HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

1. Introduction
2. Geometric design
3. Traffic Engg.
4. Pavement design
5. Highway material & miscellaneous
 Chapter-1 (Introduction)
Development of roads in India :-
Jayakar committee-
 This committee was established in 1927.
 Dr. M.R Jayakar was chair person of this
committee.
 He submitted report in 1928.
 Recommendation :-
 Committee suggested that central Government
should take responsibility of roads for national
Interest.
 For revenue added more taxes on petrol.
 Committee suggested long term planning
(20 year) for construction an development on
road.
Note:- Established central road fund (CRF) in 1929.
 Indian Road Congress :- (IRC)
 It was established in 1934.
 It was a semi-government body 1934.

Objective :-
 To promote & encourage science & practices of road &
building construction.
 Use of standard specification and practices.
 To advise regarding education, experiment and
research connected with road.
 To suggest improvement, development, protection,
and prepare road map for 5 year.
 Motor Vehicle act :-
 It was established in 1939 and further amendment
are considered in 1988 & 2019.
 It is used to control and regulate to traffic.

 Central Road Research Institute :- (CRRI)

 It was established in 1950. It works for R and D
(Research and development) work. It also check
quality of road.
 Bump integrator is used.
 National Highway act :-
 It was proposed in 1956.
 This act gave power to central government that central
government can interchange any state highway to
National highway (for National importance).
Note :- Geometric design & design speed of NH & SH are
same.
 National Highway authority of India:- (NHAI)
 It was established in 1988.
 It is an autonomous body which work under ministry
of road and transport.
 National highway development Programme:-(NHDP)
 It was established in 1998.
 There was two major steps-
1. Golden Quadrilateral :-
Delhi

Mumbai

Kolkata

Chennai

 Total Road Length = 5846 km

2. National Corridor :-
Shrinagar
N
W
Porbandar Silchar
E

S
Kanyakumari

 N-S Corridor = 4000 km

 E-W Corridor = 3300 km
 Total length of Corridor = 7300 km
 Pradhanmantri gram sadak Yojna :- (PMGSY)
 It was established in 2000.
 The aim was Provide roads to all villages with a
population of 1000 person an above in 2003.
 The aim was provide road to all villages with a
population of 500 person and above in 2007.

Note:-
 Central road organisation (CRO) was established in
1930.
 Border road organisation (BRO) was established in
1960.
 Highway research board (HRB) was established in
1973.
Note :-
1927 - Establish Committee
1928 - Submit report
1929 - CRF
1930 - CRO
1934 - IRC
1939 - MVA (motor vehicle act)
1950 - CRRI
1956 - National Highway act
1960 - BRO
1973 - HRB
1988 - NHAI
1998 - NHDP
2000 - PMGSY
 Classification of 20 year Plan :-
Features Ist 20 year plan IInd 20 year plan IIIrd 20 year plan

Duration 1943-1963 1961-1981 1981-2001

Other Name Nagpur Bombay Lucknow
target density 16 km 32 km 82 km
(per 100km2 area)
Road Pattern Star & Grid No Pattern Square & grid
Expressways Nil 1600 km 2000 km
Road classification NH Nil Primary- Expressway , NH
SH Secondary- SH, MDR
MDR Tertiary – ODR, VR
ODR
VR
 Formula to calculate length of road in 3rd 20-year plan :-
1. Length of NH (km) =

2. Length of SH (km) =
or
length of SH = 62.5 × No of town with population more
than 5000 –

3. Length of MDR =

or
Length of MDR = 90×No. of town with Population more
than 5000
4. Total Road length = 4.74 × No. of village & town
(NH+SH+MDR+ODR+VR)
5. Rural Road = Total road length – (NH+SH+MDR)
(ODR+VR)

Note- Length of various type of roads in 3rd 20-year plan

i. Length of NH = 66000 km
ii. Length of SH = 145000 km
iii. Length of MDR = 300000 km
iv. Length of (ODR+VR) = 2189000 km
Que. According to 1981 census, The area of state of
Maharashtra was 308000 km2 .No. of towns with
population above 5000 was 567. The no of towns
and village was 357778. Determine the length of
various road categories.
Solution –
Length of NH = = = 6160

length of SH = = = 12320

Length of SH = 62.5 × 567 - = 29277.5km

Length of MDR = = = 24640km

Length of MDR = 90 × No. of towns with population
above 5000
Length of MDR = 90×567 = 51030 km

 Adopt higher value of both are given above length

Length of MDR = 51030 km
Total Road length = 4.74 × No. Of village & towns
= 4.74 × 35778
= 169587.72 km
Rural Road = Total Road length – (NH+SH+MDR)
= 169587.72 – (6160 + 29277.5 + 51030)
= 169587.72 – 86467.5
Rural Road = 69508.78 km
 Classification of Roads :- (Based on IRC)
i. National Highway (NH)
ii. State Highway (SH)
iii. Major District Road (MDR)
iv. Other district Road (ODR)
v. Village Road (VR)

1. National Highway :- (NH)

 This is most important type of road in India.
 Length of NH is 2% of total road length in India.
While it wears 40% traffic of total traffic in India.
 It connect major port, foreign highway, Capital of
large state and large Industrial and tourist centre and
important defence places.
2. State Highway :- (SH)
 It is Arterial Road of the state which connecting up
with National Highway. National Highway of adjacent
State district an important cities within the state.

Note – Geometric design and design speed of NH and SH

are same.

3. Major District Road:- (MDR)

 These are important Roads within a district having
markets and production places which connect each
other.
4. Other district road:- (ODR)
 These are the road serving rural areas of production
and market centre, block development head quarters.

5. Village road:-(VR)
 These roads are connecting villages or group of villages
with each other.

Note – NH = SH > MDR > ODR > VR

6. Expressways :-
 These are separate class of highways with superior
facility and design standard. These routs having very
high traffic volume.
 These highway should permit only fast moving
vehicle.
 It can be made by central and state government
both.

 Classification of urban road :-

 It is classified under 3rd -20 year plan. It can be
classified as-
i. Arterial road
ii. Sub-arterial road
iii. Collector street road
iv. Local street road

 Arterial and sub-arterial are streets where traffic

operation or continuous. but sub-arterial road having
low traffic volume.
 Collector street provide access to arterial street and
they collect, divert and distribute traffic to the local
street.
 Road Pattern :-
(a). Rectangular and block Pattern-
 The rectangular block pattern has been given in
Chandigarh city.

Main road
Central business area

 This pattern is given by Le-corbusier. He was swiss- french

architech.
(b). Radial or star & block pattern :-

Central
Business Area
Radial Roads

Rectangular Pattern
Builtup Area
(C). Radial or star and circular pattern :-
Builtup Area

Central Business area

or Focal Point

Radial Road

Ring Road
(d). Radial or star and grid pattern :-
 This pattern was given in Nagpur plan.
(e). Hexagonal pattern:-
 This pattern is given in European countries.
 Engg. Survey to decide location of a highway :-

1. Map study
2. Reconnaissance survey
3. Preliminary survey
4. Location/ detailed survey

1. Map Study:-
The probable alignment can be located on the map on
the basis of available detail on map-
 Alignment avoid valley, pond and lake.
 When the road has to cross hills or possibility of
crossing through a mountain pass.
 Approximate location of bridge site for crossing river,
avoiding bend of the river.
 When road is to be connected between two stations,
one on the top and other on the foot of hills then
permissible gradient can be considered.

