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Calculus
10e
Ron Larson
The Pennsylvania State University
The Behrend College
Bruce Edwards
University of Florida
Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States
Calculus © 2014, 2010, 2006 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Tenth Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 16 15 14 13 12
Contents
P Preparation for Calculus 1

P.1 Graphs and Models 2
P.2 Linear Models and Rates of Change 10
P.3 Functions and Their Graphs 19
P.4 Fitting Models to Data 31
Review Exercises 37
P.S. Problem Solving 39
1 Limits and Their Properties 41

1.1 A Preview of Calculus 42
1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically 48
1.3 Evaluating Limits Analytically 59
1.4 Continuity and One-Sided Limits 70
1.5 Infinite Limits 83
Section Project: Graphs and Limits of
Trigonometric Functions 90
Review Exercises 91
2 Differentiation 95
2.1 The Derivative and the Tangent Line Problem 96
2.2 Basic Differentiation Rules and Rates of Change 106
2.3 Product and Quotient Rules and Higher-Order
Derivatives 118
2.4 The Chain Rule 129
2.5 Implicit Differentiation 140
Section Project: Optical Illusions 147
2.6 Related Rates 148
Review Exercises 157
3 Applications of Differentiation 161

3.1 Extrema on an Interval 162
3.2 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem 170
3.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions and
the First Derivative Test 177
Section Project: Rainbows 186
3.4 Concavity and the Second Derivative Test 187
3.5 Limits at Infinity 195
3.6 A Summary of Curve Sketching 206
3.7 Optimization Problems 215
Section Project: Connecticut River 224
3.8 Newton’s Method 225
3.9 Differentials 231
vi Contents
4 Integration 243
4.1 Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integration 244
4.2 Area 254
4.3 Riemann Sums and Definite Integrals 266
4.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 277
Section Project: Demonstrating the
Fundamental Theorem 291
4.5 Integration by Substitution 292
4.6 Numerical Integration 305
Logarithmic, Exponential, and

5 Other Transcendental Functions 317
5.1 The Natural Logarithmic Function: Differentiation 318
5.2 The Natural Logarithmic Function: Integration 328
5.3 Inverse Functions 337
5.4 Exponential Functions: Differentiation and Integration 346
5.5 Bases Other than e and Applications 356
Section Project: Using Graphing Utilities to
Estimate Slope 365
5.6 Inverse Trigonometric Functions: Differentiation 366
5.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions: Integration 375
5.8 Hyperbolic Functions 383
Section Project: St. Louis Arch 392
6 Differential Equations 397

6.1 Slope Fields and Euler’s Method 398
6.2 Differential Equations: Growth and Decay 407
6.3 Separation of Variables and the Logistic Equation 415
6.4 First-Order Linear Differential Equations 424
Section Project: Weight Loss 430
7 Applications of Integration 435

7.1 Area of a Region Between Two Curves 436
7.2 Volume: The Disk Method 446
7.3 Volume: The Shell Method 457
Section Project: Saturn 465
7.4 Arc Length and Surfaces of Revolution 466
7.5 Work 477
Section Project: Tidal Energy 485
7.6 Moments, Centers of Mass, and Centroids 486
7.7 Fluid Pressure and Fluid Force 497
Contents vii
Integration Techniques, L’Hopital’s Rule,

8 and Improper Integrals 507
8.1 Basic Integration Rules 508
8.2 Integration by Parts 515
8.3 Trigonometric Integrals 524
Section Project: Power Lines 532
8.4 Trigonometric Substitution 533
8.5 Partial Fractions 542
8.6 Integration by Tables and Other Integration Techniques 551
8.7 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hopital’s Rule 557
8.8 Improper Integrals 568
9 Infinite Series 583

9.1 Sequences 584
9.2 Series and Convergence 595
Section Project: Cantor’s Disappearing Table 604
9.3 The Integral Test and p-Series 605
Section Project: The Harmonic Series 611
9.4 Comparisons of Series 612
Section Project: Solera Method 618
9.5 Alternating Series 619
9.6 The Ratio and Root Tests 627
9.7 Taylor Polynomials and Approximations 636
9.8 Power Series 647
9.9 Representation of Functions by Power Series 657
9.10 Taylor and Maclaurin Series 664
Conics, Parametric Equations, and

10 Polar Coordinates 681
10.1 Conics and Calculus 682
10.2 Plane Curves and Parametric Equations 696
Section Project: Cycloids 705
10.3 Parametric Equations and Calculus 706
10.4 Polar Coordinates and Polar Graphs 715
Section Project: Anamorphic Art 724
10.5 Area and Arc Length in Polar Coordinates 725
10.6 Polar Equations of Conics and Kepler’s Laws 734
viii Contents
11 Vectors and the Geometry of Space 747

11.1 Vectors in the Plane 748
11.2 Space Coordinates and Vectors in Space 758
11.3 The Dot Product of Two Vectors 766
11.4 The Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space 775
11.5 Lines and Planes in Space 783
Section Project: Distances in Space 793
11.6 Surfaces in Space 794
11.7 Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates 804
12 Vector-Valued Functions 815

12.1 Vector-Valued Functions 816
Section Project: Witch of Agnesi 823
12.2 Differentiation and Integration of Vector-Valued
Functions 824
12.3 Velocity and Acceleration 832
12.4 Tangent Vectors and Normal Vectors 841
12.5 Arc Length and Curvature 851
13 Functions of Several Variables 867

13.1 Introduction to Functions of Several Variables 868
13.2 Limits and Continuity 880
13.3 Partial Derivatives 890
Section Project: Moiré Fringes 899
13.4 Differentials 900
13.5 Chain Rules for Functions of Several Variables 907
13.6 Directional Derivatives and Gradients 915
13.7 Tangent Planes and Normal Lines 927
Section Project: Wildflowers 935
13.8 Extrema of Functions of Two Variables 936
13.9 Applications of Extrema 944
Section Project: Building a Pipeline 951
13.10 Lagrange Multipliers 952
Contents ix
14 Multiple Integration 965

14.1 Iterated Integrals and Area in the Plane 966
14.2 Double Integrals and Volume 974
14.3 Change of Variables: Polar Coordinates 986
14.4 Center of Mass and Moments of Inertia 994
Section Project: Center of Pressure on a Sail 1001
14.5 Surface Area 1002
Section Project: Capillary Action 1008
14.6 Triple Integrals and Applications 1009
14.7 Triple Integrals in Other Coordinates 1020
Section Project: Wrinkled and Bumpy Spheres 1026
14.8 Change of Variables: Jacobians 1027
15 Vector Analysis 1039

15.1 Vector Fields 1040
15.2 Line Integrals 1051
15.3 Conservative Vector Fields and Independence of Path 1065
15.4 Green’s Theorem 1075
Section Project: Hyperbolic and Trigonometric Functions 1083
15.5 Parametric Surfaces 1084
15.6 Surface Integrals 1094
Section Project: Hyperboloid of One Sheet 1105
15.7 Divergence Theorem 1106
15.8 Stokes’s Theorem 1114
Section Project: The Planimeter 1122
Appendices
Appendix A: Proofs of Selected Theorems A2
Appendix B: Integration Tables A3
Appendix C: Precalculus Review (Web)*
C.1 Real Numbers and the Real Number Line
C.2 The Cartesian Plane
C.3 Review of Trigonometric Functions
Appendix D: Rotation and the General Second-Degree Equation (Web)*
Appendix E: Complex Numbers (Web)*
Appendix F: Business and Economic Applications (Web)*
Answers to All Odd-Numbered Exercises and Tests A7

