JIMMA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND VETERINARY MEDICINE

SCHOOL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE

REVIEW ON POULTRY COCCIDIOSIS

BY
NASIR MOHAMMED

DECEMBER, 2019
JIMMA, ETHIOPIA

i
 Jimma University
College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine
School of Veterinary Medicine

By
Nasir Mohammed

Review on Poultry Coccidiosis

Advisor: Dr Moa meleku (DVM, MSC)

December, 2019
Jimma Ethiopia
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS PAGES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................................................................................II
LIST OF TABLE............................................................................................................III
LIST OF FIGURE...........................................................................................................IV
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS..........................................................................................V
SUMMARY......................................................................................................................VI
1. INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................1
2. LITERATURE REVIEW.............................................................................................3
2.1. Poultry Coccidiosis..................................................................................................3
2.2. Etiology....................................................................................................................3
2.3. Morphology..............................................................................................................4
2.4. Lifecycle...................................................................................................................4
2.5. Epidemiology...........................................................................................................5
2.5.1. Agent related risk factors of coccidial infection in poultry..........................5
2.5.2. Host related risk factors...................................................................................6
2.5.3. Environmental and management related risk factors..................................6
2.6. Pathogenesis.............................................................................................................7
2.7. Clinical sign.............................................................................................................7
2.8. Diagnosis..................................................................................................................8
2.9. Necropsy Findings...................................................................................................9
2.10. Treatment, Control and Prevention....................................................................9
2.11. Economic Importance of Poultry Coccidiosis..................................................10
2.12. Current Status of Poultry Coccidiosis in Ethiopia...........................................10
3. CONCLUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS....................................................11
4. REFERENCE...............................................................................................................12

I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Above all, I would like to praise my Almighty God, for supporting me health, wisdom
and strength in my work and for his perfect protection and guidance of my life. My
special and sincere gratitude goes to my Advisor; Dr. moa melaku for his encouragement,
support and continual guidance.

I wish to express my sincere thanks to Jimma University College of Agriculture and

Veterinary Medicine, and school of veterinary medicine for their facility support and
internet access. Finally, special thanks for all my friends who support me ideally and
morally through all my success.

II
LIST OF TABLE PAGE

Table 1: Eimeria species with their predilection site in intestine of poultry......................3

III
LIST OF FIGURE PAGE

Figure 1: Life cycle of Coccidia in poultry........................................................................5

IV
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ACP Anticoccidial products

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

KPMRC Kombolcha Poultry Multiplication and Research Centre

OPG Oocyst per gram

V
SUMMARY

Coccidiosis is the commonest and most important disease of poultry resulting in great
economic losses worldwide. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to review on poultry
coccidiosis and to overview its control and prevention. It is caused by the intracellular
protozoa parasite of Eimeria species in the genus Eimeria. About nine species of Eimeria
have been recognized in domesticated chickens, of which Eimeria brunette, Eimeria
maxima, Eimerianecatrix, Eimeriatenella are the most pathogenic; Eimeria acervulina,
Eimeria mitis, Eimeria mivati are the less pathogenic and Eimeria praecox and
Eimeria hagani are the lesser pathogenic.The disease is endemic in most of the tropical
and subtropical regions where ecological and management conditions favour an all-year
round development and propagation of the causal agent.Clinical signs are associated with
tissue destruction from the release of the merozoites and mature oocysts from the
mucosal surface during the last generations of merogony and throughout gametogony.
Diagnosis of coccidiosis in chicken is best accomplished by postmortem examination of
representative number of birds. Prevention of avian coccidiosis is based on a combination
of good management and the use of anticoccidial compounds in the feed or water.
Coccidiosis is recognized as the parasitic disease that has the greatest economic impact
on poultry production. It is also endemic in Ethiopia, causing great economic losses
particularly in young birds, in all production systems. Thus, proper treatment and
management should be carried out to decrease the impact of coccidiosis on the economy
of developing country.

Key words: Coccidiosis, Chickens, Diagnosis, Eimeria, Prevention

VI
1. INTRODUCTION

Parasitic diseases have remained the major problem limiting the expansion and
profitability of the developing agricultural countries (Mohammed and Sunday, 2015),
where skilled husbandry in-puts have not matched the rate of expansion and
intensification of poultry holdings (Adene, 2004).Poultry coccidiosis is one of the most
common and economically most important diseases of poultry worldwide (Olanrewaju
and Agbor, 2014).

