable labels.
They are helpful for reminding users of the meaning of variables
(placing the cursor over the variable name in the Data View will
make the variable label appear) and can be displayed in the output
from statistical analyses.
6. Values — labels attached to category codes. For categorical
variables, an integer code should be assigned to each category
and the variable defined to be of type “numeric.” When this has
been done, clicking on the respective cell under the sixth column
of the Variable View makes the three-period symbol appear, and
clicking this opens the Value Labels dialogue box, which in turn
allows assignment of labels to category codes. For example, our
data set included a categorical variable sex indicating the gender
of the subject, where numerical code “0” was declared to represent
females and code “1” males.
7. Missing — missing value codes. SPSS recognizes the period
symbol as indicating a missing value. If other codes have been
used (e.g., 99, 999) these have to be declared to represent
missing values by highlighting the respective cell in the seventh
187
column, clicking the three-periods symbol and filling in the
resulting Missing Values dialogue box accordingly.
8. Columns — width of the variable column in the Data View. The
default cell width for numerical variables is eight. Note that when
the Width value is larger than the Columns value, only part of the
data entry might be seen in the Data View. The cell width can be
changed in the same way as the width of the data entries or simply
by dragging the relevant column boundary. (Place cursor on right-
hand boundary of the title of the column to be resized. When the
cursor changes into a vertical line with a right and left arrow, drag
the cursor to the right or left to increase or decrease the column
width.)
9. Align — alignment of variable entries. The SPSS default is to
align numerical variables to the right-hand side of a cell and string
variables to the left. It is generally helpful to adhere to this default;
but if necessary, alignment can be changed by highlighting the
relevant cell in the ninth column and choosing an option from the
drop-down list.
10. Measure — measurement scale of the variable. The default
chosen by SPSS depends on the data type. For example, for
variables of type “numeric,” the default measurement scale is a
continuous or interval scale (referred to by SPSS as “scale”). For
variables of type “string,” the default is a nominal scale. The third
option, “ordinal,” is for categorical variables with ordered
categories but is not used by default.
As soon as the data is entered and the variable view is filled with
necessary details save the file in document.
The drop-down menus available after selecting Data, Transform,
Analyze, or Graphs from the menu bar provide procedures
concerned with different aspects of a statistical analysis. They
allow manipulation of the format of the data spreadsheet to be
used for analysis (Data), generation of new variables (Transform),
running of statistical procedures (Analyze), and construction of
graphical displays (Graphs).
188
Based on the hypothesis testing the required statistics will be done
by clicking analyze bar. Performing a variety of statistical analyses
using SPSS is done by making extensive use of the statistical
procedures offered under the Analyze drop-down menu.
Variable view
LET US SUM UP
189
instead of a one-way ANOVA to find out if two or more medians
are different. Ranks of the data points are used for the
calculations, rather than the data points themselves. Mann-
Whitney test. Use this test to compare differences between two
independent groups when dependent variables are either ordinal
or continuous. Spearman Rank Correlation is used to find a
correlation between two sets of data. The equivalent statistics for
parametric tests are also explained. Using SPSS data analysis is
made easy even with 1000s of data. In a fraction of second
analysis will be done and interpretation also made available. This
unit explained how to do the data entry in SPSS and how to do the
analysis.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Chi-square
2. Rank order
3. Mann Whitney U test
4. Wilcoxon test
5. Kruskal Wallis H test
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Explain various non-parametric tests
2. Explain the data entry procedure in SPSS.
GLOSSARY
190
Mann–Whitney test: A nonparametric test for comparing the
means of two independent samples
Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficient:used to find
correlation among one or more of the variables is measured on an
ordinal (ranking) scale.
191
BLOCK V: REPORT WRTING AND COMPUTER IN RESEARCH
192
UNIT – 12
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
12.1 Writing a Research Proposal
12.2 Plagiarism and Self-Plagiarism
12.3 References and In-text Citations
12.4 Usage of Electronic Source
12.5 APA Primer
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Key Words
Answers to check your progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
OBJECTIVES
193
12.1 WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
1. TITLE
194
Transformed Letters on Reading Speed.” A title should be fully
explanatory when standing alone.
This should include the back ground and issue of the proposed
research, introduction to the variables and samples. A short
review of literature should be included to identify the research gap
and to explain the need for the study.
