Securing The Skies
Securing The Skies
Securing The Skies
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Oroo Felix
Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science and Technology
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Publication history: Received on 28 October 2023; revised on 14 December 2023; accepted on 17 December 2023
Abstract
The rapid proliferation of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in the Internet of Things (IoT) era has given rise to the
Internet of Drones (IoD), introducing a myriad of security challenges. This survey paper provides a comprehensive
examination of the security landscape within the IoD ecosystem. Delving into communication security, authentication
mechanisms, data integrity safeguards, firmware and software vulnerabilities, counter-drone measures, and regulatory
compliance, the paper explores the multifaceted dimensions of securing UAVs in interconnected environments. By
synthesizing current research findings, industry developments, and regulatory frameworks, this survey not only
highlights the evolving threat landscape but also presents an overview of state-of-the-art security solutions. The
objective is to offer a holistic understanding of IoD security, fostering awareness and providing a foundation for further
research and practical implementations. As the integration of drones into various domains becomes increasingly
pervasive, this survey aims to contribute to the ongoing discourse on ensuring the safe and responsible utilization of
UAV technology within the broader IoT landscape.
1. Introduction
Internet of Things (IoT) and fog computing attracted a great deal of interest in contact with the Unmanned Ariel Vehicle
(UAV). UAV has remotely interacted with fog computing, web technologies, and service-oriented architecture (SOA)
through newly developed IoT. Mainly, the concept of the Internet of Drones (IoD) is framed to access and control the
moments of drones in airspace using layered control architecture with navigation services between locations [1]-[6].
The three major layered architectures are mobile network, air traffic control network, and the IoT, which are provided
for different UAV applications that are present implementation of the architecture.
The context of fog computing robotics has been coined that are an effort to incorporate robotics across the internet with
fog computing [7]-[11]. The drawbacks of low-cost UAVs are processing, storage capacities, and battery-powered UAVs
that are efficient in computing specific applications with real-time data and reliability constraints. Basically, IoD refers
to the integration of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), commonly known as drones, into the broader framework of the
IoT. This concept envisions a network where drones are connected to the internet, enabling them to communicate with
each other, ground-based systems, and other devices [12]-[16]. The goal is to create a seamless and interconnected
ecosystem that enhances the capabilities and functionalities of drones for various applications. The key components
and features of the Internet of Drones are described in Table 1 below:
Corresponding author: Oroo Oyondi Felix
Copyright © 2023 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Liscense 4.0.
World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2023, 20(03), 780–800
Feature Particulars
Data Sharing and IoD involves the sharing of data among drones and with centralized systems [17], [18]. Drones
analysis collect data through sensors and cameras, and this information can be analyzed to make
informed decisions, optimize operations, and enhance situational awareness.
Autonomous IoD aims to enable drones to operate autonomously or semi-autonomously. Advanced
operation algorithms and artificial intelligence (AI) are employed to enhance navigation, obstacle
avoidance, and decision-making capabilities, reducing the need for human intervention [19]-
[22].
Diverse The Internet of Drones has applications across various industries, including agriculture
applications (precision farming), construction (site monitoring), surveillance and security, environmental
monitoring, disaster response, and delivery services [23], [24].
Collaborative Drones in the IoD can operate collaboratively in swarms, coordinating their movements and
swarming actions [25]. This enables them to accomplish tasks more efficiently [26], cover larger areas,
and respond to dynamic situations in a coordinated manner.
Connectivity Drones in the Internet of Drones are equipped with communication modules such as Wi-Fi,
4G/5G, or satellite links, allowing them to connect to the internet [27]-[32]. This connectivity
enables real-time data exchange and remote control.
Security and safety IoD incorporates security measures to protect drones and the data they generate. This includes
encryption of communication channels, authentication protocols, and safeguards against
cyber threats [33]-[35].
Remote monitoring Operators can remotely monitor and control drones through dedicated software applications
and control [36]-[38]. This allows for real-time adjustments to flight paths, mission parameters, and data
collection processes.
Regulatory The integration of drones into the IoT landscape requires careful consideration of regulatory
considerations frameworks to ensure safe and responsible operations [39]. Authorities need to establish
guidelines for airspace management, privacy, and security.
As technology continues to advance, the Internet of Drones holds the potential to revolutionize industries by providing
innovative solutions to challenges and opening up new possibilities for automated and intelligent aerial systems.