2. Reconnaissance survey:-
 All details are not available on the map for alternate
routes. Surveyor should go in the field and all
relevant details or noted which are given below –
 Valley, pond, lakes marshy land, ridge, permanent
structure are not available on the map.
 Approximate value of gradient, length of gradient
and radius of curvature of alternate alignment.
 No. and type of crass-drainage structure, max. fluid
level and ground water level.
 Soil type along the routes.
 Source of construction material.
 Minor instrument like- compass, clinometer etc. are
used.

3. Preliminary survey:-
 The main objective of preliminary survey are-
 To compare different alternate routes for a best
alignment.
 To estimate quantity of earth work and cast of
alternate routes.
 To finalise the best alignment from all consideration.
 Primary traverse, levelling work, soil survey, material
survey, drainage & hydrological data are considered
in preliminary survey.

4. Location/detail survey :-
 Temporary bench mark are fixed about 250 m
Interval.
 In detailed surveying surveyor should detail plan,
design and estimation of the project.
 Historical development of road construction:-
(a) Roman road:-
 The main features of the roman roads are they were
built straight without any gradient or slope.
 Total thickness of construction was as high as 0.75 m
to 1.2 m.
(b). Tresagutes construction:-
 Pierre Tresagutes (1716-1796) developed an improved
method of construction in France.
 The thickness of construction only 30 cm.
 Surface water drainage was considered.
(c). Telford’s construction:- (1757-1834)
 Telford Provided level subgrade of width 9 m.
 Thickness of foundation stone varies from 17 cm at
edge to 22 cm at the centre.
(d). Macadam’s construction:-
 John Macadam (1759-1836) made entirely new
method of road construction as compared to
previous methods.
 Macadam was the first person who suggested that
heavy foundation stones are not required. He
provided stones of size less then 5 cm sieve to
uniform thickness of 10 cm.
 For surface drainages cross slope was given 1 in 36
for subgrade and surface course both. Total thickness
of pavement was 25 cm.
 Chapter-2 (Geometric Design) (IS 73-1980)
 The Geometric design of highway deals with the
dimensions and layout of visible features of the
highway such as alignment, sight distance,
intersection etc.
 The Geometry of highway should be designed to
provide optimum efficiency in traffic operation with
max safety.
 Geometric design of highway deals with following
elements-
a. Cross section element
b. Sight distance consideration
c. Horizontal alignment
d. Vertical alignment
 (a) Cross-section element:-
 Under cross section element consideration of
pavement characteristics, camber, width of pavement
width of roadway etc. are included.
1. Pavement characteristics:-
 The type of pavement surface depends on availability
of materials, fund, traffic volume, subgrade condition
and climatic conditions are considered. While
pavement characteristics depends upon friction,
surface unevenness, light reflecting characteristics,
skid & slip and drainage of surface water.
A. Friction/skid resistance:-
 The friction between vehicle tyre and pavement
surface is one of the future determine operating
speed, distance requirement in stopping and
accelerating the vehicles.
 There are two type of friction developed on
pavement surface-
i. Longitudinal friction:-
 It developed along the road.
 According to IRC,
coefficient of longitudinal friction = 0.35-0.40
ii. Lateral friction :-
 It developed when vehicle is moving on horizontal
curve then lateral friction counteract centrifugal
force.
 According to IRC,
coefficient of lateral friction = 0.15

Note- In case of intersection, rotary & bridge

mastic asphalt is provided for obtaining more
friction.
 In dry pavement
 In case of dry pavement,
smooth or old tyre
offers higher friction resistance
than new tyres with tread block
because of large area of contact.

 In wet pavement
 In case of wet pavement,
new tyre offers higher friction
resistance than old tyre due to
lubricating effect.
B. Skid & slip :-
Skid:- During application of brake, the wheels are fully or
partially locked. It means when path travelled along the
road surface is more than circumferential /rotational
movement of the wheels.
×
 Translation > Rotation
skid

Slip:- During application of acceleration the path of

wheel travelled along the road surface is less than
circumferential movement of the wheel.

 Rotation > translation ×

Slip
(C). Light reflecting characteristics:-
 Generally we provide black top pavement surface
with white border but this combination have poor
visibility in night. So use road delineators to guide
traffic.
(D). Pavement unevenness/Undulation:-
s1 s3
s2 s4
[S = S1+S2+S3+S4 ----- ]
 Pavement unevenness is measured by an equipment is called
Bump integrator which works under CRRI.
2. Camber/Crossfall/Cross slope :-
 comber is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain off the rain water from road surface.
 It is given on the road surface by following reasons-
1. To prevent the entry of surface water into the soil subgrade
because stability, surface condition and life of pavement gets
adversely affected.
2. If water contact with bituminous layer continuously then
decrease bonding between bitumen and aggregate by which
surface deterioration occurs.
3. To remove the rain water from the pavement surface by which
adequate friction obtained.
 The required camber depends upon-
1. Type of pavement surface/ material.
2. Amount of rainfall.
Types of road surface Range of camber
Heavy rainfall Light rainfall
1. C.C. Pavement & high 1 in 50 (2%) 1 in 60 (1.67%)
bituminous pavement
2. Thin bituminous surface 1 in 40 (2.5%) 1 in 50 (2%)
3. WBM & gravel pavement 1 in 33 (3%) 1 in 40 (2.5%)
4. Earthen material 1 in 25 (4%) 1 in 33 (3%)

Note-
1. In case of shoulder/berm, camber is increased by 0.5% from
given above table.
2. Min. camber longitudinal slope
Too steep cross slope is not desirable due to following
reasons-
 Due to excessive caber, vehicles / automobiles feels
uncomfortable due to side thrust so unequal wear
occurs on tyre and road surface.
 Overtaking operation would not be easy.
 Problem of toppling of bullock cart & truck.
 Formation of cross ruts due to rapid flow of water.
 Tendency of most vehicles to travel along the centre
line .
 Shape of camber :-
i. Straight camber (cc pavement)
ii. Parabolic / Elliptical camber
iii. Combined shape camber (parabolic + Straight)

tanθ =
hh

w
Que. In a district where the rainfall is having MDR of WBM
pavement 3.8 m wide and state highway of bituminous concrete
pavement 7 m wide are to be constructed. What should be the
height of crown with respect to edges in these two cases.