3. RESEARCH QUESTION(S)
4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
• Ethical consideration
• Administration procedure
195
6. REFERENCE
196
Self-plagiarism: Just as researchers do not present the work of
others as their own (plagiarism), they do not present their own
previously published work as new scholarship (self-plagiarism).
There are, however, limited circumstances (e.g., describing the
details of an instrument or an analytic approach) under which
authors may wish to duplicate without attribution (citation) their
previously used words, feeling that extensive self referencing is
undesirable or awkward. When the duplicated words are limited in
scope, this approach is permissible. When duplication of one’s
own words is more extensive, citation of the duplicated words
should be the norm. What constitutes the maximum acceptable
length of duplicated material is difficult to define but must conform
to legal notions of fair use. The general view is that the core of the
new document must constitute an original contribution to
knowledge, and only the amount of previously published material
necessary to understand that contribution should be included,
primarily in the discussion of theory and methodology. When
feasible, all of the author’s own words that are cited should be
located in a single paragraph or a few paragraphs, with a citation
at the end of each. Opening such paragraphs with a phrase like
“as I have previously discussed” will also alert readers to the
status of the upcoming material.
In order to avoid plagiarism let us look into how to cite the referred
articles. When quoting, always provide the author, year, and
specific page citation or paragraph number for non-paginated
material in the text and include a complete reference in the
reference list.
197
block about a half inch from the left margin (in the same
position as a new paragraph).
Method of citation requires that the surname of the author (do not
include suffixes such as Jr.) and the year of publication be inserted
in the text at the appropriate point
198
separated by a comma, in parentheses (as in the second
example).
• When a work has two authors, cite both names every time
the reference occurs in text. When a work has three, four,
or five authors, cite all authors the first time the reference
occurs; in subsequent citations, include only the surname
of the first author followed by et al. and the year if it is the
first citation of the reference within a paragraph.
199
parentheses after the last editor’s name. The period follows the
parenthetical abbreviation (Eds.).
Write In press in parentheses (in Press) for articles that have been
accepted for publication but that have not yet been published.
http://www.apa.org/monitor/oct00/workplace.html
200
electronic content by promoting the cooperative development and
application of a sustainable infrastructure.
201
For a chapter in a book or entry in a reference book, use the
following formats:
Since then, the scope and length of the Publication Manual have
grown in response to the needs of researchers, students, and
educators across the social and behavioral sciences, health care,
202
natural sciences, humanities, and more; however, the spirit of the
original authors’ intentions remains.
203
• Paragraph Alignment and Indentation
• Sample Papers
• Title Page Setup
• In-Text Citations: It deals with
• Appropriate Level of Citation
• Basic Principles of Citation
• Classroom or Intranet Sources
• Paraphrasing
• Personal Communications
• Plagiarism
• Quotations
• Quotations From Research Participants
• Secondary Sources
• Abbreviations
• Capitalization
• Italics and Quotation Marks
• Lists
• Numbers
• Punctuation
• Spelling and Hyphenation
• Age
• Disability
• Gender
• General Principles for Reducing Bias
• Historical Context
• Intersectionality
• Participation in Research
• Racial and Ethnic Identity
• Sexual Orientation
• Socioeconomic Status
204
Tables and Figures: It deals with
205
LET US SUM UP
The present unit explained the method of writing research proposal along
with the ways of giving credit to the authors whose works the researcher
refers to. More over orientation about APA Primer, plagiarism and self-
plagiarism and Ways to avoid are also highlighted. Also the unit explained
how to write the reference unit both from internet resources and printed
materials.
1. research proposal
2. title
3. plagiarism
4. self-plagiarism
5. italics
6. Page number
7. New paragraph
206
GLOSSARY
MODEL QUESTIONS
SUGGESTED READINGS
• Source : https://apastyle.apa.org/&https://www.apa.org/
• Evans,A.N.,&Rooney,B.J.(2008).Methodsin
207
Psychologicalresearch.NewDelhi,India: Sage PublicationsIndia
Pvt. Ltd.
208
UNIT – 13
PRESENTING RESEARCH
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Research Report
13.3 Strategies to Improve Writing Style
13.4 Typing Guidelines
13.5 Oral and Paper Presentation
13.6 Presenting Research
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Key Words
Answers to check your progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
The present unit explains how to write the article for paper
presentation and for poster presentation. It also includes the font
size, spacing and other rules according APA for writing an article
and thesis.
OBJECTIVES
209
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Concise headings help the reader anticipate key points and track
the development of the argument.
