Prince, 2024 - Cognitive and Neuroscientific Perspectives of Healthy Ageing

Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 161 (2024) 105649
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/neubiorev
Cognitive and neuroscientific perspectives of healthy ageing☆

Jon B. Prince a, b, *, Helen L. Davis a, b, Jane Tan a, b, Katrina Muller-Townsend a, b,
Shaun Markovic a, b, g, David M.G. Lewis a, b, Brianne Hastie a, Matthew B. Thompson a, f,
Peter D. Drummond a, b, Hakuei Fujiyama a, b, c, Hamid R. Sohrabi a, b, d, e, *
a
School of Psychology, Murdoch University, WA, Australia
b
Centre for Healthy Ageing, Health Futures Institute, Murdoch University, WA, Australia
c
Centre for Molecular Medicine and Innovative Therapeutics, Murdoch University, WA, Australia
d
School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, WA, Australia
e
Department of Biomedical Sciences, Macquarie University, NSW, Australia
f
Centre for Biosecurity and One Health, Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, WA, Australia
g
Discipline of Psychology, Counselling and Criminology, Edith Cowan University, WA, Australia
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: With dementia incidence projected to escalate significantly within the next 25 years, the United Nations declared
Healthy ageing 2021–2030 the Decade of Healthy Ageing, emphasising cognition as a crucial element. As a leading discipline in
Cognition cognition and ageing research, psychology is well-equipped to offer insights for translational research, clinical
Neuroscience
practice, and policy-making. In this comprehensive review, we discuss the current state of knowledge on age-
related changes in cognition and psychological health. We discuss cognitive changes during ageing, including
(a) heterogeneity in the rate, trajectory, and characteristics of decline experienced by older adults, (b) the role of
cognitive reserve in age-related cognitive decline, and (c) the potential for cognitive training to slow this decline.
We also examine ageing and cognition through multiple theoretical perspectives. We highlight critical unre
solved issues, such as the disparate implications of subjective versus objective measures of cognitive decline and
the insufficient evaluation of cognitive training programs. We suggest future research directions, and emphasise
interdisciplinary collaboration to create a more comprehensive understanding of the factors that modulate
cognitive ageing.
1. Introduction adults, and cognition and ageing, yielded over 22,000 papers published
in the last 60 years (see Fig. 1).
Human life expectancy has risen by over eight years since 1990 Additionally, the United Nations General Assembly announced
(United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population 2021–2030 as the Decade of Healthy Ageing. This initiative is aimed at
Division, 2019). Psychology, as a discipline, has contributed to this promoting the quality of life of older adults, their families and com
increased longevity by highlighting the importance of mental health in munities at large, with cognition as a major pillar (World Health Or
ageing (e.g., psychological resilience, psychotherapeutic interventions, ganization, 2020). Such initiatives encourage further research within
and suicide prevention; Diehl and Wahl, 2020). Another major contri the field of psychology focused on maintaining mental, cognitive, and
bution of psychology to healthy ageing is via the study of cognition. physical wellbeing later in life.
Albeit a crude measure, one objective indicator of the contribution of the Although lifespan has increased significantly, there has not been an
field to improving our understanding of age-related cognitive changes accompanying increase in the health span (Garmany et al., 2021). Ageing
and potential preventive/ameliorative interventions is the number of can produce unwanted outcomes, such as age-related cognitive decline.
publications on various aspects of cognitive geropsychology. A search of Such conditions have significant and chronic impact on older adults, as
PubMed, using a combination of keywords relevant to age-related well as their family members and caregivers. Until we can mitigate
cognitive impairments, cognitive function in the elderly and older age-related pathology and associated functional decline through disease
☆
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
* Correspondence to: School of Psychology, Building 440, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J.B. Prince), [email protected] (H.R. Sohrabi).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105649
Received 21 August 2023; Received in revised form 17 March 2024; Accepted 30 March 2024
Available online 4 April 2024
0149-7634/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
J.B. Prince et al. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 161 (2024) 105649
Fig. 1. Number of publications referring to cognition and ageing since 1964. The surge in publications on age-related cognitive decline began in the early 2000 s and
peaked in 2019.1 Keywords were as follows: ((age-related cognitive impairments) OR (cognitive function in elderly) OR (cognitive function in older adults) OR
(cognitive decline in older adults) OR (age-related cognitive problems) OR (cognition and aging)), with the following filters: Clinical Trial, Meta-Analysis, Obser
vational Study, Randomized Controlled Trial, English, Middle Aged: 45–64 years, Aged: 65+ years, 80 and over: 80+ years, Humans, from 1964/1/1. Search was
conducted on 14 March 2024 on PubMed.
1
The decline in publications since 2019 has several possible explanations. For instance, publication lag alone could account for the last 2–3 years, leaving
2020–2021 to explain. This period overlaps with the worst of the COVID-19 pandemic, which interfered with the research productivity of many academics. The
pandemic also hindered access to older participants through lockdowns and travel restrictions, as well as reduced their willingness to participate in research (due to
exposure risk). Further, the increased focus on dementia (and prevention) research may have diverted research efforts on healthy ageing.
modifying-treatments, older adults’ quality of life will be primarily psychology can contribute to healthy ageing. Although systematic re
preserved through management strategies, rather than cures. Indeed, views provide a rigorous analysis of a narrow research question, this
promoting better quality of life is the primary aim of the Decade of specificity inherently limits their capacity to capture the full spectrum of
Healthy Ageing (World Health Organization, 2020). As a behavioural available information on a broad topic such as healthy ageing. Given the
health discipline, psychology is central to the biopsychosocial model of diverse nature of the approaches and findings in the field, we therefore
health and thus has the capacity to contribute to quality of life (health opted to provide a holistic overview of cognitive healthy ageing,
span) among older adults. Indeed, psychology researchers now have employing a narrative approach to offer a more interpretive and
methods that can be readily employed to improve the quality of life and nuanced exploration of diverse perspectives, theories, and evidence. In
health span of older adults. Some of these approaches show considerable the following sections, we focus on age-related cognitive changes, sub
clinical utility when tailored to older adults, such as novel health jective versus objective changes in cognition, the role of cognitive
assessment methodologies combined with modern cognitive and reserve in cognitive decline, the interaction between lifestyle and
behavioural interventions such as acceptance and commitment therapy cognitive reserve, interventions to slow cognitive decline, neuroscien
(Petkus and Wetherell, 2013) or mindfulness-based therapy tific perspective on ageing and cognition, and unifying theoretical ap
(Hazlett-Stevens et al., 2019). proaches to cognitive ageing, before summarizing and identifying future
Age-related cognitive impairment and dementia are major concerns research directions.
for older adults, their family members and health providers (World
Health Organization, 2022), and dementia incidence is projected to in 1.1. Age-related cognitive changes
crease substantially over the next 25 years (Nichols et al., 2022).
Cognition is integral to a range of essential daily functions and the Cognitive function is an important contributor to healthy ageing,
maintenance of independent living capacity with age. Older people have predicting self-perceived health (McHugh and Lawlor, 2016) and as
other psychological health concerns as well; the risk of successful suicide pects of mental health, such as lower pessimism, in old age (Taylor et al.,
attempts in older adults is far higher than in younger individuals 2017). Among older adults, there are robust associations between
(Conejero et al., 2018). The high risk of mental health conditions (Ausín cognitive function and educational outcomes, socioeconomic attain
et al., 2017) and limited support for older adults’ psychological well ments, health, longevity (Deary et al., 2010), and daily living tasks such
being (Stargatt et al., 2017) could partially explain this pattern. as medication use, financial management, and food preparation (Allaire
Furthermore, physical, medical, social, environmental, and financial and Marsiske, 2002).
limitations provide additional roadblocks to maintaining a high quality Although much current research uses screening tools to dichotomise
of life during older adulthood. Accordingly, older adults and their the ageing population into pathological and non-pathological
caregivers can significantly benefit from psychological research on (“healthy”) individuals (in the tradition of medical diagnosis), this
healthy ageing, including preventive approaches and interventions. approach neglects the more subtle, gradual cognitive changes detected
Importantly, despite concerns about the universality of cognitive decline by more sensitive measures in healthy individuals over time (Rodrigues
among this age group, cognitive decline with advancing age is not and Moreno, 2023). Generally, cognitive test performance declines
inevitable; there are individual differences in the trajectories of both during adulthood (Tucker-Drob, 2019). However, the age at which
developmental gain and decline, with some individuals maintaining decline is detected depends on the balance of a test’s demands between
relatively high levels of cognitive function into older age (Zhao et al., “crystallised” accumulated knowledge, which increases through adult
2020). hood, and “fluid” knowledge-free information processing, which de
The aim of this article is to review the current literature on age- clines through adulthood (Lindenberger, 2014). Thus, processing speed
related change from a cognitive and neuroscientific perspective. (fluid) peaks early in adulthood and steadily declines thereafter,
Through a critical analysis of current knowledge and theories about age- whereas vocabulary (crystallised) peaks late in adulthood; tasks such as
related cognitive decline, we synthesise the existing state of the litera verbal fluency, reasoning, and long-term memory, which require both
ture, identify knowledge gaps, and develop suggestions for ways that crystallised knowledge and fluid ability, peak at intermediate ages
2
(Hartshorne and Germine, 2015; Hedden and Gabrieli, 2004; Salthouse, classification and clustering of individuals with similar cognitive tra
1996; Swagerman et al., 2016). Ageing trajectory estimates vary be jectories, typically identifying three to four classes (Wu et al., 2020). An
tween study designs, with cross-sectional studies showing downward analysis of subtypes showed that the association between cognitive
linear trends with age, but longitudinal studies showing more optimistic performance and modifiable factors varied across class; for example,
patterns of initial increase or protracted stability before decline (Salt higher education was the strongest predictor of membership in the
house, 2019). The discrepancy is likely attributable to practice effects in highest performing group, whereas frailty was the strongest predictor of
longitudinal studies (Rabbitt et al., 2008b; Salthouse, 2019), which can membership in the lowest-performing group (Wu et al., 2022).
be interpreted as showing the same test requiring less fluid and more Age-related cognitive changes should also be viewed with a multi
crystallised ability with repeated exposures. Although practice effects disciplinary lens: the trajectory of developmental growth and subse
represent an unwanted confound for researchers, from the perspective of quent age-related deterioration differs among people, potentially due to
healthy ageing, they demonstrate the capacity to benefit for years after variations in premorbid IQ, life experiences, lifestyle factors, neurode
even a small amount of test exposure, albeit a capacity that varies among generative changes, and cognitive reserve or resilience. For example,
individuals and diminishes with advancing age (Rabbitt et al., 2008b; those living in regions characterised by a high frequency of centenar
Salthouse, 2019). ians, known as Blue Zones (Fastame et al., 2021; Poulain et al., 2004),
A point of debate among researchers is whether the non-pathological demonstrate more favourable outcomes on a variety of health in
ageing population should be regarded as homogeneous, with age dicators, such as life expectancy and cognitive decline, compared to
groups’ average cognitive performance providing a meaningful norma other geographical locations. These benefits are attributed to a healthy
tive trajectory against which to compare individuals and assess in and active lifestyle and better mental health indices including social
terventions (Salthouse, 2019), or as heterogeneous, with constituent connections and having a purposeful life (Buettner and Skemp, 2016;
individuals’ abilities following idiosyncratic trajectories before a rapid Fastame et al., 2021; Hitchcott et al., 2018). Another example: although
terminal decline (Lindenberger, 2014; Rabbitt et al., 2008a), poorly females have lower rates of cognitive decline than males (Zaninotto
represented by the group mean. Central to this debate is the question of et al., 2018), over 66% of dementia cases are females (Beam et al., 2018)
whether performance variability remains constant with age (Salthouse, – suggesting the involvement of contributing factors other than cogni
2011) or whether variability increases but is systematically under tive decline to dementia. A developmental approach is well-suited to
estimated, due to selection bias and selective attrition (i.e., only un understanding such differences, by first scrutinising various lifestyle
usually healthy and capable older people participate in demanding factors and early life experiences/opportunities for their impact on the
cognitive studies; Rabbitt, 2011). Inter-individual variability is partly a development of various cognitive abilities that, in turn, may partially
function of intra-individual variability, representing increasingly erratic account for higher risk of dementia in females (Tucker-Drob, 2019). For
cognitive processes (Rabbitt, 2011) but may also reflect the myriad example, a recent large population-based cohort study reported
hazards and protective factors affecting different individuals in different differing risk profiles for dementia amongst men and women, where
ways (Lindenberger, 2014). Rodrigues and Moreno propose two inter physical inactivity and lower education was a stronger predictor of de
twining approaches for the conceptualisation and investigation of mentia development in women (Sindi et al., 2021). These lifestyle-based
healthy cognitive ageing: population subtyping and trajectory analysis factors also intersect with biological underpinnings (e.g., hormonal
(Moreno et al., 2023; Rodrigues et al., 2022; Rodrigues and Moreno, differences) to modify the risk of other chronic health conditions such as
2023). cardiovascular disease, which in turn, can contribute to accelerated
Subtyping involves categorising groups of individuals according to cognitive decline (Volgman et al., 2019). From a psychosocial perspec
genotype and/or phenotype features, with the aim of better under tive, women are also more likely to assume the role of primary caregiver
standing the inter-individual heterogeneity of age-related changes for a spouse or family member with a chronic condition (Swinkels et al.,
(Rodrigues and Moreno, 2023). An example is the examination of sex 2019), which can have downstream effects on their own sleep quality,
effects on cognitive ageing: older females show lower rates of decline and mental and cognitive health (Dassel et al., 2017). These studies echo
compared to males in several cognitive abilities including memory, ex the large body of literature highlighting the complex nature of healthy
ecutive function, and global cognition (Zaninotto et al., 2018). Potential ageing, along with the role that factors such as sex can play in deter
causes for this difference include various lifestyle risk factors that are mining an individual’s ageing trajectory (Rovio et al., 2005; Virta et al.,
more prevalent in older males (e.g., higher rate of smoking, alcohol 2013).