The expanded development and diverse mission operations of unmanned air vehicles (UAV) have exposed information
security (INFOSEC) and communication security (COMSEC) concerns that are not easily addressed in traditional
federated or currently deployed integrated modular avionics (IMA) systems. The need to operate military UAVs in civil
airspace communicating over unclassified links to foreign air traffic control systems and keep sensitive and/or classified
information separated without increasing space, weight and power (Swap) poses challenges to UAV systems
architecture [45], [46].
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In addition to the security vulnerabilities, the UAV communication network must also be more reliable and has low
delay, and fault tolerance. These can be achieved with the usage of fifth generation (5G) communication network, which
has already given revolution to the industries, especially to Io-based industries, where delay, energy efficiency, network
coverage, and quality of service (QoS) is of prime concern [47]-[50]. Although, 5G network has lots of advantages to UAV
networks, but still has its own set of security vulnerabilities like paging occasion and stingrays. Therefore, the 5G-
enabled UAV communication network need to be secure against network attacks. To address the aforementioned issues,
block chain (BC) technology is a viable solution with a huge potential. It is a chain of blocks (contains transactions),
which is connected through the hash value of the previous block in the chain and so on. BC is a distributed ledger in
which the stored transactions are immutable, faster access, and transparent to all participating members of the BC. It is
secure and reliable because of the decentralized consensus, which makes it suitable for various applications like
banking, e-games, music, healthcare, and transportation [51]-[56]. Moreover, it has the concept of smart contracts (SC)
also called digital agreement written in specific programming language known as Solidity or Go. SCs are self-enforceable
programming code (set of rules) between multiple parties involved in a block chain. It is self-executable, self-verifiable,
and tamper proof, which will change the method of interaction in BC and automate various processes like payments,
shares, and properties.
BC technology enables UAVs to be equipped with cryptographic techniques to ensure secure communication and being
used in various applications such as defense and financial applications. It is being adopted by many industries as it
reduces the security risks associated with UAV communication. This leads to increased UAV participation in BC network,
but current communication channels resist due to latency and scalability issues [57], [58]. Therefore, the 5G as a
communication channel in UAV can achieve ultra-low latency (<1 ms), ultra-high reliability (99.999%), and massive
connectivity.
The integration of 5G and BC technology has a great potential in commercial and defense sectors, especially in military
services and must be completely secured. Military information can be confidential information or mission critical and
thus should be secured against all possible network attacks [59]-[62]. The integration of BC (for security) and 5G (for
communication) make the UAV communication more secure against network vulnerabilities. IoD offers drones coupling
vehicle as well as cloud mobility functions to allow remote drone access and control, as well as seamlessly scalable
offloading and capabilities of remote cloud storage [63]-[67]. Figure 2 illustrates the IoD environment that includes base
stations, signal link, and cloud environments.
UAVs may make use of non-power supply techniques to make gliding more efficient. It is also worth noting that fixed-
wing airplanes can carry a greater payload for longer distances when flying with less power giving them the capability
to carry a combination of bigger more advanced sensors with a pair of complementary sensors. Until recently, UAVs
were operated individually, but today a higher number of coordinated drones may work together to accomplish complex
missions. In these circumstances, drone communication is absolutely essential. In other words, it is vital for users to
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fully comprehend UAV communication systems. One additional kind of wireless channel and network protocol is utilized
in drone communications, but on the other hand, several distinct types of wireless routes and network protocols are
applied in drone communications [68]-[73]. For this reason, the network design for UAVs is determined by their
application. As a basic example, researchers have discovered that a point-to-point line-of-sight link between a drone
and a gadget may maintain continuous data transmission even when transmission is extended. Drones that use satellite
communications to talk to each other for surveillance, when employed for safety defense, or more broad outreach
activities, satellite communication is a better option for drones. Alternatively, cellular communications systems are
more commonly used in civic and personal applications. For example, indoor communication, in particular for the mesh
network and WSN, P2P protocols such as Bluetooth have shown to be more efficient. When applied to drones, working
with a multi-layered network can be a difficult and challenging procedure.
