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Jain Cosmology

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Jain Cosmology

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Jain Cosmology

ABSTRACT
Jain cosmology is the description of the shape and functioning of the Universe (loka)
and its constituents (such as living beings, matter, space, time etc.) according
to Jainism. Jain cosmology considers the universe as an uncreated entity that has
existed since infinity with neither beginning nor end. Jain texts describe the shape of
the universe as similar to a man standing with legs apart and arm resting on his waist.
This Universe, according to Jainism, is broad at the top, narrow at the middle and once
again becomes broad at the bottom.

COSMOS: Moral rewards and sufferings are not the work of a divine being, but a result of an
innate moral order in the cosmos; a self-regulating mechanism whereby the individual reaps the
fruits of his own actions through the workings of the karmas.

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What is known and what is unknown: Saplabhangi : For instance, the word ‘unknowable’ is a
contradiction of its own sense. Herbert Spencer meant was that which could not be fully known,
not that which was wholly unknowable; for the mere fact that we know that there is a thing,
however unknowable be its attributes, removes it from the category of the unknowable or
unknown and puts it in that of the known.

The Jaina method is calculated to overcame this

difficulty. It maintains that full knowledge of a thing is possible only when it has been looked at
from all the different points of view which exhaust the categories of knowledge. For instance, to
know merely what a thing is, is not enough; we ought also to know what it is not. But as we are
not here concerned with the Saplabhangi. It only remains to be added that the ‘Key of

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Knowledge' does not blindly follow the teaching of any particular sect or creed, not even of
Jainism to which sublime and noble faith the author has the privilege of belonging by a happy
incident of birth. The views set out herein are based on a study of the nature of things, and the
interpretation of the scriptures of some of the prevailing religions has been undertaken only to
show that the impartial conclusions of reason are precisely those which have been set before men
in the form of doctrines and myths.

In dealing with the basic principles of religion it was not found necessary to go into a minute
analysis of all the existing religions of the world, inasmuch as a survey of the principles
underlying those actually dealt with sufficiently disposes of them all. Besides, a thorough
treatment of each religion separately would have swelled the bulk of any book beyond all
proportion, voluminous as this paper already is. 1

Godlines

Jainism does not teach the dependency on any supreme being for enlightenment. The Tirthankara
is a guide and teacher who points the way to enlightenment, but the struggle for enlightenment is
one's own. In Jainism, godliness is said to be the inherent quality of every soul (or every living
organism) characterizing infinite bliss, infinite power, Kevala Jnana (pure infinite knowledge),[3]
infinite perception, and perfect manifestations of (countably) infinite other attributes. There are
two possible views after this point. One is to look at the soul from the perspective of the soul
itself. This entails explanations of the properties of the soul, its exact structure, composition and
nature, the nature of various states that arise from it and their source attributes as is done in the
deep and arcane texts of Samayasāra, Niyamasara and Pravachanasara. Another view is to
consider things apart from the soul and its relationships with the soul. According to this view, the
qualities of a soul are subdued due to karmas of the soul. Karmas are the fundamental particles
of nature in Jainism. One who achieves this state of soul through right belief, right knowledge
and right conduct can be termed a god. This perfection of soul is called Kevalin. A god thus
becomes a liberated soul – liberated of miseries, cycles of rebirth, world, karmas and finally
liberated of body as well. This is called nirvana or moksha.

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Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation from all karmic bonding, one
must practice the ethical principles not only in thought, but also in words (speech) and action.
Such a practice through lifelong work towards oneself is regarded as observing the Mahavrata
("Great Vows").

Gods can be thus categorized into embodied gods also known as arihantas and non-embodied
formless gods who are called Siddhas. Jainism considers the devīs and devas to be souls who
dwell in heavens owing to meritorious deeds in their past lives. These souls are in heavens for a
fixed lifespan and even they have to undergo reincarnation as humans to achieve moksha.

Thus, there are infinite gods in Jainism, all equivalent, liberated, and infinite in the manifestation
of all attributes. The Self and karmas are separate substances in Jainism, the former living and
the latter non-living. The attainment of enlightenment and the one who exists in such a state, then
those who have achieved such a state can be termed gods. Therefore, beings (Arihant) who've
attained omniscience (kevala jnana) are worshipped as gods. The quality of godliness is one and
the same in all of them. Jainism is sometimes regarded as a transtheistic religion,[4] though it can
be atheistic or polytheistic based on the way one defines "God".

God in Jainism

In Jainism, godliness is said to be the inherent quality of every soul. This quality, however, is
subdued by the soul's association with karmic matter. All souls who have achieved the natural
state of infinite bliss, infinite knowledge (kevala jnana), infinite power and infinite perception
are regarded as God in Jainism. Jainism rejects the idea of a creator deity responsible for the
manifestation, creation, or maintenance of this universe. According to Jain doctrine, the universe
and its constituents (soul, matter, space, time, and principles of motion) have always existed. All
the constituents and actions are governed by universal natural laws and perfect soul, an
immaterial entity cannot create or affect a material entity like the universe.

Definition

From the essential perspective, the soul of every living organism is perfect in every way, is
independent of any actions of the organism, and is considered God or to have godliness. But the

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epithet of God is given to the soul in whom its properties manifest in accordance with its
inherent nature. There are countably infinite souls in the universe.

According to Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra (a major Jain text):

आप्तेनो च्छिनदोषेण सर्व ज्ञेनागमेशिना।

भशर्तव्यं शनयोगेन नान्यथा ह्याप्तता भर्े त्।।५।

In the nature of things the true God should be free from the faults and weaknesses of the
lower nature; [he should be] the knower of all things and the revealer of dharma; in no
other way can divinity be constituted.

क्षुच्छिपासाजराजरातक्ड जन्मान्तकभयस्मयााः।

न रागद्वे षमोहाश्च यस्याप्ताः स प्रकीर्त्वते ।।६।।

He alone who is free from hunger, thirst, senility, disease, birth, death, fear, pride, attachment,
aversion, infatuation, worry, conceit, hatred, uneasiness, sweat, sleep and surprise is called a
God.

Five supreme beings-Pañca-Parameṣṭhi

The five supreme beings are:

1. Arihant: The awakened souls who have attained keval gyan are considered as Arihant. The
24 Tirthankaraas or Jinas, the legendary founding figures of Jainism in the present time cycle
are Arihants. All Tirthankaras are Arihants but not all Arihants are Thirthankars
2. Siddha (Ashiri): The souls which have been liberated from the birth and death cycle.
3. Acarya
4. Upadhyaya ("Preceptors")
5. Muni or Jain monks
6. The five initials, viz. A+A+A+U+M are taken as forming the Aum syllable.
7. Five supreme beings[edit]
8. Obeisance to Pañca-Parameṣṭhi (five supreme beings)
9. Dravyasaṃgraha, a major Jain text, succinctly characterizes the five Supreme Beings (Pañca-
Parameṣṭhi.

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10. Definition of the World Teacher (Arhat) - verse 50.
11. Definition of the liberated souls (Siddha) - verses 51
12. Definition of the Chief Preceptor (Acarya) - verse 52.
13. Definition of the Preceptor (Upadhyaya) - verse 53.
14. Definition of the Ascetic (Sadhu) - verse 54.
15. Meditate on, recite or chant the sacred mantras, consisting of thirty-five, sixteen, six, five,
four, two and one letter(s), pronouncing the virtues of the five supreme beings (Pañca-
Parameṣṭhi). Besides, meditate on and chant other mantras as per the teachings of the
Preceptor (guru).
16. Arihant

Having destroyed the four inimical varieties of karmas (ghātiyā karmas), possessed of infinite
faith, happiness, knowledge and power, and housed in most auspicious body (paramaudārika
śarīra), that pure soul of the World Teacher (Arhat) should be meditated on.
— Dravyasaṃgraha depicting Pañca-Parameṣṭhi (five supreme beings) worthy of veneration as
per Jainism

In Jainism, the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi (Sanskrit for "five supreme beings") are a fivefold hierarchy
of religious authorities worthy of veneration. The five supreme beings are:

1. Arihant
2. Siddha
3. Acharya (Head of the monastic order)
4. Upadhyaya ("Preceptor of less advanced ascetics")
5. Muni or Jain monks

Arihant

A human being who conquers all inner passions and possesses infinite right knowledge (Kevala
Jnana) is revered as an arihant in Jainism.[5] They are also called Jinas (conquerors) or Kevalin
(omniscient beings). An arihant is a soul who has destroyed all passions, is totally unattached
and without any desire and hence is able to destroy the four ghātiyā karmas and attain kevala
jñāna, or omniscience. Such a soul still has a body and four aghātiyā karmas. Arihantas, at the

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end of their human life-span, destroy all remaining aghātiyā karmas and attain Siddhahood.
There are two kinds of kevalin or arihant:

 Sāmānya Kevalin–Ordinary victors, who are concerned with their own salvation.
 Tirthankara Kevalin–Twenty-four human spiritual guides (teaching gods), who show the
true path to salvation.

The word Tīrthaṅkara signifies the founder of a tirtha which means a fordable passage across a
sea. The Tirthankara show the "fordable path" across the sea of interminable births and deaths.
Jain philosophy divides the wheel of time in two halves, Utsarpiṇī or ascending time cycle and
avasarpiṇī, the descending time cycle. Exactly 24 Tirthankara are said to grace each half of the

Tīrthaṅkara

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Image of Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara (Photo:Samanar Hills)

cosmic time cycle. Rishabhanatha was the first Tirthankara and Mahavira was the last
Tirthankara of avasarpiṇī.

Tirthankara revive the fourfold order of Shraman, Shramani, Śrāvaka, and Śrāvika called
sangha. Tirthankara can be called teaching gods who teach the Jain philosophy. However it
would be a mistake to regard the tirthankara as gods analogous to the gods of the Hindu
pantheon despite the superficial resemblances between Jain and Hindu ways of worship.
Tirthankara, being liberated, are beyond any kind of transactions with the rest of the universe.
They are not the beings who exercise any sort of creative activity or who have the capacity or
ability to intervene in answers to prayers.

Tirthamkara-nama-karma is a special type of karma, bondage of which raises a soul to the

supreme status of a tirthankara.

Below are the details of the present 24 Tirthankars in the Bharatkshetra of Jambudweep.
1. Shri Rishabdev (Adinath)
Heaven before Birth : Sarvarthasiddha
Father : King Nabhi
Mother : Marudevi
Birthplace : Vinittanagari, Palitana
Complexion : Golden
Symbol : Ox / Bull

Chyavan : Shravan Sud 2

Janma : Vaisakh Sud 8
Diksha : Vaisakh Sud 9
Keval Gyan : Chaitra Sud 11
Moksha : Chaitra Sud 9

Mystery behind the name

From the time the child was conceived by his mother she had a strange and astonishing
enlightenment of wisdom and knowledge. She then decided to call the child Sumati or the one
with good wisdom.

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6. Shri Padmaprabhu
Heaven before Birth : Uvarimagraiveka
Father : Sridhara
Mother : Susima
Birthplace : Kausambi, Samet Shikhar
Complexion : Red
Symbol : Lotus bud
Height : 250 Dhanusha
Age : 3,000,000 Purva
Diksha Tree : Chhatra
Yaksha : Manovega or Manogupti
Yakshini : Kusuma and Syama
Place of Nirvana : Shikharji

Kalyanaks

Chyavan : Posh Vad 6

Janma : Asho Vad 12
Diksha : Asho Vad 13
Keval Gyan : Chaitra Sud 11
Moksha : Chaitra Sud 9

Mystery behind the name

When the Lord Padma was concieved by his mother, she had a desire to recline on the bed of the
Lotus flowers. One of the Gods, fulfilled her desire by creating a recliner made of lotus petals for
her. The child that was born also had the rosy complexion of a lotus flower. Hence he was called
Padma or the Lotus flower.
7. Shri Suparshvanath
Heaven before Birth : Madhyamagraiveka
Father : Pratishtharaja
Mother : Prithvi
Birthplace : Kausambi, Samet Shikhar
Complexion : Emerald
Symbol : Swastika
Height : 200 Dhanusha
Age : 2,000,000 Purva
Diksha Tree : Sirisha
Yaksha : Matanga and Santa
Yakshini : Varanandi and Kali
Place of Nirvana : Shikharji

Kalyanaks

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Chyavan : Shravan Vad 8
Janma : Jeth Sud 12
Diksha : Jeth Sud 13
Keval Gyan : Maha Vad 6
Moksha : Maha Vad 7

Mystery behind the name

The mother had a disease on both the sides, but when the Lord Supashva was conceived , she
was totally cured and became glittering like Gold. Thus the name was kept as Suparshva.
8. Shri Chandraprabhu Swami
Heaven before Birth : Vijayanta
Father : Mahasenaraja
Mother : Lakshmana
Birthplace : Chandrapura, Samet Shikhar
Complexion : White
Symbol : Moon
Height : 150 Dhanusha
Age : 1,000,000 Purva
Diksha Tree : Naga
Yaksha : Vijaya and Bhrikuti
Yakshini : Vijaya and Jvalamalini
Place of Nirvana : Shikharji

Chyavan : Chaitra Vad 6

Janma : Posh Vad 12
Diksha : Posh Vad 13
Keval Gyan : Magasar Vad 14
Moksha : Chaitra Vad 2

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Mystery behind the name

The father of Lord Sheetal was troubled with a malignant heat disease. The medications that he
was taking did not help him in any way. Since the conception of the child the father was instantly
relieved of his heat disease and hence they called the child Sheetal or the cool one.
11. Shri Shreyanshnath
Heaven before Birth : Achyutadevaloka
Father : Vishnuraja
Mother : Vishna
Birthplace : Simhapuri, Shikharji
Complexion : Golden
Symbol : Rhinocerous / Garuda
Height : 80 Dhanusha
Age : 8,400,000 common years
Diksha Tree : Tanduka
Yaksha : Yakshet
Yakshini : Manavi
Place of Nirvana : Shikharji

Kalyanaks

Chyavan : Vaisakh Vad 6

Janma : Maha Vad 12
Diksha : Maha Vad 13
Keval Gyan : Posh Vad Amaas
Moksha : Ashadh Vad 3