Coccidiosis is caused by the intracellular protozoa parasite of Eimeria species in

the genus Eimeria family Eimeridae order Eucoccidiorida and phylum Apicomplexa
(Taylor, 2007). About 1800 Eimeria colonize and infect the intestinal tract of different
animals and birds (Haug et al., 2008) and infection with this parasite normally occurs
through ingestion of feed or water contaminated with sporulated oocysts (Allen and
Fetterer, 2002). About nine species of Eimeria have been recognized in domesticated
chickens, of which Eimeria brunette, Eimeria maxima, Eimeria necatrix, Eimeria tenella
are the most pathogenic; Eimeria acervulina, Eimeria mitis, Eimeria mivati are the less
pathogenic and Eimeria praecox and Eimeria hagani are the lesser pathogenic (Jadhav et
al., 2011).

Infections caused by coccidian parasites have had a major economic impact on the
commercial broiler industry in the past several decades. It is endemic in most of the
tropical and subtropical regions where ecological and management conditions favor an all
year-round development and propagation of the causal agent (Obasi et al., 2006). Poultry
coccidiosis is one of these diseases causing significant poultry losses in Ethiopia (Safari,
2004). Coccidiosis resulting from the pathogenic Eimeria species is usually characterized
by dysentery, enteritis, diarrhea, which may be bloody with certain Eimeria species,
emaciation, lower feed conversion rate, delayed sexual maturity, drooping wings, poor
growth and low production with attendant high mortality and morbidity rates (Awais et
al., 2012).

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The most common and pathogenic species that affects the poultry industry globally is the
E. tenella (Ayaz et al., 2003) with 100% morbidity and a high mortality due to extensive
damage of the digestive tracts of chickens (Hadipour et al., 2011) Mortality rates are
usually high in young chicks, because most of the Eimeria species affects birds between
the age of 3 and 18 weeks (Dakpogan and Salifou, 2013). The occurrence of clinical
coccidiosis is directly related to the number of oocysts ingested by poultry at one time,
the pathogenicity of the Eimeria species, the age of the infected chicken and the
management system (Allen and Fetterer, 2002).

The first and most frequent symptoms is at the beginning yellow diarrhea then become
depressed, have ruffled feathers, the wings droop and tend to huddle together (Kahn,
2005). High incidence of coccidiosis is usually observed in poultry managed under
intensive management system like deep litter due to increased likelihood of high oocysts
accumulation in the litters (Nnadi and George, 2010). Furthermore, higher stocking
densities have been linked with increased incidence of coccidiosis due to a higher rate of
infection and transmission of the coccidian oocysts in dense flocks from one poultry
house to another (Lunden et al., 2010).

For the control of coccidiosis in chickens and turkeys, a number of preventive

medications have been approved for use world-wide, but reduced sensitivity and
resistance are increasingly important as no new anticoccidial compounds are known to be
under development (De Gussem, 2007).The traditional control of coccidiosis mainly
relies on chemoprophylaxis, which appeared to be effective in the last decades. However,
the increased occurrence of resistance against routine anti-coccidial drugs has left the
poultry industry with a renewed challenge for coccidiosis prevention and control and
propelled the search for alternative strategies among which vaccination is of major
importance (Morris and Gasser, 2006). Therefore, the objective of this paper is to review
on poultry coccidiosis and to overview its control and prevention.

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Poultry Coccidiosis

Avian coccidiosis is an enteric parasitic disease caused by multiple species of the

protozoan parasite of the genus Eimeria. Coccidiosis is the commonest and most
important disease of poultry resulting in great economic losses worldwide (Latif et al.,
2016).

2.2. Etiology

Among the infectious diseases of poultry, cocccidiosis is the major parasitic disease.
Poultry coccidiosis is an economically important disease in chicken caused by the
intracellular protozoa parasite of Eimeria species in the genus Eimeria family Eimeridae
order Eucoccidiorida and phylum Apicomplexa (Taylor et al., 2007). Seven species of
Eimeria (E. acervulina, E. brunetti, E. maxima, E. mitis, E. necatrix, E. praecox and E.
tenella) are recognized as infecting chickens as it detailed in table 1. Although
coccidiosis is a disease known for many years, it is still considered as the most
economical important parasitic condition affecting poultry production worldwide.

Table 1: Eimeria species with their predilection site in intestine of poultry

Species Site of lesions

E.tenella Caecum
E.acervulina Duodenal loop
E.necatrix Mid gut
E.maxima Mid gut
E.hagani Anterior gut
E.mivati Duodenal
E.praecox Anterior gut
E.mitis Anterior gut
E. brunette Lower intestine
Source: (Foreyt, 2001)

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2.3. Morphology

Majority of Eimeria oocysts have ovoid shape. Other characteristics that is useful in
species identification includes : zone of intestine parasitized, nature of macroscopic
lesions, minimum sporulation time, minimum prepatent period, schizonts size and area in
which it develops, location of the parasite within the epithelial cells and cross-immunity
trails (Reid, 1978).

