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Contents
List of Figures�� xiii

List of Tables�� xxvii
Preface��xxix
Author�� xxxiii
1. Processing System Fundamentals................................................................1

1.1 Continuous Processing..........................................................................3
1.2 Batch Processing.....................................................................................4
1.3 Semi-Batch Processing...........................................................................4
1.4 Unit Operations......................................................................................7
1.5 Dynamics: The Speed of Information Flow in Processes.................8
1.6 Recycle Loops....................................................................................... 11
1.7 Documenting Process Flow................................................................12
1.8 Batch and Semi-Batch Process Drawings.........................................19
1.9 Distributed Control Systems..............................................................22
1.9.1 Elements of the Distributed Control System......................26
1.9.2 Programmable Logic Control Systems................................28
1.10 Symbology for Control Systems........................................................29
1.10.1 Other, Less Common, Symbols.............................................35
Problems...........................................................................................................36
Reference..........................................................................................................38
2. Control System Fundamentals....................................................................39

2.1 Overview of Basic Unit Operations...................................................39
2.1.1 Motive Force (Momentum Transfer)....................................39
2.1.2 Heat Transfer...........................................................................39
2.1.3 Mass Transfer...........................................................................40
2.1.4 Reactions..................................................................................40
2.2 Independent and Dependent Process Variables..............................40
2.2.1 Control (Independent) Variables..........................................40
2.2.2 Measurement (Dependent) Variables..................................42
2.3 Feedback Control Loop.......................................................................43
2.4 Disturbance Variables..........................................................................49
2.5 Feed Forward Contributions to Control...........................................53
2.6 Related Variables..................................................................................56
2.7 Ratio Control Loops.............................................................................58
2.8 Cascade Loops......................................................................................61
2.9 Feed Forward/Feedback Cascade Control Loops...........................68
2.10 Process and Safety Systems................................................................69
2.11 Sequential Logic Control.....................................................................74
Problems...........................................................................................................78
vii
viii Contents
3. Motive Force Unit Operations Control......................................................83

3.1 Incompressible Fluids: Pumps...........................................................83
3.2 Compressible Fluids: Compressors, Blowers, and Fans.................92
3.2.1 Other Compressible Fluid Devices: Expanders and
Turbines�� 97
3.3 Solids Handling Devices...................................................................100
3.3.1 Solids Mixed with Gases and Liquids...............................100
3.3.2 Physical Motive Force Devices...........................................102
3.3.3 Using Physical Pressure or Gravity Directly on the
Solid for Short Distance Transport��103
3.4 Startup and Shutdown for Large Motive Force Systems.............107
3.5 Equipment Protection Systems........................................................107
3.6 Switching Controls for Parallel Motive Force Units.....................108
Problems......................................................................................................... 110
4. Heat Transfer Unit Operations Control................................................... 113

4.1 Fluid-Fluid Heat Transfer................................................................. 113
4.1.1 Heating or Cooling a Process Stream to a Specified
Temperature Using a Utility Stream�� 114
4.1.2 Vaporizing a Liquid Process Stream Using a Utility
Stream..................................................................................... 117
4.1.3 Condensing a Gaseous Process Stream Using a
Utility Stream......................................................................... 119
4.1.4 Process-Process Heat Transfer.............................................122
4.1.4.1 Cross Exchanger with Phase Change.................125
4.2 Direct Mixing Heat Transfer.............................................................130
4.3 Electrical Resistance Heat Transfer..................................................133
4.4 Fired Heaters.......................................................................................134
4.5 Monitoring and Adapting for Heat Exchanger Fouling and
Scaling��138
4.6 Switching Controls for Parallel Heat Transfer Units....................139
Problems.........................................................................................................141
5. Separation Unit Operations Controls......................................................145

5.1 Single-Stage Separation.....................................................................145
5.1.1 The Flash Drum.....................................................................145
5.1.2 The Phase (Gravity) Separator............................................149
5.2 Multistage Distillation Overall Concepts.......................................150
5.2.1 Overhead System Controls for Distillation.......................157
5.2.1.1 Overhead System with a Partial Condenser.....157
5.2.1.2 Overhead Control Scheme with Total
Condenser��158
5.2.2 Bottoms System Controls for Distillation..........................160
Contents ix
5.3 Liquid-Based Absorption/Adsorption/Extraction/Leaching

System Controls..................................................................................163
5.3.1 Single-Stage, Once-Through Absorption...........................164
5.3.2 Single-Stage, Once-Through Extraction............................166
5.3.3 Multistage Absorption with Solvent Recovery................168
5.4 Solid-Based Absorption/Adsorption/Extraction/Leaching
System Controls..................................................................................175
5.4.1 Once-Through Solid Sorbent Systems...............................175
5.4.2 Fluidized Bed Solid Sorbent Systems................................177
5.4.3 Fixed Bed Regenerated Solid Sorbent Systems................181
Problems.........................................................................................................190
6. Reaction Unit Operations Control............................................................195

6.1 Continuous Flow Reactors................................................................195
6.1.1 A Heterogeneous Binary Reaction of Two Liquid
Reactants��197
6.1.2 Safety Control Systems........................................................201
6.2 CSTR-Type Reactors..........................................................................203
6.3 Batch Reaction Systems.....................................................................207
6.4 Batch Reactors in Continuous Processes........................................209
Problems.........................................................................................................215
7. Other Control Paradigms...........................................................................219

7.1 Using Intermediate Calculations in Control Loops......................219
7.1.1 Using CALC Blocks in Blending Applications.................221
7.1.2 Using CALC Blocks to Monitor Heat Exchanger
Performance...........................................................................223
7.2 Inferential Control..............................................................................227
7.3 High and Low Select Controls.........................................................231
7.4 Override Control................................................................................233
7.5 Split Range Control............................................................................233
7.6 Allocation Control..............................................................................235
7.7 Constraint Control.............................................................................235
Problems.........................................................................................................238
8. Controller Theory........................................................................................241
8.1 On/Off Control..................................................................................241
8.2 PID Control.........................................................................................243
8.2.1 Proportional Response Control...........................................246
8.2.2 Integral Control.....................................................................248
8.2.3 Derivative Control................................................................250
8.2.4 Combined PID Control Algorithm.....................................251
8.3 Modifications to Minimize Derivative Kick...................................252
x Contents
8.4 Nonlinear Control Strategies for PID Controllers.........................253

8.4.1 Modified PID Control Algorithms.....................................254
8.4.2 Tuning Parameter Scheduling.............................................255
8.4.3 Nonlinear Transformations of Input or Output
Variables��258
8.5 Adaptive Controllers.........................................................................259
Problems.........................................................................................................261
9. Higher-Level Automation Techniques....................................................263

9.1 Plant Automation Concepts.............................................................263
9.1.1 Field Instrumentation...........................................................265
9.1.2 Regulatory Controls: The Backbone of Real-Time
Process Controls....................................................................267
9.1.3 Supervisory (Advanced Process) Controls.......................267
9.1.4 Online Models.......................................................................268
9.1.5 Area Data Reconciliation.....................................................268
9.1.6 Area Optimizer......................................................................268
9.1.7 Plant-Wide Operational Control Applications.................268
9.2 Advanced Process Controls..............................................................269
9.2.1 Multiple Input/Single Output Controls (MISO)..............270
9.2.2 Fuzzy Logic Controllers.......................................................272
9.2.3 Multiple Input/Multiple Output APC..............................275
9.2.4 Multivariable Controls.........................................................276
9.3 Plant-Wide and Process Area Automation.....................................279
9.3.1 Data Reconciliation...............................................................279
9.3.2 Plant-Wide and Process Area Optimization.....................280
9.3.3 Planning and Scheduling.....................................................281
9.3.4 Enterprise and Supply Chain Management......................282
9.4 Higher-Level Automation of Batch Processes and
Semi-Batch Unit Operations��282
Problems.........................................................................................................284
10. Instrumentation (Types and Capabilities)..............................................287

10.1 Pressure...............................................................................................287
10.2 Flow/Mass..........................................................................................291
10.3 Temperature........................................................................................299
10.4 Level.....................................................................................................301
10.5 Composition........................................................................................305
10.6 Vibration..............................................................................................307
10.7 Throttling Control Valves.................................................................307
10.8 Speed Control Systems......................................................................310
10.9 Remotely Operated Block Valves..................................................... 311
10.10 Pressure Relief Valves........................................................................313
Problems.........................................................................................................315
Contents xi
11. Automation and Control System Projects...............................................317

11.1 Specification and Design Concepts.................................................317
11.1.1 Applications...........................................................................319
11.1.1.1 Objectives-Based Controls: Changing the
Process Control Paradigm....................................321
11.1.2 Physical Automation Systems.............................................322
11.1.3 Human User Interfaces........................................................323
11.1.4 Physical and Systems Security............................................324
11.1.5 Automating Batch Processes...............................................326
11.1.6 Safety Automation Systems.................................................327
11.1.6.1 Basic Principles......................................................328
11.1.6.2 Hazards Analysis..................................................330
11.1.6.3 Process Safety Layers............................................330
11.1.6.4 Emergency Automation Systems........................331
11.1.6.5 Redundancy...........................................................333
11.2 Guidelines for Automation Projects................................................ 334
11.2.1 Project Life Cycles.................................................................335
11.2.2 How to Proceed with Automation Design for Process
Plants......................................................................................335
Glossary..........................................................................................................336
Problems.........................................................................................................338
12. Process Dynamic Analysis.........................................................................343
12.1 Dynamic Models for Common Unit Operations...........................344
12.1.1 Modeling a Liquid Knockout Drum: A Dynamic
Model for Changes in Flow and Level...............................344
12.1.2 Dynamic Modeling of a Single Pass Shell and Tube
Heat Exchanger: A Dynamic Model for Energy
Balances and Temperature�� 348
12.1.3 Dynamic Modeling of a Fixed Bed Reactor With
an External Cooling Jacket: Dynamic Modeling of
Composition Change and Elemental Balance Variations�� 353
12.2 Dynamic Models for Common Instrument and Control
System Components�� 356
12.2.1 Control Variables...................................................................356
12.2.2 Measurement Variables........................................................357
12.2.3 Controllers.............................................................................357
12.3 Incorporating Simplified Process Changes into Dynamic
Models��358
Problems.........................................................................................................361
Appendix A: Transform Functions and the “s” Domain.............................363
Appendix B: PID Controller Tuning...............................................................373
Appendix C: Controller Script..........................................................................381
Index��385
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Generic input/output diagram of a chemical process................1