Mystery behind the name

The father of Lord Shreyans had a bed, which was the family heirloom that had been bestowed
by the gods. But whoever reclined on it would be greatly inconvenienced. When the child was
conceived the mother of the child had a great desire to recline on this bed and she did so. But the
gods did her no harm as they realized that she was bearing the Lord. The mother was saved due
to her being in family state. So she called her son Shreyans.
12. Shri Vasupujya Swami
Heaven before Birth : Pranatadevaloka
Father : Vasupujya
Mother : Jaya
Birthplace : Champapuri, Shikharji
Complexion : Ruddy
Symbol : Female buffalo
Height : 70 Dhanusha
Age : 7,200,000 common years

When the Lord Shanti was conceived there was an uprising that had been peacefully settled.
Also, all the diseases which were prevailing in the kingdom disappeared. Since then he came to
be known as Shanti or peace.
17. Shri Kunthunath
Heaven before Birth : Sarvarthasiddha
Father : Suraraja
Mother : Srirani

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Birthplace : Gajapura
Complexion : Golden
Symbol : Goat
Height : 35 Dhanusha
Age : 95,000 common years
Diksha Tree : Bhilaka
Yaksha : Gandharva
Yakshini : Bala; or Vijaya
Place of Nirvana : Samet Shikharji

Kalyanaks

Chyavan : Asadh Vad 9

Janma : Chaitra Vad 14
Diksha : Chaitra Vad 5
Keval Gyan : Chaitra Vad 5
Moksha : Chaitra Vad 1

Mystery behind the name

The mother of Lord Kunthu, one day saw a dream in which on a beautiful and fertile wide
expanse of land there was a huge dome of diamonds and she thus awakened from her sleep. And
thus she called her son Kunthu.
18. Shri Aranath
Heaven before Birth : Sarvarthasiddha
Father : Sudarsana
Mother : Devirani
Birthplace : Gajapura
Complexion : Golden
Symbol : Nandyavarta
Height : 30 Dhanusha
Age : 84,000 common years
Diksha Tree : Amba
Yaksha : Yaksheta
Yakshini : Dhana
Place of Nirvana : Samet Shikharji

Kalyanaks

Chyavan : Fagan Sud 2

Janma : Magsar Sud 10
Diksha : Magsar Sud 11
Keval Gyan : Kartik Sud 12

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Moksha : Magsar Sud 10

Mystery behind the name

When the Lord Aranath was conceived his mother in her dream saw a beautiful and huge chakra
with jewels which resulted in the growth of the dynasty. So his mother named him Aranath.
19. Shri Mallinath
Heaven before Birth : Jayantadevaloka
Father : Kumbharaja
Mother : Prabhavati
Birthplace : Mathura
Complexion : Blue
Symbol : Jar or Kalasa
Height : 25 Dhanusha
Age : 55,000 common years
Diksha Tree : Asoka
Yaksha : Kubera
Yakshini : Aparajita
Place of Nirvana : Samet Shikhar

Chyavan : Asho Sud 15

Janma : Ashadh Vad 8
Diksha : Jeth Vad 9
Keval Gyan : Magsar Sud 11
Moksha : Chaitra Vad 10

Mystery behind the name

When the child was conceived the kingdom of Lord Nami was invaded by the enemy. His
mother felt a desire to go on to the roof of the house and look down upon the enemy and due to
this with the effect of the child in the womb, the enemy was defeated. The child was hence called
Nami..

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22. Shri Neminath
Heaven before Birth : Aparajita
Father : Samudravijaya
Mother : Sivadevi
Birthplace : Ujjain
Complexion : Black
Symbol : Conch
Height : 10 Dhanusha
Age : 1,000 common years
Diksha Tree : Vetasa
Yaksha : Gomedha or Sarvahna
Yakshini : Ambika or Kushmandini
Place of Nirvana : Girnarji

Kalyanaks

Chyavan : Asho Vad 12

Janma : Shravan Sud 5
Diksha : Shravan Sud 6
Keval Gyan : Bhadarva Vad Amaas
Moksha : Ashadh Sud 8

Mystery behind the name

When the child was conceived the mother in her dream saw a huge diamond studded wheel
spinning. They decided to call the child Arishtanemi (also known as Neminath).
23. Shri Parshvanath
Heaven before Birth : Pranatadevaloka
Father : Asvasenaraja
Mother : Vamadevi
Birthplace : Varanasi
Complexion : Black
Symbol : Serpent or Snake
Height : 9 hands or cubits
Age : 100 common years
Diksha Tree : Dhataki
Yaksha : Dharanendra
Yakshini : Padmavati Mata
Place of Nirvana : Samet Shikharji

Kalyanaks

Chyavan : Fagan Vad 4

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Janma : Magsar Vad 10
Diksha : Magsar Vad 11
Keval Gyan : Fagan Vad 4
Moksha : Shravan Sud 8

Mystery behind the name

When the Lord conceived in his mother’s womb, one day while his parents were asleep in pitch
darkness, the mother felt that there was a seven headed snake passing by the bedside where they
were asleep. Drawing her husband’s arm away from where the snake was passing she saved his
life. She said that she could see the snake even in pitch darkness. This showed the power of the
embryo. Hence they called their child Parshva.

24. Shri Mahavir Swami

Mahavir Swami is called the 24th Tirthankara of the Jain tradition. There is nothing new in his
teachings. In the four pledges of Parshvanath, he added a fifth vow and that was - to live a life of
purity. His disciples used to roam naked so he was called Nirgranth. Like Buddha, Mahavir
Swami considered the purity of body and mind, non-violence and salvation as the ultimate
purpose of life. But his salvation is different from Buddha's nirvana. In Jainism, the soul's union
with the divine is considered salvation. Whereas in Buddhism, liberation from rebirth is nirvana.
Mahavir Swami preached these same principles for almost 30 years and at the age of 72, he gave
up his body in a place called Pavapuri near Rajgir.

Mahavir's teachings

Mahavir used to say that whoever wants to attain Jain nirvana should purify their conduct,
knowledge, and belief and must follow the five vows. There is great glory of tenacity in Jainism.
Fasting has also been seen as austerity. No human can be pure from inside without meditating,
fasting and meditating. If he wants the salvation of his own soul, he has to meditate, fast and
meditates. Mahavir insisted on complete non-violence and since then "Ahimsa Paramo Dharma"
came to be considered as a cardinal principle in Jainism. Digambar and Shwetambar

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Nearly 300 BC Jainism got divided into two sects - Digambara and Shvetambara. Digambar
worships the naked idol and Shwetambar dresses his idols in white. According to the 2011
census, there are 44 lakh 51 thousand followers of Jainism in India. They are counted among the
rich and affluent class. Most of the people of Jainism belong to the merchant class. Jainism was
not propagated among all people because its rules were tough. The kings adopted and propagated
Jainism. Most Vaishya classes adopted Jainism. The great scholars Mahatma have also joined the
followers of Jainism.

24. Mahaveer Swami

Other Vīr, Ativīr, Vardhamāna, Sanmati, Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta

names

Venerated Jainism
in

Predecessor Bhagwan Parshvanatha

Symbol Lion

Height 7 cubits (10.5 feet)

Age 72 years

Tree Shala

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Complexion Golden

Personal Information

Born 6th century BCE (historical)

c. 599 BCE (traditional)
Kundalpur, Present-day Nalanda district, Bihar, India

Moksha 5th century BCE (historical)

c. 527 BCE (traditional)
Pawapuri, Present-day Bihar, India

Parents  Siddhartha (father)

 Trishala (mother)

Birthplace Kundalpur (Nalanda-Bihar)

Father King Siddharth
Mother Queen Trishala
Caste (Varna) Kshatriya
Dynasty Nath
Body Colour Golden
Symbol Lion
Age 72 Years
Body Occupancy 7 Hands
Incarnation (in womb) Asharh Shukla 6
Birth Chaitra Shukla 13
Initiation Magsir Krishna 10
Omniscience Forest & Tree-Shand Forest & Sal (Shorea Robusta)
Initiation
Tree
First Food Given By King Vakul Of Kool Village (Kheer)
Special Food Given By Mahasati Chandna In Kaushambi (Kheer)
Omniscience Vaishakh Shukla 10
Veershasan Jayanti Shravan Krishna 1 (Day of Lord's First Holy Preaching At Rajgrihi)
Salvation Kartik Krishna 15
Salvation Place Pavapuri
Chief Disciples
11 (Shri Indrabhuti etc.)
(Gandhars)
Saints (Munis) 14 Thousand
Chief Aryika (Ganini) Aryika Chandana
Female saints (Aryikas) 36 Thousand
Male Votaries 1 Lacs

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Female Votaries 3 Lacs
Male Demigod Matang Dev
Female Demigod Siddhayini Devi

PANCH KALYANAKA of 24 TIRTHANKAR

Sr. Tirthankar Chyavan Janma Diksha Keval Moksha

No: Gyan

1 Shri Aadinath Jeth Fagan Fagan Maha Vad Posh Vad

Vad 4 Vad 8 Vad 8 11 13

2 Shri Ajitnath Vaisakh Maha Maha Posh Sud Chaitra

Sud 13 Sud 8 Sud 9 11 Sud 5

3 Shri Fagan Magsar Magasar Asho Vad Chaitra

Sambhavnath Sud 8 Sud 14 Sud 15 5 Sud 5

4 Shri Vaisakh Maha Maha Posh Sud Vaisakh

Abhinandan Sud 4 Sud 2 Sud 12 14 Sud 8
Swami

5 Shri Shravan Vaisakh Vaisakh Chaitra Chaitra

Sumatinath Sud 2 Sud 8 Sud 9 Sud 11 Sud 9

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6 Shri Padma Posh Asho Vad Asho Chaitra Chaitra
Prabh Swami Vad 6 12 Vad 13 Sud 11 Sud 9

7 Shri Shravan Jeth Sud Jeth Sud Maha Vad Maha

Suparshvanath Vad 8 12 13 6 Vad 7

8 Shri Chandra Fagan Magasar Magasar Maha Vad Shravan

Prabh Swami Vad 5 Vad 12 Vad 13 7 Vad 7

9 Shri Suvidhi Maha Kartak Kartak Kartak Bhadarva

Nath Vad 9 Vad 5 Vad 6 Sud 3 Sud 9

10 Shri Shitalnath Chaitra Posh Vad Posh Magasar Chaitra

Vad 6 12 Vad 13 Vad 14 Vad 2

11 Shri Vaisakh Maha Maha Posh Vad Ashadh

Shreyansnath Vad 6 Vad 12 Vad 13 Amaas Vad 3

12 Shri Vasupujya Jeth Sud Maha Maha Maha Sud Asadh

Swami 9 Vad 14 Vad 2 Sud 14
Amaas

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13 Shri Vimalnath Vaisakh Maha Maha Posh Sud Jeth Vad
Sud 12 Sud 3 Sud 4 6 7

14 Shri Anantnath Asadh Chaitra Chaitra Chaitra Chaitra

Vad 7 Vad 13 Vad 14 Vad 14 Sud 5

15 Shri Vaisakh Maha Maha Posh sud Jeth Sud

Dharmanath Sud 7 Sud 3 Sud 12 15 5

16 Shri Shantinath Shravan Vaishakh Vaiskh Posh Sud Vaisakh

Vad 7 Vad 13 Vad 14 9 Vad 13

17 Shri Asadh Chaitra Chaitra Chaitra Chaitra

Kunthunath Vad 9 Vad 14 Vad 5 Vad 5 Vad 1

18 Shri Arnath Fagan Magsar Magsar Kartik Magsar

Sud 2 Sud 10 Sud 11 Sud 12 Sud 10

19 Shri Mallinath Fagan Magsar Magsar Magsar Fagan

Sud 4 Sud 11 Sud 11 Sud 11 Sud 12

20 Shri Muni Shravan Vaisakh Fagan Shravan Vaisakh

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Suvrat Swami Sud 15 Vad 8 Sud 12 Vad 12 Vad 9

21 Shri Naminath Asho Ashadh Jeth Vad Magsar Chaitra

Sud 15 Vad 8 9 Sud 11 Vad 10

22 Shri Neminath Asho Shravan Shravan Bhadarva Ashadh

Vad 12 Sud 5 Sud 6 Vad Sud 8
Amaas

23 Shri Fagan Magsar Magsar Fagan Shravan

Parsvanath Vad 4 Vad 10 Vad 11 Vad 4 Sud 8

24 Shri Mahavir Asadh Chaitra Kartak Vaisakh Asho Vad

Swami Sud 6 Sud 13 Vad 10 Sud 10 Amaas

Although the siddhas (the liberated beings) are formless and without a body, this is how the Jain temples
often depict them. Previous pic

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Ultimately all arihantas become siddhas, or liberated souls, at the time of their nirvana. A
siddha is a soul who is permanently liberated from the transmigratory cycle of birth and death.
Such a soul, having realized its true self, is free from all the Karmas and embodiment. They are
formless and dwell in Siddhashila (the realm of the liberated beings) at the apex of the universe
in infinite bliss, infinite perception, infinite knowledge and infinite energy.
The Acharanga Sutra 1.197 describes siddhas in this way:

The liberated soul is not long nor small nor round nor triangular nor quadrangular nor circular; it
is not black nor blue nor red nor green nor white; neither of good nor bad smell; not bitter nor
pungent nor astringent nor sweet; neither rough nor soft; neither heavy nor light; neither cold nor
hot; neither harsh nor smooth; it is without body, without resurrection, without contact (of
matter), it is not feminine nor masculine nor neuter. The siddha perceives and knows all, yet is
beyond comparison. Its essence is without form; there is no condition of the unconditioned. It is
not sound, not colour, not smell, not taste, not touch or anything of that kind. As per the Jain
cosmology Siddhahood is the ultimate goal of all souls. There are infinite souls who have
become siddhas and infinite more who will attain this state of liberation. According to Jainism,
Godhood is not a monopoly of some omnipotent and powerful being(s). All souls, with right
perception, knowledge and conduct can achieve self-realisation and attain this state. Once
achieving this state of infinite bliss and having destroyed all desires, the soul is not concerned
with worldly matters and does not interfere in the working of the universe, as any activity or
desire to interfere will once again result in influx of karmas and thus loss of liberation.
Jains pray to these passionless Gods not for any favors or rewards but rather pray to the qualities
of the God with the objective of destroying the karmas and achieving the Godhood. This is best
understood by the term vandetadgunalabhdhaye – i.e. "we pray to the attributes of such Gods to
acquire such attributes"

According to Anne Vallely: 2

Jainism is not a religion of coming down. In Jainism it is we who must go up. We only have to
help ourselves. In Jainism we have to become God. That is the only thing.

