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Contents vii

2.7 Summary and Prospects................................................................................. 107

Acknowledgments..................................................................................................... 108
References................................................................................................................. 108

Chapter 3 In Situ Observations Needed to Complement, Validate, and Interpret

Satellite Altimetry..................................................................................................... 113
Dean Roemmich, Philip Woodworth, Svetlana Jevrejeva, Sarah Purkey,
Matthias Lankhorst, Uwe Send, and Nikolai Maximenko
3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 113
3.2 Sea Surface Heights Obtained from Tide Gauge/GNSS Networks................ 115
3.2.1 Sea Level Measurements before the Altimeter Era........................... 115
3.2.2 Tide Gauge and Altimeter Data Complementarity........................... 115
3.2.3 Tide Gauges Used for Altimeter Calibration.................................... 116
3.2.4 Tide Gauge and Altimeter Data in Combination in Studies of
Long-Term Sea Level Change........................................................... 117
3.2.5 GNSS Equipment at Tide Gauges..................................................... 118
3.2.6 New Developments in Tide Gauges and Data Availability............... 120
3.2.7 Tide Gauges and Altimetry in the Future......................................... 120
3.3 Upper-Ocean (0 to 2000 decibars) Steric Variability: The XBT and
Argo Networks............................................................................................... 121
3.3.1 The Relationship of SSH Variability with Subsurface T and
S—Steric Height............................................................................... 121
3.3.2 A Brief History of Systematic Ocean Sampling by the XBT
and Argo Networks........................................................................... 122
3.3.3 Ocean Heat Content and Steric Sea Level........................................ 125
3.3.4 The Global Pattern of SSH and Upper-Ocean Steric Height............ 125
3.3.5 Geostrophic Ocean Circulation......................................................... 126
3.3.6 Horizontal Scales of Variability in the Ocean: The Challenge
of Resolution...................................................................................... 127
3.4 Deep-Ocean (greater than 2000 m) Steric Variability:
Repeat Hydrography and Deep Argo............................................................. 128
3.4.1 Ventilating the Deep Ocean: Deep Water Production and
the Global MOC................................................................................ 128
3.4.2 Monitoring Deep Steric Variability through Repeat Hydrography......129
3.4.3 The Deep Ocean Contribution to Steric Sea Level........................... 129
3.4.4 Future of Deep Observing: Deep Argo............................................. 130
3.5 Geostrophic Transports and Bottom Pressure Observations......................... 130
3.5.1 Complementarity among Altimetry, Water Column Density,
and Bottom Pressure......................................................................... 130
3.5.2 Volume Transports from End Points, and Accuracy Requirements.....130
3.5.3 Upper-Layer Transports.................................................................... 132
3.5.4 Complementarity of Altimetry and Seafloor Pressure in
Accuracy and Timescales ................................................................. 134
3.5.5 Constraining Transports in Two-Mode Systems with Altimetry
and Bottom Pressure......................................................................... 135
3.6 Dynamic Topography and Surface Velocity.................................................. 136
3.6.1 Eulerian Velocity Measurements...................................................... 136
3.6.2 Lagrangian Velocity Measurements.................................................. 136
3.6.3 Geostrophic Currents and Mean Dynamic Topography................... 137
3.6.4 Ageostrophic Motions....................................................................... 139
viii Contents

3.7 The Technology Revolution and the Future of Ocean Observations.............. 140
3.8 Outlook........................................................................................................... 140
Acknowledgments..................................................................................................... 140
References................................................................................................................. 141

Chapter 4 Auxiliary Space-Based Systems for Interpreting Satellite Altimetry:

Satellite Gravity......................................................................................................... 149
Don Chambers, Ole B. Andersen, Srinivas Bettadpur, Marie-Héléne Rio,
Reiner Rummel, and David Wiese
4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 149
4.2 Measurements: Mean Geoid and Sea Surface................................................ 150
4.2.1 Parameterizing Gravity and the Geoid............................................. 151
4.2.2 GRACE and GOCE........................................................................... 154
4.2.3 Surface Gravity Data and Combination Geoids................................ 158
4.2.4 Mean Sea Surface Models................................................................. 159
4.3 Measurements: Time-Variable Gravity.......................................................... 161
4.4 Applications: Dynamic Ocean Topography................................................... 164
4.4.1 Importance of Consistency between Geoid and MSS....................... 165
4.4.2 Improvements in MDT with GRACE and GOCE Geoids................ 168
4.4.3 Toward a Higher Spatial Resolution MDT ....................................... 172
4.5 Applications: Global and Regional Ocean Mass Variations.......................... 173
4.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects.................................................................. 178
References................................................................................................................. 180

Chapter 5 A 25-Year Satellite Altimetry-Based Global Mean Sea Level Record:

