QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY

DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

========================================================================================
Week 1-2 Lecture Discussion

Chapter 1
Introduction to Microbiology

Objectives
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. define microbiology;
2. enumerate the importance of studying microbiology;
3. name the first known microorganisms and infections;
4. enumerate the pioneer scientists in the field of microbiology;
5. explain spontaneous generation and the experiments that supported or refuted it; and
5. describe a microscope – its types and the functions of its parts.

Topic Guide Key Terms

Topics: Microbes
Definition of Microbiology Microorganisms
Why study Microbiology? Pathogen
First Microorganisms on Earth Infectious diseases
Earliest known infectious diseases Spontaneous generation
Pioneers of microbiological studies Microscope
Microscopy

Lecture Discussion

Introduction to Microbiology
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms and certain nonliving entities. Collectively, these living
organisms and nonliving entities are called microbes. The word “micro” means very small-anything so small
that it must be viewed with a microscope. Therefore, microbiology can be defined as the study of microbes
(with only rare exceptions). The various categories of microbes include viruses, bacteria, archaea, protozoa,
and certain types of algae and fungi. Because most scientists do not consider viruses to be living organisms,
they are often referred to as "acellular microbes" or "infectious particles” rather than microorganisms.
Individual microbes can be observed only with the use of various types of microscopes. Microbes are
said to be ubiquitous, meaning they are virtually everywhere. Your first introduction to microbes may have been
when your mother warned you about "germs". Your mother worried that you might become infected with these
microbes that may cause disease on you. Disease-causing microorganisms are technically called as pathogens
(also referred to as infectious agents). Those that do not cause disease are called nonpathogens. Actually, only
about 3% of the known microbes are capable of causing disease. Thus, the vast majority of known microbes
are nonpathogenic.

Why study Microbiology?

1. We have, living on and in our bodies (e.g., on our skin and in our mouths and intestinal tract),
approximately 10 times as many microbes as the total number of cells (i.e. epithelial cells, nerve cells, muscle
cells, etc.) that make up our bodies (10 trillion cells X 10 = 100 trillion microbes. It has been estimated that
perhaps as many as 500 to 1,000 different species of microbes live on and in us. Collectively, these microbes
are known as our indigenous microbiota (or human microbiome or human bioneme)" and, for the most part,
they are of benefit to us. For example, the indigenous microbiota inhibit the growth of pathogens in those areas
of the body where they live by occupying space, depleting the food supply, and secreting materials (waste
products, toxins, antibiotics, etc.) that may prevent or reduce the growth of pathogens.
2. Some of the microbes that colonize (inhabit) our bodies are known as opportunistic pathogens (or
opportunists). Although these microbes usually do not cause us any disease, they have the potential to cause
infections if they gain access to a part of our anatomy where they do not belong. For example, the bacterium
called Escherichia coli (E. coli) lives in our intestinal tracts. This organism does not cause us any harm as long
as it remains in our intestinal tract, but can cause disease if it gains access to our urinary bladder, bloodstream,
or a wound.
3. Microbes are essential for life on this planet as we know it. For example, some microbes produce
oxygen during photosynthesis.
4. Many microbes are involved in decomposition of dead organisms and waste products of living
organisms. They are collectively known as decomposers or saprophytes.
5. Some microbes are capable of decomposing industrial wastes, ex. oil spills.
6. Many microbes are involved in elemental cycles such as Carbon, Nitrogen, Sulfur and Phosphorus
cycles.
7. Some microorganisms – algae and bacteria, serve as food for other animals. They serve as important
link in food chain.

========================================================================================
Code Date Date Prepared by:
MICROBIOLOGY WITH Developed Revised
BIO 104 PARASITOLOGY March 2021 None ANA MARIA D. CARIÑ0-VENTURA
Subject Instructor
Lecture Discussions Chapter 1 Page 1 / 6
 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

========================================================================================
8. Some microbes live in the intestinal tracts of animals, where they aid in the digestion of food and, in
some cases, produce substances that are of value to the host animal. For example, the E. coli bacteria that live
in the human intestinal tract produce vitamins K and B, which are absorbed and used by the human body.
Although termites eat wood, they cannot digest wood. Fortunately for them, termites have cellulose-eating
protozoa in their intestinal tracts that break down the wood that the termites consume into smaller molecules
that the termites can use as nutrients.
9. Many microbes are essential in various food and beverage industries, whereas others are used to
produce certain enzymes and chemicals.
10. Some bacteria and fungi produce antibiotics that are used to treat patients with infectious diseases.