2.4. Lifecycle

The life cycle of all Eimeria species involves two or more generation of an asexual
development known as shizogony, followed by a sexual phase formed by gametogony
which results in the formation of oocyst (Kaufman, 1999). The infective stage, sporulated
oocyst, is ingested and the action of mechanical and chemical factors in the gut (bile salt
and trypsin) leads to the release of sporocysts and then sporozoites in the duodenal lumen
and this stage is described in figure 1.

The sporozoites invade the mucosa sometimes passing down the whole length of the
alimentary tract before doing so. Then follow phases of intracellular growth and asexual
multiplication with periodic release of merozoites entering in to the sexual phase of the
life cycle known as gametogenesis (Jones et al, 1996). These merozoites invade cells and
develop in to either macro- gametes or micro- gametes. The former gives rise to a single
macrogamete whereas the male gametocyte matures and ruptures, releasing seven large
number of minute biflagellate micro-gametes. The micro-gametocyte grows to form a
micro-gamete. A thickened wall forms around the macro-gamete, forming a zygote when
the macro gamete is fertilized by microgamete. This stage is the young or immature
oocyst (Conway and Mckenzie, 2007).

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Figure 1: Life cycle of Coccidia in poultry
(Source: Fanatico, 2006)

2.5. Epidemiology

The disease is endemic in most of the tropical and subtropical regions where ecological
and management conditions favour an all-year round development and propagation of the
causal agent (Obasi et al., 2006). The occurrence of different Eimeria species
combinations and the intensity of infection vary considerably, both locally and globally
(Haug et al., 2008). High incidence of coccidiosis is usually observed in poultry managed
under intensive management system like deep litter due to increased likelihood of high
oocysts accumulation in the litters (Dakpogan and Salifou, 2013).In Ethiopia, poultry
coccidiosis caused by (E.acervulina, E. necatrix, E. maxima and E. tenella, is endemic in
all parts of the country and affects mainly young growing birds (Safari et al., 2004).

2.5.1. Agent related risk factors of coccidial infection in poultry

The occurrence of poultry coccidiosis is dependent on both the species of Eimeria and the
size of the infecting dose of oocysts. Due to the short prepatent period of the parasite and
its high biotic potential, the number of oocysts in the litter rises rapidly (Jordan et al.,

5
2002). Poultry coccidia have high capacity to reproduce within the host; this leads to a
rapid increase to Success and the subsequent high level of the parasite within the
susceptible host and subsequently high level of contamination of the environment
(Urquhart et al., 1987).

2.5.2. Host related risk factors

Coccidiosis is usually a disease of young birds, but birds can be infected at any time, if
never exposed before. Coccidia populations take time to build dangerous levels,
therefore, outbreaks usually occur when birds are between 3 and 8 weeks of age
(Fanatico, 2006). High animal density cramped on a small space, age of the bird at the
time of the first infection and number of passages of the infection as well as on ability of
the bird to develop proper specific immune response (Hofstad, 1984).

2.5.3. Environmental and management related risk factors

Management of poultry houses plays a momentous function in the spread of coccidiosis

because coccidialoocysts are omnipresent and are easily spread in the poultry house
environment. Further, owing to their high reproduction potential, it is very complex to
keep chickens coccidia free, especially under current intensive rearing conditions
(Adhikari et al., 2008). Prevalence varied by management and did not vary by flock size
(Hadipour et al., 2011) while bad management, such as wet litter that encourages oocyst
sporulation, contaminated drinkers and feeders, bad ventilation, and high stocking
density, can worsen the clinical signs (Al-Quraishy et al., 2009).

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2.6. Pathogenesis

Infection by coccidia in sufficient number to produce clinical manifestations of disease is

called coccidiosis (Charlton, 2006). Though nine species of Eimeria have been identified
as causative agents of poultry coccidiosis, only seven of them have been reported to be
pathogenic (Kahn, 2008). Emeria tenella (E. tenella) and Emeria necatrix(E. necatrix)
are the most pathogenic species. Emeria arcevulina(E.acervulina), Emeria maxima (E.
maxima) and Emeria mivati(E. mivati) are common and slightly too moderately
pathogenic while Emeriabrunetti(E. brunetti) is uncommon but pathogenic when it does
occur. Emeria mitis(E. mitis), Emeria praecox (E. praecox) and Emeria hagani(E.
hagani) are relatively non-pathogenic species (Soulsby, 1982).