Closure of the Sea Level Budget and Missing Components..................................... 187
R. Steven Nerem, Michaël Ablain, Anny Cazenave, John Church,
and Eric Leuliette
5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 187
5.2 The Altimeter Mean Sea Level Record.......................................................... 189
5.2.1 Computing Global and Regional Mean Sea Level Time Series........ 189
5.2.2 Altimeter Missions............................................................................ 189
5.2.3 Altimeter Corrections........................................................................ 189
5.2.4 Intermission Biases........................................................................... 190
5.2.5 Averaging Process............................................................................. 190
5.2.6 Validation of the GMSL Record with Tide Gauge Measurements......191
5.2.7 Mean Sea Level Variation and Uncertainties.................................... 192
5.2.7.1 Global Scale Uncertainty................................................... 192
5.2.7.2 Regional Scales.................................................................. 194
5.3 Interpreting the Altimeter GMSL Record...................................................... 194
5.3.1 Steric Sea Level Contribution........................................................... 195
5.3.2 The Cryosphere Contributions to GMSL.......................................... 198
5.3.3 The Land Water Storage Contributions to GMSL............................ 199
5.3.3.1 Interannual Variations.......................................................200
5.3.3.2 Long-Term Variations........................................................ 201
5.4 Closing the Sea Level Budget and Uncertainties........................................... 201
5.4.1 Glacial Isostatic Adjustment.............................................................202
5.4.2 Ocean Mass/Barystatic Sea Level from GRACE.............................202
5.4.3 Closure and Missing Components.................................................... 203
Contents ix

5.5 How Altimetry Informs Us About the Future................................................204

References.................................................................................................................204

Chapter 6 Monitoring and Interpreting Mid-Latitude Oceans by Satellite Altimetry.............. 211

Kathryn A. Kelly, Joshua K. Willis, Gilles Reverdin, Shenfu Dong,
and LuAnne Thompson
6.1 Introduction: Role of Mid-Latitude Oceans .................................................. 211
6.2 Western Boundary Currents........................................................................... 212
6.3 Meridional Circulation and Interbasin Exchanges......................................... 217
6.4 Climate Change ............................................................................................. 221
6.5 Summary and Future Research...................................................................... 226
Acknowledgments..................................................................................................... 226
References................................................................................................................. 226

Chapter 7 Monitoring and Interpreting the Tropical Oceans by Satellite Altimetry................ 231
Tong Lee, J. Thomas Farrar, Sabine Arnault, Benoit Meyssignac,
Weiqing Han, and Theodore Durland
7.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 231
7.2 Tropical Atlantic Ocean................................................................................. 232
7.2.1 Intraseasonal and Eddy Activities..................................................... 232
7.2.1.1 Eddy Structures ................................................................ 232
7.2.1.2 Tropical Instability Waves ................................................ 233
7.2.2 The Seasonal Cycle........................................................................... 233
7.2.3 Equatorial Waves............................................................................... 234
7.2.4 Interannual Variability...................................................................... 235
7.3 Tropical Indo-Pacific Ocean .......................................................................... 236
7.3.1 Tropical Pacific.................................................................................. 236
7.3.1.1 Intraseasonal Variability ................................................... 236
7.3.1.2 Seasonal Variability........................................................... 239
7.3.1.3 Interannual and Decadal Variability.................................244
7.3.2 Tropical Indian Ocean....................................................................... 249
7.3.2.1 Intraseasonal Variability.................................................... 249
7.3.2.2 Seasonal Cycle................................................................... 252
7.3.2.3 Interannual Variability...................................................... 253
7.3.2.4 Decadal and Multidecadal Changes.................................. 255
7.3.3 Indo-Pacific Linkage and Indonesian Throughflow ......................... 256
7.4 Summary........................................................................................................ 257
Acknowledgments..................................................................................................... 258
References................................................................................................................. 258

Chapter 8 The High Latitude Seas and Arctic Ocean............................................................... 271

Johnny A. Johannessen and Ole B. Andersen
8.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 271
8.1.1 Satellite Altimetry in the High Latitude and Arctic Ocean.............. 273
8.2 Mapping the Sea Ice Thickness in the Arctic Ocean .................................... 275
8.3 Sea Level Change........................................................................................... 276
8.3.1 The Seasonal Cycle .......................................................................... 278
8.3.2 Secular and Long-Term Sea Level Changes ..................................... 279
x Contents

8.3.3 Arctic Sea Level Budget.................................................................... 282

8.3.4 The Polar Gap and Accuracy Estimates............................................ 283
8.4 Mean Dynamic Topography ..........................................................................284
8.5 Ocean Circulation and Volume Transport ..................................................... 285
8.5.1 Surface Circulation ........................................................................... 285
8.5.2 Volume Transport.............................................................................. 289
8.6 Summary and Outlook................................................................................... 290
Acknowledgment....................................................................................................... 291
References ................................................................................................................ 291

Chapter 9 The Southern Ocean.................................................................................................. 297

Sarah T. Gille and Michael P. Meredith
9.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 297
9.2 Characterizing Spatial Variability of the Antarctic Circumpolar
Current from Altimetry.................................................................................. 297
9.3 Mapping the Time-Varying, Three-Dimensional Structure of
the Southern Ocean........................................................................................ 299
9.4 ACC Transport From Altimetry..................................................................... 301
9.5 Eddy Variability.............................................................................................306
9.6 Summary and Conclusions.............................................................................309
Acknowledgments..................................................................................................... 310
References................................................................................................................. 310

Chapter 10 Ocean Eddies and Mesoscale Variability................................................................. 315