Figure 1.2 implified generic block flow diagram of a chemical
S
process with recycle.........................................................................2
Figure 1.3 he plant automation system is to the process as the
T
brain and central nervous system are to a person.......................3
Figure 1.4 Two-step batch process....................................................................5
Figure 1.5 ( a, b) Two generic block flow diagrams showing
alternative configurations to generate SO2 from solid
sulfur. Simple BFDs consisting of only reaction and
separation steps are helpful in evaluating different
process configurations before designing all of the details
into the process...............................................................................13
Figure 1.6 complete block flow diagram of the selected process
A
from Figure 1.5a showing the process’s initial, simplified
material balance..............................................................................14
Figure 1.7 se of the block flow diagram format to depict
U
developed processes......................................................................15
Figure 1.8 ypical process flow sheet showing the production of
T
acetic acid from methanol.............................................................16
Figure 1.9 One sheet of a typical process flow diagram. ............................17
Figure 1.10 ne sheet of a typical piping and instrumentation
O
diagram showing a pressure vessel used to knock out
tar and ash from a process gas stream using a “quench
water” stream..................................................................................18
Figure 1.11 ypical symbols used in a logic flow diagram for a batch
T
process..............................................................................................19
Figure 1.12 imple batch process to mix, heat, and react two
S
components, A and B, in a stepwise manner..............................20
Figure 1.13 ogic diagram for the batch process described in

L
Figure 1.12.......................................................................................21
Figure 1.14 FD sheet depicting a two-step semi-batch filtration unit
P
operation embedded in a continuous process...........................23
xiii
xiv List of Figures
Figure 1.15 &ID depiction of a four-step semi-batch filtration

P
process step embedded in a continuous process.......................25
Figure 1.16 eneric distributed control system hierarchy

G
demonstrating many of the features of DCS..............................27
Figure 1.17 A typical programmable logic controller bank..........................28
Figure 2.1 ontrol scheme depictions of independent variables

C
used in process control..................................................................41
Figure 2.2 sing a recycle to control a pump (shown) or

U
compressor (not shown) using a fixed speed motor.................42
Figure 2.3 ressure vessel used to remove entrained liquid from a

P
gas stream........................................................................................44
Figure 2.4 he basic regulatory control scheme for a pressure vessel

T
used to remove entrained liquid from a gas stream.................48
Figure 2.5 n alternative regulatory control scheme for a pressure

A
vessel used to remove entrained liquid from a gas stream......49
Figure 2.6 ressure vessel used to blend two fluids into a single
P
fluid..................................................................................................50
Figure 2.7 he control of a blending drum when both inlet streams

T
are controlled by upstream process operations..........................51
Figure 2.8 ressure vessel used to add a base (fluid B) to fluid A to

P
control its pH..................................................................................52
Figure 2.9 rocess-utility heat exchanger used to cool a process

P
fluid to a specified temperature...................................................53
Figure 2.10 he control scheme for a process-utility heat exchanger

T
used to cool a process fluid to a specified temperature............54
Figure 2.11 rocess-utility heat exchanger used to cool a process

P
fluid to a specified temperature with a feed forward/
feedback control scheme...............................................................56
Figure 2.12 iquid knockout drum with a feed forward/feedback

L
control scheme................................................................................57
Figure 2.13 Mixing drum with a ratio controller for fluid A........................59
Figure 2.14 Neutralization drum with a ratio controller for fluid B........... 60
List of Figures xv
Figure 2.15 Boiler or fired heater used for steam generation.......................61
Figure 2.16 Controlling the air-to-fuel ratio for a boiler or furnace............ 62
Figure 2.17 ypical control scheme for the overhead system for a
T
distillation column employing a partial condenser and a
fixed speed reflux pump...............................................................63
Figure 2.18 ascade level to flow control loop on the overhead

C
system for a distillation column employing a partial
condenser and fixed speed reflux pump....................................64
Figure 2.19 he reflux accumulator after a total condenser for a

T
distillation column.........................................................................65
Figure 2.20 ontrolling the reflux accumulator outlet streams with a

C
cascade level-to-flow control loop and a nested cascade
composition-to-flow-to-speed control loop................................66
Figure 2.21 ontrolling the air-to-fuel ratio for a boiler or furnace

C
with a feedback trim cascade control loop. CO stands for
carbon monoxide............................................................................67
Figure 2.22 eed forward/feedback cascade control scheme to

F
control gas phase composition by manipulating the
cooling water flow rate, which in turn changes the
fraction of the inlet vapor that condenses and thus will
change the product composition, in a partial condenser
for a system where process flow rate changes are significant..... 69
Figure 2.23 eed forward/feedback cascade control scheme when
F
the disturbance variable is nonresponsive.................................70
Figure 2.24 I nstead of using the absolute value of the measurement,
a Rate of Deviation alarm uses the Rate of Change of the
Deviation, the first derivative of the measurement value........71
Figure 2.25 he independent safety system instrumentation and
T
controls to protect a liquid knockout drum from
potentially hazardous or damaging scenarios...........................74
Figure 2.26 simple batch process to produce component C by

A
adding a series of small increments of component B to a
reactor containing component A..................................................75
Figure 2.27 D
etail of the control scheme used to insure that the heater
operation is only regulated by the continuous temperature
control loop during the correct step in the batch process........... 77
xvi List of Figures
Figure 2.28 Simplified flow sheet for a Claus sulfur plant...........................81
Figure 3.1 A typical pump curve for a fixed speed pump...........................84
Figure 3.2 A more advanced pump curve for a variable speed pump......85
Figure 3.3 basic fixed speed pump control using: (a) flow or
A
(b) pressure as the dependent (measurement) variable.............86
Figure 3.4 fixed speed pump control with a simple minimum flow
A
recycle...............................................................................................86
Figure 3.5 pump and piping manifold to send liquid from the
A
upstream process steps to two different downstream
process steps at different flow rates and/or pressures..............87
Figure 3.6 control scheme for a pump and piping manifold to
A
send liquid from the upstream process steps to two
different downstream process steps at different flow rates
and/or pressures with fixed speed pumps.................................88
Figure 3.7 n on/off control scheme for a fixed speed pump used
A
to remove liquid from a drum based on the activation of
low- and high-level switches.........................................................90
Figure 3.8 control scheme for a pump and piping manifold

A
integrated with an upstream pressure vessel that sends
the vessel outlet liquid to two different downstream
process steps at different flow rates with fixed speed
pumps while maintaining the liquid level in the vessel............91
Figure 3.9 control scheme for a variable speed cooling water

A
supply pump integrated with a heat exchanger used to
cool a process fluid..........................................................................91
Figure 3.10 control scheme using outlet flow and outlet pressure
A
for a compressor with a steam turbine driver............................93
Figure 3.11 control scheme for a two-stage compressor with an

A
electric motor...................................................................................95
Figure 3.12 A compressor map.........................................................................96
Figure 3.13 ntisurge control with dedicated recycle cooler for a

A
compressor with an electric motor...............................................97
Figure 3.14 ntisurge control for a nontoxic gas with insufficient
A
value to warrant a recycle; a gas that can be vented to
atmosphere......................................................................................98
List of Figures xvii
Figure 3.15 A compression/expansion system to generate very cold air........ 99

Figure 3.16 typical control scheme to blend a solid into a liquid to
A
obtain a slurry in a mixing vessel, where the solids flow
rate is set by an upstream unit operation.................................101
Figure 3.17 A
typical control scheme to add a solid to a liquid
process stream in a mixing vessel, where the flow rate
is set by a downstream process and viscosity (μ) is used
as an indirect measure of the quality of the blended
product. ..................................................................................... 103
Figure 3.18 sing pressurized lock hoppers to load and unload a
U
solid into a reaction vessel..........................................................104
Figure 3.19 typical control scheme for a batch process system that
A
uses pressurized lock hoppers to load and unload a solid
into a reaction vessel....................................................................105
Figure 3.20 ypical piping and control configurations for a pump set
T
where one pump is in operation and one is an installed
spare...............................................................................................109
Figure 4.1 sing an incompressible utility liquid to cool a process
U
stream to a specific temperature................................................ 115
Figure 4.2 ontrol scheme for a heat exchanger that is generating
C
steam to cool a very hot process stream.................................... 116
Figure 4.3 ontrol scheme for a heat exchanger that is condensing
C
utility steam to heat a process stream to a specific
temperature and employing a steam trap................................ 118
Figure 4.4 rocess scheme for a heat exchanger that is condensing a
P
utility steam to vaporize a process stream............................... 118

C
a utility steam and employing a steam trap to vaporize a
process stream...............................................................................120
Figure 4.6 utlet configurations when condensing a process fluid

O
in a heat exchanger.......................................................................120

C
a process stream using cooling water and employing a
condensate drum on the process outlet stream.......................122
Figure 4.8 xchanging energy between the inlet and outlet streams
E
of a reactor in a cross exchanger.................................................123
xviii List of Figures
Figure 4.9 more generalized process scheme for exchanging

A
energy between two process streams in a cross exchanger....123
Figure 4.10 cross exchanger where the energy available in process

A
fluid B exceeds the required duty for process fluid A;
a bypass is placed on the process fluid B side of the
exchanger to avoid overcooling stream A................................124
Figure 4.11 he complete heat exchanger system for the example

T
of heating a hexane stream and cooling a weak acid
stream when the weak acid stream has a higher duty
requirement than the hexane stream.........................................126
Figure 4.12 n alternate configuration for the heat exchanger system

A
for the example of heating a hexane stream and cooling a
weak acid stream when refrigerated water is unavailable
or too expensive............................................................................127
Figure 4.13 rocess and control configuration for the heat exchanger
P
system for the example of vaporizing a hexane stream
and cooling a weak acid stream where the hexane stream
has the smaller duty requirement..............................................128
Figure 4.14 xchanging energy between two process streams in a

E
cross exchanger with a supplemental trim exchanger
configured in parallel for the stream with the higher
duty requirement to insure total condensation of the
stream and employing a common condensate drum.............129
Figure 4.15 xchanging energy between two process streams in a