consumption, lower likelihood of seeking medical care as preventive or
treatment measures). Other examples of subtyping include structural 1.2. Subjective versus objective changes in cognition
brain atrophy, where individuals with higher atrophy rates in the cortex
and hippocampus have lower episodic memory (Nyberg et al., 2023). People are often cognisant of subtle changes to their memory and
The “Orchid and Dandelion theory” has also been proposed as a sub thinking skills before clinically identifiable cognitive decline becomes
typing framework for understanding the nuances of ageing through apparent. Between 50% and 80% of older individuals (aged 70 years and
stratification analysis (Moreno et al., 2023). According to the theory, older) who perform within normal ranges on cognitive tests nevertheless
older adults with average cognitive scores exhibit notable resistance to report some form of perceived decline in cognitive functioning (Jessen
the effects of negative environment lifestyle factors such as smoking or et al., 2020). This is known as Subjective Cognitive Decline (SCD) – a
drinking, however the impact of these factors is significantly more decline in cognitive performance, subtle memory loss or increased
pronounced among older adults with more extreme scores (both high confusion, reported by the individual themselves or an informant (e.g.,
and low; Rodrigues et al., 2022). This theory underscores the diverse spouse, child, or medical practitioner). Personal insight into memory
responses within the ageing population, where some individuals prove failings may be more sensitive than informant reports and cognitive
more resilient (akin to a dandelion) whereas others (orchids) are more assessments alone (van Harten et al., 2018). Even at the earliest stages of
susceptible to external influences. SCD, a person may have already begun accumulating underlying
Subtyping is also relevant to cognitive trajectories (Rodrigues and neuropathology (Hanseeuw et al., 2019). Indeed, SCD may be one of the
Moreno, 2023). Using longitudinally collected cognitive assessments, earliest and most subtle symptoms of dementia (Sohrabi and Weinborn,
the patterns (trajectories) of cognitive function provide indicators of 2019) because it corresponds to the advanced preclinical phase of the
both the natural process of cognitive ageing and intra-individual het Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and non-AD dementia spectrum, representing
erogeneity (Wu et al., 2020). To account for both inter- and the period between the cognitively unimpaired stage and the phase of
intra-individual heterogeneity, some studies have performed subtyping cognitive impairment (Jansen et al., 2014; Jessen et al., 2020; Sohrabi
analysis to identify latent classes of trajectories through the and Weinborn, 2019). Longitudinal studies (e.g., van Harten et al., 2013;
3
Wolfsgruber et al., 2017) have shown that individuals without a clinical neuroplasticity (Perry et al., 2022), potentially through the use of
diagnosis of cognitive impairment who self-report cognitive decline and complex communication. However, there is no clear consensus on the
test positive for neuropathological markers of AD (as measured by the definition of complex social connection, and there are many varying
levels of misfolded amyloid beta and total/phosphorylated tau in cere approaches to the assessment and definition of cognitive outcomes
brospinal fluid, plasma, or brain imaging) have a 40–62% risk of pro (Holwerda et al., 2012; Simning et al., 2014). It is important to
gressing either to mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or dementia within emphasise that there are often disparities (potentially owing to differing
three years. Individuals with more severe SCD show a faster decline in cognitive reserve profiles) between an individual’s trajectory of ageing
objectively assessed cognition than those with less severe subjective and what is ‘typically’ seen in larger cohort studies. Moreover, it is still
concerns (Amariglio et al., 2018; Vogel et al., 2017). unclear from current research how we might forestall (or even reverse)
SCD also has inherent links with social factors such as isolation, a fact cognitive decline in a prescriptive manner tailored to individual patterns
which has become more apparent in recent years during the COVID-19 of cognitive performance. As such, continued research aimed at clari
pandemic. Santangelo et al. (2021) reported increased self-reported SCD fying the roles of internal (e.g., biological) and external (e.g., social
(particularly reduced cognitive efficiency) during periods of isolation connectedness) processes and factors that contribute to healthy ageing
associated with COVID-19 lockdowns. An increase in self-reported at an individual level is essential (Livingston et al., 2020).
cognitive failures was associated with lower educational levels and Another potentially promising research area concerns “super-agers”
fewer people in the house (i.e., greater isolation – see Santangelo et al., – adults over 80 years of age who perform similarly to adults 20–30
2021). This aligns closely with other studies on changes to objective years younger on episodic memory tests (Harrison et al., 2012).
cognitive performance in response to social isolation or, conversely, Although research from the same lab suggests that such individuals exist
engagement (Ertel et al., 2008). Although further work is needed to and are seemingly less prone to AD neuropathological changes (Dang
quantify how the COVID-19 pandemic and social isolation impacted the et al., 2018), others have not been able to replicate these results
cognitive health of ageing populations, it is plausible that it (and social (Gardener et al., 2021). Variations in the definitions of super-ageing and
isolation in general) can accelerate cognitive decline and memory inclusion/exclusion criteria could partially explain these differences, but
impairment for many people, especially those at higher risk of dementia. more research with larger groups is essential to provide insight into the
differences between normal age-related decline (as per age, education
1.3. The role of cognitive reserve in cognitive decline and sex-stratified norms) and preserved (non-decremented) perfor
mance (Rogalski et al., 2013).
People at higher risk of dementia have varying trajectories of
cognitive and functional decline. That is, the severity, rate, and speed of 1.3.1. Lifestyle contributions to cognitive reserve and healthy ageing
the decline differs substantially across individuals despite sharing sig A wide range of variables could feasibly contribute to an individual’s
nificant AD-related neuropathological changes in the brain. Boyle et al. cognitive reserve profile and thus influence their subsequent disease
(2019) examined brain pathologies in people from the Religious Orders risk, particularly those relating to lifestyle. There is compelling evidence
Study and the Rush Memory Aging Project; although neurodegenerative that physical activity can provide a degree of protection against cogni
processes accounted for 43% of the variability in neuropathologies, 50% tive decline. For instance, Erickson et al. (2011) found that a 12-month
of the variance could not be explained. One potential explanation for walking-based exercise intervention led to significant increases in hip
this variance may lie in cognitive reserve, which originally referred to pocampal size in previously sedentary older adults; high-intensity in
individual differences in the degree of cognitive and neural dysfunction terval training has been associated with improved memory performance
experienced following brain damage (Stern, 2009). More recent defini over a 12-week period (Kovacevic et al., 2020).
tions specify cognitive reserve as a property of the brain that allows Northey et al., (2018) conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis of
performance to be better than the expected norms in the presence of the exercise and cognition literature, finding that exercise improved
brain changes and brain injury or disease throughout life (Stern et al., cognitive function in adults aged 50 and above, regardless of the mode
2023). used (e.g., aerobic or resistance), cognitive domain assessed or cognitive
Cognitive reserve might explain the substantial variability in the status of participants. Nevertheless, other equally robust studies have
onset and trajectory of cognitive dysfunction seen in older adult pop failed to find a clear link between exercise or physical activity engage
ulations, via resilience (Stern et al., 2023, 2020). This perspective con ment and cognitive function (Brown et al., 2021; Ciria et al., 2023). In
tends that the ability to cope with neuropathological disease or insult fact, people may experience vast differences in their neurological
will vary based on individual differences in cognitive processes which ‘response’ to exercise (e.g., based on genotype or baseline cardiorespi
are, in turn, a function of lifetime experiences, intellectual activities, and ratory fitness), which speaks to the need for a broad, multi-domain
other environmental factors – years of education, occupational attain approach to healthy ageing and quantifying cognitive reserve.
ment, and physical leisure activities (Bordignon et al., 2021; Stern et al., The potential benefits of multi-domain approaches underscore the
2020). For instance, the dentate gyrus, a subregion of the hippocampal complex array of factors contributing to an individual’s broader lifestyle
formation that is critical for memory formation, is a neurogenic network patterns. For example, diets such as the Mediterranean diet and the
that can be modulated by behaviour and experience (Piatti et al., 2013). hybrid Mediterranean-DASH (MIND) diets have received substantial
Cognitive experiential factors also promote neuroplasticity and resis attention as modifiable methods of reducing dementia risk (Abbatecola
tance to cellular apoptosis (Whalley et al., 2004). By contrast, the phrase et al., 2018). Broadly, dietary patterns emphasising the consumption of
‘use it or lose it’ summarises the result of a cognitively sedentary life legumes, olive oil, fish, whole grains and fresh fruits and vegetables, in
style, where acceleration of atrophy in various brain structures is asso combination with reduced fat, sugar and red meat, together promote
ciated with early clinical manifestations of cognitive decline (Bordignon antioxidant mechanisms, neuronal plasticity, inflammation regulation,
et al., 2021). Isolation and reduced social interaction often increase with and cardiovascular health (Koloverou et al., 2016). Morris et al., (2015)
age, which can impact problem solving abilities and other higher order demonstrated that even moderate adherence to the MIND diet was
cognitive skills (Cacioppo and Cacioppo, 2014). In fact, the stress of sufficient to reduce AD risk, and a recent study combining three major
social isolation may invoke stress-induced inflammation, resulting in longitudinal cohort projects reported that incremental increases in
brain injury and dysfunction (Friedler et al., 2015). Regardless, MIND diet scores (i.e., higher adherence) resulted in a 17% decrease in
underutilised cognitive processes may progressively deteriorate due to the risk of dementia (Chen et al., 2023). Another example of lifestyle
neurodegeneration and the gradual loss of synapses. factors is sleep, which is a widely recognised modifiable therapeutic
In accordance with the cognitive reserve perspective, social inter target to improve cognition and quality of life (Sadler et al., 2018).
action provides mental stimulation (Bennett et al., 2006) and promotes Chronic sleep deficiencies have emerged as a key driver of
4
dementia-related neuropathological processes (mediated by mecha disease-related neurodegenerative processes on cognition, the fact re
nisms such as the glymphatic clearance and hormonal regulation; mains that during the last two years, the number of deaths due to de
Nedergaard and Goldman, 2020). Despite the promising steps taken in mentia has passed ischemic heart disease as the primary cause of death
lifestyle-based research for cognitive ageing, the degree to which each at least in one country (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022) and we
aspect of lifestyle influences an individual’s ageing trajectory is highly expect similar trends to occur elsewhere (Doblhammer et al., 2022),
variable and multi-faceted. Cultural, social, familial, experiential, and potentially due to multiple pathways including the effects of social
innate biological intra-individual differences can often lead to heterog isolation (resulting in decreased physical activity, social interaction, and
enous samples which reduce generalisability and impact the strengths of access to medical care) and the physiological and neurological effects of
the lifestyle-based recommendations made at a population level. COVID-19 infection. This statistic highlights the importance of investi
Although an experiential variable like education is widely seen as pro gating longitudinal reserve and resilience mechanisms, as well as the
tective, there is still longitudinal evidence to the contrary (Sala et al., need to examine methods of limiting cognitive decline for those who are
2023). Moreover, well-designed systematic reviews and meta-analyses already experiencing significant decline.
have reported null findings and small effect sizes when examining the
link between dietary pattern adherence, cognition, and dementia inci 1.5. Interventions to slow cognitive decline
dence (Fu et al., 2022). Similar criticisms have been levelled at recom
mending physical exercise to improve cognitive abilities (e.g., see Ciria Similar to exercise programs designed to maintain physical health
et al., 2023), which are reflective of the important questions remaining across age, there are other interventions that may improve cognitive
on optimal protocol length, exercise type, and intensity to best activate abilities through prescribed activities. Although there are many such
neuroprotective pathways (Stillman et al., 2020). approaches, here we focus on three: cognitive training (Jaeggi et al.,
Accordingly, the increasing use of large, longitudinal datasets pro 2011; Katz et al., 2018), music training (Román-Caballero et al., 2018),
vides an opportunity to better understand healthy ageing across a and also mindfulness interventions (Mirabito and Verhaeghen, 2023).
broader spectrum of the population. Studies utilising data from initia The most prevalent approach is that of cognitive training, which in
tives such as the UK Biobank have recently demonstrated robust asso cludes multiple object tracking and memory exercises, paper and pencil
ciations between physical activity, grey matter volume (Hamer et al., methods (e.g., Sudoku or word puzzles), single-person or group-based
2018), and specific dietary elements such as meat consumption and training and consultative methods, computerised, online, and
incident dementia risk (Zhang et al., 2021). From a psychological ageing gadget-based methods (Harvey et al., 2018). Cognitive training is
perspective, the advent of big data may provide the statistical power to non-invasive, non-pharmacological, and relatively easy to access
identify subgroups of ‘responders’ and individuals who benefit the most (particularly computerised programs), making it an attractive tool for
from varied, multi-domain lifestyle-based interventions designed to people seeking low-cost ways of preserving their neurocognitive health.
promote healthy ageing. Encouragingly, several studies have demonstrated that both compu
terised and conventional pencil and paper cognitive training programs
1.4. The interaction between lifestyle and cognitive reserve can elicit clinically meaningful changes in various cognitive domains for
older populations (Bahar-Fuchs et al., 2019; Harvey et al., 2018; Kueider
The benefits associated with lifestyle-related protective behaviours et al., 2012).