Solution –
3. Width of pavement :-
 Pavement width depends upon width of traffic lane
and no. of lanes.
Class of Road Width of Pavement
i. Single plane 3.75 m
ii.Two lanes without raised kerb 7.0 m
iii.
Two lanes with raised kerb 7.5 m
iv.Intermediate pavement 5.5 m
(Except on Imp. road)
v. Multilane pavement 3.5 m per lane

Note- The width of single lane or village road may be

decreased up to 3 m.
Side Clearance :-

According to IRC-
 Max. Width of vehicle = 2.44 m
 Max. Height single deck = 3.8 m
Double deck = 4.7 m
For single unit with two axle =10.7m
 Max. Length For tractor + trailor = 18.3 m
4. Kerb :-
 It is the boundary between pavement and shoulder
or footpath or median or Island or parking space etc.
 It prevents lateral movement or displacement of
pavement material.
 It is divided into different types-
i. Low or mountable type kerb:-
Height = 10 cm Carriageway

ii. Semi- barrier type kerb:-

Height = 15cm Slope = 1:1

Carriageway
iii. Barrier type kerb:-
H = 20cm
Slope = 1:0.25
Carriageway

iv. Submerged kerb:-

 To prevent granular base course in rural area.
5. Traffic separator / median:-
 The main function of traffic separator is to avoid is
head on collision between vehicles moving on
opposite direction on adjacent lane.
According to IRC –
 In rural area, min. width of median = 5 m.
 In urban area, min. width of median = 1.2 m
 In long bridges, median width = 1.2 to 1.5 m
6. Road margin :-
(A). Shoulder:-
 Shoulder are provided along the road edges to serve as
emergency lane for vehicle.
 Shoulder also act as service lane for vehicles that has
broken down.
 It supports edges of pavement laterally.
 It prevents water to percolate through soil subgrade.
 The material quality is poor than main pavement and
colour is lighter by which vehicles could not operate
regularly.
 The min. width of shoulder
is 2.5 m.
(B). Lay byes:-
 It is provided by conveniences
consider to clear off the pavement.

(C). Parking lane:-

 Generally it is provided in urban road.
 Min. width = 3m (for parallel parking).

(D). Frontage road/ service road:-

 It is provided parallel to
the main pavement.
 Frontage road refer with
grade separation (flyover).
(E). Drive ways:-
 It connects the highway with
commercial places like fuel
station, service station,
cinema hall etc.
(F). Cycle track:-
 It is provided in urban area
where traffic volume is very high.
 Min. width = 2m.
(G). Footpath/side walk:-
 It is provided in urban area
where vehicular & pedestrian
traffic is very high, to provided
protection to pedestrian and to
decrease accident.
 Min. width = 1.5m, min. height = 15 cm
cross slope = 2.5-3%
Note-
(a). Set Back distance:-
 It is distance measured from centre line of road upto
which plinth of building.
 It is provided to facilitate future road widening,
parking of vehicles, free circulation of air etc.

Types of Road Min. Set back distance (m)

Residential building Industrial building
NH/ SH 30 m 45 m
MDR 15 m 24 m
VR 9m 15 m
 Set back distance is about 1.5 to 1.6 times more for
theatres, commercial complex factory than
residential building.

(b) Building line:-

 It refer to the front line up to which the building can
law fully extended.

 It refers for residential building

(c). Control Line :-
 In case of public building like as cinema hall,
commercial building, factories which attract a large
no. of vehicles should be set back at a further
distance apart from building line.
 The distance of control line is taken as 1.5 times the
building line.
7. Width of roadway /formation:-
 It includes width of pavement, separators, kerb and
shoulder.
 It does not include extra land of formation and
cuttings.
 S/N Types of Road Plain & rolling Mountainous &
terrain steep terrain

1 NH/SH
a. Single lane 12.0 m 6.25 m
b. Two lane 12.0 m 8.80 m
2 MDR
a. Single lane 9.0 m 4.75 m
b. Two lane 9.0 m _____
3 ODR
a. Single lane 7.5 m 4.75 m
b. Two lane 9.0 m _____
4 VR 7.5 m 4.0 m

Note-
 Min. width of roadway of single lane bridge = 4.25 m
(kerb to kerb distance).
 Right of way:-
 Right of way is the area of land aquired for the road
along its alignment.
 Row depends on following factors-
a. It depends upon category of road, width of roadway
and road margin.
b. Height of embankment, height of slope, depth of
cutting, topography, vertical alignment etc.
c. Draining system and their size which depends on
rainfall, runoff and soil condition etc.
d. Sight distance consideration on horizontal curve.
e. Reserve land for future widening.
 Plane & rolling terrain Mountainous & steep terrain
Open area Builtup area Open area Builtup area
Road Classification
Normal Range Normal Range Normal(m) Normal (m)
(m) (m) (m) (m)
NH/SH 45 30-60 30 30-60 24 20

MDR 25 25-30 20 15-25 18 15

ODR 15 15-25 15 15-20 15 12

VR 12 12-18 10 10-15 9 9
 (b). Sight distance consideration
 Sight distance is the length of the road visible ahead to
the driver at any instance by which driver can operate
safely.

 Types of sight distance:-

i. Stopping sight distance or Absolute min. sight distance or
Non-passing sight distance (SSD)
ii. Overtaking sight distance or passing sight distance (OSD).
iii. Intermediate sight distance (ISD).
(i). Stopping sight distance :- (SSD)
 The min. sight distance available on highway at any
spot should be of sufficient length to stop a vehicle
travelling at design speed safely without collision
with any obstruction.
 It is also called non-passing sight distance.
 SSD depends upon following factors-
1. Total reaction time of the driver
2. Design speed of vehicles
3. Efficiency of brakes
4. Friction resistance between road & tyre
5. Gradient of road
1. Total Reaction time of the driver:-
 Reaction time of driver is the time taken from the
instant the object is visible to instant the brake is
applied effectively.
 Total reaction time is considered by IRC is 2.5 second.

 PIEV Theory-
 It refers to analysis of total reaction time.

 Perception time-
 It is the time required from the sensation received by
the eyes of driver to transmit to the brain the
nervous system spinal cord.
 Intellection time:-
 It is the time required from understanding the
situation.
 Emotion time:-
 That time where emotions like fear, anger etc. are
developed.
 Volition time:-
 It is the time taken for the final action.

Note- Reaction time depends upon several factors

like-driver skill, type of obstructions and environment
condition etc.
2. Design speed of vehicle :-
 During the total reaction time of the driver the
distance is covered depends upon design speed of
vehicle.
 If design speed is more, the SSD will also be more.

3. Efficiency of Brake :-
 It is defined as percentage of friction force developed
by application of brake with respect to friction force
available max. on road surface .
4. Frictional Resistance between road and tyre:-
 Higher the coefficient of friction, higher is the
frictional resistance and lower is SSD.
 Coefficient of friction depends upon tyre and road
condition.

Design 20-30 40 50 60 65 80 100

speed
(KMPH)

f for SSD 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.35 0.35

5. Factor affecting gradient:-
 In case of ascending gradient breaking distance
reduces so SSD also reduces while in case of
descending gradient breaking distance increases so
SSD also increases.
 Analysis of SSD:-
 SSD = Lag distance + Breaking distance

 Lag distance:-
 The distance is covered during total reaction time or
PIEV time with design speed is called lag distance.