Rosemary Morrow, Lee-Lueng Fu, J. Thomas Farrar, Hyodae Seo,
and Pierre-Yves Le Traon
10.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 315
10.2 Improvements in Along-Track Data and Mapping Capabilities..................... 316
10.2.1 Reprocessing of Along-Track Data................................................... 317
10.2.2 Multi-Mission Mapping..................................................................... 317
10.3 Observed Mesoscale Eddies and Jets............................................................. 319
10.4 Spectral Analyses of Along-Track SSH ......................................................... 321
10.5 Resolving Higher-Order Dynamical Processes ............................................. 325
10.5.1 Toward Two-Dimensional Spectral Energy Fluxes .......................... 325
10.5.2 Lagrangian Fine-Scale Ocean Dynamics from Altimetry ............... 325
10.6 Understanding Three-Dimensional Vertical Structure of Eddy and Sub-
Mesoscale Processes ...................................................................................... 326
10.7 Understanding Coupled Mesoscale Processes .............................................. 329
10.8 Effects of Internal Waves at Smaller Spatial Scales....................................... 332
10.9 Summary and Perspectives............................................................................ 333
Acknowledgments..................................................................................................... 335
References................................................................................................................. 335

Chapter 11 Satellite Altimetry in Coastal Regions...................................................................... 343

Paolo Cipollini, Jérôme Benveniste, Florence Birol, M. Joana Fernandes,
Estelle Obligis, Marcello Passaro, P. Ted Strub, Guillaume Valladeau,
Stefano Vignudelli, and John Wilkin
Glossary..................................................................................................................... 343
11.1 Introduction and Rationale.............................................................................344
Contents xi

11.2 Dealing with Coastal Waveforms ..................................................................346

11.2.1 Pulse-Limited Waveforms.................................................................346
11.2.2 SAR Waveforms ............................................................................... 349
11.3 Improvements in Range and Geophysical Corrections.................................. 350
11.3.1 Dry Troposphere............................................................................... 350
11.3.2 Wet Troposphere............................................................................... 351
11.3.3 Recent Improvements in Coastal Tides and Dynamic
Atmospheric Correction ................................................................... 356
11.4 Data Available for Coastal Altimetry ............................................................ 356
11.4.1 PEACHI Expertise Prototype .......................................................... 356
11.4.1.1 SARAL/AltiKa.................................................................. 358
11.4.1.2 Implementation on Jason-2 and Jason-3............................ 359
11.4.1.3 Data Availability and Delivery Mode................................ 359
11.4.2 ALES ................................................................................................ 359
11.4.2.1 ALES Data Set: Availability and Reliability..................... 359
11.4.2.2 ALES Data Set Improves Coastal Sea Level Research.....360
11.4.2.3 Examples of Usage of the ALES Data Set........................ 362
11.4.3 X-TRACK Regional Altimetry Products.......................................... 362
11.5 Applications Using Observations Alone .......................................................364
11.6 Integration of Coastal Altimetry in Coastal Observing Systems .................. 370
11.7 Conclusions..................................................................................................... 372
Acknowledgment....................................................................................................... 373
References................................................................................................................. 373

Chapter 12 Monitoring Waves and Surface Winds by Satellite Altimetry: Applications........... 381
Saleh Abdalla and Peter A. E. M. Janssen
12.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 381
12.2 The Altimeter and Its Ocean Measurements.................................................. 383
12.3 Altimeter Surface Wind Speed...................................................................... 386
12.3.1 Principle of Wind Speed Measurement............................................. 386
12.3.2 Quality of Altimeter Wind Speed Observations............................... 388
12.3.3 Benefits of Altimeter Wind Speed Observations.............................. 392
12.3.4 Altimeter Wind Speed Data and Problems....................................... 394
12.3.4.1 Effect of Slicks................................................................... 397
12.3.4.2 Neutral versus 10-m Winds............................................... 397
12.3.4.3 Sea State Effects................................................................ 398
12.3.5 Backscatter versus Mean Square Slope............................................. 399
12.3.6 Extreme Winds..................................................................................400
12.4 Significant Wave Height.................................................................................402
12.4.1 Principle of SWH Measurement.......................................................402
12.4.2 Quality of Altimeter SWH Data.......................................................402
12.5 Applications....................................................................................................406
12.5.1 Data Assimilation..............................................................................406
12.5.2 Estimation of Effective Model Resolution........................................ 413
12.5.3 Sea State Climatology....................................................................... 414
12.6 New Developments......................................................................................... 417
12.6.1 SAR (Delay-Doppler) Altimetry....................................................... 417
12.6.2 CFOSAT............................................................................................ 418
12.7 Concluding Remarks...................................................................................... 420
References................................................................................................................. 420
xii Contents

Chapter 13 Tides and Satellite Altimetry.................................................................................... 427

Richard D. Ray and Gary D. Egbert
13.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 427
13.2 Tidal Aliasing................................................................................................. 428
13.3 Barotropic Tidal Models for and from Satellite Altimetry............................ 431
13.4 Barotropic Tidal Energetics............................................................................ 436
13.5 Baroclinic Tides.............................................................................................444
13.5.1 Stationary Baroclinic Tides............................................................... 445
13.5.2 Nonstationary Baroclinic Tides........................................................448
13.6 Outstanding Issues.......................................................................................... 453
Acknowledgments..................................................................................................... 454
References................................................................................................................. 454

Chapter 14 Hydrological Applications of Satellite Altimetry: Rivers, Lakes, Man-Made