210
(c) asking a colleague to review and critique the draft. Apart from
these strategies researcher should reduce the bias in the
language. While writing the results and discussion should avoid
the bias in interpreting the results.
211
13.4.1 Punctuation
13.4.2 Spellings
Compound words take many forms; that is, two words may be
written as (a) two separate words; (b) a hyphenated word; or (c)
one unbroken, “solid” word.
212
13.4.3 Font Size And Line Spacing
Source :
https://guides.library.ucla.edu/c.php?g=180334&p=1188045#s-lg-
box-3594142
213
1. Plan
2. Prepare
Consider how long you can spend on each section, given the time
available.
214
Select appropriate visual aids
Remember that the visuals are not the presentation. Their purpose
is to enhance what you are saying by providing a visual link.
• Stand straight with your feet "planted" in the ground. This will
eliminate swaying and nervous movements in the legs. You
can move but do so with purpose.
doit?)
METHODS: The methods that were used (how did you do it?)
RESULTS: The results obtained (what did you find?)
DISCUSSION: An interpretation of those results (what does this
mean?)
215
Although not part of a standard oral presentation, you should end
your talk with:
5) CRITIQUE AND GROUP DISCUSSION: Your job as
presenter is to not only present the paper, but also lead class
discussion of its strengths, weaknesses, and broader implications.
To help focus the class discussion, end your presentation with a list of
approximately three major questions/issues worthy of further discussion
(see below). Plan on about 20 minutes for 1-4, and 10 minutes for 5.
INTRODUCTION
The first 1 or 2 slides should introduce your subject to the audience. Very
briefly (you only have about 20-25 minutes total) give a concise
background. Explicitly state the question addressed in the paper. Start
with the “big picture” and then immediately drive to how your study fits in
the big picture (one or two sentences.) One key difference of the talk
versus the paper is that you should state your major conclusion(s) up
front. That is, in a few sentences, tell the audience where you will lead
them in this presentation. (e.g. “Although previous studies have
found that intertemporal neuronal receptive fields are very large, in this
talk I will show that, under certain conditions, IT receptive fields are
remarkably small.”)
2. METHODS
3. RESULTS
The next slides should show the major results. If appropriate, it is nice to
start with a slide showing the basic phenomenon it reminds your audience
of the variables that were manipulated and introduces your audience to
the basic unit of measure. Next, show figures that clearly illustrate the
main results. Do not show charts of raw data. All figures should be
clearly labeled. When showing figures, be sure to explain the figure axes
216
before you talk about the data (e.g., “the X axis shows time. The Y-axis
shows level of activity”).
4. DISCUSSION (Conclusions)
List the conclusions in clear, easy to understand language. You can read
them to the audience. Also give one or two sentences about what this
likely means (your interpretation) in the big picture (i.e. come full circle
back to your introduction) and perhaps some future directions.
5. CRITIQUE
Please end your presentation with at least two or three major things that
should be discussed. These should consist of things like: things that might
be improved in the study, additional experiments that you think might be
appropriate (better?), and general issues about object recognition (i.e. put
the study in the “big picture” of the course). Discussion from the audience
should be especially encouraged at this point, but you should be prepared
to foster this by raising these issues (e.g. one slide with a list of issues).
13.6.2 Title
Every empirical research report should have title which is self explanatory
about the entire research. Title should not begin like A study on………..
The preferred form of an author’s name is first name, middle initial(s), and
last name; this form reduces the likelihood of mistaken identity. The
217
affiliation identifies the location where the author or authors were when
the research was conducted, which is usually an institution.
13.6.4 Abstract
13.6.5 Introduction
13.6.6 Method
The Method section describes in detail how the study was conducted,
including conceptual and operational definitions of the variables used in
the study. Different types of studies will rely on different methodologies;
however, a complete description of the methods used enables the reader
to evaluate the appropriateness of the methods and the reliability and the
validity of the results. It also includes description of (a) any experimental
manipulations or interventions used and how they were delivered—for
example, any mechanical apparatus used to deliver them; (b) sampling
procedures and sample size and precision; (c) measurement approaches
(including the psychometric properties of the instruments used); and (d)
the research design
218
Describe the sample adequately. Detail the sample’s major
demographic characteristics, such as age; sex; ethnic and/or racial
group; level of education; socioeconomic, generational, or
immigrant status; disability status; sexual orientation; gender
identity; and language preference as well as important topic-
specific characteristics (e.g., achievement level in studies of
educational interventions). Describe the procedures for selecting
participants, including (a) the sampling method. Specify the
research design in the Method section.