Lag distance = v × tR = 0.278×V×tR

Where,
v = design speed in m/s
V = design speed in KMPH
tR = total reaction time in sec. (=2.5 sec.)
 Breaking distance:-
Change in KE = Workdone

= friction force × displacement

=F×L

= (f×R) L

= (f×mg)L
Now,
SSD = Lag distance + Breaking distance

Where, f - coefficient of longitudinal friction

 Note- In case of gradient-
 Breaking distance,

(+)⟶ For ascending gradient or Positive gradient.

(-) ⟶ For descending gradient or Negative gradient.
S ⟶ Slope of road [S = tanθ]
Now,

Note- 1. SSD on the basis of design speed-

Design 20 25 30 40 50 60 65 80 100
speed
(KMPH)
Safe SSD 20 25 30 45 60 80 90 120 180
Note-2. SSD on different condition-
Different case Min. SSD (m)
Single lane with one way SSD
traffic

Single lane with two way 2 × SSD

traffic (same design speed of both
vehicle)

Two lane with two way traffic SSD

Que. Calculate safe SSD for design speed of 50 kmph
for- (a) Two way traffic on two lane road
(b) Two way traffic on single lane road

SSD = 0.278 × V × tR +

0.278 × 50 × 2.5 +

(a) Safe SSD = SSD = 62.87 m

(b) Safe SSD = 2 × 62.87 = 125.74 m
Que. Calculate the min. sight distance required too avoid head
on collision of two cars approaching from opposite direction at
90 kmph and 60 km/h. Assume reaction time is 2.5 second
coefficient of friction 0.7 and brake efficiency is 50%
Solution- given data – Reaction time (tR) = 2.5 second
V1 = 90 KPH V2 = 60 KMPH

SSD1 = 0.278 × V × tR +

= 0.278 × 90 × 2.5 +

= 62.55 +

SSD1 = 153.66m
SSD2 = 0.278 × 60 × 2.5 +

= 41.7 +

= 82.19 m

SSD = SSD1 + SSD2

= 153.66 + 82.19
SSD = 235.85 m
Que. Calculate the stopping sight distance on highway at a
descending gradient of 2% for design speed of 80 KMPH.
Assume other data as per IRC requirement.
Solution- S = tR = 2.5 sec. V = 80 km/h

SSD = 0.278 × V × tR +

SSD = 0.278 × V × tR +

SSD = 0.278 × 80 × 2.5 +

SSD = 55.6 +

SSD = 131.95 m
(ii). Over taking sight distance :- (OSD)
 If all the vehicles travels on a road at the design
speed theoretically, no need of any overtaking.
 But in mixed traffic condition (fast and slow moving
vehicles) some vehicles travel on road below design
speed so overtaking operation could be done.
 OSD depends upon following factors-
1. Speed of overtaking vehicle (A), overtaken vehicle (B) and
vehicle coming from opposite direction (C)
2. Min. centre to centre spacing between overtaking and
overtaken vehicle.
3. Skill and reaction time of the driver.
4. Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle.
5. Gradient of the road – In case of gradient, OSD increases
on both side (ascending & descending).
d1= distance covered by vehicle A from position A1 to A2.
(we assumed speed of vehicle A is equal to overtaken
vehicle during distance d1 because speed of vehicle A is
gradually reduces from A1 to A2).

d2 = distance covered by vehicle A from position A2 to A3 at

speed of overtaken vehicle in time T.

d3 = distance covered by vehicle C from position C1 to C2 at

design speed in time T.
OSD = d1 + d2 + d3 (i)

d1 = vb × tR (ii)

d2 = b + 2 S = vb × T + (iii)

Vb × T + 2S = vb × T +

T=

d3 = V × T (iv)
Now put value of d1, d2 & d3 in equation (i)
Note- If speed of overtaken vehicle is not given

or Vb = (V-16) KMPH

Where,
vb = speed of overtaken vehicle in m/sec
Vb = speed of overtaken vehicle in KMPH
v = design speed of vehicle in m/sec
V = Design speed of vehicle in KMPH
S = centre to centre spacing between overtaking &
overtaken vehicle.
S = (0.2 Vb + 6) m or S = (0.7 vb + 6) m
tR = Reaction time (taken 2 sec.)
 Rate of acceleration at different design speed :-
Design speed V 25 30 40 50 65 80 100
(KMPH)
Max. Overtaken 1.41 1.30 1.24 1.11 0.72 0.72 0.53
acceleration,
a (m/sec2)

Note (i) - Two lane with two way traffic

[OSD = d1 + d2 + d3]

Note (ii) – Two lane with one way traffic

[OSD = d1 + d2]
 Overtaking sight distance of two lane
highway for various design speed :-

Design 40 50 60 65 80 100
speed
(KMPH)
Safe 165 235 300 340 470 640
OSD (m)
 Overtaking Zone :-

SP1 – Sign post 1, it means overtaking zone ahead

SP2 – sign post 2, it means overtaking zone end

 Min. length of overtaking zone = 3.OSD

 Desirable length of overtaking zone = 5.OSD
Que. – The speed of overtaking and overtaken vehicles
are 70 and 40 KMPH respectively on two way traffic road
if the acceleration of overtaking vehicle is 0.99 m/sec2.

Calculate-
i. Safe overtaking sight distance.
ii. Mention the min. length of overtaking zone.
iii. Draw the neat sketch of overtaking zone and show
sigh post.
Solution-
given data- V = 70 KMPH
Vb = 40 KMPH
a = 0.99 m/sec2
(a) OSD = d1 + d2 + d3
d1 = 0.278 Vb × t
d1 = 0.278 × 40 × 2 = 22.24
d2 = b + 2 S
d2 = 0.278 Vb T + 2.5
d2 = (0.278 × 40 × 7.57) + 2 × 14
d2 = 111.62 m
d3 = 0.278 × V × T
d3 = 0.278 × 70 × 7.52
d3 = 146.33
(b) min. length of
From (i)
overtaking zone
OSD = d1 + d2 + d3
= 3 × OSD
OSD = 22.24 + 111.62 + 146.33
= 3 × 280.19
OSD = 280.19 m
= 840.57 m
Note –
In case of rotary or intersection min. sight distance
is provided equal to stopping sight distance (SSD).
(iii). Intermediate sight distance :- (ISD)
 ISD is given when OSD could not be provided.
 ISD is given on sharp curve or road stretch is not
available sufficiently.

ISD = 2 × SSD

Note - OSD > ISD > SSD

 (c) Horizontal alignment
 During design of horizontal alignment various design factor
should be considered like design speed, radius of circular
curve, type and length of transition curve, super elevation and
widening of pavement on curve.
 Design speed:-
 Design speed of the road depends upon-
(a) Class of road
(b) Type of terrain
Terrain classification Cross slope (%)
Plain 0-10
Rolling 10-25
Hilly/mountainous 25-60
Steep > 60
 Table for design speed :-
Road classification Design speed (KMPH)
Plain Rolling Hilly Steep
Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling Min.