Index A115
*Available at the text-specific website www.cengagebrain.com
Preface
Welcome to Calculus, Tenth Edition. We are proud to present this new edition to you.
As with all editions, we have been able to incorporate many useful comments from
you, our user. For this edition, we have introduced some new features and revised
others. You will still find what you expect – a
pedagogically sound, mathematically precise,
and comprehensive textbook.
We are pleased and excited to offer
you something brand new with this edition –
a companion website at LarsonCalculus.com.
This site offers many resources that will help
you as you study calculus. All of these
resources are just a click away.
Our goal for every edition of this textbook
is to provide you with the tools you need to
master calculus. We hope that you find the
changes in this edition, together with
LarsonCalculus.com, will accomplish just that.
In each exercise set, be sure to notice the
reference to CalcChat.com. At this free site,
you can download a step-by-step solution to
any odd-numbered exercise. Also, you can talk
to a tutor, free of charge, during the hours posted
at the site. Over the years, thousands of students
have visited the site for help. We use all of this
information to help guide each revision of the
exercises and solutions.
New To This Edition
NEW LarsonCalculus.com
This companion website offers multiple tools
and resources to supplement your learning.
Access to these features is free. Watch videos
explaining concepts or proofs from the book,
explore examples, view three-dimensional
graphs, download articles from math journals
and much more.
NEW Chapter Opener

Each Chapter Opener highlights real-life
applications used in the examples and exercises.
NEW Interactive Examples

Examples throughout the book are accompanied by
Interactive Examples at LarsonCalculus.com. These
interactive examples use Wolfram’s free CDF Player
and allow you to explore calculus by manipulating
functions or graphs, and observing the results.
NEW Proof Videos

Watch videos of co-author Bruce Edwards as
he explains the proofs of theorems in Calculus,
Tenth Edition at LarsonCalculus.com.
Preface xi
NEW How Do You See It?

The How Do You See It? feature in each section presents
a real-life problem that you will solve by visual inspection
using the concepts learned in the lesson. This exercise is
excellent for classroom discussion or test preparation. 118. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? The figure shows the
graphs of the position, velocity, and acceleration
REVISED Remark functions of a particle.
These hints and tips reinforce or expand upon concepts, y
help you learn how to study mathematics, caution you
16
about common errors, address special cases, or show 12
alternative or additional steps to a solution of an example. 8
4
t
−1 1 4 5 6 7
REVISED Exercise Sets
The exercise sets have been carefully and extensively
examined to ensure they are rigorous and relevant
and include all topics our users have suggested. The (a) Copy the graphs of the functions shown. Identify
exercises have been reorganized and titled so you each graph. Explain your reasoning. To print an
can better see the connections between examples and enlarged copy of the graph, go to MathGraphs.com.
exercises. Multi-step, real-life exercises reinforce (b) On your sketch, identify when the particle speeds up
problem-solving skills and mastery of concepts by and when it slows down. Explain your reasoning.
giving students the opportunity to apply the concepts
in real-life situations.
Table of Content Changes

Appendix A (Proofs of Selected Theorems) now
appears in video format at LarsonCalculus.com.
The proofs also appear in text form at
CengageBrain.com.
Trusted Features
Applications
Carefully chosen applied exercises and examples
are included throughout to address the question,
“When will I use this?” These applications are
pulled from diverse sources, such as current events,
world data, industry trends, and more, and relate
to a wide range of interests. Understanding where
calculus is (or can be) used promotes fuller under-
standing of the material.
Writing about Concepts

Writing exercises at the end of each section
are designed to test your understanding of basic
concepts in each section, encouraging you to
verbalize and write answers and promote technical
communication skills that will be invaluable in
your future careers.
xii Preface
Theorems
Theorems provide the conceptual framework for calculus. Theorems
are clearly stated and separated from the rest of the text by boxes for quick
visual reference. Key proofs often follow the theorem and can be found
at LarsonCalculus.com.
Definitions
Definition of Definite Integral As with theorems, definitions are clearly
If f is defined on the closed interval 关a, b兴 and the limit of Riemann sums over stated using precise, formal wording and
partitions ⌬ are separated from the text by boxes for
n quick visual reference.
lim
储⌬储→0 i⫽1 兺 f 共c 兲 ⌬ x
i i
exists (as described above), then f is said to be integrable on 关a, b兴 and the
Explorations
limit is denoted by Explorations provide unique challenges
兺 f 共c 兲 ⌬ x ⫽ 冕
n b to study concepts that have not yet been
lim i i f 共x兲 dx. formally covered in the text. They allow
储⌬储→0 i⫽1 a
The limit is called the definite integral of f from a to b. The number a is the
you to learn by discovery and introduce
lower limit of integration, and the number b is the upper limit of integration. topics related to ones presently being
studied. Exploring topics in this way
encourages you to think outside the box.
Historical Notes and Biographies

Historical Notes provide you with background
information on the foundations of calculus.
The Biographies introduce you to the people
who created and contributed to calculus.
Technology
Throughout the book, technology boxes show
you how to use technology to solve problems
and explore concepts of calculus. These tips
also point out some pitfalls of using technology.
Section Projects
Projects appear in selected sections and encourage
you to explore applications related to the topics
you are studying. They provide an interesting
and engaging way for you and other students
to work and investigate ideas collaboratively.
Putnam Exam Challenges

Putnam Exam questions appear in selected
sections. These actual Putnam Exam questions
will challenge you and push the limits of
your understanding of calculus.
Additional Resources
Student Resources
• Student Solutions Manual for Calculus of a Single Variable
(Chapters P–10 of Calculus): ISBN 1-285-08571-X
Student Solutions Manual for Multivariable Calculus
(Chapters 11–16 of Calculus): ISBN 1-285-08575-2
These manuals contain worked-out solutions for all odd-numbered exercises.
www.webassign.net
Printed Access Card: ISBN 0-538-73807-3
Online Access Code: ISBN 1-285-18421-1
Enhanced WebAssign is designed for you to do your homework online. This proven
and reliable system uses pedagogy and content found in this text, and then enhances
it to help you learn calculus more effectively. Automatically graded homework allows
you to focus on your learning and get interactive study assistance outside of class.
Enhanced WebAssign for Calculus, 10e contains the Cengage YouBook, an interactive
eBook that contains video clips, highlighting and note-taking features, and more!
CourseMate is a perfect study tool for bringing concepts to life with interactive
learning, study, and exam preparation tools that support the printed textbook.
CourseMate includes: an interactive eBook, videos, quizzes, flashcards, and more!
• CengageBrain.com—To access additional materials including CourseMate, visit
www.cengagebrain.com. At the CengageBrain.com home page, search for the ISBN
of your title (from the back cover of your book) using the search box at the top of the
page. This will take you to the product page where these resources can be found.
Instructor Resources
www.webassign.net
Exclusively from Cengage Learning, Enhanced WebAssign offers an extensive online
program for Calculus, 10e to encourage the practice that is so critical for concept
mastery. The meticulously crafted pedagogy and exercises in our proven texts become
even more effective in Enhanced WebAssign, supplemented by multimedia tutorial support
and immediate feedback as students complete their assignments. Key features include:
• Thousands of homework problems that match your textbook’s end-of-section
exercises
• Opportunities for students to review prerequisite skills and content both at the
start of the course and at the beginning of each section
• Read It eBook pages, Watch It Videos, Master It tutorials, and Chat About It links
• A customizable Cengage YouBook with highlighting, note-taking, and search
features, as well as links to multimedia resources
• Personal Study Plans (based on diagnostic quizzing) that identify chapter topics
that students will need to master
• A WebAssign Answer Evaluator that recognizes and accepts equivalent
mathematical responses in the same way you grade assignments
• A Show My Work feature that gives you the option of seeing students’ detailed
solutions
• Lecture videos, and more!
xiii
xiv Additional Resources
• Cengage Customizable YouBook—YouBook is an eBook that is both interactive