Reservoirs, Inundated Areas..................................................................................... 459
Jean-François Cretaux, Karina Nielsen, Fréderic Frappart, Fabrice Papa,
Stéphane Calmant, and Jérôme Benveniste
14.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 459
14.1.1 Past, Present, and Future of Satellite Altimetry................................460
14.1.2 Short History of Past Applications of Satellite Altimetry on
Surface Water.................................................................................... 462
14.1.3 Objectives of This Chapter................................................................ 463
14.2 Satellite Altimetry: Measurement and Interpretation.................................... 463
14.2.1 General Principle of Satellite Altimetry........................................... 463
14.2.2 Jason-2 DIODE/DEM Tracker..........................................................465
14.2.3 Review of the Different Modes (LRM, SAR, and SARIn)...............465
14.2.4 Review of the Geophysical Corrections............................................466
14.2.4.1 Dry Tropospheric Correction............................................466
14.2.4.2 Wet Tropospheric Correction............................................466
14.2.4.3 Ionospheric Correction......................................................466
14.2.4.4 Sea State Bias Correction.................................................. 467
14.2.4.5 Tidal Corrections............................................................... 467
14.2.5 Review of the Biases and Their Determination................................ 467
14.3 Satellite Altimetry for Hydrology: Some Basics............................................468
14.3.1 Review of the Retracking and Height Retrieval................................468
14.3.1.1 Ocean and Ice-2 Retrackers............................................... 470
14.3.1.2 OCOG Retracker............................................................... 471
14.3.1.3 Sea Ice Retracker............................................................... 471
14.3.1.4 Threshold Retracker.......................................................... 471
14.3.2 Hooking Effect.................................................................................. 472
14.3.3 Geoid Gradient Correction over Lakes............................................. 474
14.3.4 Selection and Editing of Measurements for Hydrology.................... 475
14.3.5 Cross-Track Correction for SARIn and Snagging.............................480
14.4 Examples of Application................................................................................ 483
14.4.1 Use of Altimetry over Lakes and Reservoirs.................................... 483
14.4.1.1 Regional Survey of Lakes (Tibetan Plateau Lakes).......... 483
14.4.1.2 Case Study on Lakes Using SAR/SARIn.......................... 485
14.4.2 Use of Satellite Altimetry over Rivers.............................................. 489
14.4.3 Use of Satellite Altimetry over Floodplains...................................... 491
Contents xiii

14.4 Conclusions and Perspectives......................................................................... 495

References................................................................................................................. 498

Chapter 15 Applications of Satellite Altimetry to Study the Antarctic Ice Sheet....................... 505
Frédérique Remy, Anthony Memin, and Isabella Velicogna
15.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 505
15.2 The Antarctica Ice Sheet................................................................................506
15.2.1 General Characteristics.....................................................................506
15.2.2 How to Observe the Evolution of the Ice Sheet ................................ 508
15.3 Polar Altimetry............................................................................................... 508
15.3.1 Some Specifics of Radar Altimetry on Ice Sheets............................ 508
15.3.2 Characteristics of Laser Altimetry on Ice Sheets ............................ 510
15.3.3 Methodology for Constructing Height Time Series.......................... 510
15.4 Contribution of Altimetry to Studying Antarctic Climate ............................ 511
15.5 Main Surface Characteristics of the Antarctic Ice Sheet............................... 511
15.5.1 Surface Topography.......................................................................... 512
15.5.2 Constraints for Numerical Models.................................................... 513
15.6 Temporal Variations....................................................................................... 514
15.6.1 Different Times and Signals.............................................................. 514
15.6.2 Lake Drainage................................................................................... 515
15.6.3 Firn Compaction ............................................................................... 515
15.6.4 Present-Day Mass Balance................................................................ 516
15.6.5 Acceleration of Outlet Glaciers......................................................... 517
15.7 Summary and Perspective ............................................................................. 518
References................................................................................................................. 519

Chapter 16 Advances in Imaging Small-Scale Seafloor and Sub-Seafloor Tectonic

Fabric Using Satellite Altimetry............................................................................... 523
R. Dietmar Müller, Kara J. Matthews, and David T. Sandwell
16.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 523
16.2 Satellite-Derived Gravity for Tectonic Mapping............................................ 523
16.2.1 Brief History...................................................................................... 523
16.2.2 Methodology and Limitations........................................................... 524
16.2.3 Improved Radar Technology—Current and Future.......................... 526
16.3 Oceanic Microplates....................................................................................... 527
16.3.1 Models for Microplate Formation..................................................... 527
16.3.2 Associated Seafloor Structures......................................................... 530
16.3.3 Recent Advances in Mapping the Structure and History of
Microplates Using Satellite Altimetry.............................................. 530
16.3.3.1 Indian Ocean...................................................................... 531
16.3.3.2 Pacific Ocean..................................................................... 532
16.4 Mapping Major Tectonic Events in the Ocean Basins................................... 534
16.4.1 The Enigmatic Mid-Cretaceous Tectonic Event............................... 534
16.4.2 Insights from Combining Satellite Altimetry with Geological
and Geophysical Ship Data............................................................... 537
16.4.3 What Caused the 100 Ma Event?...................................................... 539
16.5 Mapping Sub-Seafloor Tectonic Fabric.......................................................... 539
16.5.1 North Falkland Basin........................................................................540
16.5.2 Lord Howe Rise................................................................................. 542
xiv Contents