Oocysts passed in the feces require suitable environmental conditions to sporu late.
Moist, temperate, or cool conditions favor sporulation, whereas high tem peratures and
dryness impede it (Radostist, 2007). Coccidiosis outbreaks are commonly classified
according to the areas of the digestive tract for which the particular species of coccidia
seem to have a special affinity. The protozoan parasite of the genus Eimeria multiplies in
the intestinal tract and causes tissue damage, resulting in the interruption of feeding,
digestive processes, nutrient absorption, dehydration, blood loss, loss of skin
pigmentation and increased susceptibility to other disease pathogens (McDougald, 2008).

2.7. Clinical sign

Avian coccidiosis, caused by parasites of the genus Eimeria, produces anorexia and
reduced weight gain and feed conversion in infected chicks (Long, 1968).Emeria tenella
causes moderate to severe cecal lesions, sometimes death. The birds become depressed,
have ruffled feathers, the wings droop, have diarrhea and tend to huddle. Food and water
consumption usually decreases and may become emaciated and dehydrated. Laying hens
will experience a reduction in rate of egg production. Cecal coccidiosis may produce
bloody droppings and anemia (Whitmarsh, 1997).

7
Clinical signs are associated with tissue destruction from the release of the merozoites
and mature oocysts from the mucosal surface during the last generations of merogony
and throughout gametogony. In severe infections, much of the mucosal epithelium is
sloughed off and nutrient absorption is compromised (Yun et al., 2000).

2.8. Diagnosis

Diagnosis of coccidiosis in chicken is best accomplished by postmortem examination of

representative number of birds. Diagnosis by fecal examination may lead to quite
erroneous results (Soulsby, 1982). In some instances the major pathology is produced
before oocysts are shed in the feces (E. tenella) and, conversely, the presence of large
number of oocysts may not necessarily indicates a serious pathogenic condition. Thus,
with E. acervulina, which has a high biotic potential, comparatively larger numbers of
oocysts are shed than, for example, with E. necatrix. Furthermore, the accurate
identification of the oocysts of various poultry coccidia is not easy (Soulsby, 1982).

In recent years, various biochemical and molecular methods have also been used (Morris
and Gasser, 2006). As indicated, next to the fact Eimeriaare very effective parasites, one
of the main reasons coccidiosis is still a major problem, is the difficult diagnosis. The
classical parasitological methods of diagnosis are labor intensive and therefore costly.
Oocyst per gram (OPG) counts in faeces or litters have a poor relation with the impact of
the parasite on the performance of a flock. Identification of different species based on
morphology of oocysts is very challenging and requires expertise (De Gussem, 2007).

Diagnosis of clinical disease caused by E. tenella is quite easy and action (therapy on the
short term, change of preventive means on the long term) can be swift. These facts make
its impact on the productivity of the broiler industry is relatively limited compared to the
other species, although many broiler farmers associate coccidiosis only with
caecalcoccidiosis. This is a good example of perception not being in accordance with
the facts. E. acervulina and E. maxima, both much more prevalent, are less perceived to
be related with clinical coccidiosis in the field. E. acervulina is causing white lesions in

8
duodenum and in heavier infections also more caudal, interfering even with the ability for
E. maxima to develop (Mathis, 2005).

2.9. Necropsy Findings

The type and locations of lesions in the gut indicates the species of Eimeria. Eimeria
acervulina affects the upper parts of the small intestines, you may see small red spots and
white bands on it; E. maxima affect the entire small intestine; the intestine looks watery
and in later stages have blood and mucus. The intestine may look thickened and
ballooned with red pinpoint lesions. Eimeria tenella affects the blind sacks of the gut.
The intestine may be filled with blood and pus and turn in to a solid core (Fanatico,
2006). Histopathologically, the wall of the gut is thickened indicating retention of fluid
(edema). There may be blood in the lumen of the gut indicating blood loss (hemorrhage),
or merely retention of an excessive amount of blood in the tissue (hyperemia) there is
also infiltration with various body reaction and the development of immune response
(Marquardt et al., 2000).

2.10. Treatment, Control and Prevention

The effective use of anticoccidial feed additives over the past 50 years has played a major
role in the growth of the poultry industry and has allowed the increased availability of
high quality, affordable poultry products to the consumer. There are basically two means
of prevention of coccidiosis: chemoprophylaxis and vaccination. Chemoprophylaxis
using so-called anticoccidial products (ACP) or anticoccidials in the ration is by far the
most popular (Chapman, 2005).