and customizable! Containing all the content from Calculus, 10e, YouBook features
a text edit tool that allows you to modify the textbook narrative as needed. With
YouBook, you can quickly re-order entire sections and chapters or hide any content
you don’t teach to create an eBook that perfectly matches your syllabus. You can
further customize the text by adding instructor-created or YouTube video links.
Additional media assets include: video clips, highlighting and note-taking features,
and more! YouBook is available within Enhanced WebAssign.
• Complete Solutions Manual for Calculus of a Single Variable, Volume 1
(Chapters P–6 of Calculus): ISBN 1-285-08576-0
Complete Solutions Manual for Calculus of a Single Variable, Volume 2
Complete Solutions Manual for Multivariable Calculus
The Complete Solutions Manuals contain worked-out solutions to all exercises in
the text.
• Solution Builder (www.cengage.com/solutionbuilder)— This online instructor
database offers complete worked-out solutions to all exercises in the text, allowing
you to create customized, secure solutions printouts (in PDF format) matched
exactly to the problems you assign in class.
• PowerLecture (ISBN 1-285-08583-3)—This comprehensive instructor DVD
includes resources such as an electronic version of the Instructor’s Resource Guide,
complete pre-built PowerPoint® lectures, all art from the text in both jpeg and
PowerPoint formats, ExamView® algorithmic computerized testing software,
JoinIn™ content for audience response systems (clickers), and a link to Solution
Builder.
• ExamView Computerized Testing— Create, deliver, and customize tests in print
and online formats with ExamView®, an easy-to-use assessment and tutorial
software. ExamView for Calculus, 10e contains hundreds of algorithmic multiple-
choice and short answer test items. ExamView® is available on the PowerLecture DVD.
• Instructor’s Resource Guide (ISBN 1-285-09074-8)—This robust manual
contains an abundance of resources keyed to the textbook by chapter and section,
including chapter summaries and teaching strategies. An electronic version of the
Instructor’s Resource Guide is available on the PowerLecture DVD.
CourseMate is a perfect study tool for students, and requires no set up from you.
CourseMate brings course concepts to life with interactive learning, study, and
exam preparation tools that support the printed textbook. CourseMate
for Calculus, 10e includes: an interactive eBook, videos, quizzes, flashcards, and
more! For instructors, CourseMate includes Engagement Tracker, a first-of-its kind
tool that monitors student engagement.
• CengageBrain.com—To access additional course materials including CourseMate,
please visit http://login.cengage.com. At the CengageBrain.com home page, search
for the ISBN of your title (from the back cover of your book) using the search box
at the top of the page. This will take you to the product page where these resources
can be found.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the many people who have helped us at various stages of
Calculus over the last 39 years. Their encouragement, criticisms, and suggestions
have been invaluable.
Reviewers of the Tenth Edition

Denis Bell, University of Northern Florida; Abraham Biggs, Broward Community
College; Jesse Blosser, Eastern Mennonite School; Mark Brittenham, University of
Nebraska; Mingxiang Chen, North Carolina A & T State University; Marcia Kleinz,
Atlantic Cape Community College; Maxine Lifshitz, Friends Academy; Bill Meisel,
Florida State College at Jacksonville; Martha Nega, Georgia Perimeter College;
Laura Ritter, Southern Polytechnic State University; Chia-Lin Wu, Richard Stockton
College of New Jersey
Reviewers of Previous Editions

Stan Adamski, Owens Community College; Alexander Arhangelskii, Ohio University;
Seth G. Armstrong, Southern Utah University; Jim Ball, Indiana State University;
Marcelle Bessman, Jacksonville University; Linda A. Bolte, Eastern Washington
University; James Braselton, Georgia Southern University; Harvey Braverman,
Middlesex County College; Tim Chappell, Penn Valley Community College;
Oiyin Pauline Chow, Harrisburg Area Community College; Julie M. Clark, Hollins
University; P.S. Crooke, Vanderbilt University; Jim Dotzler, Nassau Community
College; Murray Eisenberg, University of Massachusetts at Amherst; Donna Flint,
South Dakota State University; Michael Frantz, University of La Verne; Sudhir Goel,
Valdosta State University; Arek Goetz, San Francisco State University; Donna J. Gorton,
Butler County Community College; John Gosselin, University of Georgia;
Shahryar Heydari, Piedmont College; Guy Hogan, Norfolk State University;
Ashok Kumar, Valdosta State University; Kevin J. Leith, Albuquerque Community
College; Douglas B. Meade, University of South Carolina; Teri Murphy, University
of Oklahoma; Darren Narayan, Rochester Institute of Technology; Susan A. Natale,
The Ursuline School, NY; Terence H. Perciante, Wheaton College;
James Pommersheim, Reed College; Leland E. Rogers, Pepperdine University;
Paul Seeburger, Monroe Community College; Edith A. Silver, Mercer County
Community College; Howard Speier, Chandler-Gilbert Community College;
Desmond Stephens, Florida A&M University; Jianzhong Su, University of Texas at
Arlington; Patrick Ward, Illinois Central College; Diane Zych, Erie Community College
Many thanks to Robert Hostetler, The Behrend College, The Pennsylvania State
University, and David Heyd, The Behrend College, The Pennsylvania State University,
for their significant contributions to previous editions of this text.
We would also like to thank the staff at Larson Texts, Inc., who assisted in preparing
the manuscript, rendering the art package, typesetting, and proofreading the pages and
supplements.
On a personal level, we are grateful to our wives, Deanna Gilbert Larson and
Consuelo Edwards, for their love, patience, and support. Also, a special note of thanks
goes out to R. Scott O’Neil.
If you have suggestions for improving this text, please feel free to write to us. Over
the years we have received many useful comments from both instructors and students,
and we value these very much.
Ron Larson
Bruce Edwards
xv
Your Course. Your Way.
Calculus Textbook Options
The traditional calculus course is available in a variety The book can be customized to meet your individual needs
of textbook configurations to address the different ways and is available through CengageBrain.com.
instructors teach—and students take—their classes.
APPROACH
TOPICS
COVERED Late Transcendental Early Transcendental Accelerated
Integrated coverage
Functions Functions coverage
3-semester Calculus Early

Calculus 10e Transcendental Functions 5e Essential Calculus
C A L C U L U S
EARLY TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS
LARSON EDWARDS F I F T H E D I T I O N
Single Calculus: Early

Variable Calculus 10e Transcendental Functions 5e Calculus I with
Single Variable Single Variable Precalculus 3e
Only CALCULUS OF A
SINGLE VARIABLE
EARLY TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS
LARSON EDWARDS F I F T H E D I T I O N
Multivariable Calculus 10e Calculus 10e