(e.g., physical activity, sleep) extend well beyond cognition, given the However, other studies have found no benefits associated with
interconnection between lifestyle, psychological, and experiential fac cognitive training for older adults (Sala and Gobet, 2020; Sala et al.,
tors in contributing to a person’s cognitive reserve profile (Song et al., 2018), and a common critique centres on the lack of transferability from
2022). A review by Bauman et al. (2016) suggested that physical activity domain-specific training programs to general cognitive functioning
assists in improving cognitive functioning, preventing physical disease, (Owen et al., 2010; Sala and Gobet, 2019; Simons et al., 2016). Kane
reducing falls, and reducing depression. Almeida et al. (2006) demon et al. (2017) reviewed 263 studies of interventions aimed at preventing
strated positive relationships between physical activity and mental or delaying age-related cognitive decline, MCI, and Alzheimer’s-type
health (cognitive functions and preserved mood) in a longitudinal study dementia. Of these, 38 were studies of cognitive training. After
of 601 males in their 80 s. Similar benefits for depression were found in a addressing the risk of bias and assessing evidence strength, the authors
scoping review of the effects of walking, although the authors noted concluded that cognitive training with tasks focused on memory and
issues with the quality of trials available for metrics such as subjective reasoning improved domain-specific performance for cognitively
well-being (Kelly et al., 2018). normal older adults. However, this improvement in performance did not
In the context of cognitive reserve, it is also important to consider the transfer across cognitive domains, and overall, cognitive training did not
intersection between more traditional lifestyle-based variables of in prevent or delay age-related cognitive decline, MCI, or AD.
terest (e.g., exercise) and psychological perspectives. Personality traits In their systematic review on how cognitive training might affect
such as extraversion and openness to experience influence the rela cognitive performance and incident dementia outcomes, Butler et al.
tionship between physical activity and subjective wellbeing (Long Chan (2018) specifically targeted studies of cognitive training and cognitive
et al., 2018). Similarly, there are also well-established bi-directional decline. After study selection and data extraction, they reviewed 11
relationships between sleep deficits, mood disturbance (e.g., major studies of cognitive training interventions on cognitive performance and
depressive disorder) and physical activity engagement (Firth et al., incident dementia outcomes for adults with normal cognition or MCI.
2020; O’Leary et al., 2017; Sewell et al., 2021). As such, cognitive health Healthy older adults improved their performance in trained cognitive
trajectories are modified by the interconnection between domains, but this did not translate to global cognition. Further, partic
lifestyle-related behaviours, personality, psychological health and a ipants with MCI experienced no benefits at all, highlighting the lack of
multitude of other experiential factors which can contribute to cognitive applicability for older adults with current prodromal AD and a limited
reserve (Song et al., 2022). Although it is not possible to characterise all scope for dementia prevention. A more recent review (von Bastian et al.,
of the possible modulatory factors that impact the level of cognitive 2022) reached similar conclusions, whereby training did not transfer,
reserve for any given person, there is clear value in integrating multiple although there was evidence for gains in cognitive efficiency (the ability
perspectives and ideas related to optimising physical, cognitive and to use existing cognitive capacity via strategies, routines, and/or auto
mental health to build intrinsic capacity and resilience to disease (World maticity). One possibility is that cognitive training might be useful not
Health Organization, 2015). by enhancing cognition per se, but rather through facilitating an active
Although cognitive reserve is an area of research that incorporates lifestyle that preserves cognitive capacity and/or efficiency.
several promising pathways to prevent or mitigate the impact of age and Gates et al. (2019) initially cast a wide net in their Cochrane
5
systematic review by considering 317 studies of cognitive training and neurobiological and mechanistic bases for the continued examination of
cognitive decline. However, only one study (Corbett et al., 2015) met preventive and ameliorative interventions, including cognitive training.
their inclusion criteria. Gates and colleagues noted the magnitude of Given the lack of high-quality studies examining the efficacy of cognitive
low-quality evidence in the field, meaning it was impossible to deter training and its clinical viability, there is an urgent need for more robust
mine whether computerised cognitive training is effective in maintain research on increasing the transferral of domain-specific improvements
ing global cognitive function among healthy adults in midlife through to from cognitive training for persistent cognitive change.
older age. This could be partly due to the lack of rigorous scientific There is also cause for further investigation into the combination of
scrutiny in the development and validation of commercially available cognitive training with other modalities (e.g., lifestyle-based in
computerised cognitive training platforms (cf. Shah et al., 2017). terventions). For example, a combination of physical exercise and
Musical training represents another possible approach to addressing computerised cognitive training has shown promise in improving verbal
age-related cognitive decline, in part because it is a cognitively episodic memory and increasing cerebral glucose metabolism in the
demanding (yet enjoyable) activity that involves multisensory integra older adults (Shah et al., 2014).
tion, reward, and emotion (Sutcliffe et al., 2020). However, these au The issue of heterogeneity also applies to this domain, as the effects
thors also note the lack of control conditions and random assignment in of training vary across individuals (Roheger et al., 2021; van Balkom
intervention studies. Román-Caballero et al. (2018) reviewed 13 studies et al., 2020). Efforts to determine the variable effectiveness of cognitive
on this topic, and concluded that both cognitive and neural processes training on older adults are exploring biomarkers, neuroimaging, and
likely benefit from musical training in the context of ageing. However, new technology (Gallen et al., 2016; Ziegler et al., 2022), which show
most of these studies were correlational, which limits the inferential promise to eventually develop individually-customised cognitive
utility of the research. Part of the issue stems from the fact that musical training strategies (Shatenstein et al., 2015).
training earlier in life may moderate the effects of training in later life.
Okely et al. (2023) conducted a longitudinal study of 420 participants 1.6. Neuroscientific perspective on ageing and cognition
from the Lothian Birth Cohort (1936) and found that although musical
training was associated with overall levels of verbal ability, verbal With advancing age, the brain undergoes significant structural and
memory, visuospatial processing, and processing speed in older age, functional changes (Cabeza et al., 2018). After age 40, brain volume
there were no associations with changes in cognitive function, likely decreases approximately 5% with each passing decade (Svennerholm
suggesting a differentiation carrying over from the early stages of life. et al., 1997), with an accelerated rate of volume reduction after the age
Reviews of longitudinal studies tend to show small benefits of musical of 70 (Scahill et al., 2003). The volume reduction of the ageing brain
training on cognitive skills (Román-Caballero et al., 2022) or auditory comprises declines in grey matter volume (Nyberg et al., 2010; Walhovd
processing (Neves et al., 2022), but caution about the need for et al., 2011), reduced coherence in white matter microstructure (Giorgio
well-conducted studies and the dangers of publication bias. A broader et al., 2010; Madden et al., 2010; Ouyang et al., 2021; Salat et al., 2005),
review on the effects of music training on general cognitive function cell shrinkage, dendritic regression, and reduced synaptic density
(Schellenberg and Lima, 2024) concludes that the cognitive benefits of (Uylings et al., 2000). In addition to changes in brain architecture, the
musical training are weak, benefits rarely transfer across domains, apply neural activation patterns of older adults are distinct from those of their
mostly to clinical populations (as opposed to healthy ageing), and likely younger counterparts (Reuter-Lorenz and Cappell, 2008), which can be
are a function of the many social and emotional benefits of engaging in indicative of age-dependent changes in functional connectivity (e.g.,
musical activity rather than any cognitive or neural benefits (see also Stumme et al., 2020; Zonneveld et al., 2019). The age-related changes in
Schellenberg, 2020). brain function and structure underlie declines in perceptual, cognitive,
Mindfulness interventions in healthy older adults also show small but and motor performance (e.g., Calautti et al., 2001; Esposito et al., 1999;
significant benefits in some aspects of cognition, specifically in atten Fujiyama et al., 2012; Fujiyama et al., 2016; Hinault et al., 2020; Yang
tion, long-term memory, and visuospatial processing, but not processing et al., 2016). Because these abilities are instrumental for processing
speed, language, working memory, verbal fluency, or global cognition important environmental information and executing accurate and co
(Mirabito and Verhaeghen, 2023). These authors compared the benefits ordinated actions, the age-related declines of these functions compro
to those of other interventions and found that mindfulness gave smaller mise the quality of life and physical independence of older adults
benefits than programs focusing on exercise, cognitive training, or (Swinnen et al., 2011). To address and mitigate such changes, it is
qigong (a traditional Chinese exercise program combining movement, imperative to advance our understanding of the neurophysiological
meditation, and breath control) interventions. A longitudinal analysis mechanisms that mediate changes in perceptual, cognitive, and motor
from a study of health in retirement found meditation at least twice per function in the ageing brain. We underscore here the role of age-related
week conferred some protection for cognition, but only for older adults neurodegenerative processes in various conditions, including AD, as the
without depressive symptoms prior to the intervention (Lopes et al., most common cause of cognitive impairment and dementia, in addition
2023). Importantly, there are suggestions for mechanisms by which to other dementia-causing conditions (Sohrabi and Weinborn, 2019).
meditation may benefit neural function, including benefits to the default Early neuroimaging studies investigating age-related differences in
mode network and neurovascular system (Pommy et al., 2023; Sevinc brain activation patterns during cognitive tasks (e.g., Esposito et al.,
et al., 2021), although much research remains to be done to establish a 1999; Townsend et al., 2006) and motor tasks (e.g., Calautti et al., 2001;
stronger basis for mindfulness interventions. Heuninckx et al., 2010) found that older adults showed greater brain
Even though the current literature is mixed, neuroplasticity research activation (and often the recruitment of additional brain areas) when
shows that the ageing brain can repair itself to some degree by devel performing the same task as younger adults. To account for these distinct
oping new synaptic nodes and promoting neuronal connectivity neural activation patterns in the ageing brain, two major hypotheses
(Stampanoni Bassi et al., 2019). There is evidence that neurogenesis were initially put forward: the compensation and dedifferentiation
occurs in the hippocampal area (Tobin et al., 2019), which is integral to hypotheses.
episodic memory and susceptible to neuronal loss in both normal ageing, The compensation hypothesis suggests that the additional recruitment
across the spectrum of AD and other neurodegenerative disorders. In of brain areas or greater activation will occur to counteract age-related
other clinical disorders, strategy-based cognitive training has been decline in brain function (Cabeza et al., 2002; Reuter-Lorenz and Cap
shown to improve frontoparietal functional connectivity in people with pell, 2008). Using positron emission tomography (PET) during a mem
chronic severe traumatic brain injury or TBI (Han et al., 2018). As such, ory task, Cabeza and colleagues (2002) found that high-performing
although current evidence for cognitive training as a method of pre older adults recruited the bilateral prefrontal cortex (PFC), whereas
venting cognitive decline is lacking, there are several strong low-performing older adults showed lateralised PFC activity. Based on
6
this finding, the authors proposed the hemispheric asymmetry reduction occurs in older adults (and even AD patients) provides a significant
in older adults (HAROLD) model, which posits that additional recruit opportunity to study the formation of new memories in newly developed
ment of bilateral regions assists in the task performance of older adults. neurons, which may potentially lead to novel treatments for neurode
Extending from the HAROLD model, the compensation-related uti generative diseases (Tobin et al., 2019).
lisation of neural circuits hypothesis (CRUNCH) postulates that more Defining cognitive decline and identifying interventions that may
challenging tasks prompt compensation through recruiting additional prevent or ameliorate such decline have benefited from the approaches
brain regions and cortical networks, particularly those in the PFC reviewed above. However, it is now time to work towards a more global,
(Reuter-Lorenz and Cappell, 2008). systemic approach that identifies stepwise and personalised neuropsy
In contrast, the neural dedifferentiation hypothesis argues that the chological interventions to minimise the risk of decline progressing into
additional activations observed in older adults are due to deficits in the impairment and clinical manifestations, such as MCI and dementia. An
selective recruitment of task-specific neural mechanisms (Grady, 2002; emerging trend in ageing research is the shift from relying solely on
Koen and Rugg, 2019). Several studies suggest that the additional chronological age to evaluating an individual’s "biological age",
recruitment of brain regions reflects inefficiencies in utilising neural considering factors such as genetics, environment, lifestyle, overall
resources in the ageing brain instead of compensatory mechanisms, health, and various lifetime influences (Franke and Gaser, 2019). The
because task performance was comparable between younger and older approach is invaluable in identifying individualised health characteris
adults (for a review, see Zarahn et al., 2007). Indeed, greater cortical tics and risk patterns associated with age-related diseases. This shift
activations have been linked to poorer performance in older adults toward assessing "biological age" allows for personalised interventions
(Stevens et al., 2008). Similar results occur in studies of older adults’ based on an individual’s specific health profile. Our ability to predict
increased brain activity in the PFC during memory encoding (de Chas individual risks for age-related diseases has significantly improved
telaine et al., 2011) and retrieval (Persson et al., 2011), both of which thanks to novel biomarkers such as DNA methylation, genetic damage
were correlated with poorer memory performance. Similarly, older accumulation, telomere length, physical fitness, and allostatic load
adults with slower and more variable reaction times in a set of visual (Franke et al., 2020). These biomarkers offer valuable insights into
tasks also show higher activity than younger adults in a distributed set of designing more effective treatment strategies. In light of this trend, there
regions, including the PFC and parietal cortex (Scarmeas and Stern, is a growing body of literature dedicated to assessing "brain age” in
2003). cognitive neuroscience. Neuroimaging and neurophysiological tech
Although the evidence for the compensation and dedifferentiation niques have been used to develop biomarkers that accurately reflect an
hypotheses seems contradictory, there is a potential reconciliation in the individual’s ageing process and assess the risk of cognitive dysfunction.