First Microorganisms on Earth

Scientists tell us that Earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago and, for the first 800 million to 1
billion years of Earth's existence, there was no life on this planet. Fossils of primitive microbes (as many as 11
different types) found in ancient sandstone formations in northwestern Australia date back to about 3.5 billion
years ago. By comparison, animals and humans are relative newcomers. Animals made their appearance on
Earth between 900 and 650 million years ago, and, in their present form, humans (Homo sapiens) have existed
for only the past 100,000 years or so. Candidates for the first microbes on Earth are archaea and cyanobacteria.

Earliest known infectious diseases

The realization that yeasts play a crucial role in fermentation was the first link between the activity of a
microorganism and physical and chemical changes in organic materials. This discovery alerted scientists to the
possibility that microorganisms might have similar relationships with plants and animals specifically, that
microorganisms might cause disease. This idea was known as the germ theory of disease. The germ theory
was a difficult concept for many people to accept at that time because for centuries disease was believed to be
punishment for an individual's crimes or misdeeds.
The earliest known account of a “pestilence” occurred in Egypt about 3180 BC. This may represent the
first recorded epidemic, although words such as pestilence and plague were used without definition in early
writings. Around 1900 BC, near the end of the Trojan War, the Greek army was decimated by an epidemic of
what is thought to have been bubonic plague. The Ebers papyrus, describing epidemic fevers, was discovered
in a tomb in Thebes, Egypt; it was written around 1500 BC. A disease thought to be smallpox occurred in China
around 1122 BC. Epidemics of plague occurred in Rome in 790, 710, and 640 BC, and in Greece
around 430 BC. In addition to the diseases already mentioned, there are early accounts of rabies, anthrax,
dysentery, smallpox, ergotism, botulism, measles, typhoid fever, typhus fever, diphtheria, and syphilis. The
syphilis story is quite interesting. It made its first appearance in Europe in 1493. Many people believe that
syphilis was carried to Europe by Native Americans who were brought to Portugal by Christopher Columbus.
The name "syphilis" was not given to the disease until 1530.

Pioneers of microbiological studies

1. Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first
person to see live bacteria and protozoa. He is
sometimes referred as “Father of Microbiology”,
“Father of Bacteriology” and “Father of Protozoology”.
Interestingly, Leeuwenhoek was not a trained scientist.
At various times in his life, he was a fabric merchant, a
surveyor, a wine assayer, and a minor city official in
Delft, Holland. As a hobby, he ground tiny glass
lenses, which he mounted in small metal frames, thus
creating what today are known as single-lens
microscopes or simple microscopes. His researches on Leeuwenhoek’s drawings of bacteria
lower animals refuted the doctrine of spontaneous generation- the belief that some forms of life could arise
spontaneously from nonliving matter.
During his lifetime, he made more than 500 of these microscopes. Leeuwenhoek's fine art of grinding
lenses that would magnify an object to 200 to 300 times its size was lost at his death because he had not taught
this skill to anyone during his lifetime.

The Spontaneous Generation

After van Leeuwenhoek discovered the previously “invisible” world of microorganisms, the scientific
community of the time became interested in the origins of these tiny living things. Many scientists and
philosophers believed that some forms of life could arise spontaneously from nonliving matter; they called this
hypothetical process spontaneous generation. They believed that toads, snakes, and mice could be born of
moist soil; that flies could emerge from manure; and that maggots could arise from decaying corpses.

Pro and Con of Spontaneous Generation

Francesco Redi – a strong opponent of spontaneous generation. He demonstrated that maggots did
not arise spontaneously from decaying meat.

========================================================================================
Code Date Date Prepared by:
MICROBIOLOGY WITH Developed Revised
BIO 104 PARASITOLOGY March 2021 None ANA MARIA D. CARIÑ0-VENTURA
Subject Instructor
Lecture Discussions Chapter 1 Page 2 / 6
 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

========================================================================================
John Needham was a supporter of this belief. Spontaneous generation was strengthened when he
found that even after he heated nutrient fluids (chicken broth and corn broth), the cooled solutions were soon
teeming with microorganisms. Needham claimed that microbes developed spontaneously from the fluids.
Lazzaro Spallanzani, an Italian scientist, suggested that microorganisms from the air probably had
entered Needham’s solutions after they were boiled. Spallanzani showed that nutrient fluids heated after being
sealed in a flask did not develop microbial growth. Needham responded by claiming the “vital force” necessary
for spontaneous generation had been destroyed by the heat and was kept out of the flasks by the seals.