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Devas

Symbolic depiction of Saṃsāra( RIGHT)

Idol of Padmāvatī devī, śāsanadevī of Lord Parshvanatha at Walkeshwar Temple. She is one of
the most popular demi-goddess amongst the Jains. According to Digambar Terapanth, worship of
such deities is considered as mithyātva or wrong belief. However, in the Bispanthi Digambar
tradition and the Shwetambar tradition, Padmavati is a popular Jain goddess.
Jain cosmology offers an elaborate description of heavenly beings (devas), but these beings are
neither viewed as creators nor are they immortal; they are subject to suffering and change like all
other living beings, and must eventually die. In this way, they are similar to the devas of
Buddhism. English-language material tends to retain the term "deva" or describe these beings as
"deities", "gods" and "goddesses.”
Jainism describes existence of śāsanadevatās and śāsanadevīs, the attendants of a Tirthankara,
who create the samavasarana or the divine preaching assembly of a Tirthankara. Such heavenly
beings are classified as:-
 Bhavanapatis – Devas dwelling in abodes
 Vyantaras – Intermediary devas
 Jyotiṣkas – Luminaries
 Vaimānikas – Astral devas
The souls on account of accumulation of meritorious karmas reincarnate in heavens as devas.
Although their life span is quite long, after their merit karmas are exhausted, they once again

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have to reincarnate back into the realms of humans, animals or hells depending on their karmas.
As these devas themselves are not liberated, they have attachments and passions and hence not
worthy of worship.
Ācārya Hemachandra decries the worship of such devas:
These heavenly beings (devas above) tainted with attachment and passion; having women and
weapons by their side, favour some and disfavour some; Such heavenly beings (devas) should
not be worshipped by those who desire emancipation.
Worship of such devas is considered as mithyatva or wrong belief leading to bondage of karmas.
Jain opposition to creationism
Jain scriptures reject God as the creator of the universe. Further, it asserts that no God is
responsible or causal for actions in the life of any living organism. Ācārya Hemacandra in the
12th century put forth the Jain view of the universe in the Yogaśāstra:
This universe is not created nor sustained by anyone; It is self-sustaining, without any base or
support

According to Jain doctrine, the universe and its constituents—soul, matter, space, time, and
principles of motion—have always existed. Jainism does not support belief in a creator deity. All
the constituents and actions are governed by universal natural laws. It is not possible to create
matter out of nothing and hence the sum total of matter in the universe remains the same (similar

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to law of conservation of mass). Jain text claims that the universe consists of jiva (life force or

Pic of Mahavir Swamy the 24 th Tirthankar from beginning of 1900

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souls) and ajiva (lifeless objects). The soul of each living being is unique and uncreated and has
existed during beginningless time.
The Jain theory of causation holds that a cause and its effect are always identical in nature and
hence a conscious and immaterial entity like God cannot create a material entity like the
universe. Furthermore, according to the Jain concept of divinity, any soul who destroys its
karmas and desires achieves liberation (nirvana). A soul who destroys all its passions and desires
has no desire to interfere in the working of the universe. Moral rewards and sufferings are not the
work of a divine being, but a result of an innate moral order in the cosmos: a self-regulating
mechanism whereby the individual reaps the fruits of his own actions through the workings of
the karmas.
Through the ages, Jain philosophers have rejected and opposed the concept of creator and
omnipotent God and this has resulted in Jainism being labeled as nastika darsana or atheist
philosophy by the rival religious philosophies. The theme of non-creationism and absence of
omnipotent God and divine grace runs strongly in all the philosophical dimensions of Jainism,
including its cosmology, karma, moksa and its moral code of conduct. Jainism asserts a religious
and virtuous life is possible without the idea of a creator god.
Besides scriptural authority, Jains also resorted to syllogism and deductive reasoning to refute
the creationist theories. Various views on divinity and the universe held by the Vedics,
samkhyas, mīmāṃsās, Buddhists and other schools of thought were analyzed, debated and
repudiated by various Jain Ācāryas. However, the most eloquent refutation of this view is
provided by Ācārya Jinasena in Mahāpurāna, which was quoted by Carl Sagan in his 1980 book
Cosmos.

1. Some foolish men declare that creator made the world. The doctrine that the world was
created is ill advised and should be rejected.
2. If God created the world, where was he before the creation? If you say he was
transcendent then and needed no support, where is he now? How could God have made
this world without any raw material? If you say that he made this first, and then the
world, you are faced with an endless regression.
3. If you declare that this raw material arose naturally you fall into another fallacy, for the
whole universe might thus have been its own creator, and have arisen quite naturally.
4. If God created the world by an act of his own will, without any raw material, then it is
just his will and nothing else — and who will believe this silly nonsense?
5. If he is ever perfect and complete, how could the will to create have arisen in him? If, on
the other hand, he is not perfect, he could no more create the universe than a potter could.

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6. If he is form-less, action-less and all-embracing, how could he have created the world?
Such a soul, devoid of all modality, would have no desire to create anything.
7. If he is perfect, he does not strive for the three aims of man, so what advantage would he
gain by creating the universe?
8. If you say that he created to no purpose because it was his nature to do so, then God is
pointless. If he created in some kind of sport, it was the sport of a foolish child, leading to
trouble.
9. If he created because of the karma of embodied beings (acquired in a previous creation),
then he is not the Almighty Lord, but subordinate to something else.
10. If out of love for living beings and need of them he made the world, why did he not make
creation wholly blissful free from misfortune?
11. If he were transcendent he would not create, for he would be free: Nor if involved in
transmigration, for then he would not be almighty. Thus the doctrine that the world was
created by God makes no sense at all.
12. And God commits great sin in slaying the children whom he himself created. If you say
that he slays only to destroy evil beings, why did he create such beings in the first place?
13. Good men should combat the believer in divine creation, maddened by an evil doctrine.
Know that the world is uncreated, as time itself is, without beginning or end, and is based
on the principles, life and rest. Uncreated and indestructible, it endures under the
compulsion of its own nature.

Saṃsāra (Jainism)
Saṃsāra (transmigration) in Jain philosophy, refers to the worldly life characterized by
continuous rebirths and reincarnations in various realms of existence. Saṃsāra is described as
mundane existence, full of suffering and misery and hence is considered undesirable and worth
renunciation. The Saṃsāra is without any beginning and the soul finds itself in bondage with its
karma since the beginning-less time. Moksha is the only way to be liberated from saṃsāra.
Influx of karmas (asrava
According to the Jain text, Tattvartha sutra:
(There are two kinds of influx, namely) that of persons with passions, which extends
transmigration, and that of persons free from passions, which prevents or shortens it.
— Tattvārthsūtra (6-4-81)[
Activities that lead to the influx of karmas (asrava) which extends transmigration are:[2]
 Five senses
 Four passions (kasāya)
o Anger
o Ego
o Deceit

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o Greed
 The non-observance of the five vows
 Non-observance of the twenty-five activities like Righteousness
Saṃsāra bhavanā
Jain texts prescribe meditation on twelve forms of reflection (bhāvanā) for those who wish to
stop the above described asrava.[3] One such reflection is Saṃsāra bhavanā.
It has been described in one of the Jain text, Sarvārthasiddhi as:
Transmigration is the attainment of another birth by the self owing to the ripening of karmas.
The five kinds of whirling round have been described already. He, who wanders in the endless
cycle of births and deaths, undergoing millions of afflictions in innumerable wombs and
families, takes different relationships such as father, brother, son, grandson, etc, or mother, sister,
wife, daughter and so on, being propelled by the mechanism of karmas. The master becomes
servant and the servant master, just as an actor acts several parts on the stage. To be brief,
sometimes one becomes one’s own son. There is no end to the transformations undergone by the
self owing to the influence of karmas. Thus to reflect on the nature of mundane existence is
contemplation on worldly existence. He who contemplates thus is alarmed at the miseries of
transmigration and becomes disgusted with worldly existence. And he who is disgusted with it
endeavours to free himself from it.
Champat Rai Jain, a 20th-century Jain writer in his book The Practical Dharma wrote:
Endless is the cycle of transmigration; painful is every form of life; there is no happiness in any
of the four conditions of existence; devas, human beings, animals and residents of hells are all
involved in pain and misery of some kind or other; moksha alone is blissful and free from pain;
the wise should, therefore, only aspire for moksha; all other conditions are temporary and
painful."

Kāla is a word used in Sanskrit to mean "time".It is also the name of a deity, in which sense it is
not always distinguishable from kāla, meaning "black". It is often used as one of the various
names or forms of Yama. But in Jainism, Kāla (काल) refers to a class of piśāca deities
according to both the Digambara and Śvetāmbara traditions of Jainism. The piśācas refer to a
category of vyantaras gods which represents one of the four classes of celestial beings (devas).

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The deities such as Kālas are defined in ancient Jain cosmological texts such as the
Saṃgrahaṇīratna in the Śvetāmbara tradition or the Tiloyapaṇṇati by Yativṛṣabha (5th century)
in the Digambara tradition. Kāla participated in the war between Rāma and Rāvaṇa, on the side
of the latter, as mentioned in Svayambhūdeva’s Paumacariu (Padmacarita, Paumacariya or
Rāmāyaṇapurāṇa) chapter 57ff. Svayambhū or Svayambhūdeva (8th or 9th century) was a Jain
householder who probably lived in Karnataka. His work recounts the popular Rāma story as
known from the older work Rāmāyaṇa (written by Vālmīki). Various chapters [mentioning Kāla]
are dedicated to the humongous battle whose armies (known as akṣauhiṇīs) consisted of millions
of soldiers, horses and elephants, etc.
What is the meaning of ‘continuity /time’ (kāla)? Duration of the existence of an entity is called
time.
According to Tattvārthasūtra 1.8, “the categories and their details are undefrstood in detail in
terms of existence, number (enumeration), place or abode, extent of space touched (pervasion),
continuity /time (kāla), interval of time, thought-activity, and reciprocal comparison”.Kāla refers
to one of the two Indras (lords) of the Piśāca class of “peripatetic celestial beings” (vyantara),
itself a main division of devas (celestial beings) according to the 2nd-century Tattvārthasūtra 4.6.
Kāla and Mahākāla are the two lords in the class ‘goblin’ peripatetic celestial beings.

According to the 2nd-century Tattvārthasūtra 5.21.—Now many types of time (kāla) are there?
There are two types of time, namely transcendental and practical time. What are the
characteristics of the transcendental and practical types of time? The characteristic of
transcendental time is vartanā. The characteristics of practical time are pariṇāma, kriyā, paratva
and aparatva. How many types of practical time are there? It is of three types namely past,
present and future.
According to, “time (kāla) also is a substance (dravya)”. What is duration of the substance time
(kāla)? It is of infinite period duration. Why is time also said to be substance? Time is called a
substance because all the characteristics of a substance are found in it. What is the peculiar
characteristic of time? Hour, minutes etc are the characteristics of practical time while its ability
to support change /transformation of all other substances is the characteristic from transcendental
viewpoint. What are the distinguishing and generic attributes of time? Ability to support change
/transformation of all other substances is its distinguishing attribute while absence of

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consciousness, taste, touch etc are its generic attributes long with all the generic attributes of a
substance.
Jainism is an Indian religion of Dharma whose doctrine revolves around harmlessness (ahimsa)
towards every living being. The two major branches (Digambara and Svetambara) of Jainism
stimulate self-control (or, shramana, ‘self-reliance’) and spiritual development through a path of
peace for the soul to progess to the ultimate goal.
Etymology
Monier-Williams's widely used Sanskrit-English dictionary lists two distinct words with the form
kāla.
 kāla 1 means "black, of a dark colour, dark-blue ..." and has a feminine form ending in ī –
kālī – as mentioned in Pāṇini 4–1, 42.
 kālá 2 means "a fixed or right point of time, a space of time, time ... destiny, fate ...
death" and has a feminine form (found at the end of compounds) ending in ā, as
mentioned in the ṛgveda Prātiśākhya. As a traditional Hindu unit of time, one kālá
corresponds to 144 seconds.
According to Monier-Williams, kāla 2 is from the verbal root kal "to calculate", while the root of
kāla 1 is uncertain, though possibly the same.
As a deity

Head of Kala carved on top of Jabung temple niche, East Java, Indonesia.

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As applied to gods and goddesses in works such as the Devī Māhātmya and the Skanda Purāṇa,
kāla 1 and kāla 2 are not readily distinguishable. Thus Wendy Doniger, translating a
conversation between Śiva and Pārvatī from the Skanda Purāṇa, says Mahākāla may mean " 'the
Great Death' ... or 'the Great Black One' ". And Swāmī Jagadīśvarānanda, a Hindu translator of
the Devī Māhātmya, renders the feminine compound kāla-rātri (where rātri means "night") as
"dark night of periodic dissolution". As Time personified, destroying all things, Kala is a god of
death sometimes identified with Yama.
In the epics and the Puranas
Kala appears as an impersonal deity within the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the Bhagavata
Purana. In the Mahabharata, Krishna, one of the main characters, reveals his identity as Time
personified. He states to Arjuna that both sides on the battlefield of the Kurukshetra War have
already been annihilated. At the end of the epic, the entire Yadu dynasty (Krishna's family) is
similarly annihilated. The story ends with Yudhishthira, the last of the Pandava brothers, entering
Heaven in his human form, thereby closing the link. In Heaven, Yudi sees everyone within the
story, both people whom he hated, and people whom he loved, and is happy to see them all. He
then sees their transcendent cosmic forms, Krishna as Vishnu, Draupadi as uma, and realizes that
the participants in the play were merely gods in human form, engaging in pastimes and working
out their karma. Yudi then abandons his bitterness and spends the rest of eternity in Heaven, it is
a happy ending.
Kala appears in the Uttara Kanda of the Ramayana, as the messenger of Death (Yama). At the
end of the story, Time, in the form of inevitability or necessity, informs Rama that his reign on
Earth is now over. By a trick or dilemma, he forces the death of Lakshmana, and informs Rama
that he must return to the realm of the gods. Lakshmana willingly passes away with Rama's
blessing and Rama returns to Heaven.
Time appears in the Bhagavata Purana as the force that is responsible for the imperceptible and
inevitable change in the entire creation. According to the Purana, all created things are illusory,
and thereby subject to creation and annihilation, this imperceptible and inconceivable
impermanence is said to be due to the march of Time. Similarly, Time is considered to be the
unmanifest aspect of God that remains after the destruction of the entire world at the end of a
lifespan of Brahma.