A remote hijacking of the drones could be achieved by leveraging the vulnerability in the software of the UAVs that act
as a sophisticated tool for military purposes. Global positioning system (GPS) signals are under the influence of malware
programs on drones that can be controlled by malicious users for malicious objectives (attackers). By doing this,
unreasonable attacks, such as dropping bombs, could be committed by the attacker, endangering lives. The control
signal is a significant feature of IoD environments due to the different communications among entities and should not
be disclosed or exposed in any circumstance [74]-[78]. There is a need for robust security measures to avert harm from
security attacks. Moreover, to facilitate personal and business drones for independent flight, a certain type of
authentication and key exchange protocols are required between the two entities in the sky. Both the entities then create
a symmetric security key for future data transmission.
Data link is used for sending and receiving data, namely, the downlink transmission from UAV to ground station or
satellite, and uplink transmission from the ground station or satellite to UAV [79], [80]. In general, the capacity
requirement of this data link depends on the applications.
There are two types of CNCP available, namely, the primary CNPC link, which is the preferred control link, and the
secondary CNPC link. The former link can be used via satellite as a backup link to enhance reliability and robustness.
The primary CNPC link is established directly during takeoff and landing. On the other hand the secondary CNPC link
can be established via satellite when the UAV is in operation.
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Requirement Details
Performance Endurance/Range: Define the desired flight time or range the UAV should be able to achieve
on a single charge or tank of fuel [81].
Speed: Specify the required maximum and cruising speeds based on mission requirements
[82].
Environmental Weather Resistance: Define the UAV's ability to operate in specific weather conditions (e.g.,
Considerations wind resistance, rain, temperature extremes) [83], [84].
Operational Altitude: Specify the maximum and minimum operating altitudes [85].
Navigation and GPS Accuracy: Ensure the UAV has precise GPS capabilities for accurate navigation [86],
Guidance [87].
Obstacle Avoidance: Include features for obstacle detection and avoidance to enhance
safety during flight [88], [89].
Mission Requirements: Purpose: Clearly define the mission objectives, whether it's aerial photography,
surveillance, data collection, search and rescue, or any other specific task [90].
Payload Capacity: Determine the payload capacity required for the mission, considering the
weight and dimensions of the equipment or sensors to be carried [91], [92].
Safety Redundancy: Incorporate redundancy in critical systems (e.g., propulsion, navigation) to
enhance reliability [93].
Emergency Procedures: Include protocols and features for emergency situations, such as
loss of communication or critical system failures [94].
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Autonomy and Control Autonomous Capabilities: Determine the level of autonomy required, such as autonomous
takeoff, landing, navigation, and decision-making capabilities [95], [96].
Remote Control: Specify the range and reliability of the communication link between the
UAV and the ground control station [97].
Power System Power Source: Choose the appropriate power source (e.g., batteries, hybrid systems, or
internal combustion engines) based on mission requirements and duration [98].
Communication Data Link: Define the type of data link required for communication between the UAV and
Systems the ground station (e.g., radio, satellite, or cellular) [99]-[101].
Command and Control Link: Specify the requirements for the link used to transmit
commands from the ground control station to the UAV [102].
Cost and Budget Budget: Consider financial constraints and design the UAV system within the allocated
Constraints budget [103].
Cost-Benefit Analysis: Evaluate the cost-effectiveness of different design choices [104].
Regulatory Airspace Regulations: Ensure that the UAV design [105] complies with relevant aviation
Compliance regulations and restrictions in the intended operating area.
Certification: Plan for the necessary certifications and approvals required for legal
operation [105].
Maintenance and Ease of Maintenance: Design the UAV with accessibility and ease of maintenance in mind
Support [107].
Support Infrastructure: Develop a plan for technical support, spare parts, and maintenance
procedures [108].
It is evident that designing a UAV system involves a multidisciplinary approach, considering aerodynamics, avionics,
communication systems, and more. Collaboration between engineers, software developers, and domain experts is
crucial to meeting all the requirements and achieving a successful outcome.
Basically, the architecture of a UAV system is a comprehensive framework that integrates various components to enable
the drone's effective operation. The system typically comprises an airframe, encompassing the physical structure and
propulsion system, avionics with flight control and navigation units, communication infrastructure connecting the
Ground Control Station (GCS) and the UAV, autonomous control features for navigation and collision avoidance, a
payload section housing sensors and data processing units, a power system with distribution mechanisms, security
measures including encryption, health monitoring and diagnostic tools, and adherence to regulatory standards [111],
[112]. The architecture is designed to facilitate seamless communication, control, and coordination, ensuring the UAV's
successful performance in a range of missions while emphasizing modularity and compliance with safety and regulatory
requirements.