The Theory of Biogenesis

1. Rudolf Virchow challenged the belief on spontaneous generation with the concept of biogenesis, the
claim that living cells can arise only from preexisting living cells. Louis Pasteur demonstrated that
microorganisms are present in the air and can contaminate sterile solutions, but that air itself does not create
microbes. Pasteur showed that microorganisms can be present in nonliving matter-on solids, in liquids, and in
the air. Furthermore, he demonstrated conclusively that microbial life can be destroyed by heat and that method
can be devised to block the access of airborne microorganisms to nutrient environments. These discoveries
form the basis of aseptic techniques, techniques that prevent contamination by unwanted microorganisms.
Aseptic techniques are now the standard practice in laboratory and many medical procedures. Modern aseptic
techniques are among the first and most important things that a beginning microbiologist should learn.
2. Louis Pasteur (1822-95) was born in the village of Dole (France) on December 27, 1822. He is known
as ‘Founder of Microbiology”. His father was a tanner. Pasteur was originally trained as a chemist, but his
studies on fermentation led him to take interest in microorganisms. His discoveries revolutionized medical
practice, although he never studied medicine. The term ‘microbiology’, as the study of living organisms of
microscopic size, was coined by Pasteur. He also coined the term ‘vaccine’.
In 1860-64, he gave experimental evidence that fermentation and putrefaction are effects of microbial growth.
In 1863-65, he developed the process of destroying bacteria, known as pasteurization. He proved that the
‘disease of wine’ could be prevented without altering the flavor by heating the wine for a short time to a
temperature (55°-60°C), a little more than halfway between its freezing and boiling points. This process
(pasteurization) is employed throughout the civilized world today to preserve milk and certain other perishable
foods. Pasteur’s experiment disproved the theory of spontaneous generation.
3. Robert Koch was a bacteriologist popularly called the ‘Founder of Microbial Techniques (1843-1910).
In 1876, Robert Koch successfully isolated anthrax bacillus in pure culture, studied the formation and
germination of its spores, and provided the proof of its infectiousness. In 1890 Robert Koch proposed specific
criteria that should be met before concluding that a disease was caused by a particular bacterium. These
became known as Koch’s Postulates, which are as follows:
• The bacteria must be present in every case of the disease.
• The bacteria must be isolated from the host with the disease and grown in pure culture.
• The specific disease must be reproduced when a pure culture of the bacteria is inoculated into
a healthy susceptible host.
• The bacteria must be recoverable from the experimentally infected host
4. Edward Jenner introduced the modern method of vaccination to prevent smallpox. He observed that
milkmaids who contracted cowpox or vaccinia while milking were subsequently immune to smallpox. On May
14, 1796 he devised a brave experiment. He performed a vaccination against smallpox by transferring material
from a cowpox pustule on the hand of a milkmaid, Sarah Nelmes, to the arm of a small boy named James
Phipps his gardener’s son. Six weeks later the boy was inoculated with smallpox. He failed to develop the
disease. By 1798 Jenner published his results in 23 cases and by 1800 about 6000 persons had been
inoculated with cowpox to prevent smallpox. The terms vaccine and vaccination were first used by Pasteur out
of deference to Jenner.

Microscopes
The study of microbes would not be possible without the use of microscopes. A microscope is an
instrument for viewing objects that are too small to be seen easily by the naked eye. It is a tool commonly found
in biological laboratory which works by forming an enlarged image of the subject.

Types of Microscope
4. Dark-field microscope
A microscope (device used to magnify small objects) in which objects are lit at a very low angle from
the side so that the background appears dark and the objects show up against this dark background. It used to
observe live spirochetes, such as those that cause syphilis. This microscope contains a special condenser that
scatters light and causes it to reflect off the specimen at an angle. A light object is seen on a dark background.
2. Dissection or Stereo Microscope
It uses two objectives and two eyepieces which makes it possible to view a specimen under angles to
the human eyes forming a stereo 3D optical vision. A dissection microscope is light illuminated. The image that
appears is three dimensional. It is used for dissection to get a better look at the larger specimen. You cannot
see individual cells because it has a low magnification.
3. Confocal Microscope

========================================================================================
Code Date Date Prepared by:
MICROBIOLOGY WITH Developed Revised
BIO 104 PARASITOLOGY March 2021 None ANA MARIA D. CARIÑ0-VENTURA
Subject Instructor
Lecture Discussions Chapter 1 Page 3 / 6
 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

========================================================================================
This microscope uses a laser light. This light is used because of the wavelength. Laser light scans
across the specimen with the aid of scanning mirrors. Then image is then placed on a digital computer screen
for analyzing.
4. Electron Microscope
One of the most advanced and important types of microscopes with the highest magnifying capacity.
In electron microscopes electrons are used to illuminate the tiniest particles. Electron microscope is a much
more powerful tool in comparison to commonly used light microscopes. The electrons travel in a vacuum to
avoid contact with deflecting air molecules, and magnets focus the beam on the object to be viewed. There are
two types of EM- the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and the Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM).
5. Compound Microscope
It is an optical device made for magnifying objects, consists of a number of lenses forming the image
by the lens or a combination of lenses positioned near the object, projecting it to the ocular lens / lenses or
eyepieces. Compound microscopes are light illuminated. The image seen with this type of microscope is two
dimensional. This microscope is the most commonly used.