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In the Chaitanya Bhagavata, a Gaudiya Vaishnavist text and biography of Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu, it is said that the fire that emerges from the mouth of Sankarshana at the End of
Time is the Kālānala, or "fire of Time".[6] One of the names of Sankarshana is kālāgni, also "fire
of Time".
The Vishnu Purana also states that Time (kala) is one of the four primary forms of Vishnu, the
others being matter (Pradhana), visible substance (vyakta), and Spirit (Purusha).
In the Bhagavad Gita
At Bhagavad Gita 11.32, Krishna takes on the form of kāla, the destroyer, announcing to Arjuna
that all the warriors on both sides will be killed, apart from the Pandavas:
कालो ऽच्छस्म लोकक्षयकृत् प्रवृद्धो लोकान् समाहततु म् इह प्रवृत्तः ।
This verse means: "Time (kāla) I am, the great destroyer of the worlds, and I have come here to
destroy all people”. This phrase is famous for being quoted by J. Robert Oppenheimer as he
reflected on the Manhattan Project's explosion of the first nuclear bomb in 1945.
In other cultures
In Javanese mythology, Batara Kala is the god of destruction. It is a very huge mighty and
powerful god depicted as giant, born of the sperm of Shiva, the kings of gods.
In Borobudur, the gate to the stairs is adorned with a giant head, making the gate look like the
open mouth of the giant. Many other gates in Javanese traditional buildings have this kind of
ornament. Perhaps the most detailed Kala Face in Java is on the south side of Candi Kalasan.
As a Substance

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Logarithmic scale of time used in Jain texts.
In Jainism, Kāla (Time) is infinite and is explained in two different ways:
 The measure of duration, known in the form of hours, days, like that.
 The cause of the continuity of function of things.

kalachakras in Jainism
However Jainism recognizes a very small measurement of time known as samaya which is an
infinitely small part of a second. There are cycles (kalachakras) in it. Each cycle having two eras
of equal duration described as the avasarpini and the utsarpini.
Surya Siddhanta
Surya Siddhanta is a Hindu text on astronomy. Above is verse 1.1, which pays homage to
Brahma.
The Surya Siddhanta is the name of a Sanskrit treatise in Indian astronomy. The text has been
updated several times in the past and the earliest update was found to be made in 8th millennium
BCE. Using computer simulation, a match for the Surya Siddhanta latitudinal data was obtained
in the time frame of 7300-7800 BCE.[2] The last update took place in the vicinity of 580 CE

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when Nakshatra data appears to have been updated by adding a fixed precessional increment to
all longitudes. Narayanan (2011) showed that for determining the Sun’s longitude, the pulsating
Indian epicycle is far more accurate than the Greek eccentric-epicycle model and that the
pulsating Indian epicycle for the Sun becomes progressively more accurate as one goes back in
time. Peak accuracy, of about 1 minute of arc, is reached around 5200 BCE. This led him to the
timing of 5000-5500BCE when the current values of the Sūrya-siddhānta’s pulsating epicycle
parameters for the Sun appear to have been set. As per the second verse of the chapter 1 of
Surya Siddhanta, Maya Asura is the original author of the text. It has fourteen chapters.
The Surya Siddhanta describes rules to calculate the motions of various planets and the moon
relative to various constellations, diameters of various planets, and calculates the orbits of
various astronomical bodies. The text asserts, according to Markanday and Srivatsava, that the
earth is of a spherical shape.[5] It treats earth as stationary globe around which sun orbits, and
makes no mention of Uranus, Neptune or Pluto. It calculates the earth's diameter to be 8,000
miles (modern: 7,928 miles), diameter of moon as 2,400 miles (actual ~2,160) and the distance
between moon and earth to be 258,000 miles (actual ~238,000). The text is known for some of
earliest known discussion of sexagesimal fractions and trigonometric functions.
The Surya Siddhanta is one of the several astronomy-related Hindu texts. It represents a
functional system that made reasonably accurate predictions. The text was influential on the
solar year computations of the luni-solar Hindu calendar.
Textual history
In a work called the Pañca-siddhāntikā composed in the sixth century by Varāhamihira, five
astronomical treatises are named and summarised: Paulīśa-siddhānta, Romaka-siddhānta,
Vasiṣṭha-siddhānta, Sūrya-siddhānta, and Paitāmaha-siddhānta. The surviving version of the
text is dated to about the 6th-century BCE by Markandaya and Srivastava. Most scholars,
however, had placed the text variously from the 4th-century to 5th-century CE. But this was the
period when latest update to Surya Siddhanta was made with one of the earliest update being
made in 8th millennium BCE.
According to John Bowman, another version of the text existed wherein it referenced
sexagesimal fractions and trigonometric functions, but the text was a living document and
revised through about the 10th-century. One of the evidence for the Surya Siddhanta being a
living text is the work of Indian scholar Utpala, who cites and then quotes ten verses from a

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version of Surya Siddhanta, but these ten verses are not found in any surviving manuscripts of
the text.[18] According to Kim Plofker, large portions of the more ancient Sūrya-siddhānta was
incorporated into the Panca siddhantika text.[19][10] Some scholars refer to Panca siddhantika as
the old Surya Siddhanta.
Vedic influence
The Surya Siddhanta is a text on astronomy and time keeping, an idea that appears much earlier
as the field of Jyotisha (Vedanga) of the Vedic period. The field of Jyotisha deals with
ascertaining time, particularly forecasting auspicious day and time for Vedic rituals. [21] Max
Muller, quoting passages by Garga and others, states that the ancient Vedic texts describe four
measures of time – savana, solar, lunar and sidereal, as well as twenty seven constellations using
Taras (stars). According to Pingree, the idea of twenty eight constellations and movement of
astronomical bodies already appears in the Hindu text Atharvaveda.
Similarities with Greek astronomy
It is hypothesized that there were cultural contacts between the Indian and Greek astronomers via
cultural contact with Hellenistic Greece, specifically regarding the work of Hipparchus (2nd-
century BCE). There were some similarities between Surya Siddhanta and Greek astronomy in
Hellenistic period. For example, Surya Siddhanta provides table of sines function which parallel
the Hipparchus table of chords, though the Indian calculations are more accurate and detailed.
According to Alan Cromer, the knowledge share with Greeks may have occurred by about 100
BCE.
Astronomical calculations: Estimated time per sidereal revolution.

Planet Surya Siddhanta Ptolemy 20th-century

Mangala 686 days, 23 hours, 56 686 days, 23 hours, 31 686 days, 23 hours, 30
(Mars) mins, 23.5 secs mins, 56.1 secs mins, 41.4 secs

Budha 87 days, 23 hours, 16 mins, 87 days, 23 hours, 16 87 days, 23 hours, 15

(Mercury) 22.3 secs mins, 42.9 secs mins, 43.9 secs

Bṛhaspati 4,332 days, 7 hours, 41 4,332 days, 18 hours, 9 4,332 days, 14 hours, 2
(Jupiter) mins, 44.4 secs mins, 10.5 secs mins, 8.6 secs

Shukra 224 days, 16 hours, 45 224 days, 16 hours, 51 224 days, 16 hours, 49

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(Venus) mins, 56.2 secs mins, 56.8 secs mins, 8.0 secs

10,765 days, 18 hours, 33 10,758 days, 17 hours, 48 10,759 days, 5 hours, 16

Shani (Saturn)
mins, 13.6 secs mins, 14.9 secs mins, 32.2 secs
The influence of Greek ideas on early medieval era Indian astronomical theories, particularly
zodiac symbols (astrology), is broadly accepted by scholars.[23] According to Jayant Narlikar, the
Vedic literature lacks astrology, the idea of nine planets and any theory that stars or constellation
may affect an individual's destiny. One of the manuscripts of the Surya Siddhanta mentions deva
Surya telling asura Maya to go to Rome with this knowledge I give you in the form of Yavana
(Greek), states Narlikar.[26] The astrology field likely developed in the centuries after the arrival
of Greek astrology with Alexander the Great, their zodiac signs being nearly identical. [21]
According to Pingree, the 2nd-century CE cave inscriptions of Nasik mention sun, moon and five
planets in the same order as found in Babylon, but "there is no hint, however, that the Indian had
learned a method of computing planetary positions in this period". [30] In the 2nd-century CE, a
scholar named Yavanesvara translated a Greek astrological text, and another unknown individual
translated a second Greek text into Sanskrit. Thereafter started the diffusion of Greek and
Babylonian ideas on astronomy and astrology into India, states Pingree. [30] The other evidence of
European influential on the Indian thought is Romaka Siddhanta, a title of one of the Siddhanta
texts contemporary to Surya Siddhanta, a name that betrays its origin and probably was derived
from a translation of a European text by Indian scholars in Ujjain, then the capital of an
influential central Indian large kingdom.
According to John Roche – a professor of Mathematics with publications on the history of
measurement, the astronomical and mathematical methods developed by Greeks related arcs to
chords of spherical trigonometry. The Indian mathematical astronomers, in their texts such as
Surya Siddhanta developed other linear measures of angles, made their calculations differently,
"introduced the versine, which is the difference between the radius and cosine, and discovered
various trigonometrical identities. For instance, states Roche, "where the Greeks had adopted 60
relative units for the radius, and 360 for circumference", the Indians chose 3,438 units and
60x360 for the circumference thereby calculating the "ratio of circumference to diameter [pi, π]
of about 3.1414.
The tradition of Hellenistic astronomy ended in the West after Late Antiquity. According to
Cromer, the Surya Siddhanta and other Indian texts reflect the primitive state of Greek science,

44
nevertheless played an important part in the history of science, through its translation in Arabic
and stimulating the Arabic sciences. According to a study by Dennis Duke that compares Greek
models with Indian models based on the oldest Indian manuscripts such as the Surya Siddhanta
with fully described models, the Greek influence on Indian astronomy is strongly likely to be
pre-Ptolemaic.
The Surya Siddhanta was one of the two books in Sanskrit translated into Arabic in the later half
of the eighth century during the reign of Abbasid caliph Al-Mansur. According to Muzaffar
Iqbal, this translation and that of Aryabhatta was of considerable influence on geographic,
astronomy and related Islamic scholarship.
Contents

The contents of the Surya Siddhanta is written in classical Indian poetry tradition, where
complex ideas are expressed lyrically with a rhyming meter in the form of a terse shloka .This
method of expressing and sharing knowledge made it easier to remember, recall, transmit and
preserve knowledge. However, this method also meant secondary rules of interpretation, because
numbers don't have rhyming synonyms. The creative approach adopted in the Surya Siddhanta
was to use symbolic language with double meanings. For example, instead of one, the text uses a
word that means moon because there is one moon. To the skilled reader, the word moon means
the number one. The entire table of trigonometric functions, sine tables, steps to calculate
complex orbits, predict eclipses and keep time are thus provided by the text in a poetic form.
This cryptic approach offers greater flexibility for poetic construction.
The Surya Siddhanta thus consists of cryptic rules in Sanskrit verse. It is a compendium of
astronomy that is easier to remember, transmit and use as reference or aid for the experienced,
but does not aim to offer commentary, explanation or proof. The text has 14 chapters and 500
shlokas. It is one of the eighteen astronomical siddhanta (treatises), but thirteen of the eighteen
are believed to be lost to history. The Surya Siddhanta text has survived since the ancient times,
has been the best known and the most referred astronomical text in the Indian tradition.
The fourteen chapters of the Surya Siddhanta are as follows, per the much cited Burgess
translation.
Chapters of Surya Siddhanta

45
Chapter
Title Reference
#
[37]
1 Of the Mean Motions of the Planets
[38]
2 On the True Places of the Planets
[39]
3 Of Direction, Place and Time
[40]
4 Of Eclipses, and Especially of Lunar Eclipses
[41]
5 Of Parallax in a Solar Eclipse
[42]
6 The Projection of Eclipses
[43]
7 Of Planetary Conjunctions
[44]
8 Of the Asterisms
[45]
9 Of Heliacal (Sun) Risings and Settings
[46]
10 The Moon's Risings and Settings, Her Cusps
[47]
11 On Certain Malignant Aspects of the Sun and Moon

12 Cosmogony, Geography, and Dimensions of the Creation [48]

13 Of the Armillary Sphere and other Instruments

14 Of the Different Modes of Reckoning Time

The methods for computing time using the shadow cast by a gnomon are discussed in both
Chapters 3 and 13.
North pole star and South pole star
One of the most interesting observation made in Surya Siddhanta is the observation of two pole
stars, one each at north and south celestial pole. Surya Siddhanta chapter 12 verse 42 description
is as following:
मे रोरुभयतो मध्ये ध्रत वतारे नभ:स्थिते।

ननरक्षदे शसंथिानामत भये नक्षनतजानिये॥१२:४३॥

This translates as "There are two pole stars, one each, near North celestial pole and South
celestial pole. From equatorial regions, these stars are seen along the horizon".Currently our
North Pole star is Polaris. It is subject to investigation to find out when this astronomical

46
phenomenon occurred in the past to date the addition of this particular update to Surya
Siddhanta.
Calculation of Earth's Obliquity
In Surya Siddhanta chapter 2 and verse 28, it calculated the obliquity of the Earth's axis. The
verse says "The sine of greatest declination(obliquity) is 1397.....", which means that R-sine is
1397 where R is 3438.To obtain the obliquity in the unit of degree, we have to take the inverse of
Sine of the ratio (1397/3438), which gives us 23.975182 degrees and this tilt indicates a period of
3000 BCE[53]. It can be noted that this update was made during 3000 BCE to the Surya
Siddhanta.
Planets and their characteristics
Earth is a sphere
Thus everywhere on [the surface of] the terrestrial globe,
people suppose their own place higher [than that of others],
yet this globe is in space where there is no above nor below.
—Surya Siddhanta, XII.53
Translator: Scott L. Montgomery, Alok Kumar
The text treats earth as a stationary globe around which sun, moon and five planets orbit. It
makes no mention of Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. It presents mathematical formulae to calculate
the orbits, diameters, predict their future locations and cautions that the minor corrections are
necessary over time to the formulae for the various astronomical bodies. However, unlike
modern heliocentric model for the solar system, the Surya Siddhanta relies on a geocentric point
of view.[55]
The text describes some of its formulae with the use of very large numbers for divya yuga,
stating that at the end of this yuga earth and all astronomical bodies return to the same starting
point and the cycle of existence repeats againThese very large numbers based on divya-yuga,
when divided and converted into decimal numbers for each planet give reasonably accurate
sidereal periods when compared to modern era western calculations. [56] For example, the Surya
Siddhanta states that the sidereal period of moon is 27.322 which compares to 27.32166 in
modern calculations. For Mercury it states the period to be 87.97 (modern W: 87.969), Venus
224.7 (W: 224.701), Mars as 687 (W: 686.98), Jupiter as 4,332.3 (W: 4,332.587) and Saturn to
be 10,765.77 days (W: 10,759.202).