scaffolding theory of ageing and cognition (STAC, see Park and For instance, using a measure termed multiscale entropy (MSE) that
Reuter-Lorenz, 2009), subsequently revised to STAC-r (Reuter-Lorenz reflects the functional role of complexity in physiological signals,
and Park, 2014). The STAC hypothesis extends the compensation hy McIntosh et al., (2014) highlighted how variability in brain network
pothesis by suggesting that increased frontal activation with age is a dynamics changes with advancing age and MSE has been proposed as a
marker of an adaptive brain that engages in compensatory scaffolding in biomarker for evaluating an individual’s brain health status (Shen et al.,
response to the challenges posed by declining neural structures and 2021). Reports of the loss of complexity in the pathological ageing brain,
functions. This view does not necessarily contradict the dedifferentia observed in both animal (Araya-Arriagada et al., 2022) and human (Hsu
tion hypothesis since it assumes that compensatory mechanisms are et al., 2020) studies, further underscore the utility of MSE. Other
utilised to a capacity limit, while also accounting for performance neurophysiological assessments provide additional layers of insight,
decline beyond the limit (Zanto and Gazzaley, 2017). Therefore, the such as the evaluation of coordinated synchronised neural activity
STAC proposes that the recruitment of additional brain regions is (neural avalanches; Varley et al., 2020), analysis of asynchronous
beneficial for tasks with relatively low demands, whereas further acti EEG/MEG activity (aperiodic or ’scale-free’ broadband activity
vation would not elicit performance benefits under high task demands adhering to 1/f power distribution; Voytek et al., 2015), the examina
that surpass the limit of compensatory mechanisms. tion of long-range temporal correlations to distinguish pathological
Even though these hypotheses have advanced our understanding of brain activities (Montez et al., 2009), and short-lasting periods of
age-related changes in brain activation, they are primarily limited to synchronised activity in large-scale brain networks termed microstates
explaining regional activations specific to older adults. More recent evi (Michel and Koenig, 2018). Although each marker corresponds to
dence from neuroimaging studies suggests that there are changes to different levels of neural inference, they are likely interconnected and
large-scale brain networks with advancing age (Li et al., 2015), high may estimate overlapping aspects of the underlying signal at various
lighting the importance of a network perspective for understanding the scales (Martínez-Cañada et al., 2023). This holistic approach not only
ageing brain. This perspective argues that the decline in cognitive enhances our understanding of the ageing process but also holds the
function in older adults corresponds with lower global efficiency and promise of identifying robust biomarkers for healthy ageing, ultimately
higher local clustering in cortical networks (e.g., Cao et al., 2014; Schlee contributing to the development of personalised strategies for managing
et al., 2012; Song et al., 2014; Zhu et al., 2012). Hinault et al. (2020) age-related conditions.
found that the coherence of white matter microstructural connectivity
within the inferior fronto-occipital network subserves functional con 1.7. Unifying theoretical approaches to cognitive ageing
nectivity within the network, which promotes arithmetic performance
in older adults. This finding indicates that the interplay between struc There are various theoretical accounts of age-related cognitive
tural and functional networks drives the cognitive functioning of older decline that we briefly noted including cognitive reserve, dedifferenti
adults. Research using non-invasive brain stimulation (NiBS) has also ation, and scaffolding. The recently introduced Systems Biological
provided empirical support for the network perspective of healthy Approach on cognitive ageing (Ebaid and Crewther, 2020) is promising
ageing. For instance, the direct manipulation of network connectivity in its inclusion of such factors as age-related sensory decline, cardio
via NiBS resulted in improvements in working memory performance vascular problems, immune system response to stress, as well as hor
(Reinhart and Nguyen, 2019). Their findings also underscore the ca monal and cellular changes (mitochondria). However, it fails to include
pacity for neuroplastic changes in the healthy ageing process. Indeed, other biological contributions (e.g., genetics, gut microbiome), and
neuroplastic changes via cognitive training and/or NiBS can partially environmental factors and their neuropsychological outcomes (e.g.,
remediate age-related alterations in brain structure and function (e.g., agricultural pesticides, war, or COVID-19 pandemic impact on older
Fujiyama et al., 2017; Park and Bischof, 2013; Reinhart and Nguyen, adults’ cognitive functions).
2019). As noted earlier, the finding that hippocampal neurogenesis The Tripartite Contextual Approach (Diehl and Wahl, 2020) provides
7
a more comprehensive approach to cognitive ageing. This theoretical necessary to improve the reliability and replicability of findings. As we
model includes the lifespan/developmental context (e.g., experiences outlined, particularly in research on cognitive training, there are several
and biography, genetics), the social/physical/technological context, and notable gaps in the available evidence for neuropsychological rehabili
the historical/cultural context (e.g., pandemics, wars, medical advances, tation strategies focused on slowing cognitive decline. Also, individual
cultural movements). Accordingly, the aforementioned factors define differences represent a challenge to reliability and replicability –
the context of the developmental and biopsychosocial process of although there are advances in tailoring psychological interventions (e.
cognitive ageing (Diehl and Wahl, 2020). g., acceptance and commitment therapy) to ageing populations, it is
The Tripartite Contextual Approach provides a comprehensive and important to continue to recognise that older adults are a unique and
well-defined explanation of the effects of person, society at large, and growing population, particularly in regard to cognitive functioning.
historical/cultural context of ageing including cognitive function Second, more interdisciplinary collaboration is necessary, including
(Neupert and Bellingtier, 2022; Neupert and Zhu, 2020). However, the neuroscientists, bio-physiologists, geneticists, epidemiologists, social
relative contribution of each of these “Tripartite Contexts” and their scientists, and machine learning analysts. Each discipline brings a
interaction requires further explanation. In this regard, biological age unique and valuable perspective to studying and promoting healthy
seems to be more relevant than chronological age, especially as medical, cognitive ageing. Such collaborations provide an ideal opportunity to
psychological, societal, industrial, and financial advances have signifi improve our understanding of the moderating and modulating factors
cantly increased the average human lifespan. For example, the designers that can change ageing trajectories, as well as more comprehensively
of an algorithm for the calculation of Bio-Age (biological age) argue that evaluating the efficacy of intervention strategies (Diehl and Wahl,
using inflammation, oxidative stress, and vascular health markers to 2020). Further, encouraging a multi-disciplinary approach also in
predict cognitive decline could be more accurate than other methods corporates important information on the downstream, ‘bigger picture’
(DeCarlo et al., 2014). However, future research is necessary to deter elements of cognitive ageing, such as health economics and the pro
mine the accuracy and validity of Bio-Age methods, as not all cognitive motion of age-friendly communities. Embracing these challenges will
functions are similarly assessed (nor do they decline at a similar rate), ensure that researchers and policy makers are well-equipped to optimise
and not all dementias present with similar cognitive deficits. Further, and improve the quality of life and overall health span of older adults
treating cognitive decline as a linear process is a major shortcoming of around the world.
most hypothetical approaches. We close by identifying some limitations and future directions that
The non-linearity and variability of cognitive decline might be better we should consider as a field. First, it is important to promote a
addressed through brain age prediction, which is estimated using ma comprehensive lifespan approach to the study of normative (cognitive
chine learning models applied to neuroimaging data (Niu et al., 2020). decline due to normal ageing) and non-normative cognitive function (e.
By identifying clusters of imaging features with distinct developmental g., dementia and neurodevelopmental conditions at higher risk of de
trajectories, multidimensional brain age prediction can potentially ac mentia). Furthermore, other less-examined demographic variables
count for inter- and intra-variability in brain development trajectories should be considered including cultural, geographical, and ethnicity
(Niu et al., 2022). However, research has also found that health-related factors (Babulal et al., 2019; Sachdev et al., 2015) in both research and
factors other than brain age influence cognitive trajectories (Wriggles clinical settings for assessment, intervention, and data interpretation.
worth et al., 2022). As highlighted by the Tripartite Contextual Second, mega-analysis (utilising large scale multiple databases) can
Approach and the concept of cognitive reserve, cognitive decline ex provide critical information that the field is currently lacking due to
tends beyond biological markers. The integration of “psychosocial small or biased sample sizes. Although such studies are currently limited
markers” such as social connectedness (Roth, 2022) can potentially in their capacities, they come with some pathways to minimise the
contribute to a more comprehensive assessment of cognitive decline. impact of different study methods used in designing the study, data
Here again, we emphasise the need to apply a broad, multi-disciplinary collection, and data analysis methods. One such method is data har
lens to aid understanding healthy ageing. monisation (Shishegar et al., 2021).
Third, issues of heterogeneity underscore the relevance of precision
2. Summary and future directions (personalised) medicine approaches, which incorporate genetic, envi
ronmental, and lifestyle factors in accounting for individual differences
Cognitive decline is a heterogeneous, non-linear experience, partic (Ashley, 2016). Having biological, lifestyle, and family history to the
ularly in terms of the rate, trajectory, and characteristics of decline study of cognitive decline and dementia over time will provide details
experienced by older adults (Hedden and Gabrieli, 2004). that can be used to tailor the type, duration, and intensity of the inter
Intra-individual variables which influence an individual’s cognitive vention to minimise the risk or delay the progression of dementia.
reserve profile, such as educational, experiential, social and lifestyle Additional background could include details collected by social media
factors can all seemingly alter neurocognitive health with increasing tools, apps, and technological devices, although this must be balanced
age. Recognition of the growing and projected healthcare burden asso with privacy concerns.
ciated with an increasing incidence in dementias such as AD in many Fifth, we reiterate that better quality of life and ability to function
populations around the world has also spurred research into in through maintaining cognitive abilities is one of the major pillars of the
terventions designed to directly modulate cognition in later life, such as Decade of Healthy Ageing. Some psychological interventions such as
cognitive training. Nevertheless, although we have begun to character mindfulness (for individuals with minimal cognitive impairment) may
ise risk and resilience factors specific to cognitive decline, viable pre increase the ability to function, possibly through improved executive
ventive mechanisms remain elusive. Psychology as a discipline is at the function, while therapeutic music interventions (for individuals with
forefront of cognition and ageing research. Recently, technological ad greater cognitive impairment) improve the quality of life and the tra
vances including the use of machine learning for the analyses of large jectory of dementia-related decline. Therefore, interventions that are
datasets, have equipped modern scientists with better understanding of not directly aimed at cognitive ageing per se (e.g., diet and lifestyle
cognitive impairment (McKenzie et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2022), as well interventions) may have beneficial side effects that represent possible
as the role of modifiable risk factors. As such, psychology is well-placed future applications.
to provide guidelines for clinical practice, train the next generation of Finally, consistent with the available literature discussed here, it is
scientists/clinicians, and contribute to policy making and real-world likely that ageing and dementia will remain major issues for several
translational research through a more comprehensive and multifacto decades. As such, interest in healthy cognitive ageing for older adults
rial approach. will only increase, although here we also note the numerical publication
We have identified two broad challenges for the field. First, it is peak in 2019 (Fig. 1; see also Footnote 1). In fact, this figure only
8
underscores the need to advocate for the advancement of research and Butler, M., McCreedy, E., Nelson, V.A., Desai, P., Ratner, E., Fink, H.A., Brasure, M.,
2018. Does cognitive training prevent cognitive decline? A systematic review. Ann.
the training of upcoming generations of researchers and clinicians,
Intern. Med. 168 (1), 63–68. https://doi.org/10.7326/m17-1531.
equipping them with the skills to proficiently conduct assessments and Cabeza, R., Anderson, N.D., Locantore, J.K., McIntosh, A.R., 2002. Aging gracefully:
interventions in the field of cognitive ageing, employing a comprehen compensatory brain activity in high-performing older adults. Neuroimage 17 (3),
sive array of available tools and methods. 1394–1402. https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2002.1280.
Cabeza, R., Albert, M., Belleville, S., Craik, F.I.M., Duarte, A., Grady, C.L., Rajah, M.N.,
2018. Maintenance, reserve and compensation: the cognitive neuroscience of
Declaration of Competing Interest healthy ageing. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 19 (11), 701–710. https://doi.org/10.1038/
s41583-018-0068-2.