E
cross exchanger with two supplemental trim exchangers.....129
Figure 4.16 Using a hot inert gas to directly heat a solid............................131
Figure 4.17 sing a hot inert gas to directly heat a solid with bulk
U
dryer temperature control...........................................................131
Figure 4.18 cheme showing one way to control a hot inert gas used
S
to directly heat a solid with weigh-in-motion solids flow
rate used as a feed forward input to the hot gas flow
rate control loop (WIM, weigh-in-motion solids flow
measurement)...............................................................................132
Figure 4.19 sing a hot inert gas to directly heat a solid via
U
fluidization....................................................................................132
Figure 4.20 sing an external heat exchanger to vaporize liquid
U
separated out of a gas stream.....................................................134
List of Figures xix
Figure 4.21 U
sing an electrical resistance heating coil to vaporize
small quantities of liquid accumulating in a surge drum......135
Figure 4.22 ontrol scheme when heating a process fluid in a direct
C
fired heater.....................................................................................136
Figure 4.23 irect fired heater with both primary and secondary
D
process fluids; adding additional tube banks increases
the amount of energy that can be recovered from the
fired heater.....................................................................................136
Figure 4.24 eating a process fluid in a direct fired heater with
H
excess heat routed through two secondary sections to
heat two additional fluids...........................................................137
Figure 4.25 eating a process fluid in a direct fired heater with
H
excess heat used to generate utility grade steam.....................138
Figure 4.26 simple heat exchanger fouling/scaling monitoring
A
system using a XA, a calculated alarm block...........................139
Figure 4.27 bank of parallel heat exchangers with four in service
A
and one serving as an installed spare........................................140
Figure 4.28 cheme to monitor heat exchanger fouling or scaling and
S
automatically swap in the spare for the fouled exchanger.....141
Figure 5.1 ontrol scheme for an adiabatic flash drum with a liquid
C
level pot using the analysis of a key component and flow
rate as the dependent variables. ................................................ 148
Figure 5.2 ontrol scheme for a two-phase separator where the
C
organic phase has a lower density than the aqueous
phase...................................................................................... 150
Figure 5.3 Vapor-liquid traffic in a trayed distillation column................151
Figure 5.4 he bottoms system with adequate liquid level
T
to provide pressure for the vapor to return to the
distillation column.......................................................................152
Figure 5.5 The overhead system for a distillation column........................154
Figure 5.6 ontrol scheme for the overhead portion of a distillation
C
system employing a total condenser, having a reflux
ratio ≥1.0, and two independent pumps with variable
speed drivers. HK is the heavy key...........................................159
Figure 5.7 he bottoms system of a distillation column with a
T
partial forced reboiler system (employing a pump to
provide the pressure to get the vapor back into the
column) and bottoms product transfer pump.........................161
xx List of Figures
Figure 5.8 ontrol scheme for the distillation bottoms system with
C
a partial thermosyphon reboiler and a mass ratio of
reboil vapor to bottoms liquid product greater than 1.
LK denotes the light key..............................................................162
Figure 5.9 Single-stage gas absorption system...........................................165
Figure 5.10 ontrol scheme for a single-stage gas absorption system.

C
Cs denotes the concentration of the solute................................166
Figure 5.11 ingle-stage once-through liquid-liquid extraction

S
system.............................................................................................167
Figure 5.12 ontrol scheme for a single-stage once-through liquid-

C
liquid extraction system..............................................................169
Figure 5.13 as extraction system with solute recovery and solvent

G
recycle............................................................................................169
Figure 5.14 ontrols for a gas absorption system with solute

C
recovery and solvent recycle......................................................173
Figure 5.15 A once-through mixer/settler type adsorption system..........176
Figure 5.16 ontrol scheme for a once-through mixer/settler type

C
adsorption system........................................................................178
Figure 5.17 continuous fluidized bed adsorption/regeneration

A
system............................................................................................179
Figure 5.18 ontrol scheme for a typical continuous fluidized bed

C
adsorption/regeneration system...............................................182
Figure 5.19 typical semi-batch fixed bed adsorption/regeneration
A
system............................................................................................183
Figure 5.20 he logic flow diagram for one of the absorber beds
T
in the semi-batch fixed bed adsorption unit operation
shown in Figure 5.19....................................................................184
Figure 5.21 ontrol scheme for a semi-batch fixed bed adsorption
C
system............................................................................................189
Figure 6.1 Plug-flow-type reactors...............................................................196
Figure 6.2 A multistage reactor system....................................................... 196
Figure 6.3 aintaining isothermal reaction conditions using (a) a
M
jacket or (b) heating/cooling tubes (in this example the
shell is filled with catalyst)..........................................................197
List of Figures xxi
Figure 6.4 fixed bed reactor for an exothermic reaction with two
A
reactants, both of which are preheated.....................................198
Figure 6.5 ontrol scheme for an isothermal (using cooling tubes)
C
fixed bed reactor with an exothermic reaction and two
reactants, both of which are preheated.....................................200
Figure 6.6 ypical safety system for a fixed bed reactor with an
T
exothermic reaction and two reactants, both of which are
preheated.......................................................................................202
Figure 6.7 two-stage CSTR reactor system with an intermediate
A
distillation product purification step.........................................205
Figure 6.8 ypical controls for a two-stage CSTR reactor system
T
with an intermediate distillation product purification step...... 206
Figure 6.9 Typical batch cycle for biological reaction systems.................208
Figure 6.10 ypical seed reactor configuration for the production of
T
lactic acid......................................................................................210
Figure 6.11 ontrol scheme for the first stage of a semi-batch seed
C
reactor configuration for the production of lactic acid...........212
Figure 7.1 sing CALC blocks to correct a flow rate reading for
U
temperature...................................................................................221
Figure 7.2 sing CALC blocks to determine the correct rate of
U
blending of two variable streams...............................................222
Figure 7.3 An alternate CALC block configuration...................................223
Figure 7.4 Another alternate CALC block configuration..........................224
Figure 7.5 Another alternate CALC block configuration..........................225
Figure 7.6 blend system where B is premixed with an inert fluid
A
prior to mixing with fluid A to increase the stability of
the overall control system to changes in composition or
flow of either fluid........................................................................226
Figure 7.7 ystem to monitor the heat transfer efficiency in a
S
heat exchanger prone to fouling or scaling where the
temperature of one or more of the inlet streams varies
widely.............................................................................................227
Figure 7.8 n alternative system to monitor the heat transfer
A
efficiency in a heat exchanger prone to fouling or scaling
where the temperature of one or more of the inlet
streams varies widely...................................................................228
xxii List of Figures
Figure 7.9 I nferential control scheme to protect a compressor from

changes in inlet gas density.........................................................229
Figure 7.10 xample of how to depict a soft sensor that uses multiple
E
laboratory-generated input data................................................230
Figure 7.11 sing the quantity of cooling water consumed per unit
U
quantity of reactant A to infer the optimum quantity of
reactant B to feed to a reactor......................................................231
Figure 7.12 ymbols for (a) low select and (b) high select CALC
S
blocks.............................................................................................231
Figure 7.13 eactor temperature control scheme employing a

R
high-temperature select or CALC block...................................232
Figure 7.14 verride control scheme to insure that the flow of slurry
O
through the pump meets or exceeds the settling velocity
of the solids in the slurry. OR denotes an override
controller........................................................................................234
Figure 7.15 se of a split range controller to improve control under
U
two drastically different flow conditions..................................234
Figure 7.16 llocation controller used to control the flow rate

A
through four parallel heat exchangers with one installed
spare...............................................................................................236
Figure 7.17 ypical control scheme for a distillation column with

T
both overhead and bottoms composition control
specifications. LK denotes the light key. HK denotes the
heavy key.......................................................................................237
Figure 7.18 evised control scheme for the Figure 7.17 distillation
R
column when the column overhead condenser is
constrained at maximum cooling water flow and the
overhead product purity is more important than the
bottoms product purity................................................................238
Figure 8.1 A typical on/off electrical resistance heater controller...........242

Figure 8.2 A typical on/off level controller.................................................243
Figure 8.3 typical on/off level controller with (a) a single level
A
switch and (b) a two switch arrangement. O/H/C:
denotes an open, hold, close type on/off controller...............244
Figure 8.4 Impact of loop tuning on the response of a PI controller.......249
Figure 8.5 Demonstrating the derivative of the error function................250
List of Figures xxiii
Figure 8.6 Truncating to the linear region of a nonlinear function........254

Figure 8.7 he temperature profile through a reactor subject to
T
uniform catalyst deactivation at (a) initial operation and
(b) near end of life operation....................................................256
Figure 8.8 daptive controllers can be used to isolate a
A
measurement signal in a noisy environment (a) to
provide useful information (b).................................................261
Figure 9.1 A hierarchy of automation elements in a process facility.....264
Figure 9.2 typical data/information transfer model for the
A
various layers of a plant automation system.........................265
Figure 9.3 rocess automation applications/layers for (a) the entire
P
plant and (b) an individual process area....................................... 266
Figure 9.4 ystem to monitor the overall heat transfer in a heat
S
exchanger prone to fouling or scaling where the
temperature of one or more of the inlet streams varies
widely using a MISO APC instead of calculation blocks.....270
Figure 9.5 he bottom portion of a separation column using a
T
cross exchanger type partial reboiler.......................................271
Figure 9.6 epicting a MISO APC to use heat flux as the
D
measurement variable for the intermediate control loop
in a nested cascade scheme for a cross exchanger type
partial reboiler. ...........................................................................273
Figure 9.7 3D correlation plot to select the best temperature and
A
residence time combination to maximize conversion for
a single reactant ratio. ...............................................................276
Figure 10.1 A Bourdon-tube-type pressure gauge ....................................288
Figure 10.2 An electromechanical pressure sensor. ..................................289
Figure 10.3 A strain gauge transducer for pressure measurement..........289
Figure 10.4 anometers can be configured for (a) pressure
M
measurement or (b) flow measurement. ................................290
Figure 10.5 An orifice-type flowmeter. (a) Schematic and (b) image. ....292
Figure 10.6 A venturi-type flowmeter. (a) Image and (b) schematic. .....292
Figure 10.7 Coriolis-type mass flowmeter. (a) Image and
A
(b) schematic. .............................................................................293
Figure 10.8 itot tube flowmeters are often used for very low flow,
P
low pressure gas flow measurements. ...................................294
xxiv List of Figures
Figure 10.9 Rotameter-type flowmeter. ......................................................295

Figure 10.10 An electromagnetic-type flowmeter........................................296
Figure 10.11 An ultrasonic-type flowmeter...................................................297
Figure 10.12 irect mechanical flowmeters: (a) paddle meter image,
D
(b) turbine meter image, (c) turbine meter schematic...........297
Figure 10.13 A vortex-type flowmeter...........................................................298
Figure 10.14 weigh-in-motion mass flowmeter for solids
A
measurement. .............................................................................299
Figure 10.15 ( a) Image and (b) schematic showing how a
thermocouple measures temperature. ....................................300
Figure 10.16 A resistance temperature device (RTD). .................................301
Figure 10.17 An infrared sensor for temperature measurement. ..............301
Figure 10.18 evel measurement using (a) float position
L
measurement and (b) a conductive tape and float system...... 302
Figure 10.19 bubble-type level measuring device measures the
A
pressure required to push bubbles through a fluid...............303
Figure 10.20 A displacer-type level measurement device. .........................304
Figure 10.21 A wave-based level sensor........................................................304
Figure 10.22 xamples of sensors for a direct measurement type
E
online analyzer...........................................................................305
Figure 10.23 or sampled type online analyzers, a slip stream of the
F
process fluid is routed through a sample conditioning
system such as is shown here...................................................306
Figure 10.24 A pneumatically actuated throttling control valve...............308
Figure 10.25 lobe-valve-type control valve in the (a) closed and (b)
G
open positions.............................................................................309
Figure 10.26 ( a) Reverse acting (AFC), (b) direct acting (AFO)
pneumatically driven actuators, and (c) a typical
actuator body...............................................................................310
Figure 10.27 remotely operated ball valve. (a) Schematic and
A
(b) image. The hole is full width in a block valve, but
smaller when used as a throttling control valve. .................. 311
Figure 10.28 A remotely operated butterfly valve. .....................................312
Figure 10.29 A remotely operated gate valve...............................................312
List of Figures xxv
Figure 10.30 A spring-loaded pressure relief valve in both (a) normal