47
Calendar
The solar part of the luni-solar Hindu calendar is based on the Surya Siddhanta. The various old
and new versions of Surya Siddhanta manuscripts yield the same solar calendar. According to J.
Gordon Melton, both the Hindu and Buddhist calendars in use in South and Southeast Asia are
rooted in this text, but the regional calendars adapted and modified them over time.
The Surya Siddhanta calculates the solar year to be 365 days 6 hours 12 minutes and 36.56
seconds. On average, according to the text, the lunar month equals 27 days 7 hours 39 minutes
12.63 seconds. It states that the lunar month varies over time, and this needs to be factored in for
accurate time keeping.

According to Whitney, the Surya Siddhanta calculations were tolerably accurate and achieved
predictive usefulness. In Chapter 1 of Surya Siddhanta, states Whitney, "the Hindu year is too
long by nearly three minutes and a half; but the moon's revolution is right within a second; those
of Mercury, Venus and Mars within a few minutes; that of Jupiter within six or seven hours; that
of Saturn within six days and a half".

Chart showing the classification of dravya and astikaya

48
According to Jains, the Universe is made up of six simple and eternal substances
called dravya which are broadly categorized under Jiva (Living Substances) and Ajiva (Non
Living Substances) as follows:
Jīva (Living Substances)
 Jīva i.e. Souls – Jīva exists as a reality, having a separate existence from the body that houses
it. It is characterised by chetana (consciousness) and upayoga (knowledge and perception).
Though the soul experiences both birth and death, it is neither really destroyed nor created.
Decay and origin refer respectively to the disappearing of one state of soul and appearing of
another state, these being merely the modes of the soul. Jiva are classified on bases of sense,
so there are of 5 types: 1) with one sense (sparshendriya) 2) 2 senses (1st included and
raasendriya) 3) 3 senses (1st 2 included and dharnendriya) 4) 4 senses (1st 3 included and
chkshuendriya) 5) 5 senses (1st 4 included and shrotendriya)
Ajīva (Non-Living Substances)
 Pudgala (Matter) – Matter is classified as solid, liquid, gaseous, energy, fine Karmic
materials and extra-fine matter i.e. ultimate particles. Paramāṇu or ultimate particle is the
basic building block of all matter. The Paramāṇu and Pudgala are permanent and
indestructible. Matter combines and changes its modes but its basic qualities remain the
same. According to Jainism, it cannot be created, nor destroyed.
 Dharmastikaay or Dharma-dravya (Principle of Motion) and Adharmastikaay or Adharma-
dravya (Principle of Rest) – Dharmastikāya and Adharmastikāya are distinctly peculiar to
Jaina system of thought depicting the principle of Motion and Rest. They are said to pervade
the entire universe. Dharmastikaay and Adharmastikaay are by itself not motion or rest but
mediate motion and rest in other bodies. Without Dharmastikāya motion is not possible and
without Adharmastikāya rest is not possible in the universe.
 Ākāśa (Space) – Space is a substance that accommodates the living souls, the matter, the
principle of motion, the principle of rest and time. It is all-pervading, infinite and made of
infinite space-points.
 Kāla (Time) – Kāla is an eternal substance according to Jainism and all activities, changes or
modifications can be achieved only through the progress of time. According to the Jain
text, Dravyasaṃgraha:

49
Conventional time (vyavahāra kāla) is perceived by the senses through the transformations
and modifications of substances. Real time (niścaya kāla), however, is the cause of
imperceptible, minute changes (called vartanā) that go on incessantly in all substances.
— Dravyasaṃgraha (21)
Structure of the Universe: The Jain doctrine postulates an eternal and ever-existing world
which works on universal natural laws. The existence of a creator deity is overwhelmingly
opposed in the Jain doctrine. Mahāpurāṇa, a Jain text authored by Ācārya Jinasena is famous for
this quote:
Some foolish men declare that a creator made the world. The doctrine that the world was created
is ill advised and should be rejected. If God created the world, where was he before the creation?
If you say he was transcendent then and needed no support, where is he now? How could God
have made this world without any raw material? If you say that he made this first, and then the
world, you are faced with an endless regression.
According to Jains, the universe has a firm and an unalterable shape, which is measured in the
Jain texts by means of a unit called Rajlok, which is supposed to be very large.
The Digambara sect of Jainism postulates that the universe is fourteen Rajloks high and extends
seven Rajloks from north to south. Its breadth is seven Rajloks long at the bottom and decreases
gradually towards the middle, where it is one Rajlok long. The width then increases gradually
until it is five Rajloks long and again decreases until it is one Rajlok long. The apex of the
universe is one Rajlok long, one Rajlok wide and eight Rajloks high. The total space of the world
is thus 343 cubic Rajloks. The Svetambara view differs slightly and postulates that there is a
constant increase and decrease in the breadth, and the space is 239 cubic Rajlok. Apart from the
apex, which is the abode of liberated beings, the universe is divided into three parts. The world is
surrounded by three atmospheres: dense-water, dense-wind and thin-wind. It is then surrounded
by an infinitely large non-world which is completely empty.
The whole world is said to be filled with living beings. In all three parts, there is the existence of
very small living beings called nigoda. Nigoda are of two types: nitya-nigoda and Itara-nigoda.
Nitya-nigoda are those which will reincarnate as nigoda throughout eternity, where as Itara-
nigoda will be reborn as other beings. The mobile region of universe (Trasnaadi) is
one Rajlok wide, one Rajlok broad and fourteen Rajloks high. Within this region, there are
animals and plants everywhere, where as Human beings are restricted to 2 continents of the

50
middle world. The beings inhabiting the lower world are called Narak (Hellish beings). The
Deva (roughly demi-gods) live in the whole of the top and middle worlds, and top three realms
of the lower world. Living beings are divided in fourteen classes (Jivasthana) : Fine beings with
one sense, crude beings with one sense, beings with two senses, beings with three senses, beings
with four senses, beings with five senses and no mind, and beings with five senses and a mind.
These can be under-developed or developed, a total or 14. Human beings can get any form of
existence, and are the only ones which can attain salvation.
Three lokas

Fourteen Rajlok or Triloka. Shape of Universe as per Jain cosmology in form of a cosmic man.
Miniature from 17th century, Saṁgrahaṇīratna by Śrīcandra, in Prakrit with a Gujarati
commentary. Jain Śvetāmbara cosmological text with commentary and illustrations.

51
The early Jains contemplated the nature of the earth and universe. They developed a detailed
hypothesis on the various aspects of astronomy and cosmology. According to the Jain texts, the
universe is divided into 3 parts.
 Urdhva Loka – the realms of the gods or heavens
 Madhya Loka – the realms of the humans, animals and plants
 Adho Loka – the realms of the hellish beings or the infernal regions
The following Upanga āgamas describe the Jain cosmology and geography in a great detail:
1. Sūryaprajñapti – Treatise on Sun
2. Jambūdvīpaprajñapti – Treatise on the island of Roseapple tree; it contains a description
of Jambūdvī and life biographies of Ṛṣabha and King Bharata
3. Candraprajñapti – Treatise on moon
Additionally, the following texts describe the Jain cosmology and related topics in detail:
1. Trilokasāra – Essence of the three worlds (heavens, middle level, hells)
2. Trilokaprajñapti – Treatise on the three worlds
3. Trilokadipikā – Illumination of the three worlds
4. Tattvārthasūtra – Description on nature of realities
5. Kṣetrasamasa – Summary of Jain geography
6. Bruhatsamgrahni – Treatise on Jain cosmology and geography
Urdhva Loka, the upper world
Upper World (Udharva loka) is divided into different abodes and are the realms of the heavenly
beings (demi-gods) who are non-liberated souls.
Upper World is divided into sixteen Devalokas, nine Graiveyaka, nine Anudish and five Anuttar
abodes. Sixteen Devaloka abodes are Saudharma, Aishana, Sanatkumara, Mahendra, Brahma,
Brahmottara, Lantava, Kapishta, Shukra, Mahashukra, Shatara, Sahasrara, Anata, Pranata, Arana
and Achyuta. Nine Graiveyak abodes are Sudarshan, Amogh, Suprabuddha, Yashodhar,
Subhadra, Suvishal, Sumanas, Saumanas and Pritikar. Nine Anudish are Aditya, Archi,
Archimalini, Vair, Vairochan, Saum, Saumrup, Ark and Sphatik. Five Anuttar are Vijaya,
Vaijayanta, Jayanta, Aparajita and Sarvarthasiddhi.
The sixteen heavens in Devalokas are also called Kalpas and the rest are called Kalpatit. Those
living in Kalpatit are called Ahamindra and are equal in grandeur. There is increase with regard
to the lifetime, influence of power, happiness, lumination of body, purity in thought-colouration,

52
capacity of the senses and range of clairvoyance in the Heavenly beings residing in the higher
abodes. But there is decrease with regard to motion, stature, attachment and pride. The higher
groups, dwelling in 9 Greveyak and 5 Anutar Viman. They are independent and dwelling in their
own vehicles. The anuttara souls attain liberation within one or two lifetimes. The lower groups,
organized like earthly kingdoms—rulers (Indra), counselors, guards, queens, followers, armies
etc.
Above the Anutar vimans, at the apex of the universe is the realm of the liberated souls, the
perfected omniscient and blissful beings, who are venerated by the Jains.
Madhya Loka, the middle world

map of Jambudvipa - Jain Cosmology/Early 19th-century painting depicting map of

2 1⁄2 continents
Structure of Universe according to the Jain scriptures.

Depiction of Mount Meru at Jambudweep, Hastinapur

Madhya Loka consists of 900 yojans above and 900 yojans below earth surface. It is inhabited
by:[7]
1. Jyotishka devas (luminous gods) – 790 to 900 yojans above earth
2. Humans,[8] Tiryanch (Animals, birds, plants) on the surface
3. Vyantar devas (Intermediary gods) – 100 yojan below the ground level
Madhyaloka consists of many continent-islands surrounded by oceans, first eight whose names
are:

Continent/ Island Ocean

53
Jambūdvīpa Lavanoda (Salt – ocean)

Ghatki Khand Kaloda (Black sea)

Puskarvardvīpa Puskaroda (Lotus Ocean)

Varunvardvīpa Varunoda (Varun Ocean)

Kshirvardvīpa Kshiroda (Ocean of milk)

Ghrutvardvīpa Ghrutoda (Butter milk ocean)

Ikshuvardvīpa Iksuvaroda (Sugar Ocean)

Nandishwardvīpa Nandishwaroda

Mount Meru (also Sumeru) is at the centre of the world surrounded by Jambūdvīpa,[8] in
form of a circle forming a diameter of 100,000 yojans. [7] There are two sets of sun, moon and
stars revolving around Mount Meru; while one set works, the other set rests behind the
Mount Meru.[9][10][11]

Work of Art showing maps and diagrams as per Jain Cosmography from 17th century CE
Manuscript of 12th century Jain text Sankhitta Sangheyan
Jambūdvīpa continent has 6 mighty mountains, dividing the continent into 7 zones (Ksetra).
The names of these zones are:
1. Bharat Kshetra
2. Mahavideh Kshetra
3. Airavat Kshetra
4. Ramyak Kshetra
5. Hiranya vant Kshetra

54
6. Hemvant Kshetra
7. Hari Varsh Kshetra
The three zones i.e. Bharat Kshetra, Mahavideh Kshetra and Airavat Kshetra are also known
as Karma bhoomi because practice of austerities and liberation is possible and the
Tirthankaras preach the Jain doctrine. [12] The other four zones, Ramyak, Hairanyvat Kshetra,
Haimava Kshetra and Hari Kshetra are known as akarmabhoomi or bhogbhumi as humans
live a sinless life of pleasure and no religion or liberation is possible.
Nandishvara Dvipa is not the edge of cosmos, but it is beyond the reach of
humans.[8] Humans can reside only on Jambudvipa, Dhatatikhanda Dvipa, and the inner half
of Pushkara Dvipa.[8]
Adho Loka, the lower world[edit]
Main article: Naraka (Jainism)

17th century cloth painting depicting seven levels of Jain hell and various tortures
suffered in them. Left panel depicts the demi-god and his animal vehicle presiding over
the each hell.
The lower world consists of seven hells, which are inhabited by Bhavanpati demigods and
the hellish beings. Hellish beings reside in the following hells:
1. Ratna prabha-dharma.
2. Sharkara prabha-vansha.
3. Valuka prabha-megha.