16.6 Conclusions and Future Outlook.................................................................... 542

Acknowledgments..................................................................................................... 542
References.................................................................................................................544

Chapter 17 Ocean Modeling and Data Assimilation in the Context of Satellite Altimetry........ 547
Detlef Stammer and Stephen M. Griffies
17.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 547
17.1.1 Observational Oceanography and Ocean Circulation Modeling...... 547
17.1.2 The Need for Ocean Data Assimilation............................................ 548
17.1.3 Aims for This Chapter...................................................................... 548
17.2 Ocean General Circulation Models ............................................................... 548
17.2.1 The Hydrostatic Primitive Equations................................................ 548
17.2.2 Flux-Form Ocean Equations............................................................. 550
17.2.3 Basics of Finite Volume Discrete Ocean Equations.......................... 551
17.2.4 Oceanic Boussinesq Approximation................................................. 551
17.2.5 Ocean Responses to Virtual Salt Fluxes versus Real Water Fluxes.....552
17.2.6 Impacts from Changes to the Gravitational Geopotential................ 553
17.2.7 Fast and Slow Dynamics................................................................... 553
17.3 Sea Level Tendencies and Spatial Patterns.................................................... 555
17.3.1 Sea Level Tendencies and Mass Continuity...................................... 556
17.3.2 Non-Boussinesq Steric Effect and the Boussinesq Sea Level........... 556
17.3.3 Evolution of Global Mean Sea Level................................................. 557
17.3.3.1 Mass Conserving Non-Boussinesq Fluids......................... 557
17.3.3.2 Volume-Conserving Boussinesq Fluids............................ 558
17.3.4 Sea Level Tendencies and the Hydrostatic Balance.......................... 558
17.3.5 Sea Level Tendencies due to Mass Changes..................................... 559
17.3.6 Sea Level Tendencies due to Local Steric Changes.......................... 560
17.3.7 Sea Level Changes due to Applied Surface Loading........................ 560
17.3.8 Sea Level Gradients and Ocean Circulation..................................... 561
17.3.8.1 Surface Ocean.................................................................... 561
17.3.8.2 Full Ocean Column........................................................... 561
17.3.8.3 Barotropic Geostrophic Balance and Transport
through a Section............................................................... 562
17.4 Ocean Data Assimilation................................................................................ 562
17.4.1 Elements of Ocean Data Assimilation.............................................. 563
17.4.2 Some Details for Filtering Methods.................................................. 565
17.4.3 Smoother Methods............................................................................ 566
17.5 Applications with Respect to Altimetry......................................................... 567
17.5.1 Process Modeling.............................................................................. 567
17.5.2 Assimilation of Sea Level into Models............................................. 571
17.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks.............................................................. 574
Acknowledgments..................................................................................................... 574
References................................................................................................................. 574

Chapter 18 Use of Satellite Altimetry for Operational Oceanography....................................... 581

Pierre-Yves Le Traon, Gérald Dibarboure, Gregg Jacobs, Matt Martin,
Elisabeth Rémy, and Andreas Schiller
18.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 581
Contents xv

18.2 Operational Oceanography............................................................................. 582

18.2.1 History of Development ................................................................... 582
18.2.2 Operational Oceanography Infrastructure ....................................... 582
18.2.3 Applications and Users...................................................................... 583
18.3 The Unique Role of Satellite Altimetry for Operational Oceanography ...... 584
18.3.1 The Close Relationships between Operational Oceanography
and Satellite Altimetry...................................................................... 584
18.3.2 Synergies with Other Satellite and In Situ Observations ................. 584
18.3.3 General Requirements/Constellation................................................ 585
18.4 Use and Impact of Satellite Altimetry for Operational Oceanography ......... 586
18.4.1 Evolution of the Altimeter Constellation over the Last 25 Years...... 586
18.4.2 Multiple Altimeter Data Processing for Operational
Oceanography................................................................................... 587
18.4.2.1 Level 2 Data Assembly and Homogenization................... 589
18.4.2.2 Intercalibration, Orbit, and Large-Scale
Error Correction............................................................. 589
18.4.2.3 Calculation of Sea Level Anomalies................................. 590
18.4.2.4 Strengthening the Links with Data Assimilation Systems.....591
18.4.2.5 Mapping SLA on Regular Space and Time Grids............. 591
18.4.2.6 Geoid and Mean Dynamic Topography............................ 592
18.4.3 Assimilation in Ocean Forecasting Models ..................................... 593
18.4.4 Impact of Multiple Altimeter Data Assimilation in Ocean
Forecasting Models .......................................................................... 594
18.5 Future prospects ............................................................................................ 598
18.5.1 Evolution of Operational Oceanography and New Challenges ........ 598
18.5.2 Evolution of Altimetry Technology and Impact on
Operational Oceanography...............................................................602
18.5.2.1 Improving Coverage and Robustness................................602
18.5.2.2 Improving Precision and Accuracy...................................603
18.6 Conclusion......................................................................................................604
References.................................................................................................................604