NH/SH 100 80 80 50 40 40 40 30
MDR 80 65 65 40 30 30 30 20
ODR 65 50 50 30 25 25 25 20
VR 50 40 40 25 20 25 25 20

Note – The recommended design speed of the vehicle in urban road-

a. For arterial road = 80 KMPH
b. For sub-arterial road = 60 KMPH
c. For collector street road = 40 KMPH
d. For local street road = 30 KMPH
 Effect of centrifugal force on horizontal curve:-
(If super elevation is not provided)
 When a vehicle is moving on horizontal curve the
centrifugal force acts horizontally outward through
the centre of gravity of vehicle.
 Centrifugal force is given by the equation,

Where,
W= Weight of vehicle in kg
R = Radius of curvature in m
v = Speed of vehicle in m/sec
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/sec2)
 When vehicle is moving on horizontal curve then
two effect are developed-
a. Tendency to overturn of vehicle about outer wheel.
b. Tendency to transverse skidding outward.
(a) In case of overturning, [RA = 0]

RA × b - w × + p × h = 0

 To avoid overturning,
(b) In case of lateral skidding-
P = FA + FB
P = f.RA + f.RB
P = f (RA + RB)
P = f.W

 To avoid lateral skidding,

Note – To avoid both overturning & lateral skidding.

Where,
f = Coefficient of lateral friction

= Centrifugal ratio or impact factor

Note – In case of highway,

& in case of railway,

Note – In case of horizontal curve, if super elevation is

not provided then pressure act on outer wheel is more
than inner wheel.
 Super elevation :-
 To counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to
reduce the tendency of vehicle to overturn and skid.
 The outer edge of the pavement is raised with
respect to inner edge. Thus provide a transverse
slope throughout the length of horizontal curve.
this inclination is called as super elevation, cant and
banking.
 Rate of super elevation is expressed as the ratio of
height of outer edge with respect to horizontal width.

 For equilibrium,
Pcosθ = Wsinθ + FA + FB
Pcosθ = Wsinθ + f (RA + f RB)
Pcosθ = Wsinθ + f (RA + RB)
Pcosθ = Wsinθ + f (Wcosθ + Psinθ)
P [cosθ – f sinθ] = W [sinθ + f cosθ]
P[1-f tanθ] = W [tanθ + f ]

⇒
For plain & rolling terrain,
1 – e.f ≃ 1

Where,
e = Rate of super elevation
f = coefficient of lateral friction
v = design speed in m/s
V = design speed in KMPH
R = Radius of curvature
Maximum Super elevation :-
 During design of super elevation, we should consider
in India mixed traffic (fast and slow moving vehicle)
condition exist. If we provide high rate of super
elevation then slow moving vehicles like- heavily
loaded bullock cart, truck, overturn inwards so we
should avoid high rate of super elevation.
S/N Condition emax.
1. For plain & rolling terrain or 0.07 (7%)
hilly terrain covered with snow
2. Hilly terrain is not covered with snow 0.10 (10%)

3. For urban area 0.04 (4%)

 Minimum Super elevation:-
 Min. super elevation is provided on the road surface
is equal to camber of road by which surface drains
can be continued.

 Equilibrium super elevation:-

 If super elevation is provided road such that the
pressure on the outer and inner wheel will be equal
due to super elevation only. It results coefficient of
lateral friction is zero and rate of super elevation is
very high.
For equilibrium condition due to super elevation only-

f = 0, e = eequi.

Note – At some road intersection super elevation can not

be provided. In that case centrifugal force counteracted by
lateral friction only.
Que. – The radius of horizontal curve is 100 m. The design
speed is 50 km/h and coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15.
calculate –
i. The super elevation required if full lateral friction is
assumed to develop.
ii. Calculate the coefficient of friction if no super elevation
is provided.
iii. Determine equilibrium super elevation if pressure on
inner and outer wheels are equal.
Solution -
 Design super elevation:-
 It is a complex problem because in India, mixed
traffic condition exist.
 There are following steps to design super elevation-

Step-1. The super elevation is designated on 75% of

design speed and neglect lateral friction.

Step-2. If the calculated value of super elevation (ecal) is

less than 7%, then value is provided. If calculated
value exceeds 7% then provide maximum super
elevation is 7% and proceed further steps.
Step-3. Check the coefficient of lateral friction developed
at the max. value of super elevation (emax = 0.07)
at value of design speed.

 If the value of f is less than 0.15 then value of super elevation

of 0.07 is safe for design speed if not, then calculate restricted
speed is given in further steps.
Step-4. f = 0.15, e = 0.07

 This restricted speed will be shown through proper warning

sign and speed limit regulation sign.
Que. – The design speed of highway 80 km/h. Radius of
horizontal curve is 200m. Maintain this speed. If the max. super
elevation of 0.07 is not to be exceeded. Calculate the max
allowable speed on this horizontal curve as it is not possible to
increase the radius. Coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15.
Solution -
 To avoid Inward overturning/toppling:-

=0

 To avoid inward overturning (Vehicle at rest condition),

Wsinθ ≤ FA + FB
Wsinθ ≤ f (RA + RB)
Wsinθ ≤ f. W cosθ
tanθ ≤ f.

e≤f
 Attainment of super elevation :-
 The full super elevation is attained by following method-
A. Elimination of crown of the cambered section.
B. Rotation of pavement to obtain full super elevation.

A. Elimination of crown of the cambered section:-

 This is not provided because drainage problem is developed.

 Negative super elevation increases.
(B) Rotation of pavement to attain full super elevation:-
i. Rotation of pavement about centre line-

 Centre line of the pavement is not changed so earth work is

balanced and cost of earth work is negligible.
 The major disadvantage of this method is drainage problem in
inner side due to depression.
 It is provided in hilly region.
ii. Rotation of pavement about inner edge-

 Centre line of pavement is changed so earth work is

not balanced so cost of earth work is high.
 It is provided in plain region in high rainfall area.
 Radius of horizontal curve:-
 At a certain speed of vehicle, the centrifugal force is
depended on the radius of the horizontal curve. To keep
the centrifugal ratio within a low limit, the radius of curve
should be kept high.

 For min. ruling radius,

[R = Rruling , e = emax. = 0.07, f = fmax. = 0.15]
 Extra widening of the pavement :-

 Extra widening of the road is provided when radius of

curvature is not large then additional width of pavement
is provided on curve road.
There are two type of extra widening is provided-
a. Mechanical extra widening.
b. Psychological extra widening.

(a). Mechanical extra widening:- (wm)

 This widening is provided on curve due to axle
rigidity of automobiles. l2 = Wm (2R2 – Wm)
In Δ OAB,
OB2 = OA2 + AB2
= + l2
(∵ OB – OA = R2 – R1 = Wm )

(This is called off tracking)

(For n lanes)
l2 + Wm (Wm – 2R2) = 0
Note -
 Mechanical widening depends upon wheel base length (l),
no. of lanes (n) and radius of curvature (R).

(b). Psychological extra widening :-(Wps)

 It is provided for psychological stability to drive vehicles
during overtaking.
 Psychological widening is not providing on single road.