55
4. Pank prabha-anjana.
5. Dhum prabha-arista.
6. Tamah prabha-maghavi.
7. Mahatamah prabha-maadhavi
According to Jainism, time is beginningless and eternal. [13][14] The Kālacakra, the cosmic
wheel of time, rotates ceaselessly. The wheel of time is divided into two half-
rotations, Utsarpiṇī or ascending time cycle and Avasarpiṇī, the descending time cycle,
occurring continuously after each other. [15][16] Utsarpiṇī is a period of progressive prosperity
and happiness where the time spans and ages are at an increasing scale, while Avsarpiṇī is a
period of increasing sorrow and immorality with decline in timespans of the epochs. Each of
this half time cycle consisting of innumerable period of time (measured
in sagaropama and palyopama years)[note 1] is further sub-divided into six aras or epochs of
unequal periods. Currently, the time cycle is in avasarpiṇī or descending phase with the
following epochs.[17]

Maximum
Name of the Degree of Maximum
Duration of Ara lifespan of
Ara happiness height of people
people

Suṣama- Utmost happiness 400 trillion Three Palyopam

suṣamā and no sorrow sāgaropamas Six miles tall years

Moderate
happiness and no 300 trillion Two Palyopam
Suṣamā sorrow sāgaropamas Four miles tall Years

Suṣama- Happiness with 200 trillion One Palyopam

duḥṣamā very little sorrow sāgaropamas Two miles tall Years

Duḥṣama- Happiness with 100 trillion

suṣamā little sorrow sāgaropamas 1500 meters 84 Lakh Purva

Sorrow with very

Duḥṣamā little happiness 21,000 years 7 hatha 120 years

Duḥṣama- Extreme sorrow 21,000 years 1 hatha 20 years

56
duḥṣamā and misery

In utsarpiṇī the order of the eras is reversed. Starting from duṣamā-duṣamā, it ends
with suṣamā-suṣamā and thus this never ending cycle continues. [18] Each of these aras
progress into the next phase seamlessly without any apocalyptic consequences. The increase
or decrease in the happiness, life spans and length of people and general moral conduct of
the society changes in a phased and graded manner as the time passes. No divine or
supernatural beings are credited or responsible with these spontaneous temporal changes,
either in a creative or overseeing role, rather human beings and creatures are born under the
impulse of their own karmas.[19]
Śalākāpuruṣas – The deeds of the 63 illustrious men[edit]
Main article: Salakapurusa
According to Jain texts, sixty-three illustrious beings, called śalākāpuruṣas, are born on this
earth in every Dukhama-sukhamā ara.[20] The Jain universal history is a compilation of the
deeds of these illustrious persons.[13] They comprise twenty-four Tīrthaṅkaras,
twelve chakravartins, nine balabhadra, nine narayana, and nine pratinarayana.[21][22][note 2]
A chakravartī is an emperor of the world and lord of the material realm. [20] Though he
possesses worldly power, he often finds his ambitions dwarfed by the vastness of the
cosmos. Jain puranas give a list of twelve chakravartins (universal monarchs). They are
golden in complexion.[23] One of the chakravartins mentioned in Jain scriptures is Bharata
Chakravartin. Jain texts like Harivamsa Purana and Hindu Texts like Vishnu Purana state
that Indian subcontinent came to be known as Bharata varsha in his memory.[24][25]
There are nine sets of balabhadra, narayana, and pratinarayana.
The balabhadra and narayana are brothers.[26] Balabhadra are nonviolent
heroes, narayana are violent heroes, and pratinarayana the villains. According to the
legends, the narayana ultimately kill the pratinarayana. Of the nine balabhadra, eight attain
liberation and the last goes to heaven. On death, the narayana go to hell because of their
violent exploits, even if these were intended to uphold righteousness. [27]
Jain cosmology divides the worldly cycle of time into two parts (avasarpiṇī and utsarpiṇī).
According to Jain belief, in every half-cycle of time, twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras are born in the
human realm to discover and teach the Jain doctrine appropriate for that era. [28][29][30] The
word tīrthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha, which means a fordable passage across a

57
sea. The tīrthaṅkaras show the 'fordable path' across the sea of interminable births and
deaths.[31] Rishabhanatha is said to be the first tīrthankara of the present half-cycle
(avasarpiṇī). Mahāvīra (6th century BC) is revered as the twenty
fourth tīrthankara of avasarpiṇī.[32][33] Jain texts state that Jainism has always existed and
will always exist.[13]
During each motion of the half-cycle of the wheel of time, 63 Śalākāpuruṣa or 63 illustrious
men, consisting of the 24 Tīrthaṅkaras and their contemporaries regularly appear. [34][16] The
Jain universal or legendary history is basically a compilation of the deeds of these illustrious
men. They are categorised as follows:[34][35]
 24 Tīrthaṅkaras – The 24 Tīrthaṅkaras or the supreme ford makers appear in succession
to activate the true religion and establish the community of ascetics and laymen.
 12 Chakravartins – The Chakravartīs are the universal monarchs who rule over the six
continents.
 9 Balabhadras who lead an ideal Jain life.e.g. Lord Rama [36]
 9 Narayana or Vasudev (heroes)
 9 Prati-Naryana or Prati-Vasudev (anti-heroes) – They are anti-heroes who are
ultimately killed by the Narayana.
Balabhadra and Narayana are half brothers who jointly rule over three continents.
Besides these a few other important classes of 106 persons are recognized:-
 9 Naradas[34]
 11 Rudras[34]
 24 Kamdevas[34]
 24 Fathers of the Tirthankaras.
 24 Mothers of the Tirthankaras.
 14 Kulakara (patriarchs)
See also

58
The Prakrit name Jambudīpasi (Sanskrit "Jambudvīpa") for "India" in the Sahasram Minor Rock
Edict of Ashoka, circa 250 BCE (Brahmi script).[1][2]
Jambudvīpa (Sanskrit: जम्बुद्वीप) is the dvīpa ("island" or "continent") of the terrestrial world, as
envisioned in the cosmologies of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, which is the realm where
ordinary human beings live.[citation needed]
The word Jambudvīpa literally refers to "the land of Jambu trees" where jambu (also known as
jamun) is the Indian Blackberry (Syzygium cumini) and dvīpa has two meanings "island" or
"continent" and "planets" situated in the ocean of outer space.
"The planets are called dvīpas. Outer space is like an ocean of air. Just as there are islands in the
watery ocean, these planets in the ocean of space are called dvīpas, or islands in outer space"
(Chaitanya Caritamrita Madhya 20.218, Purport)

Contents
 1Puranic description as per Vedic cosmology
 2In Buddhism
 3In Jainism
o 3.1Architecture
 4Jambudvipa in geopolitical sense
 5See also
 6Notes
 7External links
Puranic description as per Vedic cosmology[edit]

59
Map of Jambudvipa
According to Puranic cosmography, the world is divided into seven concentric island continents
(sapta-dvipa vasumati) separated by the seven encircling oceans, each double the size of the
preceding one (going out from within). The seven continents of the Puranas are stated
as Jambudvipa, Plaksadvipa, Salmalidvipa, Kusadvipa, Krouncadvipa, Sakadvipa,
and Pushkaradvipa. Seven intermediate oceans consist of salt-water, sugarcane juice,
wine, ghee, yogurt, milk and water respectively. [3][4] The mountain range called Lokaloka,
meaning "world-no-world", stretches across this final sea, delineating the known world from the
dark void.[5]
Continent Jambudvipa (Indian Blackberry Island), also known as Sudarshanadvipa, forms the
innermost concentric island in the above scheme. Its name is said to derive from a Jambu tree
(another name for the Indian Blackberry). The fruits of the Jambu tree are said, in
the Viṣṇupurāṇa (ch.2) to be as large as elephants and when they become rotten and fall upon the
crest of the mountains, a river of juice is formed from their expressed juice. The river so formed
is called Jambunadi (Jambu river) and flows through Jambudvipa, whose inhabitants drink its
waters. Insular continent Jambudvipa is said to comprise nine varshas (zones) and eight
significant parvatas (mountains).
Markandeya Purana portrays Jambudvipa as being depressed on its south and north and elevated
and broad in the middle. The elevated region forms the varsha named Ila-vrta or Meruvarsha. At
the center of Ila-vrta lies the golden Mount Meru, the king of mountains. On the summit of
Mount Meru, is the vast city of Lord Brahma, known as Brahmapuri. Surrounding Brahmapuri
are 8 cities - the one of Lord Indra and of seven other Devatas.

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Markandeya Purana and Brahmanda Purana divide Jambudvipa into four vast regions shaped like
four petals of a lotus with Mount Meru being located at the center like a pericarp. The city
of Brahmapuri is said to be enclosed by a river, known as Akash Ganga. Akash Ganga is said to
issue forth from the foot of Lord Vishnu and after washing the lunar region falls "through the
skies" and after encircling the Brahmapuri "splits up into four mighty streams", which are said to
flow in four opposite directions from the landscape of Mount Meru and irrigate the vast lands of
Jambudvipa.[6]
The common names of the dvīpas, having their varṣas (9 for Jambu-dvīpa, 7 for the other dvīpas)
with a mountain and a river in each varṣa, is given in several Purāṇas.[7] There is a distinct set of
names provides, however, in other Purāṇas. [8] The most detailed geography is that described in
the Vāyu Purāṇa.[9]
In Buddhism[edit]
The Buddhist cosmology divides the bhūmaṇḍala (circle of the earth) into three separate
levels: Kāmadhātu (Desire realm), Rūpadhātu (Form realm), and Ārūpyadhātu (Formless
realm). In the Kāmadhātu is located Mount Sumeru which is said to be surrounded by four
island-continents. "The southernmost island is called Jambudvīpa". The other three continents of
Buddhist accounts around Sumeru are not accessible to humans from Jambudvīpa. Jambudvīpa is
shaped like a triangle with a blunted point facing south, somewhat like the Indian subcontinent.
In its center is a gigantic Jambu tree from which the continent takes its name, meaning "Jambu
Island".
Jambudipa, one of the four Mahādīpas, or great continents, which are included in the Cakkavāla
and are ruled by a Cakkavatti. They are grouped round MountSineru. In Jambudīpa is Himavā
with its eighty-four thousand peaks, its lakes, mountain ranges, etc.
This continent derives its name from the Jambu-tree (also called Naga) which grows there, its
trunk fifteen yojanas in girth, its outspreading branches fifty yojanas in length, its shade one
hundred yojanas in extent and its height one hundred yojanas (Vin.i.30; SNA.ii.443; Vsm.i.205f;
Sp.i.119, etc.) On account of this tree, Jambudīpa is also known as Jambusanda (SN.vs.552;
SNA.i.121). The continent is ten thousand yojanas in extent; of these ten thousand, four thousand
are covered by the ocean, three thousand by the Himālaya mountains, while three thousand are
inhabited by men (SNA.ii.437; UdA.300).

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Jambudvīpa is the region where the humans live and is the only place where a being may become
enlightened by being born as a human being. It is in Jambudvīpa that one may receive the gift
of Dharma and come to understand the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path and
ultimately realize the liberation from the cycle of life and death. Another reference is from the
Buddhist text Mahavamsa, where the emperor Ashoka's son Mahinda introduces himself to
the Sri Lankan king Devanampiyatissa as from Jambudvipa, referring to what is now the Indian
subcontinent. This is Based In the Kṣitigarbha Sūtra in the Mahayana.
In Jainism[edit]
Main article: Jain cosmology

Image depicting map of Jambudvipa as per Jain Cosmology.. A carving depicting Jambūdvīpa " in Ranakpur

According to Jain cosmology, Jambūdvīpa is at the centre of Madhyaloka, or the middle part
of the universe, where the humans reside. Jambūdvīpaprajñapti or the treatise on the island of
Roseapple tree contains a description of Jambūdvīpa and life biographies of Ṛṣabha and King
Bharata. Trilokasāra (Essence of the three worlds), Trilokaprajñapti (Treatise on the three
worlds), Trilokadipikā (Illumination of the three worlds) and Kṣetrasamāsa (Summary of Jain
geography) are the other texts that provide the details of Jambūdvīpa and Jain cosmology.
Madhyaloka consists of many continent-islands surrounded by oceans, first eight whose names
are:

Continent/ Island Ocean

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Jambūdvīpa Lavanoda (Salt - ocean)

Dhatki Khand Kaloda (Black sea)

Puskarvardvīpa Puskaroda (Lotus Ocean)

Varunvardvīpa Varunoda (Varun Ocean)

Kshirvardvīpa Kshiroda (Ocean of milk)

Ghrutvardvīpa Ghrutoda (Ghee ocean)

Ikshuvardvīpa Iksuvaroda (Ocean of Sugarcane Juice)

Nandishwardvīpa Nandishwaroda

Mount Meru is at the centre of the world surrounded by Jambūdvīpa, in form of a circle
forming a diameter of 100,000 yojanas. [10]
Jambūdvīpa continent has 6 mountains, dividing the continent into 9 zones (Kshetra). The
names of these zones are:
1. Bharat Kshetra
2. Mahavideha Kshetra
3. Airavat Kshetra
4. Ramyakwas
5. Hariwas
6. Hairanyvat Kshetra
7. Haimavat Kshetra
8. Devkuru
9. Uttarkuru

Architecture
Jambudweep Jain tirtha in Hastinapur, constructed under supervision of Gyanmati Mataji, is
a depiction of Jambudvipa as per Jain cosmology.The term 'Jambudvipa is used by Ashoka
perhaps to represent his realm in 3rd century BC, same terminology is then repeated in
subsequent inscriptions for instance mysorean inscription from the tenth century AD which
also describes the region, presumably India, as 'Jambudvipa.