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The physical layer encompasses the tangible components that make up the drone's structure and mechanics. This
includes the airframe, propulsion system, and physical elements essential for flight. The airframe design is influenced
by the drone's purpose, whether it's a fixed-wing or rotary-wing configuration [113]-[116]. The propulsion system,
whether electric or combustion-based, provides the necessary thrust for flight. Factors like materials, aerodynamics,
and weight distribution are critical considerations at this layer to ensure optimal performance and durability.
The communication layer focuses on the exchange of information between different elements of the UAV system. It
involves the communication systems on the drone, such as data links, telemetry systems, and control links connecting
the UAV to the Ground Control Station (GCS). Reliable and secure communication is crucial for real-time data transfer,
command transmission, and receiving telemetry data [117], [118]. Encryption protocols are often employed to secure
communication channels, safeguarding the integrity and confidentiality of the transmitted information [119].
At the heart of UAV functionality is the control and autonomy layer, comprising avionics and software responsible for
guiding and controlling the drone. This layer includes the flight control system, navigation algorithms, and autonomy
features allowing the UAV to operate autonomously or semi-autonomously [120]-[124]. Advanced sensors such as
accelerometers, gyroscopes, and GPS receivers contribute to precise navigation, while collision avoidance systems
enhance the drone's ability to navigate safely. The control and autonomy layer orchestrates the drone's movements and
responses to external stimuli.
The payload layer encompasses the sensors, cameras, and other instruments carried by the UAV to fulfill specific
mission objectives. Payloads vary widely based on the application, including tasks such as aerial photography,
surveillance, mapping, or environmental monitoring [125]-[128]. The design and integration of the payload layer are
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critical to ensuring the drone collects accurate and relevant data. Data processing units within this layer handle
computation and storage, facilitating real-time analysis or later retrieval depending on mission requirements.
The software layer acts as the overarching framework that ties together various components of the UAV system. This
includes flight control software interpreting data from sensors, mission planning software used by operators, and
autonomy features like waypoint navigation and obstacle avoidance algorithms [129]-[132]. Software updates,
diagnostic tools, and security protocols are managed in this layer to ensure the drone operates efficiently, securely, and
in compliance with relevant regulations. The software layer plays a critical role in the adaptability, functionality, and
overall performance of the UAV system. Figure 5 shows a typical layered architecture for UAV drones IoT
communication to a ground station.
5G networks provide significantly higher data transfer rates and lower latency compared to previous generations of
mobile networks [133]-[134]. This high bandwidth and low latency enable UAVs to transmit large amounts of sensor
data in real-time. This is particularly crucial for applications such as high-definition video streaming, live aerial
surveillance, and other data-intensive tasks that require instant feedback.
UAVs equipped with various sensors, including cameras, LiDAR, multispectral and hyperspectral imaging, benefit from
the improved connectivity provided by 5G. These sensors can capture detailed and high-resolution data for applications
like agricultural monitoring, environmental surveys, and infrastructure inspections [135]-[139]. With 5G, the data
collected can be transmitted to ground stations or cloud-based processing centers rapidly, facilitating timely analysis
and decision-making.
5G networks support edge computing, allowing UAVs to process data locally rather than relying solely on remote
servers. This is particularly advantageous for UAVs with onboard sensors, as it reduces the need for extensive data
transmission to ground stations or the cloud [140]-[145]. By processing data at the edge, UAVs can make quicker
decisions, improving autonomy and responsiveness in dynamic environments.
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5G networks enable efficient communication and coordination among multiple UAVs forming collaborative swarms.
These swarms can share sensor data and coordinate actions in real-time, enhancing their collective capabilities [146]-
[148]. This is valuable for applications such as search and rescue missions, surveillance of large areas, or coordinated
delivery services. The low latency of 5G facilitates synchronized actions among UAVs within a swarm.
5G networks offer improved security features, including encryption and authentication protocols, which are crucial for
protecting the data transmitted between UAVs and ground stations. Additionally, the reliability and stability of 5G
connectivity enhance the overall performance of UAVs, ensuring consistent and robust communication even in
challenging environments[149], [150], [151]. This is vital for applications where uninterrupted connectivity is essential,
such as critical infrastructure inspections or emergency response scenarios.