Cacioppo, J.T., Cacioppo, S., 2014. Older adults reporting social isolation or loneliness
None show poorer cognitive function 4years later. Evid. Based Nurs. 17 (2), 59–60.
https://doi.org/10.1136/eb-2013-101379.
Data availability Calautti, C., Serrati, C., Baron, J.C., 2001. Effects of age on brain activation during
auditory-cued thumb-to-index opposition: a positron emission tomography study.
Stroke 32 (1), 139–146. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.str.32.1.139.
No data was used for the research described in the article. Cao, M., Wang, J.H., Dai, Z.J., Cao, X.Y., Jiang, L.L., Fan, F.M., He, Y., 2014. Topological
organization of the human brain functional connectome across the lifespan. Dev.
Cogn. Neurosci. 7, 76–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2013.11.004.
References de Chastelaine, M., Wang, T.H., Minton, B., Muftuler, L.T., Rugg, M.D., 2011. The effects
of age, memory performance, and callosal integrity on the neural correlates of
Abbatecola, A.M., Russo, M., Barbieri, M., 2018. Dietary patterns and cognition in older successful associative encoding. Cereb. Cortex 21 (9), 2166–2176. https://doi.org/
persons. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 21 (1), 10–13. https://doi.org/10.1097/ 10.1093/cercor/bhq294.
mco.0000000000000434. Chen, H., Dhana, K., Huang, Y., Huang, L., Tao, Y., Liu, X., Yuan, C., 2023. Association of
Allaire, J.C., Marsiske, M., 2002. Well-and ill-defined measures of everyday cognition: the mediterranean dietary approaches to stop hypertension intervention for
Relationship to older adults’ intellectual ability and functional status. Psychol. Aging neurodegenerative delay (mind) diet with the risk of dementia. JAMA Psychiatry 80
17 (1), 101. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.17.1.101. (6), 630–638. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2023.0800.
Almeida, O.P., Norman, P., Hankey, G., Jamrozik, K., Flicker, L., 2006. Successful mental Ciria, L.F., Román-Caballero, R., Vadillo, M.A., Holgado, D., Luque-Casado, A.,
health aging: Results from a longitudinal study of older australian men. Am. J. Perakakis, P., Sanabria, D., 2023. An umbrella review of randomized control trials
Geriatr. Psychiatry 14 (1), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1097/01. on the effects of physical exercise on cognition. Nat. Hum. Behav. 7 (6), 928–941.
JGP.0000192486.20308.42. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-023-01554-4.
Amariglio, R.E., Buckley, R.F., Mormino, E.C., Marshall, G.A., Johnson, K.A., Rentz, D. Conejero, I., Olié, E., Courtet, P., Calati, R., 2018. Suicide in older adults: current
M., Sperling, R.A., 2018. Amyloid-associated increases in longitudinal report of perspectives. Clin. Interv. Aging 13, 691–699. https://doi.org/10.2147/cia.
subjective cognitive complaints. Alzheimer’S. Dement. Transl. Res. Clin. Interv. 4, S130670.
444–449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trci.2018.08.005. Corbett, A., Owen, A., Hampshire, A., Grahn, J., Stenton, R., Dajani, S., Ballard, C., 2015.
Araya-Arriagada, J., Garay, S., Rojas, C., Duran-Aniotz, C., Palacios, A.G., Chacón, M., The effect of an online cognitive training package in healthy older adults: an online
Medina, L.E., 2022. Multiscale entropy analysis of retinal signals reveals reduced randomized controlled trial. J. Am. Med. Dir. Assoc. 16 (11), 990–997. https://doi.
complexity in a mouse model of alzheimer’s disease. Sci. Rep. 12 (1), 8900. https:// org/10.1016/j.jamda.2015.06.014.
doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-12208-2. Dang, C., Harrington, K.D., Lim, Y.Y., Ames, D., Hassenstab, J., Laws, S.M., Group, A.R.,
Ashley, E.A., 2016. Towards precision medicine. Nat. Rev. Genet. 17 (9), 507–522. 2018. Superior memory reduces 8-year risk of mild cognitive impairment and
https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg.2016.86. dementia but not amyloid β-associated cognitive decline in older adults. Arch. Clin.
Ausín, B., Muñoz, M., Santos-Olmo, A.B., Pérez-Santos, E., Castellanos, M.A., 2017. Neuropsychol. 34 (5), 585–598. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acy078.
Prevalence of mental disorders in the elderly in the community of madrid: Results of Dassel, K.B., Carr, D.C., Vitaliano, P., 2017. Does caring for a spouse with dementia
the mentdis_icf65+ study. Span. J. Psychol. 20, E6 https://doi.org/10.1017/ accelerate cognitive decline? Findings from the health and retirement study.
sjp.2017.3. Gerontologist 57 (2), 319–328. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnv148.
Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022. Provisional Mortality Statistics. ABS. 〈https Deary, I.J., Weiss, A., Batty, G.D., 2010. Intelligence and personality as predictors of
://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/health/causes-death/provisional-mortality-statistics/ illness and death: How researchers in differential psychology and chronic disease
latest-release〉. epidemiology are collaborating to understand and address health inequalities.
Babulal, G.M., Quiroz, Y.T., Albensi, B.C., Arenaza-Urquijo, E., Astell, A.J., Babiloni, C., Psychol. Sci. Public Interest 11 (2), 53–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/
O’Bryant, S.E., 2019. Perspectives on ethnic and racial disparities in alzheimer’s 1529100610387081.
disease and related dementias: update and areas of immediate need. Alzheimer’S. DeCarlo, C.A., Tuokko, H.A., Williams, D., Dixon, R.A., MacDonald, S.W., 2014. Bioage:
Dement. 15 (2), 292–312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2018.09.009. Toward a multi-determined, mechanistic account of cognitive aging. Ageing Res.
Bahar-Fuchs, A., Martyr, A., Goh, A.M., Sabates, J., Clare, L., 2019. Cognitive training for Rev. 18, 95–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2014.09.003.
people with mild to moderate dementia. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 3 (3), Diehl, M., Wahl, H.-W., 2020. The Psychology of Later Life: A Contextual Perspective.
Cd013069. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD013069.pub2. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000185-000.
van Balkom, T.D., van den Heuvel, O.A., Berendse, H.W., van der Werf, Y.D., Vriend, C., Doblhammer, G., Fritze, T., Reinke, C., Fink, A., 2022. Can dementia become the most
2020. The effects of cognitive training on brain network activity and connectivity in prevalent disease at the time of death in germany? Projections up to the year 2060
aging and neurodegenerative diseases: a systematic review. Neuropsychol. Rev. 30 for the five most important diseases at the time of death. J. Popul. Ageing 15 (2),
(2), 267–286. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-020-09440-w. 523–540. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12062-022-09365-7.
Bauman, A., Merom, D., Bull, F.C., Buchner, D.M., Fiatarone Singh, M.A., 2016. Updating Ebaid, D., Crewther, S.G., 2020. Time for a systems biological approach to cognitive
the evidence for physical activity: summative reviews of the epidemiological aging?—a critical review. Front. Aging Neurosci. 12 https://doi.org/10.3389/
evidence, prevalence, and interventions to promote “active aging. Gerontologist 56 fnagi.2020.00114.
(Suppl 2), S268–S280. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnw031. Erickson, K.I., Voss, M.W., Prakash, R.S., Basak, C., Szabo, A., Chaddock, L., Kramer, A.
Beam, C.R., Kaneshiro, C., Jang, J.Y., Reynolds, C.A., Pedersen, N.L., Gatz, M., 2018. F., 2011. Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory.
Differences between women and men in incidence rates of dementia and alzheimer’s Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 108 (7), 3017–3022. https://doi.org/10.1073/
disease. J. Alzheimer’S. Dis. 64 (4), 1077–1083. https://doi.org/10.3233/jad- pnas.1015950108.
180141. Ertel, K.A., Glymour, M.M., Berkman, L.F., 2008. Effects of social integration on
Bennett, D., Schneider, J., Arvanitakis, Z., Kelly, J., Aggarwal, N., Shah, R., Wilson, R., preserving memory function in a nationally representative us elderly population.
2006. Neuropathology of older persons without cognitive impairment from two Am. J. Public Health 98 (7), 1215–1220. https://doi.org/10.2105/
community-based studies. Neurology 66 (12), 1837–1844. https://doi.org/10.1212/ ajph.2007.113654.
01.wnl.0000219668.47116.e6. Esposito, G., Kirkby, B.S., Van Horn, J.D., Ellmore, T.M., Berman, K.F., 1999. Context-
Bordignon, A., Devita, M., Sergi, G., Coin, A., 2021. Cerebellar cognitive reserve: a dependent, neural system-specific neurophysiological concomitants of ageing:
possible further area of investigation. Aging Clin. Exp. Res. 33 (10), 2883–2886. mapping pet correlates during cognitive activation. Brain 122, 963–979. https://doi.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40520-021-01795-1. org/10.1093/brain/122.5.963.
Boyle, P.A., Yu, L., Schneider, J.A., Wilson, R.S., Bennett, D.A., 2019. Scam awareness Fastame, M.C., Mulas, I., Pau, M., 2021. Mental health and motor efficiency of older
related to incident alzheimer dementia and mild cognitive impairment: a prospective adults living in the sardinia’s blue zone: a follow-up study. Int. Psychogeriatr. 33
cohort study. Ann. Intern. Med. 170 (10), 702–709. https://doi.org/10.7326/m18- (12), 1277–1288. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1041610220001659.
2711. Firth, J., Solmi, M., Wootton, R.E., Vancampfort, D., Schuch, F.B., Hoare, E., Stubbs, B.,
Brown, B.M., Frost, N., Rainey-Smith, S.R., Doecke, J., Markovic, S., Gordon, N., 2020. A meta-review of "lifestyle psychiatry": the role of exercise, smoking, diet and
Peiffer, J.J., 2021. High-intensity exercise and cognitive function in cognitively sleep in the prevention and treatment of mental disorders. World Psychiatry 19 (3),
normal older adults: a pilot randomised clinical trial. Alzheimer’S. Res. Ther. 13 (1), 360–380. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20773.
33. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13195-021-00774-y. Franke, K., Gaser, C., 2019. Ten years of brainage as a neuroimaging biomarker of brain
Buettner, D., Skemp, S., 2016. Blue zones: Lessons from the world’s longest lived. Am. J. aging: What insights have we gained? Front. Neurol. 10. 〈https://www.frontiersin.or
Lifestyle Med. 10 (5), 318–321. https://doi.org/10.1177/1559827616637066. g/articles/10.3389/fneur.2019.00789〉.
Franke, K., Bublak, P., Hoyer, D., Billiet, T., Gaser, C., Witte, O.W., Schwab, M., 2020. In
vivo biomarkers of structural and functional brain development and aging in
9
humans. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 117, 142–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Holwerda, T.J., Beekman, A.T., Deeg, D.J., Stek, M.L., van Tilburg, T.G., Visser, P.J.,
neubiorev.2017.11.002. Schoevers, R.A., 2012. Increased risk of mortality associated with social isolation in
Friedler, B., Crapser, J., McCullough, L., 2015. One is the deadliest number: the older men: Only when feeling lonely? Results from the amsterdam study of the
detrimental effects of social isolation on cerebrovascular diseases and cognition. elderly (amstel). Psychol. Med. 42 (4), 843–853. https://doi.org/10.1017/
Acta Neuropathol. 129 (4), 493–509. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00401-014-1377-9. s0033291711001772.
Fu, J., Tan, L.-J., Lee, J.E., Shin, S., 2022. Association between the mediterranean diet Hsu, C.F., Chao, H.-H., Yang, A.C., Yeh, C.-W., Hsu, L., & Chi, S. (2020). Discrimination
and cognitive health among healthy adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. of severity of alzheimer’s disease with multiscale entropy analysis of eeg dynamics.
Front. Nutr. 9 https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.946361. 10(4).doi: 10.3390/app10041244.
Fujiyama, H., Hinder, M.R., Schmidt, M.W., Tandonnet, C., Garry, M.I., Summers, J.J., Jaeggi, S.M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., Shah, P., 2011. Short- and long-term benefits of
2012. Age-related differences in corticomotor excitability and inhibitory processes cognitive training. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 108 (25), 10081–10086. https://doi.org/
during a visuomotor RT task. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 24 (5), 1253–1263. https://doi.org/ 10.1073/pnas.1103228108.
10.1162/jocn_a_00201. Jansen, D., Zerbi, V., Janssen, C.I., van Rooij, D., Zinnhardt, B., Dederen, P.J.,
Fujiyama, H., Van Soom, J., Rens, G., Gooijers, J., Leunissen, I., Levin, O., Swinnen, S.P., Heerschap, A., 2014. Impact of a multi-nutrient diet on cognition, brain metabolism,
2016. Age-related changes in frontal network structural and functional connectivity hemodynamics, and plasticity in apoe4 carrier and apoe knockout mice. Brain Struct.
in relation to bimanual movement control. J. Neurosci. 36 (6) https://doi.org/ Funct. 219 (5), 1841–1868. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-013-0606-7.