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The Kuntala country (which included the north-western parts of Mysore and the southern
parts of the Bombay Presidency) was ruled by the nava-Nanda, Gupta-kula, Mauryya kings ;
then the Rattas ruled it : after whom were the Chalukyas; then the Kalachuryya family; and
after them the (Hoysala) Ballalas.'’ Another, at Kubatur, expressly states that Chandra
Gupta ruled the Naga-khanda in the south of the Bharata-kshetra of Jambu dvipa : this is the
Nagara-khanda Seventy of so many inscriptions, of which Bandanikke (Bandalike in
Shimoga) seems to have been the chief town. And fuidher, a record to be noticed below says
that the daughters of the Kadamba king were given in marriage to the Guptas.
— Annual Report Of Mysore 1886 To 1903
Jain cosmology is the description of the shape and functioning of the Universe (loka) and its
constituents (such as living beings, matter, space, time etc.) according to Jainism. Jain
cosmology considers the universe as an uncreated entity that has existed since infinity with
neither beginning nor end.[1] Jain texts describe the shape of the universe as similar to a man
standing with legs apart and arm resting on his waist. This Universe, according to Jainism, is
broad at the top, narrow at the middle and once again becomes broad at the bottom. [2]

Dravya (Jainism)
According to Jains, the Universe is made up of six simple and eternal substances
called dravya which are broadly categorized under Jiva (Living Substances) and Ajiva (Non
Living Substances) as follows:
Jīva (Living Substances)
 Jīva i.e. Souls – Jīva exists as a reality, having a separate existence from the body that houses
it. It is characterised by chetana (consciousness) and upayoga (knowledge and
perception).[3] Though the soul experiences both birth and death, it is neither really destroyed
nor created. Decay and origin refer respectively to the disappearing of one state of soul and
appearing of another state, these being merely the modes of the soul. Jiva are classified on
bases of sense, so there are of 5 types: 1) with one sense (sparshendriya) 2) 2 senses (1st
included and raasendriya) 3) 3 senses (1st 2 included and dharnendriya) 4) 4 senses (1st 3
included and chkshuendriya) 5) 5 senses (1st 4 included and shrotendriya) [4]
Ajīva (Non-Living Substances)

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 Pudgala (Matter) – Matter is classified as solid, liquid, gaseous, energy, fine Karmic
materials and extra-fine matter i.e. ultimate particles. Paramāṇu or ultimate particle is the
basic building block of all matter. The Paramāṇu and Pudgala are permanent and
indestructible. Matter combines and changes its modes but its basic qualities remain the
same. According to Jainism, it cannot be created, nor destroyed.
 Dharmastikaay or Dharma-dravya (Principle of Motion) and Adharmastikaay or Adharma-
dravya (Principle of Rest) – Dharmastikāya and Adharmastikāya are distinctly peculiar to
Jaina system of thought depicting the principle of Motion and Rest. They are said to pervade
the entire universe. Dharmastikaay and Adharmastikaay are by itself not motion or rest but
mediate motion and rest in other bodies. Without Dharmastikāya motion is not possible and
without Adharmastikāya rest is not possible in the universe.
 Ākāśa (Space) – Space is a substance that accommodates the living souls, the matter, the
principle of motion, the principle of rest and time. It is all-pervading, infinite and made of
infinite space-points.
 Kāla (Time) – Kāla is an eternal substance according to Jainism and all activities, changes or
modifications can be achieved only through the progress of time. According to the Jain
text, Dravyasaṃgraha:
Conventional time (vyavahāra kāla) is perceived by the senses through the transformations
and modifications of substances. Real time (niścaya kāla), however, is the cause of
imperceptible, minute changes (called vartanā) that go on incessantly in all substances.
— Dravyasaṃgraha (21

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Six Dravyas
According to Jainsim this universe is composed of six fundamental verities; the Jain word for the
universe is "Loka" The co-existence of these six substances is called "Loka".
There are five Astikayas. (massed verities) among these six fundamental verities. Jiva, Padgala,
Dharma, Adharma Akasa and Kala - these are the six fundamental verities. Except Kala, the five
are Astikayas. These five Astikayas can be grouped under one name Ajiva.
The Jiva dravya has 563 divisions, while the Ajiva dravya has 560 divisions. Jiva and Ajiva are
included in the nine tattvas and the six dravyas.
The universe is made of Jiva and Ajiva. There are only two tattvas in the univese : (1) Sentient
(2) Non-sentient. Jiva is sentient, with a soul while Ajiva is non-sentient, without a soul.
There are detailed and lucid discussions on the nature of Jiva and Ajiva in Jain literature. Ajiva
dravya plays a crucial role in the construction and management of the universe. A short
discussion follows :
Ajivatattva is not an agent nor an enjoyer nor a sufferer and it has no soul sentience or Jiva. Like
Jiva, the Ajiva tattva is beginningless, endless and eternal. There are two main types of Ajiva -
(1) formless and (2) with a form. Dharma, Adharma, Akasa and Kala are formless, while
Pudgala has a form.
Except Kala, the other five dravyas are called Astikayas. Astikaya means having a group of
Pradeshes. The constituent units every fundamental verity is called a Pradesha. The Kaya (mass)
of Pradeshas is Astikaya

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"Astikaya is Pradesatmaka, i.e. occupies space; hence it is called an ‘expanded entity’. Kala
is not so called because it has astiva (existance) but not Kayatva (expansion in space)".
Dr. S.K. Belvelkar - Brahma - Sutrabhasya 2-2-33

Dharmastikaya and Adharmastikaya

The words - Dharma and Adharma are used here in a technical, special sense. They are not used
here in the traditional sense of good conduct and bad conduct. The peculiar meaning of these two
words in Jain religion is an original contribution of Jainism to the world.
The famous scientist Newton was the first to accept the Principle of motion. A fruit falls down
form a higher level. Words flow from a flute. There is some medium through which a substance
passes. Scientists give the name ‘ether’ to this medium. But Bhagavan Mahavira said ago 2500
years ago that all moving psychical states are only the subtlest vibrations. All these become
active through the help of ‘dharma’.
We are able to move through dharmastikaya; birds can fly and fish can swim. Thus, that which
helps motion is ‘Dharma’. It is a mass of pradeshas; hence it is called dharmastikaya.
Dharma helps motion, while adharma helps inertia.
The support of Jiva or Ajiva, which remains steady is a tattva which helps inertia. It is called
Adharmastikaya. It helps in keeping one steady.
Whatever is moving or steady in this world is due to these two astikayas. Only Jainism uses these
two words - Dharma and Adharma, in this peculiar sense.

Akasastikaya

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Akasa (space) means the place where Jiva and Ajiva are accommodated. It is formless and
supportless. All these six dravyas are accommodated by it.
Akasastikaya is the receptacle of all motion and inertia, Kala and Pudgalas - directions and
intermediate directions are its imaginary divisions. Pervasion is its property.
There are 2 types of Akasa. Lokakasa and Alokakasa. That area is called Lokakasa where
Dharma and Adharma, the two helping entities in motion and inertia, reach; while infinite space,
where there is no Jiva or Ajiva is called Alokakasa.

Pudgalastikaya
Only Jainism has discussed, in detail, the nature of Pudgala. The word ‘physical element’ is
current, while Jainism calls it ‘Pudgala’. The word Paramanu (atom) has become current
nowadays in science and technology. There is a well-known theory of ‘atomism’. Jainism has
discussed, the parmmanu for the first time. Pudgaladravya is divisible in small, big, minute and
coarse pieces. Jiva, Dharma, Adharma, and Akasa are non-divisible. There are no conjuctions
and disjuctions in them. Pudgala is not an impartite substance. It comes into existence, it is
destoryed. Permanent and regular change is its nature.
The smallest and minutest form of a Pudgala is a Paramanu. The Padgala, which cannot be cut,
pierced, grasped, burnt and divided is a Paramanu.
Eight types of touch, five types of taste, two types of smell, five types of colour - these twenty
are the qualities of a Pudgala.
Four types of Pudgala :
(1) Skandha - The impartite portion of a Paramanu
(2) Desa - Imaginary portion of a skandha
(3) Pradesa - an indivisible part, jointed with the skandha
(4) Parmanu - the minutest part, separate from a skandha.
There are 8 types of a Parmanu.
When a parmanu is changed into a skandha, it has ten forms such as word, sunshine, shade, light
etc.

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Jain religion has, for the first time, called Shabda (word) a Pudgala and discussed it deeply and
fully. It has for the first time said that a word moves quickly, pervades the world, and remains
steady in the world. The concrete form of this thinking by Jainism is seen today in messages
through telegrams, phones, the radio, the T.V. etc.

Kala (Time)
The word ‘Time’ explained in simple and easy way, is Kala, but this is only one type. There are
4 types of Kala.
1. Pramana Kala - An object is measured through kala hence it is called pramana kala.
2. Yathayu nivrti kala - life and death are relative. The various stages of life are therefore called
yathayu nivrtti kala.
3. Marana kala - The end of life is called marana kala.
4. Adda kala - The kala conected with the motion of the sun and the moon is called Adda Kala.
Adda Kala is the most important division. The other three are its special forms. Adda Kala is
used in practice and it is used in the human world. For example, day-night, past tense, present
tense, future tense, etc.
The minutest part of kala is called ‘Samaya’.
The calculation of time in Jainism is typical and distinct. It is as follows :
* Indivisible kala - one samaya
* Innumerable samayas - one avalika

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* 256 Availikas - one ksullaka dhava
* 2223-1229/3773 avalikas - one breath
* One breath - one prana
* 7 prans - one lava
* 38 1/2 lavas - one ghadi (24 minutes)
* 77 lavas - one muhurta (48 minutes)
* 30 muhurtas - one whole day
* 15 days - one fortnight
* 2 fortnights - one month
* 2 months - one season
* 3 seasons - one half of the year
* 2 halves of the year (ayanas) - one year
* 5 years - one yuga
* 70 Krodakroda 56 lakh kroda years - one purva
* Innumerable purvas - one palyopama
* 10 krodakroda palyopamas - one sagaropama
* 20 krodakroda sagaropamas - one kalacakra
* Infinite number of kalacakras - one pudgala paravartana
The briefest form of all these varieties of kala - today, yesterday and tomorrow.
Literature - Read ‘Navatattva,’ ‘Tattvayathasutra,’ and ‘Padarthasangraha,’ etc.
Eternity: The Jain doctrine postulates an eternal and ever-existing world which works on
universal natural laws. The existence of a creator deity is overwhelmingly opposed in the Jain
doctrine. Mahāpurāṇa, a Jain text authored by Ācārya Jinasena is famous for this quote:
Some foolish men declare that a creator made the world. The doctrine that the world was created
is ill advised and should be rejected. If God created the world, where was he before the creation?
If you say he was transcendent then and needed no support, where is he now? How could God
have made this world without any raw material? If you say that he made this first, and then the
world, you are faced with an endless regression.
According to Jains, the universe has a firm and an unalterable shape, which is measured in the
Jain texts by means of a unit called Rajlok, which is supposed to be very large.
The Digambara sect of Jainism postulates that the universe is fourteen Rajloks high and extends

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seven Rajloks from north to south. Its breadth is seven Rajloks long at the bottom and decreases
gradually towards the middle, where it is one Rajlok long. The width then increases gradually
until it is five Rajloks long and again decreases until it is one Rajlok long. The apex of the
universe is one Rajlok long, one Rajlok wide and eight Rajloks high. The total space of the world
is thus 343 cubic Rajloks. The Svetambara view differs slightly and postulates that there is a
constant increase and decrease in the breadth, and the space is 239 cubic Rajlok. Apart from the
apex, which is the abode of liberated beings, the universe is divided into three parts. The world is
surrounded by three atmospheres: dense-water, dense-wind and thin-wind. It is then surrounded
by an infinitely large non-world which is completely empty.
The whole world is said to be filled with living beings. In all three parts, there is the existence of
very small living beings called nigoda. Nigoda are of two types: nitya-nigoda and Itara-nigoda.
Nitya-nigoda are those which will reincarnate as nigoda throughout eternity, where as Itara-
nigoda will be reborn as other beings. The mobile region of universe (Trasnaadi) is
one Rajlok wide, one Rajlok broad and fourteen Rajloks high. Within this region, there are
animals and plants everywhere, where as Human beings are restricted to 2 continents of the
middle world. The beings inhabiting the lower world are called Narak (Hellish beings). The
Deva (roughly demi-gods) live in the whole of the top and middle worlds, and top three realms
of the lower world. Living beings are divided in fourteen classes (Jivasthana) : Fine beings with
one sense, crude beings with one sense, beings with two senses, beings with three senses, beings
with four senses, beings with five senses and no mind, and beings with five senses and a mind.
These can be under-developed or developed, a total or 14. Human beings can get any form of
existence, and are the only ones which can attain salvation.
Three lokas
Fourteen Rajlok or Triloka. Shape of Universe as per Jain cosmology in form of a cosmic man.
Miniature from 17th century, Saṁgrahaṇīratna by Śrīcandra, in Prakrit with a Gujarati
commentary. Jain Śvetāmbara cosmological text with commentary and illustrations.

The early Jains contemplated the nature of the earth and universe. They developed a detailed
hypothesis on the various aspects of astronomy and cosmology. According to the Jain texts, the
universe is divided into 3 parts:

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 Urdhva Loka – the realms of the gods or heavens
 Madhya Loka – the realms of the humans, animals and plants
 Adho Loka – the realms of the hellish beings or the infernal regions

The following Upanga āgamas describe the Jain cosmology and geography in a great detail: [6]

1. Sūryaprajñapti – Treatise on Sun

2. Jambūdvīpaprajñapti – Treatise on the island of Roseapple tree; it contains a description
of Jambūdvī and life biographies of Ṛṣabha and King Bharata
3. Candraprajñapti – Treatise on moon

Additionally, the following texts describe the Jain cosmology and related topics in detail:

1. Trilokasāra – Essence of the three worlds (heavens, middle level, hells)

2. Trilokaprajñapti – Treatise on the three worlds
3. Trilokadipikā – Illumination of the three worlds
4. Tattvārthasūtra – Description on nature of realities
5. Kṣetrasamasa – Summary of Jain geography
6. Bruhatsamgrahni – Treatise on Jain cosmology and geography

Urdhva Loka, the upper world

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Upper World (Udharva loka) is divided into different abodes and are the realms of the heavenly
beings (demi-gods) who are non-liberated souls.

Upper World is divided into sixteen Devalokas, nine Graiveyaka, nine Anudish and five Anuttar
abodes. Sixteen Devaloka abodes are Saudharma, Aishana, Sanatkumara, Mahendra, Brahma,
Brahmottara, Lantava, Kapishta, Shukra, Mahashukra, Shatara, Sahasrara, Anata, Pranata, Arana
and Achyuta. Nine Graiveyak abodes are Sudarshan, Amogh, Suprabuddha, Yashodhar,
Subhadra, Suvishal, Sumanas, Saumanas and Pritikar. Nine Anudish are Aditya, Archi,
Archimalini, Vair, Vairochan, Saum, Saumrup, Ark and Sphatik. Five Anuttar are Vijaya,
Vaijayanta, Jayanta, Aparajita and Sarvarthasiddhi.