Index...............................................................................................................................................609
Preface
Dear Reader:
With this book, we aim to provide a state-of-the-art overview of the satellite altimetry tech-
niques and related missions and to review recent applications with respect to ocean dynamics
(large- and small-scale circulation, ocean tides, waves, El Niño-Southern Oscillation [ENSO],
coastal processes, etc.) and to global and regional sea level change. The book also discusses
related, auxiliary, space-based, and in situ observations (e.g., space gravimetry, Argo data, or tide
gauges) as well as applications of satellite altimetry to the cryosphere, land surface waters, and
seafloor topography.
In one sense, this book is written to update the expert community about recent results. Most of
all, however, the book is designed as a textbook for students and researchers who are interested
in getting acquainted with satellite altimetry for the study of the Earth as well as a reference for a
graduate-level course of satellite altimetry. The style of each chapter provides the reader a broad
exposure to the subject from the basics to the state-of-the-art. Following a similar first book on
altimetry by Fu and Cazenave (2001), this new book provides an updated comprehensive descrip-
tion of the state-of-the-art technology, the historic developments of altimetry, and of ongoing sci-
entific applications to a variety of topics in Earth sciences. By introducing the techniques and by
providing a wide range of applications of satellite altimetry, this book also highlights the need for
collecting long-term records of key processes acting in the Earth system.
The ocean is a turbulent fluid showing variability from basin scale down to a few meters and on
time scales from a few minutes to climate time scales. Because of this, it requires the combination
of all in situ observing components with satellite remote sensing to observe the full ocean vari-
ability with global coverage. It is especially the satellite remote sensing that provides an all-season
full view of the surface ocean, globally and with a repeat cycle of just a few days. Because of this
unique observing capability, several ocean parameters are routinely monitored by a variety of space
sensors, such as sea surface temperature and salinity, surface winds and wave heights, ocean color,
ocean mass changes, and sea surface topography. In this list, satellite altimetry is unique in that it
is a technique that measures sea surface height and thereby the geometric shape of the sea surface
relative to a reference system.
The concept of the satellite altimetry measurement is simple: The onboard radar altimeter
transmits microwave radiation toward the sea surface, which partly reflects back to the satellite.
Measurement of the round-trip travel time provides the height of the satellite above the instanta-
neous sea surface (called “range”). The principal quantity of interest is the geometry of the sea
surface height above a reference fixed surface, typically a conventional reference ellipsoid. It is
obtained by the difference between the altitude of the satellite above the reference (deduced from
precise orbitography) and the measured range. The estimated sea surface height is further corrected
for a variety of factors due to atmospheric delay and biases between the mean electromagnetic (EM)
scattering surface and sea at the air–sea interface. Other environmental and geophysical corrections
are also applied (Fu and Cazenave 2001).
Measurements of the topography of the sea surface are important for oceanography and geod-
esy alike: One contribution to the measured sea surface shape originates from a (nearly) time-
invariable equipotential surface called the geoid (an equipotential surface of the Earth gravity
field), consisting of highs and lows of 1–100 m amplitude. Superimposed to the marine geoid are
contributions resulting from the time-mean and fluctuating ocean circulation. On spatial scales
roughly larger than 10 km, the ocean is in geostrophic balance, implying a relationship between
the sea surface slope relative to the geoid and ocean currents. The sea surface topography, there-
fore, is a dynamically unique parameter that provides unprecedented information about the upper

xvii
xviii Preface

ocean flow field, a long-standing goal of physical oceanographers for better understanding the
complex full-depth ocean circulation and its role in climate. Through its unique capability to map
the sea surface shape, even on an eddy and—in the future—a sub-eddy scale, it is an ideal system
for studying the mesoscale and sub-mesoscale component of the ocean circulation and its changes
in time.
Associated amplitudes in the measured sea surface deviation from the marine geoid are of the
order of ± 1 m around the globe for the time-mean circulation, with the largest changes across per-
manent frontal structures such as boundary currents. The time-variable component related to the
dynamics of the oceans (currents, tides, and so on) is even smaller and more in the range 0.1–0.5 m.
It is thus obvious that highest accuracy is required for a system that can be used for quantitative
ocean studies. It took the international community several decades to develop the altimetry system.
With its nowadays approximately 1-cm accuracy of sea surface height measurements and a stability
of approximately 1cm per decade, existing altimeter data time series have revolutionized the obser-
vation of the ocean. Measuring climate-related global mean sea level rise and associated regional
variability is the most demanding application of satellite altimetry because of the low signal level.
All sources of errors affecting the altimetry system need to be understood and reduced. At the time
of the TOPEX/Poseidon satellite launch in 1992, it was considered that this objective could not be
reachable. Yet subsequent improvements at all steps of altimetry data processing have allowed the
production of accurate sea level time series, now considered as one of the best indicators of climate
change and variability.
The first altimeter satellite, the Geodynamic Experimental Ocean Satellite (GEOS 3), was launched
in 1975 by NASA. Since then, other U.S. altimetry missions have flown with the purpose of studying
the oceans from space (e.g., the Seasat, 1978, and GEOSAT, 1985–1989). However, the uncertainty of
the position of these satellites in space (the orbital error) was large (several decimeters), so that detec-
tion of ocean dynamics phenomena was very difficult. In the early 1990s, the era of high-precision
altimetry began with the launch of the European satellite ERS-1 in 1991 and, especially, with the U.S./
French TOPEX/Poseidon mission in 1992. The accuracy of individual sea surface height measure-
ments from these missions and their successors (e.g., the Jason series, ERS-2, GEOSAT Follow-On
(GFO), Envisat, Sentinel-3, and SARAL/AltiKa) has now reached the 1-cm level, which is required to
obtain quantitative and—until then—unprecedented oceanographic information. This is the result of
substantial technological developments and model improvements involving international collabora-
tions of radar engineers, geodesists, geophysicists, and oceanographers as well as program managers.
Since about the 1990s, such a system has provided routine and continuous time series of precise altim-
etry with data being used in a wide range of scientific and operational applications.
Today, satellite altimetry is a mature technique and a generally accepted element of the
ocean and climate observing system with a long-planning horizon ahead through the European
Sentinel-3 Series and continued long-term involvement from the European Organization for the
Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT)—together with other space agencies—
in sustaining the Jason series with the development of the future Jason-CS/Sentinel 6 mission,
another component of the COPERNICUS European program. New technology such as the
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) interferometry already in orbit with the European CryoSat
satellite and the wide-swath altimetric interferometry under development with the U.S./French
Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) mission (to be launched in 2021) will even fur-
ther expand and revolutionize the applications of altimetry over the ocean and land. Continuation
and maintenance of significant data records from satellite altimetry for the benefit of science and
society remains a pressing issue for the international science community as well as governmen-
tal organizations.
Ongoing applications of satellite altimetry cover a wider and ever-expanding range in oceanogra-
phy, geodesy, and geophysics as well as in terrestrial hydrology and cryospheric research. In detail,
satellite altimetry provides information about a variety of phenomena related to the internal structure
of the Earth, seafloor bathymetry and plate tectonics, ocean tides, large-scale ocean circulation and
Preface xix