Coccidiosis is by far more easily prevented than treated; Drugs have been very important
in controlling coccidiosis but the emergency of coccidial drug resistance has affected the
use of fullness of the drugs. The possibility that drugs may not always be relied up on to
control coccidiosis has led to an interest in other means of control (Vegad, 2004). Apart
from the use of drugs, control is now based on hygiene, vaccine and genetics. But
genetics is a theoretical strategy not in practical use (Jordan et al., 2002).

9
Prevention of avian coccidiosis is based on a combination of good management and the
use of anticoccidial compounds in the feed or water. Litter should always be kept dry
and special attention should be given to litter near water fonts or feeding troughs
(Urquhart et al., 1996; Taylor et al., 2007). The prophylactic drugs used for prevention
of coccidiosis are coccidiosistats. An effective coccidiostat should inhibit the
schizogonic stage and allow immunity to develop. Prophylactic use is performed
because most of the damage occurs before signs become apparent, and because drugs
cannot completely stop an outbreak (Kahn, 2005). It is known that when chickens are
infected with low number of Eimeria parasites, protective immunity is induced after two
or three consecutive infections (Joyner and Norton, 1973).

2.11. Economic Importance of Poultry Coccidiosis

Coccidiosis is one of diseases of poultry that play inhibitory role in the growth of this
industry. It is a disease complex of poultry caused by different species of parasite of
Eimeria. It inflicts the birds in both clinical and sub-clinical forms. The clinical form of
the disease manifests through prominent signs of mortality, morbidity, diarrhoea or
bloody faeces, and sub-clinical coccidiosis manifests mainly by poor weight gain and
reduced efficiency of feed conversion and gives rise to highest proportion of the total
economic losses (Williams, 1999).

Coccidiosis is recognized as the parasitic disease that has the greatest economic impact
on poultry production. The annual worldwide cost is estimated at about $800 million
(Williams, 1998), and that for the American broiler industry about $450 million. These
estimates include the costs of prophylactic in-feed medication for broilers and broiler-
23 breeders, alternative treatments (with amprolium) if the medications fail, and losses
due to mortality, morbidity, and poor feed conversions of birds that survive outbreaks.

2.12. Current Status of Poultry Coccidiosis in Ethiopia

Poultry coccidiosis is endemic in Ethiopia, causing great economic losses particularly in

young birds, in all production systems (FAO/ILRI, 1995). For instance prevalence rate of
50.8% and 11% in deep litter intensive system and backyard extensive production
system, respectively was reported from Debrezeit and its surrounding (Fessessework,

10
1990). Moreover study on the occurrence of coccidiosis and distribution of Eimeria
species in dead chickens of 1-60 days of age, at Kombolcha Poultry Multiplication and
Research Centre (KPMRC), Ethiopia that out of 965 dead birds, 370 (38.34%) 24 were
found to have clinical coccidiosis. The Eimeriaspecies identified in those studies were E.
brunetti, E. tenella, E. acervulinaand E. necatrix with prevalence of 45.3%, 40.8%, 9.7%
and 4.1%, respectively (Lobago et al., 2005).

The prevalence of poultry coccidiosis has been reported in different part of Ethiopia in
different years (Prevalence of Coccidiosis was reported by researcher; Gebremeskel and
Tesfa, 2016 ; Oljira, 2012; Alemayehu et al., 2012; Feyisa and Chalchisa , 2017) as
listed as, 20.57%, 28.2%, 25.5%, and 39.6% respectively. The variation of this all
prevalence of coccidiosis may be due to epidemiology of study time, breed and
management system differences and possibility of drug resistance.

11
3. CONCLUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Coccidiosis is an important enteric parasitic disease of poultry associated with significant

economic losses to poultry farmers worldwide. It has been indicated that there are several
species of Eimeria affect chickens with varying pathogenicity. The occurrence of
coccidiosis dependent on agent, host and management as well as environment associated
risk factors. The presence of lesions and part of intestine affected in combination with
histo- pathology could help in better diagnosis of coccidiosis. Anticcocidials and good
management are important for control and prevention of coccidiosis in domestic
chickens.

Therefore, based on above conclusion the following recommendations are forwarded:

 Proper diagnostic methods and biosecurity measures should be performed to

prevent and control the disease in the chickens.
 Proper prophylactics treatment and management should be carried out to
decrease the impact of coccidiosis on the economy of developing country.
 To control this economically important parasitic disease of poultry, further
studies need to be undertaken to come up with sustainable and cost-effective
prevention and control methods.

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