The integration of UAVs with 5G networks enhances sensor technologies by providing high bandwidth, low latency, and
reliable connectivity [152]-[156]. This synergy opens up new possibilities for applications ranging from surveillance
and monitoring to collaborative UAV swarms, offering increased efficiency, responsiveness, and real-time data analysis
capabilities.
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these threats to be various malware such as highly inefficient and the data presents some of the issues related to drone
communication pathways that threats are in highly-ineffective and unreliable [164].
UAV fault-tolerant control present in the device architecture, using a neural network adaptive framework for the
identification and isolation of the network design. In this scheme, real-time detection in drones ensures real-time
identification and isolation of faults in actuators to configure network issues that are tolerant in order to reconfigure
the controller or have an impact on efficiency [165]. In this Wi-Fi jamming, the approach is observed to be implemented
as these drones use a 2.4 GHz frequency.All these jams are wireless contact within a specific area of coverage. However,
very small jamming capacity cannot be easily identified in the environment, and other nearby frequencies are jammed.
This approach is based on a three-way handshake router and newly installed rogue computers [166], [167]. It allows
the attacker to de-authenticate, or jam, the connection between the drones and the control unit. The Wi-Fi attack that
was present enables the attacker to search for drones to communicate the DDoS attack, which interprets the transfer of
the particular data, either delaying it, which allows the attacker to leads the de-authenticated attack. A DOS assault that
intercepts network traffic and floods with a request to interrupt a drone/device link Denial of service will be performed
either by de-authenticated of the UAV drones that access can be sent periodically to the drone network security event
commands. This leads to the estimation of the location of the drone unit for the GNSS signal simulator used by drones
to launch a GPS spoofing attack, which transmits false signals to the control system of each drone, normally more
powerful than the fake signals instead of the original ones [168]. GNSS allows drone navigation non-encryption of easily
spoofed signals that are directly managed by anti-spoof algorithms operator that can help mitigate GPS spoof attacks. A
drone that uses GPS could be targeted by jamming the GNSS signal that makes the drones unable to determine their
location. Jamming the objective of disrupting all satellite communication during antenna selection and orientation can
help to minimize jamming attacks. Eavesdropping successfully dealt with in Man-in-Middle attacks allows the attacker
to track violation of drone confidentiality. Some of the confidential information that collects through IoT when it
classifies them in terms of privacy and trust, with their respective tasks. If the data is interferes with the data access to
adjust the cluster controller and the malicious actions of the controller to gain control of the drones. The main task is to
safely store IoT data integrity, data protection, and encrypted data that is not available to anyone without any key for
decryption.
Therefore, security in the IoD is a multifaceted challenge that involves protecting various layers of the ecosystem,
encompassing both hardware and software components. Ensuring the security of drone systems is essential to prevent
unauthorized access, protect sensitive data, and maintain the integrity of operations. Table 3 describes some of the
security considerations in the Internet of Drones.
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Therefore, security in the Internet of Drones is a comprehensive effort that involves securing communication channels,
authenticating users, protecting data integrity, ensuring software and firmware security, implementing counter-drone
measures, addressing physical security concerns, complying with regulations, and establishing incident response
capabilities. A holistic and proactive approach to security is essential to foster trust, protect against evolving threats,
and ensure the safe and responsible integration of drones into the broader IoT landscape.
4. Conclusion
Ensuring robust security in the Internet of Drones (IoD) is paramount for the safe and effective integration of unmanned
aerial vehicles into interconnected ecosystems. The multifaceted nature of IoD security demands comprehensive
measures spanning communication encryption, authentication protocols, data integrity safeguards, firmware/software
security, counter-drone strategies, physical protection, regulatory compliance, and incident response capabilities. As
drones become integral to various industries, addressing privacy concerns, adhering to evolving regulations, and
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employing proactive security practices are imperative. A resilient IoD security framework not only protects against
potential threats such as unauthorized access and data breaches but also fosters trust in the technology, facilitating its
responsible and widespread adoption. Continuous vigilance, collaboration between industry stakeholders, and
adherence to best practices will be essential to navigate the evolving landscape of IoD security challenges effectively.
Acknowledgement
I wish to thank all my colleagues for the help they offered during the drafting and writing of this work.
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