Multivariable Multivariable
Custom Calculus: Early Calculus I with

Calculus 10e Transcendental Functions 5e Essential Calculus Precalculus 3e
All of these C A L C U L U S
textbook EARLY TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS
choices can
be customized
to fit the
individual
needs of your
course. LARSON EDWARDS F I F T H E D I T I O N
xvi
Calculus
10e
P Preparation for Calculus
P.1 Graphs and Models
P.2 Linear Models and Rates of Change
P.3 Functions and Their Graphs
P.4 Fitting Models to Data
Automobile Aerodynamics (Exercise 96, p. 30)
Hours of Daylight
(Example 3, p. 33)
Conveyor Design (Exercise 23, p. 16)
Cell Phone Subscribers

(Exercise 68, p. 9)
Modeling Carbon Dioxide Concentration (Example 6, p. 7)

1
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world would, in all probability, at this day be in the possession of
many additional productions of his vastly comprehensive genius. His
astronomical discoveries and other fruits of his prolific mind,
recorded by his pen, would in such case, it may be reasonably
presumed, have redounded to the honour of his country and the
benefit of mankind. But, that an American citizen of slender fortune,
one who was (to use the strongly expressive terms of the
Philosophical Society, on the occasion just mentioned,) “indebted for
bread to his daily toil,”—that a man, thus circumstanced, could be
expected to contribute a large portion of his inestimable time, wholly
unrewarded, either to the public interests or the acquisition of
personal fame, would be an impeachment of his prudence. Dr.
Rittenhouse was not gratuitously furnished with a complete
Observatory and Astronomical apparatus;[322] nor, besides,
recompensed by a liberal compensation from the public purse; in
order that he might be enabled to devote himself to the public
service, in scientific pursuits: Flamstead, Halley, Bliss, Bradley and
Maskelyne, were so rewarded. Each of these eminent astronomers
held, at different periods, the lucrative and honourable place of
Regius Professor, or Astronomer Royal, at Greenwich.[323]
Notwithstanding Dr. Rittenhouse’s published writings are, for the

reasons that have been assigned, not very extensive, his
philosophical publications on various subjects, chiefly astronomical,
are far from being inconsiderable in number; and some of them are
highly important, while others discover the activity and force of his
genius.[324] The following is a list of his papers communicated to the
Am. Philosophical Society, and published in their Transactions;
arranged according to the dates at which they were severally read in
the Society: viz.
1. The first volume, printed in the year 1771,[325] contains—“A
Description of a new Orrery; planned, and now nearly finished, by
David Rittenhouse, A. M. of Norriton, in the county of Philadelphia:”
communicated by Dr. Smith. Read, March 21. 1768.
2. “Calculation of the Transit of Venus over the Sun, as it is to

happen, June 3d 1769, in Lat. 40° N. Long. 5h. W. from Greenwich:”
communicated 21st of June, 1768.
3. An Account of the Transit of Mercury over the Sun, Nov. 9.

1769, as observed at Norriton, in Pennsylvania, by Dr. Smith, and
Messrs. Lukens, Rittenhouse, and O. Biddle, the committee
appointed for that purpose by the Am. Philos. Society: drawn up and
communicated, by direction and in behalf of the committee, by Dr.
Smith—July 20. 1769.
4. Observations on the Comet of June and July, 1770; with the

elements of its motion and the trajectory of its path; in two letters
from David Rittenhouse, M. A. to William Smith, D. D. Prov. Coll.
Philad.[326] Communicated, Aug. 3. 1770.
5. An easy method of deducing the True Time of the Sun’s passing

the Meridian, per clock, from a comparison of four equal altitudes,
observed on two succeeding days; by David Rittenhouse, A. M.[327]
Communicated by William Smith, D. D. Prov. Coll. Philad.—Aug. 17.
1770.
6. Account of the Terrestrial Measurement of the difference of

Longitude between the Observatories of Norriton and Philadelphia;
drawn up by the Rev. Dr. Smith, in behalf of Mr. Lukens, Mr.
Rittenhouse and himself, the committee appointed by the Am.
Philos. Society, for that purpose, agreeably to the request of the
Astronomer-Royal of England. Dated, Aug. 17. 1770.
7. The second volume, printed in the year 1786, contains—An

Explanation of an Optical deception. Read, March 3. 1780.
8. An Account of some Experiments on Magnetism; in a letter from
Mr. Rittenhouse to John Page, Esq. of Williamsburgh. Read, Feb. 6.
1781.
9. A letter from David Rittenhouse, Esq. to John Page, Esq. in

answer to one from Mr. Page;) concerning a remarkable Meteor,
seen in Virginia and Pennsylvania, on the 31st of Oct. 1779. Read,
May 2. 1783. (N. B. Mr. Rittenhouse’s letter is dated Jan. 16. 1780.)
10. Observations on a Comet lately discovered; communicated by

David Rittenhouse, Esq.[328] Read, March 19. 1784.
11. A new Method of placing the Meridian Mark; in a letter to the

Rev. Dr. Ewing, Provost of the University. Read, November. 1785.
12. An Optical Problem, proposed by Mr. Hopkinson, and solved

by Mr. Rittenhouse. Read, Feb. 17. 1786. (N. B. Mr. Hopkinson’s
letter is dated March 16, 1785: the answer is without date.)
13. Astronomical Observations; communicated by Mr.

Rittenhouse. Without date.[329]
14. The third volume, printed in the year 1793, contains—An

Account of several Houses, in Philadelphia, struck with Lightning on
the 7th of June, 1789; by Mr. D. Rittenhouse and Dr. John Jones.
Read, July 17. 1789.
15. An Account of the Effects of a stroke of Lightning on a House

furnished with two Conductors; in a letter from Messrs. David
Rittenhouse and Francis Hopkinson, to Mr. R. Patterson. Read,
October 15. 1790.
16. Astronomical Observations made at Philadelphia: viz. of a

Lunar Eclipse, on the 2d of November, 1789; of the Transit of
Mercury over the Sun’s disk, on the 5th of November, 1789; of an
Eclipse of the Moon, on the 22d of October, 1790; of an Eclipse of
the Sun, on the 6th of November, 1790; and of an Annular Eclipse of
the Sun, on the 3d of April, 1791:[330] with an Account of
corresponding Observations of the two first of these Phænomena,
made at the University of William and Mary in Virginia, by the Rev.
Dr. Madison; and of the second, alone, made at Washington-College
in Maryland, by the Rev. Dr. Smith: communicated by D.
Rittenhouse. Read, February 4. 1791.
17. A Letter from Dr. Rittenhouse to Mr. Patterson, relative to a

Method of finding the Sum of the several Powers of the Sines, &c.
Read, May 18. 1792.
18. An Account of a Comet, (first observed by Mr. Rittenhouse, on

the 11th of January, 1793:) in a letter from D. Rittenhouse to Mr.
Patterson.[331] Read, February 15. 1793.
The fourth volume, printed in the year 1799, (three years after Dr.
Rittenhouse’s death,) contains—
19. A paper, “On the Improvement of Time-keepers;” by David

Rittenhouse, LL. D. Pres. Am. Philos. Society. Read, November 7.
1794.[332]
20. A paper, “On the Expansion of Wood by Heat;” in a letter from