eddies, waves, and sea level changes (the latter resulting from changes in ocean heat content and ocean
mass changes). Although designed to observe the oceans, satellite altimetry is also now currently used
to measure level variations of surface waters on land (lakes and rivers) and ice sheet elevation changes
in Greenland and Antarctica, thus offering invaluable information on land hydrology and glaciology.
The structure of the book is designed to cover all these subjects, with individual chapters dedicated to
individual themes.
Chapters 1 and 2 provide information on existing and new altimeter technology. Chapter 1
presents the basic principle of satellite altimetry and discusses in great detail the satellite orbit
and the various geophysical corrections that need to be applied to the altimetry measurement.
It also provides some historical information on the various altimetry missions launched during
the past few decades and on the evolution through time of the performances of the altimetry sys-
tem. Chapter 2 reviews the concept of wide-swath altimetry, derives the measurement error bud-
get for both ocean and surface water bodies, and also discusses science applications that require
this new technology.
Chapters 3 and 4 describe auxiliary data sets required to process and analyze satellite altimetry.
Chapter 3 deals with in situ data sets such as Argo profiles, tide gauge data, or velocity measurements;
Chapter 4 deals with the Earth’s gravity field, its theoretical representation and measurements. Some
focus is directed toward the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) space gravimetry
mission launched in 2002 for measuring temporal variations of the geoid.
Applications to global and regional problems are summarized in Chapters 5 through 9. Chapter 5
discusses the global mean sea level record derived from satellite altimetry and the various contributions
(ocean thermal expansion, glacier and ice sheet mass balance, and land water storage) causing sea level
variations. Chapters 6 through 9 then focus on specific regional aspects of satellite altimetry, notably
the tropical oceans, the mid-latitude oceans, the Arctic, and the Southern Ocean. For each region, the
importance of satellite altimetry for the study of dynamic and kinematic features is highlighted.
The study by altimetry of specific ocean phenomena is addressed in Chapters 10 through 13.
Chapter 10 addresses the unique way ocean eddies can be observed by satellite altimetry and
updates the reader on recent insights gained through the altimeter time series. Chapter 11 discusses
problems in interpreting altimetry data in coastal zones arising from data inaccuracies in the prox-
imity of land and how to improve those via the development of specific retracking of raw radar
echoes and of new geophysical corrections. Chapter 12 summarizes the use of altimetry to monitor
ocean waves and wind speeds and reviews several recent applications. Ocean tides and how they
have been studied using altimetry are then addressed in Chapter 13.
Applications other than to the ocean are provided in Chapters 14 through 16. Chapter 14 describes
the application of satellite altimetry to the monitoring of surface water levels on land. It discusses
the difficulty in interpreting radar waveforms (echoes) over small lakes and rivers (because of land
contamination) and the recent development of adapted retracking methodologies, allowing the cal-
culation of long water level time series on lakes and rivers. Chapter 15 deals with altimetry on the
Antarctic ice sheet. It describes in great detail how satellite altimetry has contributed to an improved
understanding of the complex dynamics of the ice sheet and how it informs on the mass balance,
one of the main contributions to the sea level budget. In Chapter 16, the global mapping of sea-
floor bathymetry is presented. The global bathymetric maps derived by combining data from dif-
ferent altimetry missions have many practical and scientific applications—in particular in marine
geophysics.
Finally, altimetry in the context of ocean modeling and operational oceanography is addressed
in Chapters 17 and 18. Both chapters provide background information on modeling and assimilation
techniques and review applications with a focus on climate science in Chapter 17 and on operational
oceanography in Chapter 18.
Compiling a book covering a broad range of topics as has been done here cannot be accomplished
without the effort and involvement of a group of very dedicated experts. We would like to thank all
the authors who made contributions to this book as well as the anonymous reviewers who helped by
xx Preface

improving each chapter. Jointly, they have spent a great deal of effort in writing and revising passages
as required by the peer-review process, making this a worthwhile book to read and to own. We are
also indebted to a group of anonymous reviewers who greatly enhanced the quality of this book by
evaluating each chapter. We would like to express our appreciation and thanks for their efforts.