13.5.7 Results
219
13.6.8 Discussion
13.6.9 References
13.6.10 Appendices
This section includes the material that has been used to collect
data and materials used in interventions
Both the paper presentation and poster presentation will have the
same content. In poster all the heading will appear in the same
poster whereas in paper presentation.
220
LET US SUM UP
GLOSSARY
MODEL QUESTIONS
221
SUGGESTED READINGS
• https://www.monash.edu/rlo/quick-study-guides/a-guide-to-oral-
presentations# text
• https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/brain-and-cognitive-sciences/9-916-
the-neural-basis-of-visual-object-recognition-in-monkeys-and-
humans-spring-2005/assignments/how_to_pres_pap.pdf
• C.R. Kothari, 2004, Research Methodology – Methods and
Techniques, New Age International (P) Limited Publishers, New
Delhi.
• Evans,A.N.,&Rooney,B.J.(2008).Methodsin
Psychologicalresearch.NewDelhi,India: Sage PublicationsIndia
Pvt. Ltd.
222
UNIT-14
STRUCTURE
Overview
Objectives
14.1 Role of computers in Research- Introduction
14.1.1 Some of the key roles of computers in Research
14.1.2 Role of Computers in the phases of research process
14.2 Internet and Research
14.2.1 Search Tools
14.2.2 Website authorship
14.2.3 Internet research software
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Key Words
Answers to check your progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested Readings
OVERVIEW
223
OBJECTIVES
Since time immemorial man has been feeling the need to compute, count,
store and get accurate results all the time and always. The development
of electronic devices, especially the computers, has given added impetus
to these activities. Problems which could not be solved earlier due to
sheer amount of computations involved can be tackled with the aid of
computers accurately and rapidly. Computer is certainly one of the most
versatile and ingenious developments of the modern technological age.
Today people use computers in almost every walk of life. Computers are
no longer just high speed arithmetic machines as they have the ability to
use principles of philosophy, psychology, mathematics and linguistics to
produce output that mimic the human mind.
224
coefficients, ‘t’ tests, analysis of variance, analysis of covariance, multiple
regression, factor analysis and various nonparametric analyses are just a
few out of the operations that computers are used to handle efficiently in
research processes. Also, researchers in economics and other social
sciences have found computers to constitute an indispensable part of their
research equipment. Analyzing tons of statistical data is made possible
using specially designed algorithms that are implemented by computers.
This makes the extremely time-consuming job of data analysis to be a
matter of a few minutes. In addition, according to Omkar (2016) Data can
be processed and analyzed with greater ease and speed. Moreover, the
results obtained are generally correct and reliable. Researcher can
generate statistical data, put findings of the collective data, make the
design; pictorial graphing and report are being developed with the help of
computers. So, this is the crucial and most essential part for the
researcher which can perform easily with the Microsoft office tool like
word, excel, power point etc.
Today, anyone can access the latest research papers that are made
available for free on websites. Sharing of knowledge and collaboration
through the internet has made international cooperation on scientific
projects possible. He went further to say that through various kinds of
analytical software programs; computers are contributing to scientific
research in every discipline, ranging from biology to astrophysics,
discovering new patterns and providing novel insights. When the work in
neural network based artificial intelligence advances and ISSN: 2289-
7615 Page 32 computers are granted with the ability to learn and think;
future advances in technology and research will be even more rapid.
225
Jibbrin, Musa & Shittu. (2018). Role of computer in scientific research
process. International Journal of Information System and Engineering.
Vol. 6 (No.1), April, 2018 ISSN: 2289-7615 DOI:
10.24924/ijise/2018.04/v6.iss1/27.3
Internet
Before you start research, you often want to quickly learn about possible
issues or topics of study by searching available sources of information.
Nearly all academic journals are available online, and many are organized
into online databases. Government agencies often have demographic or
economic information online you can use in your research.
Information Storage
Computational Tools
Communication
226
Mobility
There are five major phases of the research process where computer
plays different vital roles. They are: 1) Role of Computer in Conceptual
phase 2) Role of Computer in Design and planning phase 3) Role of
Computer in Empirical phase 4) Role of Computer in Analytic phase and
5) Role of Computer in Dissemination phase
Computers help for searching the literatures (for review of literature) and
bibliographic references stored in the electronic databases of the World
Wide Web’s. It can thus be used for storing relevant published articles to
be retrieved whenever needed. This has the advantage over searching
the literatures in the form of books, journals and other newsletters at the
libraries which consume considerable amount of time and effort.