(closed) and (b) event (open) positions...................................313
Figure 10.31 A rupture disk.............................................................................314
Figure 11.1 functional view of the operational section of the plant
A
automation system; the section of the system that has
been the focus of this textbook................................................. 318
Figure 11.2 physical view of the computer software and
A
hardware necessary to provide and support the
functions of the plant automation system..............................318
Figure 11.3 he applications and supporting layers in an integrated
T
plant automation system can be classified according
to their general functions, such as the overview
classification shown here...........................................................320
Figure 11.4 The fire triangle...........................................................................328
Figure 11.5 ualitative classification of event probability and
Q
consequence during hazards analyses....................................331
Figure 11.6 Relief valve protection of a pressure vessel............................341
Figure 12.1 he energy balance around a segment of a tube in a
T
heat exchanger............................................................................351
Figure 12.2 Fixed bed reactor with cooling jacket......................................353
Figure 12.3 The plug flow condition through a fixed bed reactor...........354
Figure 12.4 A simple model of the process and control system...............358
Figure 12.5 imple models of disturbances or changes in a process
S
and control system.....................................................................359
Figure B.1 he measurement response for an ideally tuned PID
T
controller......................................................................................374
Figure B.2 he controller output and measurement behavior for
T
the relay auto-tuning method................................................... 375
List of Tables
Table 1.1 S
equential Logic Table for the Process Scheme Shown and
Described in Figures 1.12 and 1.13................................................21
Table 1.2 A
More Complete Sequential Logic Table for the Process
Scheme Shown and Described in Figures 1.12 and 1.13.............24
Table 1.3 C
ommon Control and Instrument Symbols for Process
Drawings...........................................................................................30
Table 1.4 Measurement Parameter Designations.........................................31
Table 1.5 Device Type Designations...............................................................32
Table 1.6 M
athematical Symbols Used in Control System
Information Boxes............................................................................33
Table 1.7 C
ommon Higher-Level Control System Symbols for
Process Drawings.............................................................................35
Table 3.1 Sequential Event Table Associated with Figure 3.19.................106
Table 5.1 T
he Sequential Events Table for the Semi-Batch Fixed Bed
Adsorption Control Scheme Shown in Figure 5.20...................186
Table 6.1 S
equence of Events Table for SLC-100 for the First Stage
of a Semi-Batch Seed Reactor Configuration for the
Production of Lactic Acid.............................................................213
Table 8.1 An Example of Regional Gain Scheduling.................................257
Table 9.1 C
lassification of Treatment Regions within a Metal Curing
Furnace............................................................................................274
Table 11.1 I mportant Differences between Continuous and Batch
Processes..........................................................................................327
Table A.1 L
aplace Transforms for Commonly Used Process Dynamic
Functions.........................................................................................365
Table B.1 P
ID Controller Settings Based on the Ziegler-Nichols
Ultimate Gain and Period.............................................................376
xxvii
Preface
A few years ago, I finally had the opportunity to take over a one semester
senior (fourth year) course entitled “Process Dynamics and Controls.” I was
looking forward to this as I had developed substantial applied controls expe-
rience during my 16-year industrial career. During that time, process controls
underwent a complete transformation from electronic instruments to digital
distributed control-based systems. I was excited to see new textbooks that
reflected this “revolution” in process controls.
Imagine then my disappointment when I found that all the major text-
books in this field were still following the same format and with essen-
tially the same content as textbook published in the 1960s and 1970s!
These books emphasize simplified mathematical descriptions of process
dynamics using time-dependent linear ordinary differential equations
(ODEs) and their analytical solutions using Laplace transform solution
methodologies.
The primary goal of these textbooks appears to be to help the reader under-
stand the dynamics of the proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller
mathematically, so that the stability of control loops could be properly evalu-
ated. This was an appropriate approach to the subject matter when process
control was performed using a suite of stand-alone electronic controllers but
is much less important now that control is most commonly performed using
sophisticated, integrated distributed control and automation systems. While
stability analysis is still of some interest to process control engineers, modern
control system algorithms have reduced the importance from primary to sec-
ondary for control engineers.
Another big gap in the current literature is a lack of coverage of batch pro-
cesses and, more importantly, the integration of batch unit operations within
continuous processes (such a step being known as a semi-batch unit opera-
tion). Of the 17 most common textbooks that I reviewed, only one gave this
topic any coverage at all. Yet almost every continuous commercial process
pathway includes at least one semi-batch step, and batch processing rep-
resents a sizeable minority of process pathways employed (particularly in
certain industries such as pharmaceutical).
“Designing Controls for the Process Industries” was conceived to address
these deficiencies in the currently available literature. The goal is to com-
pletely transform chemical engineering process control and process dynam-
ics education to focus on those aspects that are most important for process
engineering in the twenty-first century.
Instead of starting with the controller, the book starts with the process and
then moves on to how basic regulatory control schemes can be designed to
achieve the process’ objectives while maintaining stable operations. Without
xxix
xxx Preface
a deep understanding of the process itself, the power of the modern plant
automation system cannot be fully enabled.
As much as possible, I have tried to follow the International Society of
Automation’s (ISA) guidelines for process control and instrumentation doc-
umentation. Some adjustments to the ISA guidelines were made where these
improved the clarity of the concepts presented in the text. Most importantly,
all of the process control schemes assume that field signals will be converted
into digital form at the field device and that control will be accomplished in a
distributed control system or programmable logic controller module(s).
In addition to continuous control concepts, I have embedded process and
control system dynamics into the text with each new concept presented.
I have also included sections on batch and semi-batch processes within new
concept areas where appropriate. Finally, sections on safety automation are
also included within concept areas.
The four most common process control loops—feedback, feed forward,
ratio, and cascade—are introduced in Chapter 2, and the application of these
techniques for process control schemes for the most common types of unit
operations is provided in Chapters 3 through 6. For the practicing engineer,
these chapters may prove to be the most useful for designing new control
schemes or to help troubleshoot existing process instabilities. By compar-
ing the schemes in these chapters to an existing situation, the engineer may
be able to identify poorly designed control schemes. Modification of poorly
designed control schemes may be an easy and cost-effective way to solve
process instability problems. This is often a better approach than to try to
“tune” your way out of a problem.
More advanced and less commonly used regulatory control options are
presented in Chapter 7 such as override, allocation, and split range control-
lers. These techniques provide additional ways to increase the overall safety,
stability, and efficiency for many process applications.
Chapter 8 introduces the theory behind the most common types of con-
trollers used in the process industries. For those instructors that prefer to
start with a “what’s inside the box” approach, you might want to go through
Chapters 1 and 2 and then jump to Chapter 8 prior to Chapters 3 through 7.
For those instructors who are uncomfortable making a complete transition
from the older course formats to that presented in this text, Appendix A pro-
vides content on how to solve simple linear ODEs using Laplace transforms,
while Appendix B provides information on PID controller tuning.
Chapters 9 through 12 provide various additional plant automation–related
subjects. An instructor in a one semester course is unlikely to be able to use
all of this material but has the opportunity to emphasize those aspects that
they feel are most important. Personally, I use Chapters 9 and 10. I then use
Chapter 11 in a capstone design course. Chapter 12 is probably more appro-
priate for a graduate-level class in process dynamic modeling or as part of
an advanced transport phenomena course. However, instructors who want
to emphasize process modeling in their course may wish to use this material.
Preface xxxi
Supplemental material available to instructors includes complete

PowerPoint™ slide files for each chapter. Over 700 multiple-choice questions
are also available for flipped class mode of instruction.
My thanks to the University of North Dakota and the Fulbright Foundation
for supporting this work. I thank Peter Martin of Schneider Electric (formerly
Invensys/Foxboro) for his advice and encouragement when I was data gath-
ering for the project. I also thank my former colleagues at Saudi Aramco who
helped me to gain most of my knowledge of process controls and process
control projects. Special thanks to M. Jim Dunbar, Mark Barbee, and Hamdi
Noureldin.
Thanks also go out to my teaching assistant Ian Foerster for all of his sug-
gestions, especially with the homework problems and solutions, and to Will
Nielsen for his careful editing of the text. My thanks to all of the students,
both local and via distance, who provided feedback on the material during
the two trial years of instruction at the University of North Dakota and to my
colleagues for their enthusiasm and support for the project. No one catches
typos like university students! I also thank Jessica Mann for drawing some
of the more complicated figures. My thanks to CRC Press’s Taylor & Francis
Group led by Senior Editor Allison Shatkin. Last but not least, my thanks to
my wife, Janet, for her patience and support.
The following companies provided images that were used in the text: Dwyer
Instruments Inc., Michigan City, IN, USA; Emerson Automation Solutions,
Houston, TX, USA; Badger Meter, Inc., Milwaukee, WI; Compressor Controls
Corp., Des Moines, IA, USA; Vande Berg Scales, Sioux Center, IA, USA; and
LT Industries/process NIR analyzers, Gaithersburg, MD, USA.
Author
Wayne Seames is a Chester Fritz Distinguished