10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3355-15.2016. Jessen, F., Amariglio, R.E., Buckley, R.F., van der Flier, W.M., Han, Y., Molinuevo, J.L.,
Fujiyama, H., Hinder, M.R., Barzideh, A., Vijver, C., Badache, A.C., Manrique-C, M.N., Saykin, A.J., 2020. The characterisation of subjective cognitive decline. Lancet
Swinnen, S.P., 2017. Preconditioning tdcs facilitates subsequent tdcs effect on skill Neurol. 19 (3), 271–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1474-4422(19)30368-0.
acquisition in older adults. Neurobiol. Aging 51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Kane, R.L., Butler, M., Fink, H.A., Brasure, M., Davila, H., Desai, P., McCarten, J.R.,
neurobiolaging.2016.11.012. (2017). (Report No.: 17-EHC008-EF).Interventions to Prevent Age-related Cognitive
Gallen, C.L., Baniqued, P.L., Chapman, S., Aslan, S., Keebler, M.W., Didehbani, N., Decline, Mild Cognitive Impairment, and Clinical Alzheimer’s-type Dementia.
D’Esposito, M., 2016. Modular brain network organization predicts response to Katz, B., Shah, P., Meyer, D.E., 2018. How to play 20 questions with nature and lose:
cognitive training in older adults. PLoS One 11 (12), e0169015. https://doi.org/ Reflections on 100 years of brain-training research. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 115
10.1371/journal.pone.0169015. (40), 9897–9904. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1617102114.
Gardener, S.L., Weinborn, M., Sohrabi, H.R., Doecke, J.D., Bourgeat, P., Rainey-Smith, S. Kelly, P., Williamson, C., Niven, A.G., Hunter, R., Mutrie, N., Richards, J., 2018. Walking
R., Martins, R.N., 2021. Longitudinal trajectories in cortical thickness and volume on sunshine: Scoping review of the evidence for walking and mental health. Br. J.
atrophy: Superior cognitive performance does not protect against brain atrophy in Sports Med. 52 (12), 800–806. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-098827.
older adults. J. Alzheimers Dis. 81 (3), 1039–1052. https://doi.org/10.3233/jad- Koen, J.D., Rugg, M.D., 2019. Neural dedifferentiation in the aging brain. Trends Cogn.
201243. Sci. 23 (7), 547–559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2019.04.012.
Garmany, A., Yamada, S., Terzic, A., 2021. Longevity leap: mind the healthspan gap. NPJ Koloverou, E., Panagiotakos, D.B., Pitsavos, C., Chrysohoou, C., Georgousopoulou, E.N.,
Regen. Med. 6 (1), 57. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41536-021-00169-5. Grekas, A., Group, T.A.S., 2016. Adherence to mediterranean diet and 10-year
Gates, N.J., Rutjes, A.W., Di Nisio, M., Karim, S., Chong, L.Y., March, E., Vernooij, R.W., incidence (2002–2012) of diabetes: correlations with inflammatory and oxidative
2019. Computerised cognitive training for maintaining cognitive function in stress biomarkers in the attica cohort study. Diabetes/Metab. Res. Rev. 32 (1),
cognitively healthy people in midlife. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (3) https://doi. 73–81. https://doi.org/10.1002/dmrr.2672.
org/10.1002/14651858.cd012277.pub2. Kovacevic, A., Fenesi, B., Paolucci, E., Heisz, J.J., 2020. The effects of aerobic exercise
Giorgio, A., Santelli, L., Tomassini, V., Bosnell, R., Smith, S., De Stefano, N., Johansen- intensity on memory in older adults. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 45 (6), 591–600.
Berg, H., 2010. Age-related changes in grey and white matter structure throughout https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2019-0495.
adulthood. NeuroImage 51 (3), 943–951. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Kueider, A.M., Parisi, J.M., Gross, A.L., Rebok, G.W., 2012. Computerized cognitive
neuroimage.2010.03.004. training with older adults: a systematic review. PLoS One 7 (7), e40588. https://doi.
Grady, C.L., 2002. Age-related differences in face processing: a meta-analysis of three org/10.1371/journal.pone.0040588.
functional neuroimaging experiments. Can. J. Exp. Psychol. 56 (3), 208–220. Li, H.J., Hou, X.H., Liu, H.H., Yue, C.L., Lu, G.M., Zuo, X.N., 2015. Putting age-related
https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087398. task activation into large-scale brain networks: a meta-analysis of 114 fmri studies
Hamer, M., Sharma, N., Batty, G.D., 2018. Association of objectively measured physical on healthy aging. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 57, 156–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
activity with brain structure: UK biobank study. J. Intern. Med. 284 (4), 439–443. neubiorev.2015.08.013.
https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.12772. Lindenberger, U., 2014. Human cognitive aging: corriger la fortune? Science 346 (6209),
Han, K., Chapman, S.B., Krawczyk, D.C., 2018. Neuroplasticity of cognitive control 572–578. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1254403.
networks following cognitive training for chronic traumatic brain injury. Livingston, G., Huntley, J., Sommerlad, A., Ames, D., Ballard, C., Banerjee, S.,
NeuroImage Clin. 18, 262–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2018.01.030. Mukadam, N., 2020. Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2020 report of the
Hanseeuw, B.J., Betensky, R.A., Jacobs, H.I.L., Schultz, A.P., Sepulcre, J., Becker, J.A., lancet commission. Lancet 396 (10248), 413–446. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-
Johnson, K., 2019. Association of amyloid and tau with cognition in preclinical 6736(20)30367-6.
alzheimer disease: a longitudinal study. JAMA Neurol. 76 (8), 915–924. https://doi. Long Chan, B.C., Luciano, M., Lee, B., 2018. Interaction of physical activity and
org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2019.1424. personality in the subjective wellbeing of older adults in hong kong and the united
Harrison, T.M., Weintraub, S., Mesulam, M.M., Rogalski, E., 2012. Superior memory and kingdom. Behav. Sci. 8 (8), 71. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs8080071.
higher cortical volumes in unusually successful cognitive aging. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Lopes, S., Shi, L., Pan, X., Gu, Y., Dengler-Crish, C., Li, Y., Zhang, D.L., 2023. Meditation
Soc. 18 (6), 1081–1085. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1355617712000847. and cognitive outcomes: a longitudinal analysis using data from the health and
van Harten, A.C., Smits, L.L., Teunissen, C.E., Visser, P.J., Koene, T., Blankenstein, M.A., retirement study 2000-2016. Mindfulness 14 (7), 1705–1717. https://doi.org/
van der Flier, W.M., 2013. Preclinical ad predicts decline in memory and executive 10.1007/s12671-023-02165-w.
functions in subjective complaints. Neurology 81 (16), 1409–1416. https://doi.org/ Madden, D.J., Costello, M.C., Dennis, N.A., Davis, S.W., Shepler, A.M., Spaniol, J.,
10.1212/wnl.0b013e3182a8418b. Cabeza, R., 2010. Adult age differences in functional connectivity during executive
van Harten, A.C., Mielke, M.M., Swenson-Dravis, D.M., Hagen, C.E., Edwards, K.K., control. Neuroimage 52 (2), 643–657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Roberts, R.O., Petersen, R.C., 2018. Subjective cognitive decline and risk of mci: the neuroimage.2010.04.249.
mayo clinic study of aging. Neurology 91 (4), e300–e312. https://doi.org/10.1212/ Martínez-Cañada, P., Perez-Valero, E., Minguillon, J., Pelayo, F., López-Gordo, M.A.,
wnl.0000000000005863. Morillas, C., 2023. Combining aperiodic 1/f slopes and brain simulation: an eeg/meg
Hartshorne, J.K., Germine, L.T., 2015. When does cognitive functioning peak? The proxy marker of excitation/inhibition imbalance in alzheimer’s disease. e12477-
asynchronous rise and fall of different cognitive abilities across the life span. e12477 Alzheimer’S. Dement. (Amst., Neth. ) 15 (3). https://doi.org/10.1002/
Psychol. Sci. 26 (4), 433–443. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614567339. dad2.12477.
Harvey, P.D., McGurk, S.R., Mahncke, H., Wykes, T., 2018. Controversies in McHugh, J.E., Lawlor, B.A., 2016. Executive functioning independently predicts self-
computerized cognitive training. Biol. Psychiatry Cogn. Neurosci. Neuroimaging 3 rated health and improvement in self-rated health over time among community-
(11), 907–915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2018.06.008. dwelling older adults. Aging Ment. Health 20 (4), 415–422. https://doi.org/
Hazlett-Stevens, H., Singer, J., Chong, A., 2019. Mindfulness-based stress reduction and 10.1080/13607863.2015.1018866.
mindfulness-based cognitive therapy with older adults: a qualitative review of McIntosh, A.R., Vakorin, V., Kovacevic, N., Wang, H., Diaconescu, A., Protzner, A.B.,
randomized controlled outcome research. Clin. Gerontol. 42 (4), 347–358. https:// 2014. Spatiotemporal dependency of age-related changes in brain signal variability.
doi.org/10.1080/07317115.2018.1518282. Cereb. Cortex 24 (7), 1806–1817. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bht030.
Hedden, T., Gabrieli, J.D.E., 2004. Insights into the ageing mind: a view from cognitive McKenzie, A.T., Marx, G.A., Koenigsberg, D., Sawyer, M., Iida, M.A., Walker, J.M.,
neuroscience. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 5 (2), 87–96. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1323. The, P. w g, 2022. Interpretable deep learning of myelin histopathology in age-
Heuninckx, S., Wenderoth, N., Swinnen, S.P., 2010. Age-related reduction in the related cognitive impairment. Acta Neuropathol. Commun. 10 (1), 131. https://doi.
differential pathways involved in internal and external movement generation. org/10.1186/s40478-022-01425-5.
Neurobiol. Aging 31, 301–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Michel, C.M., Koenig, T., 2018. Eeg microstates as a tool for studying the temporal
neurobiolaging.2008.03.021. dynamics of whole-brain neuronal networks: a review. NeuroImage 180, 577–593.
Hinault, T., Kraut, M., Bakker, A., Dagher, A., Courtney, S.M., 2020. Disrupted neural https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.11.062.
synchrony mediates the relationship between white matter integrity and cognitive Mirabito, G., Verhaeghen, P., 2023. The effects of mindfulness interventions on older
performance in older adults. Cereb. Cortex 30 (10), 5570–5582. https://doi.org/ adults’ cognition: A meta-analysis. J. Gerontol. Ser. B Psychol. Sci. Soc. Sci. 78 (3),
10.1093/cercor/bhaa141. 394–408. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbac143.
Hitchcott, P.K., Fastame, M.C., Penna, M.P., 2018. More to blue zones than long life: Montez, T., Poil, S.-S., Jones, B.F., Manshanden, I., Verbunt, J.P.A., van Dijk, B.W.,
positive psychological characteristics. Health Risk Soc. 20 (3-4), 163–181. https:// Linkenkaer-Hansen, K., 2009. Altered temporal correlations in parietal alpha and
doi.org/10.1080/13698575.2018.1496233.
10
prefrontal theta oscillations in early-stage alzheimer disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. Rabbitt, P., Lunn, M., Wong, D., Cobain, M., 2008b. Sudden declines in intelligence in old
106 (5), 1614–1619. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0811699106. age predict death and dropout from longitudinal studies. J. Gerontol. Ser. B 63 (4),
Moreno, S., Rodrigues, E., Farzan, F., 2023. The theory of orchid and dandelion offers a P205–P211. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/63.4.P205.
new subtyping framework for cognitive aging. Aging (Albany NY) 15 (14), Rabbitt, P., Lunn, M., Wong, D., Cobain, M., 2008a. Age and ability affect practice gains
6627–6628. https://doi.org/10.18632/aging.204955. in longitudinal studies of cognitive change. J. Gerontol. Ser. B 63 (4), P235–P240.
Morris, M.C., Tangney, C.C., Wang, Y., Sacks, F.M., Bennett, D.A., Aggarwal, N.T., 2015. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/63.4.P235.
Mind diet associated with reduced incidence of alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’S. Reinhart, R.M.G., Nguyen, J.A., 2019. Working memory revived in older adults by
Dement. 11 (9), 1007–1014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2014.11.009. synchronizing rhythmic brain circuits. Nat. Neurosci. 22 (5), 820–827. https://doi.
Nedergaard, M., Goldman, S.A., 2020. Glymphatic failure as a final common pathway to org/10.1038/s41593-019-0371-x.
dementia. Science 370 (6512), 50–56. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abb8739. Reuter-Lorenz, P.A., Cappell, K.A., 2008. Neurocognitive aging and the compensation
Neupert, S.D., Bellingtier, J.A., 2022. Between- and within-person approaches to hypothesis. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 17 (3), 177–182. https://doi.org/10.1111/
subjective views of aging. In: Palgi, Y., Shrira, A., Diehl, M. (Eds.), Subjective views j.1467-8721.2008.00570.x.
of aging: Theory, research, and practice. Springer International Publishing, Reuter-Lorenz, P.A., Park, D.C., 2014. How does it stac up? Revisiting the scaffolding
pp. 187–207. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-11073-3_11. theory of aging and cognition. Neuropsychol. Rev. 24 (3), 355–370. https://doi.org/
Neupert, S.D., Zhu, X., 2020. Heterogeneity in aging: the need for a tripartite contextual 10.1007/s11065-014-9270-9.
approach. Gerontologist 61 (1), 132–133. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnaa127. Rodrigues, E.A., Moreno, S., 2023. Conceptualizing healthy cognitive aging: the role of
Neves, L., Correia, A.I., Castro, S.L., Martins, D., Lima, C.F., 2022. Does music training time and variability. Front Hum. Neurosci. 17, 1240630 https://doi.org/10.3389/
enhance auditory and linguistic processing? A systematic review and meta-analysis fnhum.2023.1240630.
of behavioral and brain evidence. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 140, 104777 https://doi. Rodrigues, E.A., Christie, G.J., Farzan, F., Moreno, S., 2022. Does cognitive aging follow
org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104777. an orchid and dandelion phenomenon? Front. Aging Neurosci. 14 https://doi.org/
Nichols, E., Steinmetz, J.D., Vollset, S.E., Fukutaki, K., Chalek, J., Abd-Allah, F., Vos, T., 10.3389/fnagi.2022.986262.