David Rittenhouse, LL. D. Pres. Am. Philos. Society. Dated, May 15.
1795.
21. A Method of raising the common Logarithm of any number

immediately; by D. Rittenhouse, LL. D. Pres. Am. Philos. Society.
Read, August 12. 1795.
22. A communication, “On the Mode of determining the true Place

of a Planet, in an eliptical Orbit, directly from the mean Anomaly by
Converging Series;” by David Rittenhouse, Pres. Am. Phil. Society.
Read, February 5. 1796.
This last communication was made to the Society, within five
months of the time immediately preceding Dr. Rittenhouse’s death.
It is a strong evidence not only of our Philosopher’s industry, but of

his attachment to that institution of which he was so great an
ornament, that, in the course of the twenty-six years during which he
was a member of it, he could find sufficient leisure,—almost
constantly employed, as he was, in important public business, and
frequently bereft of health,—to contribute so many valuable papers
as he did, to the too scanty stock of its published Transactions. Dr.
Franklin, who was a member of the Philosophical Society, and their
president, for twenty-one years, furnished them with only eight
communications during that time: and Mr. Jefferson, who has
nominally occupied the president’s chair[333] in the same Society
above sixteen years, has favoured them with only two or three,
within this period.
Had Dr. Rittenhouse enjoyed leisure to write, there are sufficient

reasons to induce a belief, that his compositions would have been
highly estimable; not solely for the subject matter of them, but for
their manner also. It is true, he laboured under the privations of a
liberal education: his style might therefore, perhaps, have been
deficient in some of the ornamental appendages of classical
learning. Nevertheless, the native energy of his mind, the clearness
of his perceptions, the accuracy with which he employed his
reasoning faculties,—in fine, the very extraordinary intellectual
powers he displayed, when they were directed to the attainment of
any species of human knowledge;—these would, doubtless, have
supplied him with those beauties of language, which are usually, as
well as most readily, derived from academic instruction. And in
addition to all these, the sublimity of the objects which he so ardently
and frequently contemplated, could scarcely fail to have
communicated to his literary productions a due portion of an
elevated style, when treating on subjects of a corresponding
character. Dr. Rush, in noticing the address delivered by Rittenhouse
before the Philosophical Society in the year 1775, observes, that “the
language of this Oration is simple, but” that “the sentiments
contained in it are ingenious, original, and in some instances
sublime:” in another place, the learned Eulogist styles it an “eloquent
performance.” It is presumed, that these characteristic features of
that little work are not unaptly applied; and it will be found, on
perusal, to be also strongly tinctured, throughout, with a vein of
exalted piety[334] and universal benevolence.
Dr. Rittenhouse, by the vigour of his mind, by the transcendent

powers of his genius, had surmounted the disadvantages of a
defective education, as some few other great men have done; but it
may be fairly inferred from the nature of things, that, had not that
privation existed in the case of our Philosopher, he would have
shone with a still superior lustre, not merely as a man of science, but
as a literary character.[335]
The Writer of these Memoirs sincerely regrets, that he differs very

widely, indeed, on this head, from a gentleman who has, himself,
been distinguished in the literary world by his learning, as well as by
his genius and science. “In speaking of Mr. Rittenhouse,” says his
eloquent Eulogist, “it has been common to lament his want of what is
called a liberal education.”—“Were education what it should be, in
our public seminaries,” continues our ingenious Professor, “this
would have been a misfortune; but conducted as it is at present,
agreeably to the systems adopted in Europe in the fifteenth century, I
am disposed to believe that his extensive knowledge, and splendid
character, are to be ascribed chiefly to his having escaped the
pernicious influence of monkish learning upon his mind, in early life.
Had the usual forms of a public education in the United States been
imposed upon him; instead of revolving through life in a planetary
orbit, he would probably” says his Eulogist “have consumed the force
of his genius by fluttering around the blaze of an evening taper:
Rittenhouse the Philosopher, and one of the luminaries of the 18th
century, might have spent his hours of study in composing
syllogisms, or in measuring the feet of Greek and Latin poetry.” In
another part of his Eulogium, (wherein he notices some fine and
benevolent reflections of Dr. Rittenhouse, arising from a
contemplation of particular works of nature,) Dr. Rush addresses an
invocation to that distinguished class of learned men, the clergy, in
terms corresponding with his sentiments just quoted:—“If such,” says
he, “be the pious fruits of an attentive examination of the works of
the Creator, cease, ye ministers of the gospel, to defeat the design of
your benevolent labours, by interposing the common studies of the
schools, between our globe and the minds of young people.”[336]
If, indeed, the “monkish learning” of the fifteenth century was now
taught among us; if “composing syllogisms,” and “measuring the feet
of Greek and Latin poetry,” were now the sole objects of scholastic
instruction in this country; then might our learned Professor have
anathematized, with good reason, the system of teaching in our
Universities and Colleges. But it is well known, that the Aristotelian
Philosophy, and what is denominated the Learning of the Schools,
has been gradually declining in the European seminaries of learning,
in the course of the last two centuries;[337] and more particularly so, in
the great schools of Britain and Ireland: that the system of academic
instruction, deduced from the visionary theories of the philosophers
of antiquity, is there, as well as here, nearly, if not entirely exploded.
It is true, the Greek and Latin tongues are yet taught with great
assiduity and success, in the British Isles; as they have hitherto
been, among ourselves:[338] and it is confidently hoped, that those
languages will long continue to be cultivated with unabated zeal, in
this country; whatever may be their fate on the European continent,
where it is said they are rapidly declining, along with other branches
of useful learning, and accompanied by an evident decay of many
social refinements. Those languages are, in fact, valuable auxiliaries
in the attainment of many branches of useful science, and have ever
been considered the best substratum of polite learning and literary
taste.
A man may, assuredly, be a profound astronomer; he may be

eminently skilled in other branches of natural science, or in the
doctrines of morals; he may be well versed in the polite arts; and yet
may not understand either Greek or Latin. Nevertheless, an intimate
and classical acquaintance with these languages cannot diminish the
powers of his mind, or render him less capable of excelling in other
departments of human knowledge. Bacon, Newton, Boyle, and
Maclauren, with a multitude of others, the most distinguished for
genius, science and learning, received an academical education;
they were masters of the Greek and Latin languages; and were also
instructed, without doubt, even in the formation of syllogisms:[339] yet
these great men were not the less eminent as philosophers. It is to
be presumed, that, while at their several schools and colleges, they
were employed in acquiring the more solid and useful parts of
learning; as well as the ornamental and polite. Both are taught in all
the higher seminaries; and to the Universities of the United States,
as well as of Europe, are attached Professorships[340] for such
instruction.
The able and learned editor of “The American Review of History

and Politics”[341] remarks, that, “for very obvious reasons it could not
be expected, that Philology would be duly appreciated, or cultivated
to any extent, by the American public in general. The state of society
in this country, so admirable under many points of view, renders this
impossible. We should not be surprised or discouraged at a general
ignorance of, and an almost universal indifference about the learned
languages: but this is not all; the public feeling is not confined to
mere apathy: it borders on hostility. Numbers are not wanting,
persons even of influence in the community, who industriously
proclaim, not simply the utter insignificance, but the pernicious
tendency of classical learning; and who would proscribe it as idle in
itself, and as dangerous to republicanism. At the same time, our
progress in this pursuit is far from being in a natural ratio with our
advances in other respects. Philology is in fact, even worse than
stationary among us; from what cause, whether from the influence of
the extraordinary notions just mentioned, or from the absence of all
external excitements, we will not now pretend to determine.”
Should these judicious remarks of the respectable Reviewer be