The Microscope and Its Parts

The following are the magnifications for each of the objective lenses:
Scanning lens – 4X
Low Power lens – 10X
High Power lens – 40X
Oil Immersion lens – 100X
How does one determine the total magnification of the specimen they are viewing? After all, one is
looking through the eyepieces as well as one of the objective lenses. The circular area you see with your
eyes when looking through the eyepieces is called your “microscopic field” or just your “field”. We call your
microscope a “brightfield” microscope since the bulb makes your field bright and the specimen dark. The
following formula allows you to determine the total magnification of the specimen you are viewing in your
field:
Total magnification = ocular lens magnification x objective lens magnification
As an example, let’s say you’re looking at a specimen using the high dry lens. What is the total
magnification of your specimen once in focus with this objective lens?
Substituting in the formula:
Total magnification = 10X x 40X = 400X
Your specimen has been magnified 400 times. Be sure you can figure the total magnification of a
specimen when using any of the four objective lenses.

Using the Metric System to Express the Sizes of Microbes

In microbiology, metric units (primarily micrometers and nanometers) are used to express the sizes of
microbes. The sizes of bacteria are expressed in micrometers, whereas the sizes of viruses are expressed in
nanometers. The basic unit of length in the metric system, the meter (m), is equivalent to
approximately 39.4 inches (in) and is, therefore, about 3.4 inches longer than a yard. A meter may be divided
into 10 (10’) equally spaced units called decimeters; or 100 (10”) equally spaced units called centimeters; or
1,000 (10’) equally spaced units called millimeters; or 1 million (10%) equally spaced units called micrometers;
or 1 billion (10) equally spaced units called nanometers. It should be noted that the old terms micron (u) and
millimicron (mu) have been replaced by the terms micrometer and nanometer (nm), respectively. An angstrom
(Ă) is 0.1 nm.
1 centimeter = 1/100 meter (abbreviated: 1 cm)

========================================================================================
Code Date Date Prepared by:
MICROBIOLOGY WITH Developed Revised
BIO 104 PARASITOLOGY March 2021 None ANA MARIA D. CARIÑ0-VENTURA
Subject Instructor
Lecture Discussions Chapter 1 Page 4 / 6
 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

========================================================================================
1 millimeter = 1/1000 meter (abbreviated: 1 mm)
1 micrometer (1 micron or 1 m) = 1/1,000,000 meter
1 nanometer = 1/1,000,000,000 meter (abbreviated: 1 nm)
1 angstrom = 1/10 nanometer

Measurement Practice Problems: Answers

1. 1 meter = ? cm 100
2. 1 meter = ? mm 1000
3. 1 meter = ? um 1000000
4. 1 meter = ? nm 1e+9

The relative sizes of cells

References

1. Campbell, N. A., Eric J. Simon, and Jane B. Reece. 2004. Essential Biology. Second Edition.
Pearson Education, Inc. Sansome St., San Francisco, California.
2. Campbell, N. A. and Jane B. Reece. 2005. Biology. Seventh Edition. Pearson Education, Inc.
Sansome St., San Francisco, California
3. Engelkirk, P.G & Engelkirk, J.D. 2015. Burton’s Microbiology for the Health Sciences. 10 th Ed.
Wolters Kluwer Health, Philadelphia, USA
4. Tortora G.J., Frunke, B.R. and Christine L. Case. 2010. Microbiology: An Introduction. Tenth Edition.
Pearson Education, Inc. San Francisco, CA

Photos taken from goggle.com

Videos:

For further understanding of the topics, click on the following links.

Koch’s Postulates: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xhLmZ3WMCt0
Microbes and the Origin of life on Earth
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Book%3A_Microbiology_(Boundless)/1%3A_Introduction_t
o_Microbiology/1.2%3A_Microbes_and_the_World/1.2C%3A_Microbes_and_the_Origin_of_Life_on_Earth
Spontaneous generation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J_57hCdUg4w
The Microscope: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RdfqcWY4E08

========================================================================================
Code Date Date Prepared by:
MICROBIOLOGY WITH Developed Revised
BIO 104 PARASITOLOGY March 2021 None ANA MARIA D. CARIÑ0-VENTURA
Subject Instructor
Lecture Discussions Chapter 1 Page 5 / 6
 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
DIFFUN CAMPUS
Diffun, 3401 Quirino

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

========================================================================================

========================================================================================
Code Date Date Prepared by:
MICROBIOLOGY WITH Developed Revised
BIO 104 PARASITOLOGY March 2021 None ANA MARIA D. CARIÑ0-VENTURA
Subject Instructor
Lecture Discussions Chapter 1 Page 6 / 6