Several software’s are available to calculate the sample size required for
a proposed study. NCSS-PASS-GESS is such software. The standard
deviation of the data from the pilot study is required for the sample size
calculation.
227
Empirical phase consist of collecting and preparing the data for analysis.
Data Storage:
The data obtained from the subjects are stored in computers as word files
or excel spread sheets. This has the advantage of making necessary
corrections or editing the whole layout of the tables if needed, which is
impossible or time-consuming in case of writing in papers. Thus,
computers help in data entry, data editing, data management including
follow up actions etc. Computers also allow for greater flexibility in
recording the data while they are collected as well as greater ease during
the analysis of these data. In research studies, the preparation and
inputting data is the most labour-intensive and time consuming aspect of
the work. Typically the data will be initially recorded on a questionnaire or
record form suitable for its acceptance by the computer. To do this the
researcher in conjunction with the statistician and the programmer, will
convert the data into Microsoft word file or excel spread sheet. These
spread sheets can be directly opened with statistical software’s for
analysis.
Software’s like SPSS, NCSS-PASS, STATA and Sysat are some of the
widely used. They can be like calculating the sample size for a proposed
study, hypothesis testing and calculating the power of the study.
Familiarity with any one package will suffice to carry out the most intricate
statistical analyses. Computers are useful not only for statistical analyses,
but also to monitor the accuracy and completeness of the data as they are
collected.
228
for more than one reason. Besides its capacity to process large
amounts of data, it also analyses data with the help of a number of
statistical procedures. Computers carry out processing and
analysis of data flawlessly and with a very high speed. The
statistical analysis that took months earlier takes now a few
seconds or few minutes. Today, availability of statistical software
and access to computers has increased substantially over the last
few years all over the world. While there are many specialised
software application packages for different types of data analysis,
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) is one such
package that is often used by researchers for data processing and
analysis. It is preferred choice for social sciences research
analysis due to its easy to use interface and comprehensive range
of data manipulation and analytical tools.
Internet research has had a profound impact on the way ideas are
formed and knowledge is created. Common applications of
Internet research include personal research on a particular subject
(something mentioned on the news, a health problem, etc.),
students doing research for academic projects and papers, and
journalists and other writers researching stories.
229
Through searches on the Internet hundreds or thousands of pages
can often be quickly found with some relation to a given topic. In
addition, email (including mailing lists), online discussion forums
(aka message boards, BBS's), and other personal communication
facilities (instant messaging, IRC, newsgroups, etc.) can provide
direct access to experts and other individuals with relevant
interests and knowledge.
230
information environment: an environment with less sophisticated /
poorly communicated search skills and much less effort in
organizing information. Library and commercial research has many
search tactics and strategies unavailable on the Internet and the
library and commercial environments invest more deeply in
organizing and vetting their information.
231
generally broad, such as DOZ, Yahoo! and The WWW Virtual
Library, covering a wide range of subjects, while others focus on
specific topics.
232
listed, determined from the email address, or by emailing and
asking. If the author's name or sponsoring organization cannot be
determined, one should question the trustworthiness of the
website. If the author's name or sponsoring organization is found,
a simple Internet search can provide information that can be used
to determine if the website is reliable and unbiased.
LET US SUM UP
233
which a computer works will help researchers to apply and
appreciate the utility of this powerful tool.
1. NCSS-PASS-GESS
2. Data analysis
4. Search tools
GLOSSARY
MODEL QUESTIONS
234
1. Explain in detail about the role of computers in data collection and data
processing in research.
SUGESSTED READINGS
• Source :https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_research
• C.R. Kothari, 2004, Research Methodology – Methods and
Techniques, New Age International (P) Limited Publishers, New
Delhi.
• Evans,A.N.,&Rooney,B.J.(2008).Methodsin
Psychologicalresearch.NewDelhi,India: Sage PublicationsIndia
Pvt. Ltd.
235
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URL: https://www.scribbr.com/frequently-asked-questions/difference-between-questionnaires-
and-surveys/ 5
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URL: https://askanydifference.com/difference-between-method-and-methodology/
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URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2606083/#
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URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3558218/
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URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3267294/
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URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6322175/
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Data Analsys.doc
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URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/variables
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