2022. Estimation of the global prevalence of dementia in 2019 and forecasted Rogalski, E.J., Gefen, T., Shi, J., Samimi, M., Bigio, E., Weintraub, S., Mesulam, M.M.,
prevalence in 2050: An analysis for the global burden of disease study 2019. Lancet 2013. Youthful memory capacity in old brains: anatomic and genetic clues from the
Public Health 7 (2), e105–e125. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(21)00249-8. northwestern superaging project. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 25 (1), 29–36. https://doi.org/
Niu, X., Zhang, F., Kounios, J., Liang, H., 2020. Improved prediction of brain age using 10.1162/jocn_a_00300.
multimodal neuroimaging data. Hum. Brain Mapp. 41 (6), 1626–1643. https://doi. Roheger, M., Liebermann-Jordanidis, H., Krohm, F., Adams, A., Kalbe, E., 2021.
org/10.1002/hbm.24899. Prognostic factors and models for changes in cognitive performance after multi-
Niu, X., Taylor, A., Shinohara, R.T., Kounios, J., Zhang, F., 2022. Multidimensional domain cognitive training in healthy older adults: a systematic review. Front. Hum.
brain-age prediction reveals altered brain developmental trajectory in psychiatric Neurosci. 15, 636355 https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2021.636355.
disorders. Cereb. Cortex 32 (22), 5036–5049. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/ Román-Caballero, R., Arnedo, M., Triviño, M., Lupiáñez, J., 2018. Musical practice as an
bhab530. enhancer of cognitive function in healthy aging - a systematic review and meta-
Northey, J.M., Cherbuin, N., Pumpa, K.L., Smee, D.J., Rattray, B., 2018. Exercise analysis. PLoS One 13 (11), e0207957. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.
interventions for cognitive function in adults older than 50: a systematic review with pone.0207957.
meta-analysis. Br. J. Sports Med. 52 (3), 154–160. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports- Román-Caballero, R., Vadillo, M.A., Trainor, L.J., Lupiáñez, J., 2022. Please don’t stop
2016-096587. the music: a meta-analysis of the cognitive and academic benefits of instrumental
Nyberg, L., Salami, A., Andersson, M., Eriksson, J., Kalpouzos, G., Kauppi, K., Nilsson, L. musical training in childhood and adolescence. Educ. Res. Rev. 35, 100436 https://
G., 2010. Longitudinal evidence for diminished frontal cortex function in aging. doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2022.100436.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 107 (52), 22682–22686. https://doi.org/10.1073/ Roth, A.R., 2022. Social connectedness and cognitive decline. Lancet Healthy Longev. 3
pnas.1012651108. (11), e723–e724. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2666-7568(22)00217-3.
Nyberg, L., Andersson, M., Lundquist, A., 2023. Longitudinal change-change associations Rovio, S., Kåreholt, I., Helkala, E.-L., Viitanen, M., Winblad, B., Tuomilehto, J.,
of cognition with cortical thickness and surface area. Aging Brain 3, 100070. https:// Kivipelto, M., 2005. Leisure-time physical activity at midlife and the risk of dementia
doi.org/10.1016/j.nbas.2023.100070. and alzheimer’s disease. Lancet Neurol. 4 (11), 705–711. https://doi.org/10.1016/
Okely, J.A., Cox, S.R., Deary, I.J., Luciano, M., Overy, K., 2023. Cognitive aging and S1474-4422(05)70198-8.
experience of playing a musical instrument. Psychol. Aging 38 (7), 696–711. https:// Sachdev, P.S., Lipnicki, D.M., Kochan, N.A., Crawford, J.D., Thalamuthu, A.,
doi.org/10.1037/pag0000768. Andrews, G., Santabárbara, J., 2015. The prevalence of mild cognitive impairment in
O’Leary, K., Bylsma, L.M., Rottenberg, J., 2017. Why might poor sleep quality lead to diverse geographical and ethnocultural regions: the cosmic collaboration. PLoS One
depression? A role for emotion regulation. Cogn. Emot. 31 (8), 1698–1706. https:// 10 (11), e0142388. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142388.
doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2016.1247035. Sadler, P., McLaren, S., Klein, B., Harvey, J., Jenkins, M., 2018. Cognitive behavior
Ouyang, Y., Cui, D., Yuan, Z., Liu, Z., Jiao, Q., Yin, T., Qiu, J., 2021. Analysis of age- therapy for older adults with insomnia and depression: a randomized controlled trial
related white matter microstructures based on diffusion tensor imaging. Front. Aging in community mental health services. Sleep 41 (8). https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/
Neurosci. Vol. 13, 234. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2021.664911/full. zsy104.
Owen, A.M., Hampshire, A., Grahn, J.A., Stenton, R., Dajani, S., Burns, A.S., Ballard, C. Sala, G., Gobet, F., 2019. Cognitive training does not enhance general cognition. Trends
G., 2010. Putting brain training to the test. Nature 465 (7299), 775–778. https://doi. Cogn. Sci. 23 (1), 9–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2018.10.004.
org/10.1038/nature09042. Sala, G., Gobet, F., 2020. Cognitive and academic benefits of music training with
Park, D.C., Bischof, G.N., 2013. The aging mind: neuroplasticity in response to cognitive children: a multilevel meta-analysis. Mem. Cogn. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-
training. Dialog-. Clin. Neurosci. 15 (1), 109–119. https://doi.org/10.31887/ 020-01060-2.
DCNS.2013.15.1/dpark. Sala, G., Tatlidil, K.S., Gobet, F., 2018. Video game training does not enhance cognitive
Park, D.C., Reuter-Lorenz, P., 2009. The adaptive brain: aging and neurocognitive ability: a comprehensive meta-analytic investigation. Psychol. Bull. 144 (2),
scaffolding. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 60, 173–196. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev. 111–139. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000139.
psych.59.103006.093656. Sala, G., Nishita, Y., Tange, C., Tomida, M., Gondo, Y., Shimokata, H., Otsuka, R., 2023.
Perry, B.L., Roth, A.R., Peng, S., Risacher, S.L., Saykin, A.J., Apostolova, L.G., 2022. No appreciable effect of education on aging-associated declines in cognition: a 20-
Social networks and cognitive reserve: network structure moderates the association year follow-up study. Psychol. Sci. 34 (5), 527–536. https://doi.org/10.1177/
between amygdalar volume and cognitive outcomes. J. Gerontol. Ser. B 77 (8), 09567976231156793.
1490–1500. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbab192. Salat, D.H., Tuch, D.S., Greve, D.N., Kouwe, A.J., Hevelone, N.D., Zaleta, A.K., Dale, A.
Persson, J., Kalpouzos, G., Nilsson, L.G., Ryberg, M., Nyberg, L., 2011. Preserved M., 2005. Age-related alterations in white matter microstructure measured by
hippocampus activation in normal aging as revealed by FMRI. Hippocampus 21 (7), diffusion tensor imaging. Neurobiol. Aging 26 (8), 1215–1227. https://doi.org/
753–766. https://doi.org/10.1002/hipo.20794. 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2004.09.017.
Petkus, A.J., Wetherell, J.L., 2013. Acceptance and commitment therapy with older Salthouse, T.A., 1996. The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition.
adults: rationale and considerations. Cogn. Behav. Pract. 20 (1), 47–56. https://doi. Psychol. Rev. 103 (3), 403–428. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.103.3.403.
org/10.1016/j.cbpra.2011.07.004. Salthouse, T.A., 2011. Effects of age on time-dependent cognitive change. Psychol. Sci.
Piatti, V.C., Ewell, L.A., Leutgeb, J.K., 2013. Neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus: carrying 22 (5), 682–688. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611404900.
the message or dictating the tone. Front. Neurosci. 7, 50. https://doi.org/10.3389/ Salthouse, T.A., 2019. Trajectories of normal cognitive aging. Psychol. Aging 34 (1),
fnins.2013.00050. 17–24. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000288.
Pommy, J., Smart, C.M., Bryant, A.M., Wang, Y., 2023. Three potential neurovascular Santangelo, G., Baldassarre, I., Barbaro, A., Cavallo, N.D., Cropano, M., Maggi, G.,
pathways driving the benefits of mindfulness meditation for older adults. Article Raimo, S., 2021. Subjective cognitive failures and their psychological correlates in a
1207012 Front. Aging Neurosci. 15, 19. https://doi.org/10.3389/ large italian sample during quarantine/self-isolation for covid-19. Neurol. Sci. 42
fnagi.2023.1207012. (7), 2625–2635. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10072-021-05268-1.
Poulain, M., Pes, G.M., Grasland, C., Carru, C., Ferrucci, L., Baggio, G., Deiana, L., 2004. Scahill, R.I., Frost, C., Jenkins, R., Whitwell, J.L., Rossor, M.N., Fox, N.C., 2003.
Identification of a geographic area characterized by extreme longevity in the A longitudinal study of brain volume changes in normal aging using serial registered
sardinia island: the akea study. Exp. Gerontol. 39 (9), 1423–1429. https://doi.org/ magnetic resonance imaging. Arch. Neurol. 60 (7), 989–994. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.exger.2004.06.016. 10.1001/archneur.60.7.989.
Rabbitt, P., 2011. Between-individual variability and interpretation of associations Scarmeas, N., Stern, Y., 2003. Cognitive reserve and lifestyle. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol.
between neurophysiological and behavioral measures in aging populations: 25 (5), 625–633. https://doi.org/10.1076/jcen.25.5.625.14576.
comment on salthouse (2011). Psychol. Bull. 137 (5), 785–789. https://doi.org/ Schellenberg, E.G., 2020. Correlation = causation? Music training, psychology, and
10.1037/a0024580. neuroscience. Psychol. Aesthet. Creat. Arts 14 (4), 475–480. https://doi.org/
10.1037/aca0000263.
11
Schellenberg, E.G., Lima, C.F., 2024. Music training and nonmusical abilities. Annu. Rev. Swagerman, S.C., de Geus, E.J., Kan, K.-J., van Bergen, E., Nieuwboer, H.A., Koenis, M.
Psychol. 75 (1) https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-032323-051354. M., Boomsma, D.I., 2016. The computerized neurocognitive battery: validation,
Schlee, W., Leirer, V., Kolassa, S., Thurm, F., Elbert, T., Kolassa, I.T., 2012. Development aging effects, and heritability across cognitive domains. Neuropsychology 30 (1), 53.
of large-scale functional networks over the lifespan. Neurobiol. Aging 33 (10), https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000248.
2411–2421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2011.11.031. Swinkels, J., Tilburg, T.V., Verbakel, E., Broese van Groenou, M., 2019. Explaining the
Sevinc, G., Rusche, J., Wong, B., Datta, T., Kaufman, R., Gutz, S.E., Lazar, S.W., 2021. gender gap in the caregiving burden of partner caregivers. J. Gerontol. B Psychol.
Mindfulness training improves cognition and strengthens intrinsic connectivity Sci. Soc. Sci. 74 (2), 309–317. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbx036.
between the hippocampus and posteromedial cortex in healthy older adults. Front. Swinnen, S.P., Heuninckx, S., Van Impe, A., Goble, D.J., Coxon, J.P., Wenderoth, N.,
Aging Neurosci. 13 https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2021.702796. 2011. Aging and movement control: The neural basis of age-related compensatory
Sewell, K.R., Erickson, K.I., Rainey-Smith, S.R., Peiffer, J.J., Sohrabi, H.R., Brown, B.M., recruitment. In: Danion, F., Latash, M. (Eds.), Motor control: Theories, experiments,
2021. Relationships between physical activity, sleep and cognitive function: a and applicationsl. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/
narrative review. Neurosci. Biobehav Rev. 130, 369–378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 9780195395273.003.0017.
neubiorev.2021.09.003. Taylor, A.M., Ritchie, S.J., Deary, I.J., 2017. Associations of intelligence across the life
Shah, T.M., Verdile, G., Sohrabi, H., Campbell, A., Putland, E., Cheetham, C., Martins, R. course with optimism and pessimism in older age. Intelligence 62, 79–88. https://
N., 2014. A combination of physical activity and computerized brain training doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2017.03.002.
improves verbal memory and increases cerebral glucose metabolism in the elderly. Tobin, M.K., Musaraca, K., Disouky, A., Shetti, A., Bheri, A., Honer, W.G., Lazarov, O.,
Transl. Psychiatry 4 (12), e487. https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2014.122. 2019. Human hippocampal neurogenesis persists in aged adults and alzheimer’s
Shah, T.M., Weinborn, M., Verdile, G., Sohrabi, H.R., Martins, R.N., 2017. Enhancing disease patients. e973 Cell Stem Cell 24 (6), 974–982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cognitive functioning in healthy older adults: a systematic review of the clinical stem.2019.05.003.
significance of commercially available computerized cognitive training in preventing Townsend, J., Adamo, M., Haist, F., 2006. Changing channels: an fmri study of aging and
cognitive decline. Neuropsychol. Rev. 27 (1), 62–80. https://doi.org/10.1007/ cross-modal attention shifts. Neuroimage 31 (4), 1682–1692. https://doi.org/
s11065-016-9338-9. 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.01.045.