Professor of chemical engineering at the
University of North Dakota (UND), Grand
Fork, North Dakota. An Arizona native,
Seames received his BS in chemical engineer-
ing at the University of Arizona, Tucson,
Arizona, in 1979. His 16-year industrial career
included assignments as a process engineer,
controls project engineer, and process control
group leader. In 1992, he was assigned as proj-
ect manager for plant automation systems, for
the Ras Tanura Upgrade and Expansion project, one of the largest process
control–related projects in the world. In 1995, Seames returned to Arizona
where he earned his doctorate in chemical engineering in July 2000. Amongst
his academic awards are the 2014/2015 Fulbright Distinguished Chair and a
Visiting Professorship at the University of Leeds, UK; the 2013 UND Faculty
Scholar Award for Excellence in Scholarship, Teaching, and Service; the 2012
UND Award for Interdisciplinary Collaboration in Research or Creative
Work; the 2007 UND Foundation/Thomas Clifford Faculty Achievement
Award for Individual Excellence in Research; and the 2006 “Professor of the
Year” award from UND School of Engineering and Mines. He was elected a
fellow of the National Academy of Inventors in 2017 and is a named inventor
on eight U.S. patents.
xxxiii
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INTRODUCTION
It was not without reason that Philo, the famous Graeco-Jewish
scholar of Alexandria, regarded Aaron’s rod, which “was budded,
and brought forth buds, and bloomed blossoms, and yielded
almonds,” as an emblem of his race. Torn from the stem that bore
and from the soil that nourished them, and for nearly twenty
centuries exposed to the wintry blasts of adversity and persecution,
the children of Israel still bud and blossom and provide the world with
the perennial problem now known as the Jewish Question—a
question than which none possesses a deeper interest for the
student of the past, or a stronger fascination for the speculator on
the future; a question compared with which the Eastern, the Irish,
and all other vexed questions are but things of yesterday; a question
which has taxed the ingenuity of European statesmen ever since the
dispersion of this Eastern people over the lands of the West.
“What to do with the Jew?” This is the question. The manner in
which each generation of statesmen, from the legislators of ancient
Rome to those of modern Roumania, has attempted to answer it,
forming as it does a sure criterion of the material, intellectual and
moral conditions which prevailed in each country at each period,
might supply the basis for an exceedingly interesting and instructive,
if somewhat humiliating, study of European political ethics. Here I will
content myself with a lighter labour. I propose to sketch in outline the
fortunes of Israel in Europe from the earliest times to the present
day. It is a sad tale, and often told; but sufficiently important to bear
telling again. My object—in so far as human nature permits—will be
neither to excuse nor to deplore; but only to describe and, in some
measure, to explain.
It is no exaggeration to say that the Jews have been in Europe
for a longer period than some of the nations which glory in the title of
European. Ages before the ancestors of the modern Hungarians and
Slavonians were heard of, the keen features and guttural accents of
the Hebrew trader were familiar in the markets of Greece and Italy.
As early as the fourth century b.c. we find the Hebrew word for
“earnest-money” domiciled in the Greek language (ἀρραβών), and
as early as the second century in the Latin (arrhabo)—a curious
illustration of the Jew’s commercial activity in the Mediterranean
1
even in those days. And yet, despite the length of their sojourn
among the peoples of the West, the majority of the Jews have
remained in many essential respects as Oriental as they were in the
time of the Patriarchs. A younger race would have yielded to the
influence of environment, a weaker race would have succumbed to
oppression, a less inflexible or unsympathetic race might have
conquered its conquerors. But the Jews, when they first came into
contact with Europe, were already too old for assimilation, too strong
for extermination, too hardened in their peculiar cult for
propagandism. Even after having ceased to exist as a state Israel
survived as a nation; forming the one immobile figure in a perpetually
moving panorama. The narrow local idea of the ancient Greek state
was merged into the broad cosmopolitanism of the Macedonian
Empire, and that, in its turn, was absorbed by the broader
cosmopolitanism of Imperial Rome. But the Jew remained faithful to
his own olden ideal. Monotheism superseded Polytheism, and the
cosmopolitanism of the Roman Empire was succeeded by that of the
Roman Church. The Jew still continued rooted in the past. Mediaeval
cosmopolitanism gave way to the nationalism of modern Europe. Yet
the Jew declined to participate in the change. Too narrow in one age,
not narrow enough in another, always at one with himself and at
variance with his neighbours, now, as ever, he offers the melancholy
picture of one who is a stranger in the land of his fathers and an
alien in that of his adoption.
The upshot of this refusal to move with the rest of the world has
been mutual hatred, discord, and persecution; each age adding a
new ring to the poisonous plant of anti-Judaism. For this result both
sides are to blame—or neither. No race has ever had the sentiment
of nationality and religion more highly developed, or been more
intolerant of dissent, than the Jewish; no race has ever suffered
more grievously from national and religious fanaticism and from
intolerance of dissent on the part of others. The Jewish colonies
forming, as they mostly do, small, exclusive communities amidst
uncongenial surroundings, have always been the objects of
prejudice—the unenviable privilege of all minorities which stubbornly
refuse to conform to the code approved by the majority. The same
characteristics evoked a similar hostility against primitive Christianity
and led to the persecution of the early martyrs. No one is eccentric
with impunity. Notwithstanding the gospel of toleration constantly
preached by sages, and occasionally by saints, the attitude of
mankind has always been and still is one of hostility towards dissent.
Sois mon frère, ou je te tue is a maxim which, in a modified form,
might be extended to other than secret revolutionary societies. The
only difference consists in the manner in which this tyrannical maxim
is acted upon in various countries and ages: legal disability may
supersede massacre, or expulsion may be refined into social
ostracism; yet the hostility is always present, however much its
expression may change. Man is a persecuting animal.
To the Jews in Europe one might apply the words which Balzac’s
cynical priest addressed to the disillusioned young poet: “Vous
rompiez en visière aux idées du monde et vous n’avez pas eu la
considération que le monde accorde à ceux qui obéissent à ses
lois.” Now, when to mere outward nonconformity in matters of
worship and conduct is superadded a radical discrepancy of moral,
political, and social ideals, whether this discrepancy be actively
paraded or only passively maintained, the outcome can be no other
than violent friction. It is, therefore, not surprising that the “black
days” should vastly outnumber the “red” ones in the Jewish Calendar
—that brief but most vivid commentary on the tragic history of the
race. The marvel is that the race should have survived to continue
issuing a calendar.
At the same time, a dispassionate investigation would prove, I
think, to the satisfaction of all unbiassed minds, that the degree in
which the Jews have merited the odium of dissent has in every age
been strictly proportionate to the magnitude of the odium itself. Even
at the present hour it would be found upon enquiry that the Jews
retain most of their traditional aloofness and fanaticism—most of
what their critics stigmatise as their tribalism—in those countries in
which they suffer most severely. Nay, in one and the same country
the classes least liable to the contempt, declared or tacit, of their
neighbours are the classes least distinguished by bigotry. It is only
natural that it should be so. People never cling more fanatically to
the ideal than when they are debarred from the real. Christianity
spread first among slaves and the outcasts of society, and its final
triumph was secured by persecution. We see a vivid illustration of
this universal principle in modern Ireland. To what is the enormous
influence of the Catholic Church over the minds of the peasantry
due, but to the ideal consolations which it has long provided for their
material sufferings? Likewise in the Near East. The wealthy
Christians, in order to save their lands from confiscation, abjured
their religion and embraced the dominant creed of Islam. The poor
peasants are ready to lay down their lives for their faith, and believe
that whosoever dies in defence of it will rise again to life within forty
days. It is easy to deride the excesses of spiritual enthusiasm, to
denounce the selfish despotism of its ministers, and to deplore the
blind fanaticism of its victims. But fanaticism, after all, is only faith
strengthened by adversity and soured by oppression.
Jewish history itself shows that the misfortunes which fan bigotry
also preserve religion. Whilst independent and powerful, the Jews
often forgot the benefits bestowed upon them by their God, and
transferred the honour due to Him to the strange gods of their
idolatrous neighbours. But when Jehovah in His wrath hid His face
from His people and punished its ingratitude by placing it under a
foreign yoke, the piety of the Jews acquired in calamity a degree of
fervour and constancy which it had never possessed in the day of
their prosperity. The same phenomenon has been observed in every
age. When well treated, the Jews lost much of their aloofness, and
the desire for national rehabilitation was cherished only as a
romantic dream. But in times of persecution the longing for
redemption, and for restoration under a king of their own race,
blazed up into brilliant flame. The hope of the Messianic Redeemer
has been a torch of light and comfort through many a long winter’s
night. But it has burnt its brightest when the night has been darkest.
If at such times the Jews have shown an inordinate tenacity of
prophetic promise, who can blame them? They who possess nothing
in the present have the best right to claim a portion of the future.
CHAPTER I
HEBRAISM AND HELLENISM
In spite of the well-known influence which Greek culture and Greek