Detlef Stammer
Anny Cazenave

REFERENCE
Fu, L. L., and A. Cazenave. 2001. Satellite altimetry and Earth sciences. In A Handbook of Techniques and
Applications. International Geophysics Series, Volume 69, Academic Press, San Diego, CA, p. 463.
Editors
Detef Stammer is a professor of physical oceanography and Earth system remote sensing at the
Universität Hamburg in Germany, where he is director of the Center für Erdsystemforschung und
Nachhaltigkeit. His research interests include ocean and climate variability analyzed from ocean
and climate data in combination with ocean and climate models (assimilation). The use of satellite
altimetry and other satellite observations for studies of ocean circulation, ocean dynamics, and
mixing and eddy transports are central to his work. One such aspect is the use of altimeter data for
quantitative testing of general ocean circulation models. He has published more than 180 articles
in international journals and was lead author in the Fifth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change Working Group I Assessment report. He has served on several national and international
scientific committees and is fellow of the American Geophysical Union.

Anny Cazenave is senior scientist at the Laboratoire d’Etudes en Géophysique et Océanographie

Spatiale, Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales, Toulouse, France, and director for Earth sciences at
the International Space Science Institute, Bern, Switzerland. Her research deals with the applica-
tions of space techniques to geosciences (geodesy and solid Earth geophysics; sea level variations
and the study of climatic causes; land hydrology from space). She has extensive experience in using
satellite altimetry for studying the marine geoid, land surface waters, and sea level. She has contrib-
uted in several space missions in geodesy and oceanography and has served as lead author of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I (fourth and fifth assessment reports).
She is fellow of the American Geophysical Union, a member of the French academy of science, and
a foreign member of the U.S., Indian, and Belgian academies of science.

xxi
Contributors
Saleh Abdalla Don Chambers
ECMWF University of South Florida
Reading, UK Tampa, FL

Michaël Ablain Curtis W.Chen

CLS Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Ramonville-Saint-Agne, France California Institute of Technology
Pasadena, CA
Laïba Amarouche
CLS John Church
Ramonville-Saint-Agne, France University of New South Wales
Sydney, Australia
Ole B. Andersen
Technical University of Denmark
Kongens Lyngby, Denmark Paolo Cipollini
National Oceanography Centre
Sabine Arnault Southampton, UK
Laboratoire LOCEAN
Paris, France Alexandre Couhert
CNES
Jérôme Benveniste Toulouse, France
ESA/ESRIN
Frascati, Italy Jean-François Cretaux
LEGOS
Srinivas Bettadpur Toulouse, France
University of Texas
Austin, TX Jan-Willem De Bleser
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Florence Birol
California Institute of Technology
LEGOS
Pasadena, CA
Toulouse, France

Stéphane Calmant Gérald Dibarboure

LEGOS CNES
Toulouse, France Toulouse, France
and
Loren Carrere CLS
CLS Ramonville-Saint-Agne, France
Ramonville-Saint-Agne, France
Shenfu Dong
Anny Cazenave Physical Oceanography Division
LEGOS Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological
Toulouse, France Laboratory
and Miami, FL
ISSI
Bern, Switzerland

xxiii
xxiv Contributors

Joël Dorandeu Weiqing Han

CLS University of Colorado
Ramonville-Saint-Agne, France Boulder, CO

Pierre Dubois Gregg Jacobs

CLS NRL
Ramonville-Saint-Agne, France Washington D.C., MS
Theodore Durland Peter A. E. M. Janssen
Oregon State University ECMWF
Corvallis, OR Reading, UK
Gary D. Egbert
Svetlana Jevrejeva
Oregon State University
National Oceanography Centre
Corvallis, OR
Liverpool, UK
Philippe Escudier
CNES Johnny A. Johannessen
Toulouse, France Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing
Center and University of Bergen
Daniel Esteban Fernandez Bergen, Norway
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
California Institute of Technology Kathryn A. Kelly
Pasadena, CA Applied Physics Laboratory
University of Washington
J. Thomas Farrar Seattle, WA
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Woods Hole, MA Matthias Lankhorst
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
M. Joana Fernandes University of California San Diego
Universidade do Porto La Jolla, CA
Faculdade de Ciências
Porto, Portugal Pierre-Yves Le Traon
Mercator Ocean
Fréderic Frappart Ramonville St Agne, France
LEGOS and
Toulouse, France Ifremer
Pllouzané, France
Lee-Lueng Fu
JPL/NASA
Tong Lee
California Institute of Technology
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Pasadena, CA
California Institute of Technology
Sarah T. Gille Pasadena, CA
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
University of California San Diego Eric Leuliette
La Jolla, CA NOAA
Silver Spring, MD
Stephen M. Griffies
NOAA/GFDL Alain Mallet
and CNES
Princeton University Toulouse, France
Princeton, NJ
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