 Psychological widening depends upon design speed and

radius of curve.
 Total extra widening-
We = Wm + Wps

Where,
R1 = Radius of outer rear wheel.
R2 = Radius of outer front wheel.
l = Wheel base length.
n = No. of lanes.
V = Design speed in KMPH
 Radius of curve (m) Extra width (m)
Single lane Two lane
Up to 20 0.90 1.5
20 to 40 0.60 1.5
41 to 60 0.60 1.2
61 to 100 NIL 0.90
101 to 300 NIL 0.60
Above 300 NIL NIL

Note –
 It is a common practice to provide extra width of
pavement on horizontal curve when the radius is less
than about 300 m.
Que. – Find the total width of the pavement on horizontal curve
for a new National highway to be aligned along a rolling terrain
with a ruling min. radius. Assume the following data,
design speed V = 80 KM/H
Normal width of pavement, W = 7.0 m
Wheel base of truck, l = 6.0 m
Max. super elevation, e = 0.07
Lateral friction, f = 0.15
Solution-
Rruling =

Rruling =

Rruling = 229.06 m
 We =

We =

We =

We = 0.157 + 0.556
We = 0.713 m
Total pavement width = W + We
= 7 + 0.713
= 7.713 m Ans.
Horizontal transition Curve:-
 A transition curve has a radius which decreases from
infinite at a tangent point (B) to designed of circular
curve.
 Transition curve introduced between straight road
and circular road.
 The radius of transition curve is max. at end of
straight road and min. at beginning of circular road.
Object :-
 To avoid sudden jerk which is developed on vehicle by
introducing gradually centrifugal force.
 It provides rate of super elevation and extra widening
gradually.
 On road driver can steer safely.
 To improve aesthetic appearances of the road.

Note –
 Super elevation and extra widening starts beginning of
transition curve while super elevation and extra widening
is max. on beginning of circular curve or end of transition
curve.
Types of transition curve :-
i. Spiral / clothoid
ii. Lemniscates
iii. Cubic parabola

 Spiral / clothoid his also called as ideal shape of

transition curve because rate of change of radius is
constant.
 IRC is used spiral / clothoid shape of transition curve for
highway while Indian railway used cubic parabola for
railway.
 All three types of transition curve behaves same at three
degree (30) of deflection.
Length of transition curve:-
 It is based on-
A. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration.
B. Rate of introduction of super elevation.
C. Empirical formula by IRC.

Note –
 Min. length of transition curve is maximum of above
three calculated value.

A. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration :-

 Let the length of transition curve is in meter.
if t is the time taken in seconds and design speed v m/s
then,
 Ls

Where,
C = rate of change of centrifugal acceleration

m/sec3 V = Design speed in KMPH

V = design speed in m/s
R = Radius of circular curve
B. Rate of introduction of super elevation:-
i. About inner edge –
Ls = eN (w + we)

ii. About centre line-

Where,
w = Pavement width
we = Extra widening
 Condition Rate of super elevation (1 in N)
Open/plain area 1 in 150 [ N = 150]
Builtup area 1 in 100 [ N = 100]
Hilly area 1 in 60 [N = 60]

Note – N = 60 to 150

C. By empirical formula:-
i. For plain/ rolling terrain -

ii. For hilly/steep terrain-

Que. Calculate the length of transition curve using the
following data – V = 65 KMPH, R = 220m
Allowable rate of introduction of super elevation = 1 in 150
(pavement rotate about the centre line)
Pavement width including extra widening = 7.5 m
Solution-
given data, V = 65 KMPH
R = 220 m
N = 150
w + we = 7.5 m

C = 0.57 m/sec3
A. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration-

B. Rate of introduction of super elevation-

About centre line,

e = 0.085 > 0.07

Ls = 39.37 m f = 0.081 < 0.15

(c). Empirical formula-

 min. length of transition curve = max. of (A, B, C)

Tc = 51.85 m ≃ 52 m
Que. A national highway passing through rolling terrain in
heavy rainfall area has a horizontal curve of radius 500 m
design the length of transition curve assuming suitable data.
Solution – given data,
R = 500 m
v = 80 km
w = 7.0 m
N = 150
(A). Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration-

C = 0.52 m/sec3
 Ls = 42.33 m

B. Rate of introduction of super elevation-

About inner edge-
Ls = eNw
Ls = 0.056 × 150 × 7 ecal

Ls = 58.8 m ecal = 0.056 < 0.07

C. By empirical formula-
For rolling terrain-

Ls = 34.56 m

Now, min. length of transition curve = max. of (A,B,C)

So,
Min. length of transition curve = 58.8 m ≃ 59 m
Provision to provide extra widening:-
i. When R > 300 m, then no extra widening should be
provided.
ii. When 50 m < R < 300 m, then extra widening is
provided on inner and outer side both with half of
magnitude of extra widening.
iii. When R < 50m, this case appears on sharp curve.
Extra widening is provided only inner side with
magnitude of full width.
 (d) Vertical Alignment
Gradient:-
 Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of
the road with respect to horizontal.

θ 1
x

 The angle which measures the change of direction at

the intersection of two grades is called as deviation
angle.
 Deviation angle is the algebraic difference between
two grades.
 Ascending slope (+ve) N = (%n1 - % n2)
Descending slope (-ve)
θ1 θ2

x1 x2

 N = (% n1 - % n2) = [%n1 - (- %n2)]

N = (%n1 + %n2 )
Where,
N = Deviation angle
 Types of gradient :-
1. Ruling Gradient
2. Limiting Gradient
3. Exceptional Gradient
4. Minimum Gradient

1. Ruling Gradient:-
 The maximum gradient is provided in normal condition
on the road is called as ruling gradient.
 It is also called as design gradient.
 Ruling gradient depends upon following factors-
 Type of terrain
 Length of grade
 Speed
 Ruling power of vehicle
 Presence of horizontal curve
Type of terrain Ruling gradient

Plain & rolling 1 in 30 (3.33%)

Mountainous/ hilly 1 in 20 (5%)

Steep 1 in 16.7 (6%)

2. Limiting Gradient:-
 Consideration of cost factor is gradient increases
beyond the ruling gradient is called as limiting
gradient.

Type of terrain Limiting gradient

Plain & rolling 1 in 20 (5%)

Mountainous / hilly 1 in 16.7 (6%)

Steep 1 in 14.3 (7%)

3. Exceptional gradient:-
 When condition is not normal it means land
availability is less then gradient again increases from
above.
 That type of gradient is provided when stretch of
road limited upto 100 m.

Type of terrain Exceptional gradient

Plain & rolling 1 in 16.7 (6%)
Mountainous /hilly 1 in 14.3 (7%)
Steep 1 in 12.5 (8%)
4. Min. gradient :-
 It is also called as drain gradient.
 For CC road, minimum gradient = 1 in 500 .

Grade Compensation :-
 The reduction in gradient at the horizontal curve is called as
grade compensation.
 According to IRC, the grade compensation is not necessary for
gradients flatter than 4%.

Where,
Max. value of G.C.≯
R = Radius of horizontal curve

 Compensated gradient = RG – GC
Que. While aligning a hilly road with a ruling gradient of
6%, a horizontal curve of radius 60 m is encountered.
Find the compensated gradient.
Solution- given data , RG = 6%
R = 60 m

G.C. = 1.5%

Compensated gradient = R.G. – G.C.