Shatenstein, B., Barberger-Gateau, P., Mecocci, P., 2015. Prevention of age-related Tucker-Drob, E.M., 2019. Cognitive aging and dementia: a life-span perspective. Annu.
cognitive decline: which strategies, when, and for whom? J. Alzheimers Dis. 48 (1), Rev. Dev. Psychol. 1, 177–196. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-
35–53. https://doi.org/10.3233/jad-150256. 085204.
Shen, K., McFadden, A., McIntosh, A.R., 2021. Signal complexity indicators of health United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division, 2019.
status in clinical eeg, 20192-20192 Sci. Rep. 11 (1). https://doi.org/10.1038/ World population prospects 2019: Highlights. (ST/ESA/SER.A/423). United Nations,
s41598-021-99717-8. New York, NY, USA.
Shishegar, R., Cox, T., Rolls, D., Bourgeat, P., Doré, V., Lamb, F., Burnham, S.C., 2021. Uylings, H.B.M., West, M.J., Coleman, P.D., De Brabander, J.M., Flood, D.G., 2000.
Using imputation to provide harmonized longitudinal measures of cognition across Neuronal and cellular changes in the aging brain. In: Clark, C.M., Trojanowski, J.Q.
aibl and adni. Sci. Rep. 11 (1), 23788 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-02827- (Eds.), Neurodegenerative Dementias. McGraw-Hill, pp. 61–76.
6. Varley, T.F., Sporns, O., Puce, A., Beggs, J., 2020. Differential effects of propofol and
Simning, A., Conwell, Y., van Wijngaarden, E., 2014. Cognitive impairment in public ketamine on critical brain dynamics. e1008418-e1008418 PLOS Comput. Biol. 16
housing residents living in western new york. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. (12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008418.
49 (3), 477–485. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-013-0712-0. Virta, J.J., Heikkilä, K., Perola, M., Koskenvuo, M., Räihä, I., Rinne, J.O., Kaprio, J.,
Simons, D.J., Boot, W.R., Charness, N., Gathercole, S.E., Chabris, C.F., Hambrick, D.Z., 2013. Midlife sleep characteristics associated with late life cognitive function, 1541a
Stine-Morrow, E.A.L., 2016. Do “brain-training” programs work? Psychol. Sci. Public Sleep 36 (10), 1533–1541. https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.3052.
Interest 17 (3), 103–186. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100616661983. Vogel, J.W., Doležalová, M.V., La Joie, R., Marks, S.M., Schwimmer, H.D., Landau, S.M.,
Sindi, S., Kåreholt, I., Ngandu, T., Rosenberg, A., Kulmala, J., Johansson, L., Jagust, W.J., 2017. Subjective cognitive decline and β-amyloid burden predict
Kivipelto, M., 2021. Sex differences in dementia and response to a lifestyle cognitive change in healthy elderly. Neurology 89 (19), 2002–2009. https://doi.org/
intervention: evidence from nordic population-based studies and a prevention trial. 10.1212/WNL.0000000000004627.
Alzheimers Dement 17 (7), 1166–1178. https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.12279. Volgman, A.S., Bairey Merz, C.N., Aggarwal, N.T., Bittner, V., Bunch, T.J., Gorelick, P.B.,
Sohrabi, H.R., Weinborn, M., 2019. Cognitive impairments in alzheimer’s disease and Pepine, C.J., 2019. Sex differences in cardiovascular disease and cognitive
other neurodegenerative diseases. Neurodegener. Alzheimer’S. Dis. 267–290. impairment: another health disparity for women? J. Am. Heart Assoc. 8 (19),
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119356752.ch9. e013154 https://doi.org/10.1161/jaha.119.013154.
Song, J., Birn, R.M., Boly, M., Meier, T.B., Nair, V.A., Meyerand, M.E., Prabhakaran, V., von Bastian, C.C., Belleville, S., Udale, R.C., Reinhartz, A., Essounni, M., Strobach, T.,
2014. Age-related reorganizational changes in modularity and functional 2022. Mechanisms underlying training-induced cognitive change. Nat. Rev. Psychol.
connectivity of human brain networks. Brain Connect. 4 (9), 662–676. https://doi. 1 (1), 30–41. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-021-00001-3.
org/10.1089/brain.2014.0286. Voytek, B., Kramer, M.A., Case, J., Lepage, K.Q., Tempesta, Z.R., Knight, R.T.,
Song, S., Stern, Y., Gu, Y., 2022. Modifiable lifestyle factors and cognitive reserve: a Gazzaley, A., 2015. Age-related changes in 1/f neural electrophysiological noise. LP-
systematic review of current evidence. Ageing Res. Rev. 74, 101551 https://doi.org/ 13265 J. Neurosci. 35 (38), 13257. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2332-
10.1016/j.arr.2021.101551. 14.2015.
Stampanoni Bassi, M., Iezzi, E., Gilio, L., Centonze, D., Buttari, F., 2019. Synaptic Walhovd, K.B., Westlye, L.T., Amlien, I., Espeseth, T., Reinvang, I., Raz, N., Fjell, A.M.,
plasticity shapes brain connectivity: implications for network topology. Int. J. Mol. 2011. Consistent neuroanatomical age-related volume differences across multiple
Sci. 20 (24), 6193. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20246193. samples. Neurobiol. Aging 32 (5), 916–932. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Stargatt, J., Bhar, S.S., Davison, T.E., Pachana, N.A., Mitchell, L., Koder, D., Helmes, E., neurobiolaging.2009.05.013.
2017. The availability of psychological services for aged care residents in australia: a Wang, S., Wang, W., Li, X., Liu, Y., Wei, J., Zheng, J., Zeng, Y., 2022. Using machine
survey of facility staff. Aust. Psychol. 52 (6), 406–413. https://doi.org/10.1111/ learning algorithms for predicting cognitive impairment and identifying modifiable
ap.12244. factors among chinese elderly people. Front. Aging Neurosci. 14 https://doi.org/
Stern, Y., 2009. Cognitive reserve. Neuropsychologia 47 (10), 2015–2028. https://doi. 10.3389/fnagi.2022.977034.
org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004. Whalley, L.J., Deary, I.J., Appleton, C.L., Starr, J.M., 2004. Cognitive reserve and the
Stern, Y., Arenaza-Urquijo, E.M., Bartrés-Faz, D., Belleville, S., Cantilon, M., Chetelat, G., neurobiology of cognitive aging. Ageing Res. Rev. 3 (4), 369–382. https://doi.org/
Workgroup, C.F., 2020. Whitepaper: defining and investigating cognitive reserve, 10.1016/j.arr.2004.05.001.
brain reserve, and brain maintenance. Alzheimer’S. Dement. 16 (9), 1305–1311. Wolfsgruber, S., Polcher, A., Koppara, A., Kleineidam, L., Frölich, L., Peters, O.,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2018.07.219. Maier, W., 2017. Cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers and clinical progression in patients
Stern, Y., Albert, M., Barnes, C.A., Cabeza, R., Pascual-Leone, A., Rapp, P.R., 2023. with subjective cognitive decline and mild cognitive impairment. J. Alzheimer’S.
A framework for concepts of reserve and resilience in aging. Neurobiol. Aging 124, Dis. 58 (3), 939–950. https://doi.org/10.3233/jad-161252.
100–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2022.10.015. World Health Organization. (2015). World report on ageing and health. (9241565047).
Stevens, W.D., Hasher, L., Chiew, K.S., Grady, C.L., 2008. A neural mechanism Retrieved from http://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241565042.
underlying memory failure in older adults. J. Neurosci. 28 (48), 12820–12824. World Health Organization. (2020). Decade of healthy ageing: Baseline report.
https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.2622-08.2008. (9240017909). Retrieved from http://www.who.int/publications/m/item/decade-o
Stillman, C.M., Esteban-Cornejo, I., Brown, B., Bender, C.M., Erickson, K.I., 2020. Effects f-healthy-ageing-plan-of-action.
of exercise on brain and cognition across age groups and health states. Trends World Health Organization. (2022). Dementia. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/ne
Neurosci. 43 (7), 533–543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2020.04.010. ws-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia.
Stumme, J., Jockwitz, C., Hoffstaedter, F., Amunts, K., Caspers, S., 2020. Functional Wrigglesworth, J., Ryan, J., Ward, P.G.D., Woods, R.L., Storey, E., Egan, G.F., Harding, I.
network reorganization in older adults: graph-theoretical analyses of age, cognition H., 2022. Health-related heterogeneity in brain aging and associations with
and sex. NeuroImage 214, 116756. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. longitudinal change in cognitive function. Front Aging Neurosci. 14, 1063721
neuroimage.2020.116756. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2022.1063721.
Sutcliffe, R., Du, K., Ruffman, T., 2020. Music making and neuropsychological aging: a Wu, Z., Phyo, A.Z.Z., Al-Harbi, T., Woods, R.L., Ryan, J., 2020. Distinct cognitive
review. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 113, 479–491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. trajectories in late life and associated predictors and outcomes: a systematic review.
neubiorev.2020.03.026. J. Alzheimers Dis. Rep. 4 (1), 459–478. https://doi.org/10.3233/adr-200232.
Svennerholm, L., Boström, K., Jungbjer, B., 1997. Changes in weight and compositions of Wu, Z., Woods, R.L., Chong, T.T., Orchard, S.G., McNeil, J.J., Shah, R.C., Ryan, J., 2022.
major membrane components of human brain during the span of adult human life of Potential modifiable factors associated with late-life cognitive trajectories. Front.
swedes. Acta Neuropathol. 94 (4), 345–352. https://doi.org/10.1007/ Neurol. 13, 950644 https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2022.950644.
s004010050717.
12
Yang, A.C., Tsai, S.J., Liu, M.E., Huang, C.C., Lin, C.P., 2016. The association of aging Zhao, Y., Feng, H., Wu, X., Du, Y., Yang, X., Hu, M., Zhao, Y., 2020. Effectiveness of
with white matter integrity and functional connectivity hubs. Front. Aging Neurosci. exergaming in improving cognitive and physical function in people with mild
Vol. 8, 143. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2016.00143. cognitive impairment or dementia: systematic review. JMIR Serious Games 8 (2),
Zaninotto, P., Batty, G.D., Allerhand, M., Deary, I.J., 2018. Cognitive function e16841. https://doi.org/10.2196/16841.
trajectories and their determinants in older people: 8 years of follow-up in the Zhu, W., Wen, W., He, Y., Xia, A., Anstey, K.J., Sachdev, P., 2012. Changing topological
english longitudinal study of ageing. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 72 (8), patterns in normal aging using large-scale structural networks. Neurobiol. Aging 33
685–694. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2017-210116. (5), 899–913. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2010.06.022.
Zanto, T.P., Gazzaley, A., 2017. Cognitive control and the ageing brain. Wiley Handb. Ziegler, D.A., Anguera, J.A., Gallen, C.L., Hsu, W.Y., Wais, P.E., Gazzaley, A., 2022.
Cogn. Control 476–490. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118920497.ch27. Leveraging technology to personalize cognitive enhancement methods in aging. Nat.
Zarahn, E., Rakitin, B., Abela, D., Flynn, J., Stern, Y., 2007. Age-related changes in brain Aging 2 (6), 475–483. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43587-022-00237-5.
activation during a delayed item recognition task. Neurobiol. Aging 28 (5), 784–798. Zonneveld, H.I., Pruim, R.H.R., Bos, D., Vrooman, H.A., Muetzel, R.L., Hofman, A.,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2006.03.002. Vernooij, M.W., 2019. Patterns of functional connectivity in an aging population: the
Zhang, H., Greenwood, D.C., Risch, H.A., Bunce, D., Hardie, L.J., Cade, J.E., 2021. Meat rotterdam study. NeuroImage 189, 432–444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
consumption and risk of incident dementia: cohort study of 493,888 UK biobank neuroimage.2019.01.041.
participants. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 114 (1), 175–184. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/
nqab028.
13

Prince, 2024 - Cognitive and Neuroscientific Perspectives of Healthy Ageing

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Prince, 2024 - Cognitive and Neuroscientific Perspectives of Healthy Ageing

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Prince, 2024 - Cognitive and Neuroscientific Perspectives of Healthy Ageing

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 161 (2024) 105649

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews

Cognitive and neuroscientific perspectives of healthy ageing☆

You might also like