considered as containing an indirect censure on such “persons of
influence” as he may be supposed to allude to, who “proclaim” the
“pernicious tendency of classical learning,”—it is much to be
lamented by the friends of literature and science, that there should
be any just grounds for its support.
Dr. Rittenhouse understood the German[342] and Low Dutch

languages, well; and had acquired a sufficient knowledge of the
French, to enable him to comprehend astronomical and other works
written in that tongue. These acquisitions, it has been observed,
“served the valuable purpose of conveying to him the discoveries of
foreign nations, and thereby enabled him to prosecute his studies
with more advantage in his native language.”[343]
But these were not the whole of his philological attainments. By

the dint of genius, and by that spirit of perseverance which he
manifested in every thing he undertook, he overcame in a great
degree the difficulties of the Latin tongue.[344] This he did for the
same valuable purpose that he had in view, in learning the German,
Low Dutch and French.
The reading of our Philosopher was extensive. It embraced every

department of polite literature, as well as many branches of what is
called, by way of distinction, useful knowledge. He appears to have
been more particularly attached to history, voyages and travels, and
to the poetick muse:[345] but the drama, ingenious productions of the
imagination, and other works of taste and fancy, likewise engaged a
portion of his attention.[346] Dr. Rush asserts, that he had early and
deeply studied most of the different systems of theology.[347] On this
head, no further information can be given by the writer of these
Memoirs: yet he thinks he has good reason for believing,—and such
as are independent of Dr. Rittenhouse’s known liberality, with respect
to various modes of faith and worship, that he never gave a very
decided preference to any one regular society of Christians, over
others; he loved that sort of Christianity, which inculcates sound
morals: his charity, in regard to theological opinions and other
concerns of religion, was great; and he felt no disposition to observe
any thing like a scrupulous adherence to such tenets or rites, as he
deemed less essential to the well-being of mankind. It was, in fact,
the liberal manner (and this alone) in which he sometimes expressed
himself on subjects of this nature, influenced by sentiments of the
purest benevolence, that induced some persons of more rigid
principles, and perhaps less candour, to doubt the soundness of his
faith in revealed religion: but the whole tenor of his life, and the
religious sentiments he had publicly and repeatedly avowed, shew
how ill-founded such suspicions were.[348] A mind so contemplative
as his, so devoted to the pursuit of truth, so boundless in its views,
and so ardently attached to virtue, would naturally lead him to an
investigation of the principles of Christianity; and it is evident from
some passages in his Oration, and also in his familiar letters to his
friends, that he believed in the fundamental articles of the Christian
faith,[349] however he may have doubted respecting some of the more
abstract and less important tenets of the church.
As Dr. Rittenhouse never attached himself to the distinguishing

dogmas of any one sect of Christians; so, on the authority of a letter
addressed to the Memorialist by Mr. B. Rittenhouse, soon after his
brother’s decease, it may be asserted, that our Philosopher “was
never joined in communion with any particular religious society;
though he esteemed good men of all sects.” In his youth, it is
probable he was bred a Baptist; the sect to which his father (and, it is
believed, his mother also,) belonged: at subsequent periods, he
entertained favourable opinions of the church of England, and of the
principles of the quakers (so called.) In some of the latter years of his
life, he and his family pretty frequently attended divine service in a
presbyterian congregation, of which a very respectable and worthy
gentleman then was the pastor and until very lately continued to
officiate as such.[350] That church is situated in the same street
wherein Dr. Rittenhouse dwelt; and its then minister was one of
many clergymen, belonging to different churches, whom he
personally esteemed.
Some of his letters to his confidential friends testify, nevertheless,

that he by no means embraced some of the doctrines of Calvinism:
nor did he, probably, approve of others, in their more rigid
interpretation.[351] In one of those letters, addressed to the Rev. Mr.
Barton, (an Episcopalian, of the English church,) from Philadelphia,
so early as September, 1755, he wrote thus: “I have been here
several days, and am fatigued and somewhat indisposed. You know
my spirits are never very high, and will therefore expect a
melancholy letter from me at present. I should be glad of
opportunities to receive letters from you, and to write to you oftener:
—indeed, I am desirous of disclosing to you some of my most
serious thoughts.” It can scarcely be doubted, from the complexion
of this paragraph and the character of the person to whom our then
young philosopher was writing, that these “most serious thoughts,”
which he wished so much to disclose to his clerical friend, related to
some points in divinity. After subjoining, in the same letter, some
reflexions, of such a cast as shew that his spirits were depressed by
fatigue and indisposition, as was usually the case with him, he
proceeded thus: “I assure you, notwithstanding, I am no
misanthrope; but think good society one of the greatest blessings of
life. Whatever is said of original sin, the depravity of our nature, and
our propensity to all evil; though men are said to be wolves to men;
yet, think, I can see abundance of goodness in human nature, with
which I am enamoured. I would sooner give up my interest in a
future state, than be divested of humanity;—I mean, that good-will
which I have to the species, although one half of them are said to be
fools, and almost the other half knaves. Indeed I am firmly
persuaded that we are not at the disposal of a Being who has the
least tincture of ill-nature, or requires any in us. You will laugh at this
grave philosophy, or my writing to you on a subject you have thought
of a thousand times. But, can any thing that is serious, be ridiculous?
Shall we suppose Gabriel smiling at Newton, for labouring to
demonstrate whether the earth moves or not, because the former
plainly sees it move?”
This extract (the latter part of which constitutes a note to Dr.

Rush’s Eulogium,) expresses, in the concluding sentence, a beautiful
and apt allusion, in reference to the subject. It likewise contains a
finely-turned compliment to the superior knowledge he presumed Mr.
Barton to possess, on theological subjects; without its seeming to
have been intended, that it should comprehend himself also,—
otherwise than as he might be considered, for a moment, to be
personating that branch of science which he most assiduously
cultivated. The compliment, so far as it appeared to apply to himself,
was unquestionably due to him; but his modesty would have
forbidden his using it, even to a brother-in-law, could he have
imagined at the instant of penning it, that a portion of it might be
referred to himself, personally.
The whole scope of the passage, just quoted, “shews,” however,

as his Eulogist has observed, “how early and deeply the principles of
universal benevolence were fixed in his mind.” And in his Oration,
composed when he was in the full meridian of life, our Philosopher
has plainly indicated, that the same philanthropic spirit, that species
of benevolence which is the basis of true religion, and that warmed
his youthful breast, continued to animate it with unabated fervency:
“That Being,” said he, “before whose piercing eye all the intricate
foldings and dark recesses of the human heart become expanded
and illuminated, is my witness, with what sincerity, with what ardour, I
wish for the happiness of the whole race of mankind; how much I
admire that disposition of lands and seas, which affords a
communication between distant regions, and a mutual exchange of
benefits; how sincerely I approve of those social refinements which
really add to our happiness, and induce us with gratitude to
acknowledge our great Creator’s goodness; how I delight in a
participation of the discoveries made from time to time in nature’s
works, by our philosophic brethren in Europe.”
In the opinion of our Philosopher, “every enlargement of our