CG = 6 – 1.25
CG = 4.75%
Vertical Curve :-
 During design of vertical alignment of highway it is
necessary to introduce vertical curve at the intersection
of different grade to smoothen out.
 There are two type of vertical curve-
A. Summit curve/crest curve/convexity upward
B. Valley curve/sag curve/concavity upwards

A. Summit curve:-
 When a fast moving vehicle travels along the summit
curve, the centrifugal force will act upward against
gravity and hence a part of pressure on tyres and spring
of suspension is relieved. So there is no problem of
discomfort to passengers on summit curve.
 The summit curve is designed on the basis of sight
distance only.
 Transition curve is not provided on summit curve.
 Generally simple parabola or square parabola is
provided for summit curve because of good riding
comfort and easy arithmetical computation.
 Ideal shape of summit curve is circular curve because
sight distance throughout the length of circular curve
is constant.
 Representation of summit curve:-
 There are following representation of summit curve-
1. Ascending gradient meets with ascending gradient-

N = % n1 - % n2

N = % n1 –% n2

2. Ascending gradient meets with zero gradient or

horizontal gradient-
N = % n1 - % n2

N = % n1
3. Ascending gradient meets with descending gradient-

N = % n1 - % n2

N = % n1 + % n2

4. Descending gradient meets with descending gradient-

N = % n1 - % n2

n1 N = % n2 - % n1
 Length of summit curve:-
 Length of summit curve will be designed on the basis of
sight distance like- SSD, ISD and OSD.

(A). For SSD :-

i. Lc > SSD :-

Put, H = 1.2 m & h = 0.15 m

ii. Lc < SSD :-

Put, H = 1.2 m & h = 0.15 m

Where,
Lc = length of summit curve
S = Stopping sight distance
(B). For OSD / ISD :-
i. Lc > OSD / ISD :-

Put, H = h = 1.2 m
ii. Lc < OSD / ISD :-

Put, H = h = 1.2 m

Where,
S = OSD / ISD
H = Height of eye level of driver above road surface in m (= 1.2 m)
h = Height of object above the pavement surface in m (= 0.15 m)
Que. A vertical summit curve is formed at the intersection of
two gradients +3% & -5%. Design the length of summit curve
to provide a stopping sight distance for a design speed of
80 KMPH, assume other data.
Solution-
Given data - n1 = + 3%
n2 = - 5 %
V = 80 KMPH
f = 0.35
tR = 2.5 sec.
N = n1 – n2
N = (+3%) – (-5%)
N = 8%
 SSD = (0.278 × V × tR) +

SSD = (0.278 × 80 × 2.5) +

SSD = 55.6 + 71.99

SSD = 127.59 m
Assume, Lc > SSD

LC
LC = 295.98 ≃ 296 m
So our assumptions is correct so Provide, Lc = 296 m
Que. An ascending gradient of 1 in 100 meets with a
descending gradient 1 in 120. A summit curve is to be
designed for a speed of 80 KMPH having OSD 470 m.
Solution-
Given data - n1

n2 %

N = n1 - n2
N = 1 – (-0.83)
N = 1.83 % = 0.0183
OSD = 470
 Assume, Lc > OSD

LC

Lc = 421.09 m
So our assumption is wrong
So now we assume, Lc < OSD

Lc

Lc = 415.4m
B. Valley Curve :-
 When a vehicle moving along a valley curve then
centrifugal force acts downwards adding to the pressure on
the spring and suspension of vehicle in addition to weight
of vehicle. Hence the allowable rate of change of
centrifugal acceleration should govern the design.
 Valley curve is deigned for-
i. Comfort condition.
ii. Sight distance at night time (headlight sight distance).
iii. Drainage condition.
 To relief discomfort condition we provide transition curve.
 Generally we provide cubical parabola for valley curve.
 Representation of valley curve :-
1. Descending gradient meets with descending gradient-

N = % n1 - % n2
N = (-%n1) – (-%n2)

N = % n2 -%n1

2. Descending gradient meets with horizontal gradient-

N = % n1 - %n2
N = (-%n1) – 0
N = - % n1
3. Descending gradient meets with ascending gradient-
N = % n1 - %n2
N = (-%n1) – (+%n2)
N = - (%n1 + % n2)

4. Ascending gradient meets with ascending gradient-

N = % n1 - %n2
N = (+%n1) – (+%n2)
N = (%n1 - % n2)
 Length of valley curve:-
 Length of valley curve is designed on the basis of two
criteria.
i. Comfort condition.
ii. Head light sight distance.

i. Comfort condition:-
 The valley curve is made fully by transitional curve. By
providing two similar transition curve of equal length.
ACB = L ⟶ length of valley curve

AC = CB =

Where,
Ls ⟶ length of transition curve
(1)

 Arc length = Radius × substended angle

Ls = R × N

(2)
From (1) & (2)

Put, C = 0.6 m/sec3 (Assume)

Ls = 0.19

 Length of valley curve,

Where,
v = design speed in m/s
V = design speed in KMPH
C = Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
ii. Head light sight distance:-

α ⟶ Beam angel ≃ 10
h1⟶ Height of head light from road surface
 The minimum head light sight distance is assumed
equal to stopping sight distance.

A. L > SSD :-

Put, h1 = 0.75 m , α = 10
B. L < SSD :-

Put, h1 = 0.75m, α = 10

Note – minimum length of valley curve

= maximum of( comfort condition, head light sight distance).
Que. A valley curve is formed by a descending gradient
1 in 25 meets an ascending gradient of 1 in 30.
Design the length of valley curve for both comfort condition
and head light sight distance requirement for design speed of
80 KMPH. Assume allowable rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration 0.6 m/sec3.
Solution-
given data, n1 %

n2 %

V = 80 KMPH
C = 0.6 m/sec2
 N = n1 – n2
N = (-4) – 3.33 = -7.33%
i. Based on comfort condition,

L = 73.61 m

ii. Based on HLSD –

Assume, tR = 2.5 sec, f = 0.35
 SSD = 127.59
Assume, L > SSD

L = 200.04 m
 Our assumption in correct so, length of valley curve based
on HLSD is 200.04 m.
 Minimum length of valley curve = (comfort condition, HLSD)Max.
Minimum length of valley curve = 200.04 m.
 Chapter-3 (Traffic Engineering)
Road users characteristics
1. Traffic characteristics
Vehicular characteristics
Breaking characteristics
Traffic volume
Traffic capacity
Speed studies
2. Traffic studies Traffic density
Origin & destination study
Traffic flow characteristics
Parking study
Accident study
 Traffic sign
Traffic signal

3. Traffic control devices Road marking

Road Island

Road intersection & grade

separator
 1. Traffic characteristics
 Breaking characteristics :-
 Breaking characteristic is depend upon breaking
efficiency by which safety of vehicle operation stopping
distance and spacing between to consecutive vehicles in
traffic stream or considered.
Skid distance-
(1)

Newton’s Ist law of motion,

v = u + at Initial speed, u = v
o = u + (-a)t Final speed, v = 0
v = at (2)
Newton’s IIIrd law of motion,
v2 = u2 + 2as
o = v2 + 2(-a)s
v2 = 2as

a = gf (3)
Que. A vehicle travelling at 40 kMPH was stopped within
1.8 sec after the application of brake. Determine the average
skid resistance coefficient of friction.
Solution- given data, u = 40 KMPH
t = 1.8 sec
v=0
f=?
a = gf
v = u + at
o = 11.11 – a × 1.8

f = 0.629 a = 6.17 m/sec

Que. A vehicle was stopped in 1.4 sec by fully jamming the
breaks and the skid marks measured 7 m. Determine the
average skid resistance.
Solution-
t = 1.4 sec V2 = u2 + 2as
S = 7.0 m o = u2 – 2as
g = 9.81 m/sec2 u2 = 2as
a2t2 =2as
a = gf

a = 7.14 m/sec2
f = 0.727
2. Traffic studies:-
(a) Traffic Volume:-
 It is defined as, “No. of vehicle passing through a
particular cross-section within unit time is called traffic
volume.