thought exercised over a portion of the Jews under Alexander the
Great’s successors, the mass of the Hebrew nation never took kindly
to Hellenism. Alexander proved himself as great a statesman as he
was a warrior. An apostle of Hellenism though he was, he did not
seek to consolidate his Empire by enforcing uniformity of cult and
custom, as short-sighted despots have done since, but by
encouraging friendly intercourse between the Greeks and the
various peoples that came under his sceptre. Gifted with rare
imagination, he entered into the feelings of races as diverse as the
Egyptian and the Jewish. To the latter he allotted the border-lands
which had long been the bone of contention between themselves
and the Samaritans. He relieved them from taxation during the
unproductive Sabbath year. He respected their prejudices, honoured
their religion, and appreciated their conscientious scruples. While,
out of deference to Chaldean religious feeling, he ordered the
Temple of Bel to be rebuilt in Babylon, he forgave the Jewish soldiers
their refusal to obey his command as contrary to the teaching of their
faith. Conciliation was the principle of Alexander’s imperialism and
the secret of his success. The Ptolemies, to whose
301 b.c.
share, on the partition of the Macedonian Empire,
Palestine ultimately fell, inherited Alexander’s enlightened policy.
The High Priest of the Jews was recognised as the head of the
nation, and it was through him that the tribute was paid. So fared the
Jews at home.
Abroad their lot was equally enviable. Some modern critics had
doubted the settlement of Jews in Egypt until the third century. But
recent discoveries (notably Mr. R. Mond’s Aramaic Papyri) prove that
a Jewish community existed in Egypt even in the centuries preceding
Alexander. Now persuasion and the hope of profit drew many
thousands of them to Alexandria, Cyrene, and other centres of
Hellenistic culture. In all these places they lived on terms of perfect
equality with the Greek colonists. The newly-built city on the mouth
of the Nile soon became a seat of Jewish influence and a school of
learning for the Jewish nation. Under the benign rule of the
Ptolemies the Jews prospered, multiplied, and attained success in
every walk of life, public no less than private. Of the five divisions of
Alexandria they occupied nearly two. Egypt was then the granary of
Europe, and the corn trade lay largely in Jewish hands. Refinement
came in the train of riches, and freedom begot tolerance. The Jews
cultivated Greek letters, and some of them became deeply imbued
with the spirit of Greek philosophy and even of art. This friendly
understanding between the Jewish and the Greek mind gave to the
world the mystic union of Moses and Plato in the works of Philo and
the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament, which was to
prepare the way for the advent of Christianity. And yet the bulk of the
Alexandrian Jews remained a peculiar people. Greeks and
Egyptians had fused their religions into a common form of worship.
But the Jews were still separated from both races by the invincible
barriers of belief, law, and custom. They still looked upon Jerusalem
as their metropolis, and upon Alexandria as a mere place of exile. In
the midst of paganism they formed a monotheistic colony. Their
houses of prayer were also schools of Levitical learning, where the
Torah was assiduously studied and expounded. Their one link with
the State was their own Ethnarch, who acted as supreme sovereign
and judge of his people, and represented it at Court.
Similar conditions prevailed in Palestine. There also Hellenic
language, manners, feasts, games, and philosophy effected an
entrance through the influence of the Greek colonies on the coast,
and a party of Jewish Hellenists was formed. In the land which once
rang with the prophetic utterances of an Isaiah and a Jeremiah were
now sung the love-poems of Sappho, and were quoted the witty
sarcasms of the Athenian Voltaire, Euripides. But the Torah, or
Jewish religious law, was bitterly opposed to all innovations, and the
anti-Greek section of the people, termed the “Pious” (Chassidim or
Assideans), regarded with deep misgiving the inroad of the foreign
culture. Hence arose an implacable feud between the Liberals and
the Conservatives, who hated, anathematised, and later crucified
each other as cordially as brethren only can do. But the Chassidim,
though politically worsted, were all-powerful in the affections of the
community, and the time was not distant when they were to assume
the supreme command.
In 198 b.c. Palestine, after a hundred years’ struggle, passed
under the sway of the Graeco-Syrian Seleucids, who, unlike their
predecessors, initiated a policy of forcible assimilation, and, aided by
the Hellenistic party among the Jews themselves, compelled their
subjects to adopt their own civilisation and to pay homage to their
own gods. However, neither the tolerance of the Graeco-Egyptian
nor the violence of the Graeco-Syrian kings succeeded in reconciling
the Jew to the ways of the Gentile. Antiochus
175–164 b.c.
Epiphanes might banish Jehovah from the Temple of
Jerusalem and enthrone Zeus in his stead; he might set up altars to
the pagan deities in every town and village; and he might exhaust all
the resources of despotism in the cause of conversion. The timorous
were coerced into a feigned and transient acquiescence, but the bulk
of the nation, baited into stubbornness, preferred exile or martyrdom
to apostasy. The defiled temple remained empty and the altars cold,
until the smouldering discontent of the outraged people broke out
into flame, and passive resistance yielded to fierce rebellion.
166–141 b.c. The movement was led by the heroic, devout, and
fierce house of the Maccabees—a branch of the
Hasmonaean family—who, after a long struggle, distinguished by
splendid endurance, astuteness, and unspeakable severity,
delivered their people from the levelling Hellenism of the foreign
rulers, instituted the Sanhedrin (Συνέδριον), and restored the
national worship of Jehovah in all its pristine purity and narrowness.
The victorious band finally entered Jerusalem “with
163 b.c.
praise and palm branches and with harps and cymbals
2
and viols and with hymns and with songs,” Simon was acclaimed
High Priest and Prince of Israel, and a new era was inaugurated.
The restoration of the Temple is still celebrated by the
141. May 23.
Jews in their annual eight days’ Feast of Dedication
(Chanukah), when lamps are lit and a hymn is solemnly sung
commemorating the miracle of the solitary flask of oil, which escaped
pagan pollution and kept the perpetual light burning in the House of
the Lord until the day of redemption.
But religious enthusiasm, though a powerful sword, is an
awkward sceptre, and it was not long ere the victorious family forgot,
as the “Pious” would have said, the cause of God in the pursuit of
self-aggrandisement and earthly renown. The conservative elements
had been united in the supreme effort to maintain their religious
liberty. But the interest in gaining political independence was limited
to the ruling family. The Hasmonaeans, having established their
dynasty, aimed at conquest abroad and at royal splendour at home.
One of them surrounded himself with a foreign bodyguard, and
another assumed the title of King. Of their former character they
retained only the enthusiast’s ferocity. Their family was torn with
feuds and stained with the blood of its own members. This policy of
worldly ambition lost them the support of the Chassidim, who could
tolerate bloodshed only for the sake of righteousness. Moreover, the
Hasmonaeans, in their new position as an established family, had
more in common with the priestly aristocracy than with the poor
fanatics by whose enthusiasm they had conquered that position.
They, therefore, joined the Hellenizing party, and, though a
barefaced adoption of the foreign gods was no longer possible, they
endeavoured to effect by example what the Seleucids had vainly
attempted to achieve by force. They were not altogether
unsuccessful. Greek architecture was introduced into Jerusalem.
The Greek numerals were adopted. Greek was understood by all the
statesmen of Judaea and employed in diplomatic negotiations.
Greek names became not uncommon. The Hebrew bards ceased to
hang their harps upon the willow-trees. There was no longer need for
bitter lamentation or lyric inspiration. Prose, tame but sober,
superseded the fiery poetry of olden times. Hymns gave place to
history. The Jews were at last enjoying with calm moderation their
triumphs, religious and political, over their foreign and domestic
enemies.
But, if the Hebrew muse was silent for want of themes, the
Hebrew genius, which had dictated the ancient psalms and inspired
the ancient prophets, was not dead. The national attachment to
tradition and strict Judaism was manifested by the revival of Hebrew
as a spoken tongue. It was employed on the coinage, in public
edicts, and in popular songs. Patriotism was nourished by the
celebration of the anniversaries of the national victories over the
enemies of Judaism. In one word, the crowd refused to follow the
fashions of the Court. The Jew had tasted the fruit of Occidental
culture and pronounced it unpalatable. Hellenism had been touched
and found base metal; and, notwithstanding his Kings’ efforts—their
Greek temples and Greek theatres—the Hebrew remained an
Oriental. “Cursed is the man who allows his son to learn the Grecian
wisdom” was the verdict of the Talmud, and a Jewish poet many
centuries after repeats the anathema in a milder form: “Go not near
3
the Grecian wisdom. It has no fruit, but only blossoms.”
But, though the bulk of the nation agreed in its attitude towards
foreign culture, there now appears an internal division into several
parties, differing from one another in the degree of their attachment
to the traditions of the past, and in their aspirations for the future.
Two of these sects stand out pre-eminently as representative of
Hebrew sentiment, and as the exponents of the two attitudes which
have continued to divide the Jewish nation through the ages down to
our own day. These are the Pharisees and the Sadducees, whose
names are first heard under the early Hasmonaean chiefs, but
whose views correspond with those of the Hellenistic and national
parties of the Seleucid period. The Pharisees were an offshoot of the
Assidean party which, as we have seen, had waged a truceless and
successful war against Hellenism. After their victory, the most
enthusiastic of the “Pious” retired from public life and nursed their
piety and disappointment in ascetic seclusion. But the majority of the
party were far from considering their mission fulfilled, or from being
satisfied with abstract devotion. They regarded it as a duty both to
the faith and to the fatherland to take an active part in politics. The
preservation of Judaism in its ancient exclusiveness was their
programme. All public undertakings, all national acts, as well as all
private transactions, were to be measured by the rigid standard of
religion. The Law in the hands of the Pharisees became a
Procrustean bed upon which the mind of the nation was to be
stretched or maimed, according to the requirements of nationalism
and the interpretations of the Scribes. This inflexible orthodoxy, with
its concomitants of discipline and sacrifice of individuality, was in
perfect accord with the Hebrew temperament, and the Pharisees
must be regarded as the interpreters of the views dear to the great
mass of their compatriots. As time went on, the Pharisaic attitude
became more and more hardened into a theological creed, clothed in
a web of ceremonial formalities, but vivified by an inspiring devotion
to the will of Jehovah, and an ardent belief in the ultimate triumph of
His Elect.
Against this teaching arose the sect of the Sadducees, who
played towards Pharisaism a part in one respect analogous to that
played by Protestantism towards Catholicism, in another to that
played by the Cavaliers towards the Roundheads. They derived all
their religious tenets from the letter of Scripture, rejecting the lessons
of oral tradition and the “legacies of the Scribes.” They refused to
believe in angels or in the resurrection of the dead, and they
repudiated the fatalistic doctrine that the future of the individual and
of the state depends not upon human action but upon the divine will,
fixed once for all. They pointed out that, if this were the case, the
belief in God’s justice would be reduced to an absurdity, as saint and
sinner would be confused in one indiscriminate verdict. The
Sadducees held that man is master of his own fortunes. The
Pharisees met the objection of their opponents as to divine justice by
the non-Scriptural doctrine of the resurrection of the dead, which had
crept into Judaism in the latter years of the Babylonian captivity. If
the saint and the sinner fared alike in this life, they argued, the
balance would be restored in the next. The righteous would then rise
up to everlasting bliss, and the wicked to everlasting shame. This
and other minor points formed the ground of dogmatic difference
between the two sects. Their difference in questions of practical
politics and in social views was characteristic of their respective
creeds. The Sadducees, far from expecting the salvation of the
nation from a miraculous intervention of the Deity, looked to human
wisdom for help. They placed the interests of the State above the
interests of the Synagogue. They shared in the aristocrat’s well-bred
horror of disturbing enthusiasms and of asceticism. Though
recognising the authority of the Law, they were temperate in their
piety and could not live by unleavened bread alone. They favoured
Hellenism and supported the Hasmonaean kings in their efforts to
shake off the trammels of ecclesiastical tyranny. The
40–4 b.c.
liberal and progressive and, at the same time,
degenerate tendencies of the Sadducean protestants are seen under
their most pronounced form in the sect of the Herodians, who later
helped Herod the Great in his endeavour to render pagan culture
popular among his subjects by the erection of temples and theatres,
by the adoption of heathen fashions of worship, and by the
encouragement of the Hellenic games. The party of the Sadducees
included the great priestly families, the noble, and the wealthy, that
is, the minority. Their opponents interpreted the feelings of the lower
priesthood and of the people. Judaism, as understood by the
Pharisees, was the idol for which the nation had suffered martyrdom,
and the national devotion to that idol had gained new fervour from
the recent struggle with Hellenism.
The hatred of the Jews towards Hellenism may, in one sense, be
regarded as a sequel to that older hostility which appears to have
embittered the intercourse between Europe and Asia from the very
dawn of history. It is an antipathy which under various names and
guises continues prevalent to this day—revealing itself now in anti-
Semitism, now in anti-Turkism, and again in the exclusion of Asiatic
immigrants from English-speaking countries: a sad legacy received
from our far-off ancestors and likely to be handed down to a remote
posterity. Long before the appearance of the Jew on the stage of
European politics this antagonism had manifested itself in the
hereditary feud between Hellene and Barbarian which the ingenious
Herodotus traced to the reciprocal abductions of ladies by the
inhabitants of the two continents, and of which, according to his
4
theory, the Trojan war was the most important and brilliant episode.
The same feud was in historic times dignified by the Persian king’s
gigantic effort to subdue Europe and, at a later period, by
Alexander’s success in subduing Asia. Had the father of history been
born again to celebrate the exploits of the latter hero, he would, no
doubt, have described the Macedonian campaign as part of the
chain of enmity the first links of which he had sought and found in
the romantic records of mythical gallantry. The modern student, while
smiling a superior smile at his great forerunner’s simple faith in
legend and traditional gossip, cannot but admit that there was true
insight in Herodotus’s comprehensive survey of history; but,
examining things by the light of maturer experience and with a less
uncritical eye, he will be inclined to regard this venerable strife as the
result of a far deeper antagonism between rival civilisations, rival
mental and moral attitudes—the attitudes which in their broadest
outlines may be defined as Oriental and Occidental respectively; in
their narrower aspect, with which we are more immediately
concerned, as Hebraic and Hellenic.