faculties, every new happiness conferred upon us, every step we
advance towards the perfection of the Divinity, will very probably
render us more and more sensible of his inexhaustible stores of
communicable bliss, and of his inaccessible perfections.”[352] He
supposed, that, even in this world, “wherein we are only permitted ‘to
look about us and to die,’ there is ample provision made for
employing every faculty of the human mind; even allowing its powers
to be constantly enlarged through an endless repetition of ages;” but
admitting, at the same time, “that there is nothing in it capable of
satisfying us.”
Similar indications of his extensive benevolence, and of the high
sense he entertained of the dignity of human nature, as well as of
the attributes of the Deity, are found every where in his writings; and
the “elegant and pious extract” (as it is termed by Dr. Rush, in his
Eulogium,) from a letter to one of his friends, quoted in another
place, affords a striking instance of the prevalence of that disposition
in the towering mind of Rittenhouse.
If “he believed political, as well as moral, evil, to be intruders into

the society of men,”[353] he was certainly too well acquainted with the
moral constitution of man and the evident nature of humanity, to
suppose, “that a time would come, when every part of our globe
would echo back the heavenly proclamation of universal peace on
earth and good will to man.”[354] Possessing a most benevolent
disposition, he did believe, “that a conduct in this life, depending on
our choice, will stamp our characters for ages yet to come.” He was
so far from expecting any thing like perfectibility here, that he
thought, that man as a free agent, in darkening his faculties by an
unworthy application of them here on earth, might “degrade himself
to some inferior rank of being,” hereafter; while, on the other hand,
by “the exercise of virtue, and a rational employment of those talents
we are entrusted with,”—“we shall, in a few years, be promoted to a
more exalted rank among the creatures of God—have our
understandings greatly enlarged—be enabled to follow Truth in all
her labyrinths, with an higher relish and more facility; and thus lay
the foundation for an eternal improvement in knowledge and
happiness.” Our Philosopher acknowledged, that he was “not one of
those sanguine spirits who seem to think, that, when the withered
hand of death hath drawn up the curtain of eternity, almost all
distance between the creature and the creator, between finite and
infinite, will be annihilated.”[355] Yet, the Writer of these Memoirs has
no hesitation in expressing an opinion, with which a long and
intimate acquaintance with Dr. Rittenhouse has forcibly impressed
his own mind; that this virtuous man was inclined to believe, or
rather, actually did believe, (with the distinguished author of the
Dissertation on the Prophecies,)[356] in a final restitution of all things
to harmony and happiness in another state of existence.
The learned Eulogist of our Philosopher, whom his present
biographer has already so often quoted with much interest and
pleasure, (although he is, on some points, so unfortunate as to be
compelled to dissent from him,) has remarked, that Dr. Rittenhouse
“was well acquainted with practical metaphysics.” He had, without
doubt, attentively studied those branches, at least, of this science,
which embrace moral philosophy, connected, as it is, with a rational
system of natural religion: probably, too, he had investigated its more
abstruse and less useful departments: and, perhaps, he had also
directed his all-inquisitive mind, in some degree, to a contemplation
of those mental vagaries of the modern philosophy, as it is termed,
which neither subserve the purposes of ethics or of natural theology:
a system, if it deserve that appellation, made up of such incongruous
materials, such visionary notions, as by their falsity alone,
independently of their mischievous operation in society, seem
calculated to dishonour the name of philosophy, and to depreciate
the highly meritorious services rendered to mankind by the votaries
of true science. If, however, Dr. Rittenhouse ever did condescend to
employ any considerable portion of his valuable time, in making
himself acquainted with the delusive principles of this multifarious
sect of pseudo-philosophers, it has been already manifested with
what sentiments of disapprobation, if not of abhorrence, he regarded
their doctrines.[357]
It being presumed, therefore, that our Philosopher was, in the

words of his Eulogist, “well acquainted with practical metaphysics,”
an inference may thence be fairly made, that, with respect to
metaphysical deductions, “he could use them,” as has been said of
Maclaurin, “with as much subtlety and force as any man living; but”—
also like that celebrated philosopher—“he chose rather, in his
conversation as well as his writings, to bring the matter to a short
issue, in his own way.” Certain it is, however, that Dr. Rittenhouse
reprobated, as did his eminent predecessor just named, that subtile,
vague and inconclusive kind of ratiocination, the mode of reasoning,
in matters of abstract science, from causes to effects,[358] which so
much characterize that “cobweb philosophy,”[359] of which the mass
of mere metaphysical systems is made up. Rittenhouse was a
practical philosopher: he held in contempt the obscurity of mysticism,
in every object of rational enquiry; viewing it as being, always, either
the parent or the offspring of error. He loved “sober certainty,”[360] in
philosophy; and therefore he pursued Truth, in all his scientific
researches, in that practical and rational mode of philosophizing,
which he deemed conformable to the nature of truth itself, and best
adapted to the construction and faculties of the human mind.[361]
What was the general bias of Dr. Rittenhouse’s opinions on the

subject of government, no one who knew him could doubt; and they
are likewise deducible, not only from his writings, but from the
uniform course of his public and official conduct. He was, in fact,
from the dawn of the American controversy with the government of
the mother-country to the year 1775, a whig, in his political
principles. From the commencement of hostilities in that year, his
feelings, as a native of America, prejudiced him strongly against the
administration of the British government; and the prejudices thus
imbibed, were transferred, soon after, from those men who
administered that government—as well as their measures, to the
nature and form of the government itself. And finally, on the
establishment of the national independence of the United States, in
1776, his opinions settled down, very decidedly, in favour of the
governmental system of a representative and elective republic.
But, until the arrival of that important epocha, when thirteen North-
American colonies of Great Britain solemnly announced to the world
their separation from the parent-state, Rittenhouse thought and
acted, in relation to political affairs, pretty much as his countrymen
did. “Previous to the American revolution,” as Ramsay the historian
has remarked, “the inhabitants of the British colonies were
universally loyal:” and another American writer[362] of respectability
has correspondently observed, that the proceedings of the first
congress were “cool, deliberate and loyal, though marked with
unanimity and firmness.” Indeed many months elapsed, after the
appeal to arms was actually made, before the strong attachment to
the mother-country, which the American colonists had always
manifested, generally subsided. But, after the middle of the year
1775, “the prejudices in favour of a connexion with England and of
the English constitution,” (to use the words of Chief-Justice Marshall,
[363]
“gradually, but rapidly wore off; and were succeeded by
republican principles, and wishes for independence.”
Such then, it is confidently believed, was the progress of political

sentiments in their operation upon the mind of Rittenhouse, in
common with a large majority of the American people.
The information must therefore have been wholly erroneous, upon

which Dr. Rush was induced to ground his assertion, that “the year of
the declaration of Independence, which changed our royal
governments into republics, produced no change in his
(Rittenhouse’s) political opinions,—for,” continues the Doctor, “he
had been educated a republican by his father.” The very reason
which the able and zealous Eulogist has here assigned for Dr.
Rittenhouse’s political principles having undergone no change in
consequence of the American revolution, being predicated upon an
assumed but mistaken fact, it serves to invalidate that allegation; and
it would never have been made, had not Dr. Rush been led into the
error by misinformation on the subject. Because, those who were
personally acquainted with our Philosopher’s father, (Mr. Matthias
Rittenhouse,) must well know, that the old gentleman was
remarkable for his quiet, unoffending principles and conduct; that he
meddled very little, if at all, with public affairs; and that, although a
man of good judgment, he had never turned his attention to political
controversies or speculations on the science of government. He was
in truth a pious man, of great industry, plain manners and
unambitious temper; and he uniformly approved himself a peaceable
and faithful subject of that monarchy under which he lived seventy-
three years, until 1776. On the other hand, the theory of government
was a subject upon which the son had, doubtless, thought and read
much. It cannot, therefore, be reasonably concluded, that Dr.
Rittenhouse was “educated a republican by his father.”
It is asked: “How could he (Rittenhouse) behold the beauty and