The sixteen heavens in Devalokas are also called Kalpas and the rest are called Kalpatit. Those
living in Kalpatit are called Ahamindra and are equal in grandeur. There is increase with regard
to the lifetime, influence of power, happiness, lumination of body, purity in thought-colouration,
capacity of the senses and range of clairvoyance in the Heavenly beings residing in the higher
abodes. But there is decrease with regard to motion, stature, attachment and pride. The higher
groups, dwelling in 9 Greveyak and 5 Anutar Viman. They are independent and dwelling in their
own vehicles. The anuttara souls attain liberation within one or two lifetimes. The lower groups,
organized like earthly kingdoms—rulers (Indra), counselors, guards, queens, followers, armies
etc.

Above the Anutar vimans, at the apex of the universe is the realm of the liberated souls, the
perfected omniscient and blissful beings, who are venerated by the Jains. [7]

Madhya Loka, the middle world

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Image depicting map of Jambudvipa as per Jain Cosmology/Early 19th-century painting depicting map of
2 1⁄2 continents/Depiction of Mount Meru at Jambudweep, Hastinapur

Madhya Loka consists of 900 yojans above and 900 yojans below earth surface. It is inhabited
by

1. Jyotishka devas (luminous gods) – 790 to 900 yojans above earth

2. Humans,[8] Tiryanch (Animals, birds, plants) on the surface
3. Vyantar devas (Intermediary gods) – 100 yojan below the ground level

Madhyaloka consists of many continent-islands surrounded by oceans, first eight whose names
are:

Work of Art showing maps and diagrams as per Jain

Cosmography from 17th century CE Manuscript of 12th century Jain text Sankhitta
Sangheyan

Continent/ Island Ocean

Jambūdvīpa Lavanoda (Salt – ocean)

Ghatki Khand Kaloda (Black sea)

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Puskarvardvīpa Puskaroda (Lotus Ocean)

Varunvardvīpa Varunoda (Varun Ocean)

Kshirvardvīpa Kshiroda (Ocean of milk)

Ghrutvardvīpa Ghrutoda (Butter milk ocean)

Ikshuvardvīpa Iksuvaroda (Sugar Ocean)

Nandishwardvīpa Nandishwaroda

Mount Meru (also Sumeru) is at the centre of the world surrounded by Jambūdvīpa in form
of a circle forming a diameter of 100,000 yojans.[7] There are two sets of sun, moon and stars
revolving around Mount Meru; while one set works, the other set rests behind the Mount
Meru.

Jambūdvīpa continent has 6 mighty mountains, dividing the continent into 7 zones (Ksetra).
The names of these zones are:

1. Bharat Kshetra
2. Mahavideh Kshetra
3. Airavat Kshetra
4. Ramyak Kshetra
5. Hiranya vant Kshetra
6. Hemvant Kshetra
7. Hari Varsh Kshetra

The three zones i.e. Bharat Kshetra, Mahavideh Kshetra and Airavat Kshetra are also known
as Karma bhoomi because practice of austerities and liberation is possible and the

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Tirthankaras preach the Jain doctrine. The other four zones, Ramyak, Hairanyvat Kshetra,
Haimava Kshetra and Hari Kshetra are known as akarmabhoomi or bhogbhumi as humans
live a sinless life of pleasure and no religion or liberation is possible.

Nandishvara Dvipa is not the edge of cosmos, but it is beyond the reach of
humans.[8] Humans can reside only on Jambudvipa, Dhatatikhanda Dvipa, and the inner half
of Pushkara Dvipa.

Adho Loka, the lower world

17th century cloth painting depicting seven levels of Jain hell and various tortures
suffered in them. Left panel depicts the demi-god and his animal vehicle presiding over
the each hell.

The lower world consists of seven hells, which are inhabited by Bhavanpati demigods and
the hellish beings. Hellish beings reside in the following hells:

1. Ratna prabha-dharma.
2. Sharkara prabha-vansha.
3. Valuka prabha-megha.
4. Pank prabha-anjana.
5. Dhum prabha-arista.
6. Tamah prabha-maghavi.

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7. Mahatamah prabha-maadhavi

Division of time as envisaged by Jains-Avasarpiṇī

According to Jainism, time is beginningless and eternal. The Kālacakra, the cosmic wheel of
time, rotates ceaselessly. The wheel of time is divided into two half-rotations, Utsarpiṇī or
ascending time cycle and Avasarpiṇī, the descending time cycle, occurring continuously
after each otherUtsarpiṇī is a period of progressive prosperity and happiness where the time
spans and ages are at an increasing scale, while Avsarpiṇī is a period of increasing sorrow
and immorality with decline in timespans of the epochs. Each of this half time cycle
consisting of innumerable period of time (measured in sagaropama and palyopama years) is
further sub-divided into six aras or epochs of unequal periods. Currently, the time cycle is
in avasarpiṇī or descending phase with the following epochs.

Name of the Maximum height Maximum lifespan

Degree of happiness Duration of Ara
Ara of people of people

Suṣama- Utmost happiness and 400 trillion Three Palyopam

suṣamā no sorrow sāgaropamas Six miles tall years

Moderate happiness 300 trillion Two Palyopam

Suṣamā and no sorrow sāgaropamas Four miles tall Years

Suṣama- Happiness with very 200 trillion One Palyopam

duḥṣamā little sorrow sāgaropamas Two miles tall Years

Duḥṣama- Happiness with little 100 trillion

suṣamā sorrow sāgaropamas 1500 meters 84 Lakh Purva

Sorrow with very

Duḥṣamā little happiness 21,000 years 7 hatha 120 years

21,000 years 1 hatha 20 years

Duḥṣama- Extreme sorrow and

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duḥṣamā misery

In utsarpiṇī the order of the eras is reversed. Starting from duṣamā-duṣamā, it ends with suṣamā-suṣamā and
thus this never ending cycle continues. Each of these aras progress into the next phase seamlessly without any
apocalyptic consequences. The increase or decrease in the happiness, life spans and length of people and
general moral conduct of the society changes in a phased and graded manner as the time passes. No divine or
supernatural beings are credited or responsible with these spontaneous temporal changes, either in a creative or
overseeing role, rather human beings and creatures are born under the impulse of their own karmas.

Śalākāpuruṣas – The deeds of the 63 illustrious men

According to Jain texts, sixty-three illustrious beings, called śalākāpuruṣas, are born on this
earth in every Dukhama-sukhamā ara. The Jain universal history is a compilation of the
deeds of these illustrious persons. They comprise twenty-four Tīrthaṅkaras,
twelve chakravartins, nine balabhadra, nine narayana, and nine pratinarayana.

A chakravartī is an emperor of the world and lord of the material realm. [20] Though he
possesses worldly power, he often finds his ambitions dwarfed by the vastness of the
cosmos. Jain puranas give a list of twelve chakravartins (universal monarchs). They are
golden in complexion. One of the chakravartins mentioned in Jain scriptures is Bharata
Chakravartin. Jain texts like Harivamsa Purana and Hindu Texts like Vishnu Purana state
that Indian subcontinent came to be known as Bharata varsha in his memory.

There are nine sets of balabhadra, narayana, and pratinarayana.

The balabhadra and narayana are brothers. Balabhadra are nonviolent heroes, narayana are
violent heroes, and pratinarayana the villains. According to the legends,
the narayana ultimately kill the pratinarayana. Of the nine balabhadra, eight attain
liberation and the last goes to heaven. On death, the narayana go to hell because of their
violent exploits, even if these were intended to uphold righteousness.

Jain cosmology divides the worldly cycle of time into two parts (avasarpiṇī and utsarpiṇī).
According to Jain belief, in every half-cycle of time, twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras are born in the
human realm to discover and teach the Jain doctrine appropriate for that era. The
word tīrthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha, which means a fordable passage across a
sea. The tīrthaṅkaras show the 'fordable path' across the sea of interminable births and
deaths. Rishabhanatha is said to be the first tīrthankara of the present half-cycle

78
(avasarpiṇī). Mahāvīra (6th century BC) is revered as the twenty
fourth tīrthankara of avasarpiṇī. Jain texts state that Jainism has always existed and will
always exist.

During each motion of the half-cycle of the wheel of time, 63 Śalākāpuruṣa or 63 illustrious
men, consisting of the 24 Tīrthaṅkaras and their contemporaries regularly appear. The Jain
universal or legendary history is basically a compilation of the deeds of these illustrious men.
They are categorised as follows:

 24 Tīrthaṅkaras – The 24 Tīrthaṅkaras or the supreme ford makers appear in succession

to activate the true religion and establish the community of ascetics and laymen.
 12 Chakravartins – The Chakravartīs are the universal monarchs who rule over the six
continents.
 9 Balabhadras who lead an ideal Jain life.e.g. Lord Rama [36]
 9 Narayana or Vasudev (heroes)
 9 Prati-Naryana or Prati-Vasudev (anti-heroes) – They are anti-heroes who are
ultimately killed by the Narayana.

Balabhadra and Narayana are half brothers who jointly rule over three continents.

Besides these a few other important classes of 106 persons are recognized:-

9 Naradas
11 Rudras
24 Kamdevas
24 Fathers of the Tirthankaras.
24 Mothers of the Tirthankaras.
14 Kulakara (patriarchs)
Jambudweep was founded by Gyanmati Mataji in 1972 and the model of Jambudvipa was
completed in 1985. For the tirtha, Nalini Balbir reported

The main attraction of this vast campus is the Jambudvipa. By its height, this original
construction dominates all other buildings. It is meant both for education of the believers,
since it shows them the Jaina representation of the universe, and for their entertainment. One
can climb to the top by an inner staircase, or go boating around the Lavanasamudra.

— Nalini Balbir

79
Jambudweep depicts the model Jain cosmology has been designed here under the supervision
of Shri Gyanmati Mataji was in 1985. The premises has various Jain temples which includes
Sumeru Parvat, Lotus Temple, Teen Murti Mandir, Meditation Temple, Badi Murti, Teen
Lok Rachna and many other tourist attractions.

Unique circular structures of Jain Geography 'Jambudweep' has been constructed with
white & coloured marble stones in the diameter of 250 ft. with 101 ft. tall Mount Sumeru
Parvat is built by light pink marble situated in the center of Jambudweep Rachna.

In the story about Jambudweep, Gyanmati Mataji had a vision in 1965 while
meditating. In the vision, she saw the entire structure of universe. Discovering later that
what she had seen perfectly matched the cosmographical details described in Jain
scriptures, she decided to create a pilgrimage site with the aim of creating a model
of Jambudvipa. "Jambudweep Trilok Sodh Sansthan" has been established at
Jambudweep, Hastinapur to raise awareness regarding the Jain Mythology and Jain
Philosophy. Jambudweep developed a website http://www.jambudweep.org in 2007 to
spread the Jain philosophy online, with more than 2000 books uploaded.

The term ‘Tirthankara’ is a portmanteau which is a combination of two words as under:

80
1. ‘Tiratha’ which means a ‘Ford - i.e. the portion of a river or a stream which is shallow,
and thus could be used to cross over to the other side.
2. ‘kara’ which means ‘maker’.
So collectively, the word Tirtha-n-kara means the maker of a ford that helps the seekers
crossover the ocean called Samsara and reach Nibana.

Thus, Tirthhankara or the ford makers are the ones who having experienced ultimate knowledge
(Keval-Gyan), creates a path (ford) following which humanity may crossover from the ocean
called ‘samsara’.

Tirthankara’s significance can be further understood by the below salient features of the same:

1. There are just 48 of these illustrious souls per Kala-Chakra (the cyclic wheel of time),
24 each in its increasing and decreasing phase on our planet. However, it does not
mean that there are just 48 per Kala-chakra across the universe as other planets, and
other parallel universes have more of these illustrious souls. As per Jain annals, one
such soul, the living Tirthankara currently present in a parallel universe called ‘Maha-
Vidhe-Kshetra’ is Tirthankara Simandhar Swami - Wikipedia. He is not one of the 48
Tirthankara that our planet had experienced, but still a Tirthankara equally revered by
Jains.
2. A Church gets created around a Tirthankara. Unlike prophets or masters, they do not
go around asking people to join, declaring ‘If you have ears, hear’. There is no
canvassing of their religion on their part. Seekers gets attracted to them just the way
iron gets attracted to a magnet, and thus the ‘church’ around them gets created on its
own accord. This is one of the most significant features of a Tirthankara which
distinguishes them from other masters or prophets of our planet.
3. Tirthankaras are different from other illustrious souls that experiences Keval-Gyan or
ultimate knowledge by the fact that they are the only ones around whom the church
gets ‘automatically created’. Its on account of their exceptional good karma in past
lives and is the fact that distinguishes them form other Arihanta’s or other completely
enlightened beings.

81
4. Tirthankara does not have any master. They do not follow the church established by
the preceding Tirthankara even if its fully established and ripe. On the contrary, the
church of the preceding Tirthankara comes and merges itself into the church that has
been created around Him. This is also one of the most unique features of a Tirthankara.
5. Tirthankara sets His own rules. Based on the situation of the times, He adds (or
subtracts) the rules the member of the church needs to follow. When the church of
preceding Tirthankara merges into the current, they follow the rules set by the current
Tirthankara.
6. Though a Tirthankara may add (or subtract) rules of His church, the message that
resonates through Him is always the same as the previous Tirthankara.
7. Next Tirthankara is set to appear on our planet only after 84000 years from the nibana
of Jina - The Mahavira. i.e. appx 81,400 years from he date I am writing this answer.
This will be when the current kala-Chakra would have taken a complete circle and the
2nd epoch of the ne Kala-Chakra would be about to end. This next Tirthankara will be
regarded as the 1st of the set of 48 illustrious souls that will enrich our planet in times
to come.

82
Lotus Temple: It is a small temple in the courtyard of Jambudweep. It is a House of Worship,
popularly known as the Lotus Temple, is a Jain House of Worship and also a prominent
attraction in Hastinapur. It was completed in 1989.

83
84
REFERENCES

1. The Key of Knowledge,Champat Rai Jain, 1928 ,THE INDIAN PRESS, LTD.
2. Guardians of the Transcendent: An Ethnography of a Jain Ascetic Community,ANNE
VALLELY,Series: Anthropological Horizons, Published by: University of Toronto Press,
2002 ,

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