The Jew had one quality in common with the Greek. They both
saw life clearly and saw it as a harmonious whole. But they each
saw it from an opposite standpoint. The thoroughness, consistency,
and unity of each ideal by itself only rendered its incompatibility with
the other more complete. It is to this incompatibility that must be
attributed the failure of Hellenism in Western Asia generally and
among the Jews in particular. A system of life reared upon a purely
intellectual basis had no charm for a race essentially spiritual. The
cold language of reason conveyed no message to the mind of the
Hebrew who, in common with most Orientals, looks to revealed
religion alone for guidance in matters of belief and conduct. The
Oriental never feels happy except in a creed, and the Hellene offered
him nothing better than an ethical code. How mean and how earthy
must this code have appeared in the eyes of men accustomed to the
splendid terrors of the Mosaic Law! Again, the intellectual freedom—
the privilege of investigating all and testing all before accepting
anything as true—which the Greek has claimed from all time as
man’s inalienable birthright, and upon which he has built his noble
civilisation, was repugnant to a people swathed in the bands of
tradition and distrusting all things that are not sanctioned by
authority. The Greek had no word for Faith as distinct from
Conviction. He revered intelligence and scorned intuition. What
man’s mental eye could not see clearly was not worth seeing, or
rather did not exist for him. Palestine was the home of Revelation;
Hellas of Speculation. The one country has given us Philosophy and
the Platonic Dialogues; the other the Prophets and the Mosaic
Decalogue: the former all argument, the latter all commandment.
The following conversation between two representatives of the
two worlds brings their respective attitudes into vivid relief. One is
Justin Martyr, the other a mysterious personage—probably a
fictitious character—who sowed in Justin’s mind the seed of the new
religion.
Justin. Can man achieve a greater triumph than prove that
reason reigns supreme over all things, and having captured reason
and being borne aloft by it to survey the errors of other men? There
is no wisdom except in Philosophy and right reason. It is, therefore,
every man’s duty to cultivate Philosophy and to deem that the
greatest and most glorious pursuit, all other possessions as of
secondary or tertiary value; for, if these are wedded to Philosophy,
they are worthy of some acceptance; but, if divorced from
Philosophy, they are burdensome and vulgar.
Stranger. What is Philosophy and what the happiness derived
therefrom?
Justin. Philosophy is the Knowledge of that which is and is true.
The happiness derived therefrom is the prize of that knowledge.
Stranger. How can the Philosophers form a correct notion of
God, or teach anything true concerning him, since they have neither
seen him nor heard of him?
Justin. God cannot be seen with the eye, but only
comprehended by the mind.
Stranger. Has our mind, then, such and so great a power as to
perceive that which is not perceptible through the senses? Or can
man’s mind ever see God unless it is adorned with the holy spirit?
Justin. To whom can, then, one apply for teaching, if there is no
truth in Plato and Pythagoras?
Stranger. There have been men of old, older than any of these
reputed philosophers, saintly men and just, beloved of God, who
spoke through the divine spirit and predicted the things that were to
be. These men are called Prophets. They alone saw the truth and
declared it unto men; neither favouring nor fearing any one; not
slaves to ambition; but only speaking the things which they heard
and saw when filled with holy spirit. Their works are still extant, and
the lover of wisdom may find therein all about the beginning and end
of things, and every thing that he need know. They had not recourse
to proof, for they were above all proof, trustworthy witnesses of the
truth. Pray thou above all things that the gates of the light may be
5
opened unto thee.
This diversity of view reveals itself in every phase of Hebrew and
Hellenic life—political, social, religious and artistic. The Greeks very
early outgrew the primitive reverence for the tribal chief—the belief
that he derived his authority from Heaven, and that he was, on that
account, entitled to unlimited obedience on the part of man. Even in
the oldest form of the Greek state known to us—the Homeric—the
king, though wielding a sceptre “given unto him by Zeus,” is in
practice, if not in theory, controlled by the wisdom of a senate and by
the will of the people. Monarchy gradually developed into oligarchy,
and this gave way to democracy. Nor was the evolution effected until
the sacerdotal character, which formed one of the king’s principal
claims to reverence and obedience, lost its influence over the Greek
mind. In historic times the impersonal authority of human law stood
alone and paramount, quite distinct from any religious duty, which
was a matter of unwritten tradition and custom. The divorce of the
Church from the State in Greece was complete. Now, among the
Jews the opposite thing happened. Kingship remained hereditary
and indissolubly associated with sacerdotalism. The Semite could
not, any more than the Mongol, conceive of a separation between
the spiritual and the temporal Government. The King of Israel in the
older days always was of the house of David, always anointed, and
always wore the double crown of princely and priestly authority. And
when, after the return from Babylon, the house of David disappears
from sight, its power is bequeathed to the hereditary high-priest. To
the Jew Church and State, religion and morality, continued to be
synonymous terms; the distinction between the sacred and the
secular sides of life was never recognised; all law, political and
social, emanated from one Heaven-inspired code; and, while Greece
was fast progressing towards ochlocracy, Judaea remained a
theocracy.
The Greek was an egoist. He disliked uniformity. Although in the
direction of his private life he voluntarily submitted to a variety of
state regulations such as the citizen of a modern country would
resent as an irksome interference with the liberties of the individual,
yet, judged by the standard of antiquity, the Greek was anything but
amenable to control, and, as time went on, his attitude became little
better than that of a highly civilised anarchist. There were limits
beyond which the Greek would never admit his neighbour’s right to
dictate his conduct any more than his thoughts. He suffered from an
almost morbid fear of having his individuality merged in any social
institution. He would rather be poor in his own right than prosper by
association with others. Discipline was the least conspicuous trait in
his character and self-assertion the strongest. The Greek knew
everything except how to obey. The Jew, on the other hand, found
his chief happiness in self-effacement and submission. His everyday
life, to the minutest details, was regulated by the Law. He was not
even allowed to be virtuous after his own fashion. The claims of the
individual upon the community were only less great than the claims
of the community upon the individual. The strength of Hebraism
always lay in its power of combination, the weakness of Hellenism in
the lack of it.
Equally striking is the contrast discerned between the aesthetic
ideals of the two races. Much in Hebrew imagination is couched in
forms which would lose all their beauty and freshness, if expressed
in colour or marble; much that would look grotesque, if dragged into
the daylight of pure reason. Its effect depends entirely on the semi-
darkness of emotional suggestion. Now the Greek hated twilight. He
had no patience with the vague and the obscure in imagination any
more than in thought. Hence artistic expression was nothing to the
Jew; everything to the Greek. Judaism shunned pictorial
representation; Hellenism worshipped it. And, as art in antiquity was
largely the handmaid of religion, this diversity of the aesthetic
temperament led to an irreconcilable religious antagonism. The Jew
looked upon the pagan’s graven images with abhorrence, and the
pagan regarded the Jew’s adoration of the invisible as a proof of
atheism.
Not less repugnant to the Hebrew was the Hellenic moral
temperament as mirrored in literature, in social life, and in public
worship—that temperament which, without being altogether free
from pessimism, melancholy, and discontent, yet finds its most
natural expression in a healthy enjoyment of life and an equally
healthy horror of death. “I would rather be a poor man’s serf on earth
than king among the dead!” sighs Achilles in Hades, and the
sentiment is one which his whole race has echoed through the ages,
and which, despite nineteen centuries of Christianity, is still heard in
the folk-songs of modern Greece. The Greek saw the world as it is,
and, upon the whole, found it very good. He tasted its pleasures with
moderation and bore its pains with a good grace. He perceived
beauty in all things; adoring the highest and idealising the meanest.
Even the shrill song of the humble grasshopper held sweet music for
the Greek. He revelled in the loveliness and colour of life. He was
inspired by the glory of the human form. He extolled the majesty of
man. The Hebrew mind was nursed by meditation; the Hellenic drew
its nourishment from contemplation. Nature was the Greek’s sole
guide in taste as well as in conduct; from nature he learnt the canons
of the beautiful as well as the laws of right and wrong. Hence no
country has produced greater poets than Greece, or fewer saints.
How could this view of things, so sane and yet so earthy, be
acceptable to a race oppressed by the sense of human suffering as
the fruit of human sin? “Serve the Lord with joy; come before him
with singing,” urged the Psalmist in a moment of optimistic
6
cheerfulness. But it was only for a moment. The true note of
Hebraism is struck in another text: “Vanity of vanities, saith the
Preacher, vanity of vanities; all is vanity.” The Greek understood the
meaning of the sad refrain; but he did not allow it to depress him. To
the Greek life was a joyous reality, or at the worst an interesting
problem; to the Jew a bad dream, or at the best an inscrutable
mystery. To the Hebrew mind the sun that shines in the sky and the
blossoms that adorn the earth are at most but pale symbols of Divine
Love, pledges for a bliss which is not of this world. And yet Socrates
emptied the cup of death with a smile and a jest, where Job would
have filled the world with curses and bitter lamentation. Laughter
came as spontaneously to the Greek as breath, and the two things
died together. The Jew could not laugh, and would not allow any one
else to do so. The truth is that the Greek never grew old, and the
Jew was never young.
Another lively illustration of the gulf which separated the two
races is offered by the Greek games. These were introduced into
Palestine by the Greek rulers and colonists, were adopted by the
Hellenizing minority among the Jews themselves, and were
denounced with horror by the Conservative majority. Nudity, in the
eyes of the latter, was the colophon of shamelessness, while by the
Greeks the discarding of false shame was regarded as one of the
first steps to true civilisation. Thucydides mentions the athletic habit
of racing perfectly naked as an index to the progress achieved by his
country and as one of the things that marked off the Hellene from the
7
Barbarian. The Greeks were free from that morbid consciousness of
sex which troubled the over-clothed Asiatics. Nor were they aware of
that imaginary war between the spirit and the flesh which gave rise
to the revolting self-torments of Eastern aspirants to heaven.
The peculiar characteristics of the Hebrew mind found their
supreme manifestation in the sect of the Essenes—the extreme wing
of the Pharisaic phalanx. The strictness of the Pharisees was laxity
when compared with the painful austerity of their brethren. The latter
aimed at nothing less than a pitiless immolation of human nature to
the demands of an ideal sanctity. Enamoured of this imaginary
holiness, the Essenes disdained all the real comforts and joys of life.
Their diet was meagre, their dwellings mean, their dress coarse.
Colour and ornament were eschewed as Satanic snares. The mere
act of moving a vessel, or even obedience to the most elementary
calls of nature, on the Sabbath, was accounted a desecration of the
holy day. Contact with unhallowed persons or objects was shunned
by the Essenes as scrupulously as contact with an infected person
or object is shunned by sane people in time of plague. They refused
to taste food cooked, or to wear clothes made, by a non-member of
the sect, or to use any implement that had not been manufactured by
pure hands. Their life in consequence was largely spent in water. For
whosoever was not an Essene was, in the eyes of these saints, a
source of pollution. Thus godliness developed into misanthropy and
cleanliness into a mania. Thus these holy men lived, turning away
from the sorrows of the earth to the peace of an ideal heaven;
deriving patience with the present from apocalyptic promises of
future glory; and waiting for the day when the unrighteous would be
smitten to the dust, the dead rise from their graves, and the just be
restored to everlasting bliss under the rule of the Redeemer—the
Son of Man revealed to the holy and righteous because they have
despised this world and hated all its works and ways in the name of
the Lord of Spirits. Celibacy, seclusion, communion of goods,
distinctive garb, abstinence, discipline and self-mortification, ecstatic
rapture, sanctimonious pride and prejudice—all these Oriental traits,
gradually matured and subsequently rejected in their exaggerated
form from the main current of Judaism, marked the Essenes out as
the prototypes of Christian monasticism, and as the most peculiar
class of a very peculiar people. Could anything be more diametrically
opposed to the genius of Hellas? Despite Pythagorean asceticism
and Orphic mysticism, enthusiastic ritual, symbolic purifications and
emotional extravagances, Greek life was in the main sober, Greek
culture intellectual, and the Greek mind eminently untheological.
Those who delight in tracing racial temperament to physical
environment may find in the contrast between the two countries an
exceptionally favourable illustration of their theory. There is more
variety of scenery in a single district of Greece than in the whole of
Palestine. Grey rocks and green valleys, roaring torrents and placid
lakes, sombre mountains and smiling vineyards, snow-clad peaks
and sun-seared plains, glaring light and deep shade alternately
come and go with a bewildering rapidity in the one country. In the
other, from end to end, the plain spreads its calm, monotonous
beauty to the everlasting sun, and the stately palms rear their heads
to the blue heavens from year’s end to year’s end, severe, uniform,
immutable. It is easy to understand why the one race should have
drawn its inspiration from within and the other from without; why the
one should have sunk the individual in the community and the other
sacrificed the community to the individual; why the one should have
worshipped the form and the other the spirit. It is especially easy to
understand the Greek’s inextinguishable thirst for new things and the
Jew’s rigid attachment to the past. Everything in Greece suggests
progress; everything in Palestine spells permanence.
The result of this fundamental discrepancy of character was
such as might have been foreseen. The intense spirituality of the
Jew was scandalised at the genial rationalism and sensuousness of
the pagan; while the pagan, in his turn, was repelled by the morose
mysticism and austerity of the Jew. History never repeats itself in all
particulars. But, so far as repetition is possible, it repeated itself
many centuries after, when Puritanism—representing the nearest
approach to the sad and stern Hebraic conception of life that the
Western mind ever achieved—declared itself the enemy of
Romanism, mainly because the latter retained so much of the pagan
love for form and delight in things sensuous. Cromwell’s Ironsides
illustrated this attitude by marching to battle singing the Psalms of
the Hebrew bard. It is given to few mortals, blessed with a calm and
truly catholic genius, to reconcile the rival attitudes, and, with
Matthew Arnold, to recognise that “it is natural that man should take
pleasure in his senses. It is natural, also, that he should take refuge
in his heart and imagination from his misery.”