harmony of the universe as the result of universal and mutual
dependance, and not admit that Heaven intended Rulers to be
dependant upon those, for whose benefit, alone, all government
should exist? To suppose the contrary,” it is added, “would be to
deny unity and system in the plans of the great Creator of all
things.”[364] But, with all due deference to the genius and talents of
the highly respectable gentleman here quoted, the writer cannot
persuade himself, that our Astronomer could have drawn such
inferences as the results of analogical reasoning, from the beauty
and harmony of the Universe, as those which the foregoing extract
would seem to impute to him. For, who are those, “for whose benefit,
alone, all government should exist?” The People: And in such a
republic as the United States—where there cannot exist,
constitutionally, “a privileged order of men”—the Rulers are, surely, a
part of the People. What, then, is the nature of this mutuality of
dependence between Rulers and People? If government should
exist for the benefit of the People, that is, all the members of the
community, as most assuredly it ought to do; then it should be
conducted for the benefit of the Rulers, as well as of those who are
ruled; the former being a component part of the entire community,
under the comprehensive denomination of the People. It is therefore
conceived, that, on republican principles, the People and their Rulers
cannot be so contradistinguished as separate bodies of men, as that
the former, alone, should be dependant on the latter; but that there
ought to be between them, as constituting jointly and collectively the
People, that “mutual dependance,” of which the ingenious Eulogist
speaks: otherwise, a privileged order of men must be considered as
actually existing among us. Yet, even in the monarchical republic of
Great Britain,[365] the business of government is not wholly “limited” to
“a privileged order of men:”[366] One branch of the legislative body is
popular; and one branch, also, of the judicial department of that
government, the institution of juries, is purely republican.
The learned professor, here referred to, is nevertheless an highly

estimable citizen of the American Republic, as his numerous and
important public services fully evince. In his “Address to the People
of the United States,” published shortly before the sitting of the
Federal Convention, he has pointed out two “errors or prejudices on
the subject of government in America, which,” as he very justly
observes, “lead to the most dangerous consequences.” The
correctness of his sentiments on the subject of those errors, does
him honour: such of his observations as are more particularly
applicable to the present subject, are contained in the following
passages.
“It is often said, that ‘the sovereign power and all other power is
seated in the people.’ This idea is unhappily expressed. It should be
—‘all power is derived from the people.’ They possess it only on the
days of their elections. After this, it is the property of their Rulers; nor
can they exercise or resume it, unless it is abused. It is of
importance to circulate this idea, as it tends to order and good
government.” And again:
“The people of America have mistaken the meaning of the word

Sovereignty: hence, each State pretends to be sovereign. In Europe,
it is applied only to those states, which possess the power of making
war and peace, of forming treaties, and the like. As this power
belongs only to Congress, they are the only sovereign power in the
United States.”
The Memorialist is persuaded, that Dr. Rittenhouse would have

fully concurred in this construction of the nature of sovereignty, in an
elective government: and he has been the more diffuse on this
subject, in order both to prevent and remove, as much as possible,
any misconceptions respecting the political opinions of our
Philosopher.
An unostentatious simplicity and strict integrity, with a due

proportion of dignity and firmness, in the administration of the public
affairs; a judicious economy, in the management and expenditure of
the public revenues; a zealous attention to the public interests and
the happiness of the people; a wise and faithful administration of
justice among the various members of the community, without any
invidious distinctions; a strict observance of good faith, in all relations
with foreign states; a sincere attachment to peace with its
concomitant blessings, and consequently, an abhorrence of
unnecessary wars, whether provoked, or undertaken, by means of
the cupidity or the ambition of rulers; these have been usually
considered, in theory, as characteristics of republican governments.
Greatly is it to be desired, that they may always prove to be so, in
fact.
That both the Rittenhouses, father and son, should be attached to

an order of things in the commonwealth, established and conducted
on the principles just mentioned, may be readily conceived from a
knowledge of their characters. To a system of civil polity, productive
of such substantial benefits to all those under its immediate
operation, Dr. Rittenhouse would naturally have been inclined: his
habits, manners and principles, would so dispose him. Hence, after
having indulged, for a moment, the pleasing but fanciful hypothesis,
that if the inhabitants of the other planets resemble man in their
faculties and affections; if, like him, they were created liable to fall,
though some of them might be presumed to retain their original
rectitude; he proceeds with supposing, “that they are wise enough to
govern themselves according to the dictates of that reason which
God has given them, in such manner as to consult their own and
each other’s happiness, upon all occasions. But if, on the contrary,”
said he, “they have found it necessary to erect artificial fabrics of
government, let us not suppose they have done it with so little skill,
and at such an enormous expence, as to render them a misfortune,
instead of a blessing. We will hope,” continues the philanthropic
Rittenhouse, “that their statesmen are patriots, and that their kings, if
that order of beings has found admittance there, have the feelings of
humanity.” He next deplores, in terms which evince the strength of
his feelings on the occasion, the folly as well as iniquity of holding
the Africans in bondage among us; national rapacity; the scourges of
war, then recently inflicted on the north of Europe; and, finally, he
deprecates in very impressive language, the inroads of “luxury, and
her constant follower, tyranny.”[367]
Dr. Rittenhouse having entertained such sentiments as these, at

the time he penned his Oration, and it will be recollected, that this
was only two or three months before hostilities had actually taken
place between Great-Britain and her North-American Colonies, he
was naturally enough induced to believe, that many of the political
evils which were, about that period, experienced in civil society by a
large portion of mankind, arose from the nature of their respective
governments. And, the principal states of Europe, with the exception
of the Dutch commonwealth, were then governed under the
monarchical form.
In the American continental colonies of Great-Britain, generally, it

was the prevalent opinion of the people at the commencement of the
revolution, that the grievances complained of by the colonists,
originated, almost as a matter of necessity, from the monarchical
spirit of the mother-country: consequently, many of those great
public evils which sprung from the genius, habits and pursuits, of the
people themselves, in the great monarchies of the old world, were
generally attributed to some peculiar vices inherent in that species of
government. It was the universality, almost, of these opinions; which
soon after obtained throughout the United Colonies, that produced a
determination in the people to establish, for themselves, republican
forms of government, as independent states. Such were accordingly
established; and the American people have long experienced their
efficiency in promoting the prosperity of the country.
Should it, nevertheless, unfortunately happen at any future period,

that the now existing national constitution should, by any means, be
perverted from its original design; should a system of government so
well planned—“in order to form a more perfect union, establish
justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence,
and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity;”[368]
should this well-defined Charter of American freedom, by means of
mal-administration or otherwise, eventually frustrate the patriotic
intentions of its illustrious framers; then, indeed, will the noblest effort
ever made by any people to institute a rational system of free
government, blast the best hopes of the advocates of republicanism.
In such event—which, may heaven avert! the often quoted couplet
would be too fatally verified, wherein the poet says:

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Notwithstanding Dr. Rittenhouse’s published writings are, for the

2. “Calculation of the Transit of Venus over the Sun, as it is to

3. An Account of the Transit of Mercury over the Sun, Nov. 9.

4. Observations on the Comet of June and July, 1770; with the

5. An easy method of deducing the True Time of the Sun’s passing

6. Account of the Terrestrial Measurement of the difference of