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1. Processing System Fundamentals................................................................1

2. Control System Fundamentals....................................................................39

3. Motive Force Unit Operations Control......................................................83

4. Heat Transfer Unit Operations Control................................................... 113

5. Separation Unit Operations Controls......................................................145

5.3 Liquid-Based Absorption/Adsorption/Extraction/Leaching

6. Reaction Unit Operations Control............................................................195

7. Other Control Paradigms...........................................................................219

8.4 Nonlinear Control Strategies for PID Controllers.........................253

9. Higher-Level Automation Techniques....................................................263

10. Instrumentation (Types and Capabilities)..............................................287

11. Automation and Control System Projects...............................................317

Figure 1.1 Generic input/output diagram of a chemical process................1

Figure 1.13  ogic diagram for the batch process described in

Figure 1.15  &ID depiction of a four-step semi-batch filtration

Figure 1.16  eneric distributed control system hierarchy

Figure 1.17 A typical programmable logic controller bank..........................28

Figure 2.1  ontrol scheme depictions of independent variables

Figure 2.2  sing a recycle to control a pump (shown) or

Figure 2.3  ressure vessel used to remove entrained liquid from a

Figure 2.4  he basic regulatory control scheme for a pressure vessel

Figure 2.5  n alternative regulatory control scheme for a pressure

Figure 2.7  he control of a blending drum when both inlet streams

Figure 2.8  ressure vessel used to add a base (fluid B) to fluid A to

Figure 2.9  rocess-utility heat exchanger used to cool a process

Figure 2.10  he control scheme for a process-utility heat exchanger

Figure 2.11  rocess-utility heat exchanger used to cool a process

Figure 2.12  iquid knockout drum with a feed forward/feedback

Figure 2.15 Boiler or fired heater used for steam generation.......................61

Figure 2.16 Controlling the air-to-fuel ratio for a boiler or furnace............ 62

Figure 2.18  ascade level to flow control loop on the overhead

Figure 2.19  he reflux accumulator after a total condenser for a

Figure 2.20  ontrolling the reflux accumulator outlet streams with a

Figure 2.21  ontrolling the air-to-fuel ratio for a boiler or furnace

Figure 2.22  eed forward/feedback cascade control scheme to

Figure 2.26  simple batch process to produce component C by

Figure 2.28 Simplified flow sheet for a Claus sulfur plant...........................81

Figure 3.1 A typical pump curve for a fixed speed pump...........................84

Figure 3.8  control scheme for a pump and piping manifold

Figure 3.9  control scheme for a variable speed cooling water

Figure 3.11  control scheme for a two-stage compressor with an

Figure 3.13  ntisurge control with dedicated recycle cooler for a

Figure 3.15 A compression/expansion system to generate very cold air........ 99

Figure 4.5  ontrol scheme for a heat exchanger that is condensing

Figure 4.6  utlet configurations when condensing a process fluid

Figure 4.7  ontrol scheme for a heat exchanger that is condensing

8.4 Nonlinear Control Strategies for PID Controllers.........................253

Figure 1.13 ogic diagram for the batch process described in

Figure 1.15 &ID depiction of a four-step semi-batch filtration

Figure 1.16 eneric distributed control system hierarchy

Figure 1.17 A typical programmable logic controller bank..........................28

Figure 2.1 ontrol scheme depictions of independent variables

Figure 2.2 sing a recycle to control a pump (shown) or

Figure 2.3 ressure vessel used to remove entrained liquid from a

Figure 2.4 he basic regulatory control scheme for a pressure vessel

Figure 2.5 n alternative regulatory control scheme for a pressure

Figure 2.7 he control of a blending drum when both inlet streams

Figure 2.8 ressure vessel used to add a base (fluid B) to fluid A to

Figure 2.9 rocess-utility heat exchanger used to cool a process

Figure 2.10 he control scheme for a process-utility heat exchanger

Figure 2.11 rocess-utility heat exchanger used to cool a process

Figure 2.12 iquid knockout drum with a feed forward/feedback

Figure 2.16 Controlling the air-to-fuel ratio for a boiler or furnace............ 62

Figure 2.18 ascade level to flow control loop on the overhead

Figure 2.19 he reflux accumulator after a total condenser for a

Figure 2.20 ontrolling the reflux accumulator outlet streams with a

Figure 2.21 ontrolling the air-to-fuel ratio for a boiler or furnace

Figure 2.22 eed forward/feedback cascade control scheme to

Figure 2.26 simple batch process to produce component C by

Figure 3.8 control scheme for a pump and piping manifold

Figure 3.9 control scheme for a variable speed cooling water

Figure 3.11 control scheme for a two-stage compressor with an

Figure 3.13 ntisurge control with dedicated recycle cooler for a

Figure 3.15 A compression/expansion system to generate very cold air........ 99

Figure 4.5 ontrol scheme for a heat exchanger that is condensing

Figure 4.6 utlet configurations when condensing a process fluid

Figure 4.7 ontrol scheme for a heat exchanger that is condensing

Figure 4.9 more generalized process scheme for exchanging

Figure 4.10 cross exchanger where the energy available in process

Figure 4.11 he complete heat exchanger system for the example

Figure 4.12 n alternate configuration for the heat exchanger system

Figure 4.14 xchanging energy between two process streams in a

Figure 4.15 xchanging energy between two process streams in a

Figure 4.16 Using a hot inert gas to directly heat a solid............................131

Figure 5.9 Single-stage gas absorption system...........................................165

Figure 5.10 ontrol scheme for a single-stage gas absorption system.

Figure 5.11 ingle-stage once-through liquid-liquid extraction

Figure 5.12 ontrol scheme for a single-stage once-through liquid-

Figure 5.13 as extraction system with solute recovery and solvent

Figure 5.14 ontrols for a gas absorption system with solute

Figure 5.15 A once-through mixer/settler type adsorption system..........176

Figure 5.16 ontrol scheme for a once-through mixer/settler type

Figure 5.17 continuous fluidized bed adsorption/regeneration

Figure 5.18 ontrol scheme for a typical continuous fluidized bed

Figure 7.9 I nferential control scheme to protect a compressor from

Figure 7.13 eactor temperature control scheme employing a

Figure 7.16 llocation controller used to control the flow rate

Figure 7.17 ypical control scheme for a distillation column with

Figure 8.1 A typical on/off electrical resistance heater controller...........242

Figure 10.9 Rotameter-type flowmeter. ......................................................295

Figure 10.30 A spring-loaded pressure relief valve in both (a) normal