 Unit – Vehicle / hour , vehicle / day

x
Object:-
 It decides the importance of road, improvement and
expansion.
 It is used for planning, operation and control the facilities
given on road and design new facilities.
 It is used to analysis traffic pattern and trends.
 Design of pavement geometric design and computing
roadway capacity.
 Design intersection and rotary planning of signal timing.
 Pedestrian walk, side walk, cross walk, subway and
pedestrian signal.
 Counting of traffic volume:-
i. Mechanical counting:-
 The mechanical counter can automatically record the
total no. of vehicles crossing a section of road in desired
period.
 It can be measured throughout the day & night.
 Pneumatic hose (Hollow tubes), photo electric cell,
magnetic detector and radar detector are used for
counting.
 The main draw back of this counting, it can not possible
to get traffic volume a various classes like- pedestrian,
light weight vehicles and heavy weight vehicles and to
detail of turning movement.
 Sensor

Pneumatic hose

ii. Manual counting:-

 It is not possible to use for large period.
 It is used for short period like peak hours counting.
Representation of traffic volume:-
i. Annual average daily traffic- (AADT)

ii. Average daily traffic-(ADT)

iii. Annual average hourly traffic- (AAHT)

iv. Trend chart:-
 It represent graph between
AADT and years. x4
 It represents traffic x3

AADT
growth on a particular x2
x1
section by which
pavement design road Year
expansion planning and 2018 2019 2020 2021

regulation could be done.

 With the help of trend chart
rate of growth of traffic
is approximately 7 – 7.5%
(v). Variation chart:-
 With the help of variation chart during peak hours extra
facilities provided on road like – traffic diversion & route
of pedestrian.

Hrs
vi. 30th year highest hourly volume:-
 It is also called as design hourly volume.
 It is that hourly volume which will exceed only 29 hours
in a year. According to Indian condition,
30th highest hourly volume = 7 to 10% of AADT.
 It is considered because it is economical and suitable for
Indian traffic condition.

%P = 0.33%
(b) Speed study:-
 Actual speed of vehicle over a particular route may
fluctuate widely depending on several factors like
geometric features, traffic condition, time, places,
environment and driver.

i. Travel time:-
 It is the reciprocal of speed,

travel time

 It denotes efficiency of road.

ii. Spot speed:-
 It is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified
section or location.
iii. Average speed:-
 It is the average of all spot speeds of all the vehicles
passing a given point on a highway.
There are two type of average speed-
A. Space mean speed
B. Time mean speed

(A). Space mean speed:-

 It represents the average speed of vehicles in a certain
road at any time,
 d

Where,
d = length of cross-section in meter
n = No. of individual vehicles
ti = observed travel time (in sec) for ith vehicle
(B) Time mean speed:-
 It is average of instantaneous speed of vehicles.
⇒
Where,
Vi = observed instantaneous speed of ith vehicle.
n = No. of vehicle observed
Note- Vt > Vs (AM > HM)
Ex. – n = 2, a = 1 = V1, b = 2 = V2

Note- Vs = Vt, if all the vehicles are moving at a same speed.

 Object of spot speed :-
 To control and regulate the traffic.
 To fixed speed limit.
 To provide extra facilities on highway.
 To study of accident.

 Method to determine spot speed:-

A. Enoscope method
B. Elevated observation
C. Photography observation
D. Radar speed meter method
Endoscope method / mirror box method:-

Representation of spot speed data:-

(a).98th percentile speed:-
 That speed on which 98% vehicle travels and 2% vehicles
crossed this limit.
 Geometry of road is designed on 98th percentile speed.

(b) 85th percentile speed:-

 It is called as upper safe speed limit.
 It is provided for traffic regulation.
(c) 15th percentile speed:-
 It is the min. speed to avoid crowded places.

(d) 50th percentile speed:-

 It is provided o median or Iceland.

Speed and delay studies:-

A. Floating car method
B. Vehicle no./licence plate method
C. Interview technique
D. Photography technique
C. Traffic density:- (k)
 It is defined as, “No. of vehicles is found in 1 km road length”.
Unit-Vehicle /km or Vehicle /km/lane

1km
Jam density:-
 At the zero speed (still traffic condition) traffic volume
approaches to zero, in this condition density is called as jam
density.
s

 S = Avg. c – c min. spacing

1km
 S = 0.2 V + 6 = 0.7v + 6
Relationship between traffic volume speed & density :-

Traffic volume = speed × traffic density

q=V×k

Variation between q, V & k:-

i. Variation between V & k :-
 According to green shield model variation between traffic
speed and traffic density is linear.
V = a + kb (1)
Vsf
Y = mx + c
b = m, a = c
y = V, x = k V

k kj
At, k = 0, V = VSf
From (1)
VSf = a + 0
a = VSf

At k = kJ, V = 0
Again from(1),
0 = a + bkj
0 = VSf + bkj

Put value of a & b in equation (1)

⇒ (2)
Note- It represents linear relationship between V& k
Now, traffic volume
q = Vk
using equation (2)
From (2), put

(3)

For max. traffic volume,

Now
q = vk

Where, Vsf – free space mean or floating speed

(speed at zero hindrance)
Graph between speed & density:-

Vsf

Vm
Speed

km kj
Density
Graph between speed & flow:-
C
Vsf

Vm B
Speed

A
qmax
Flow (q)

At A, V = 0, k = kj, q = Vk = 0

At B,

At C, V = Vsf, k = 0, q = 0
Graph between flow & density:-

B
qmax

Flow (q)
C
A
km kj
Density

At A, k = 0, V = Vsf, q = 0

At B,

At C, k = kj, V = 0, q = 0
Que. On road the free mean speed was measured as 70 km/hr
on average spacing between the vehicles under jam condition
was 7m. The speed flow density equation was given as,
& q = Vk
The max. flow per lane for this condition will be?
Solution, given data, Vsf = 70 km/hr
S =7m

qmax = Vk
qmax = 35 × 71.42
qmax = 2499.78

qmax
(D) Traffic capacity:-
 It is a ability of roadway to accommodate traffic volume.
It is expressed as max. no. of vehicle in a lane or a road
that can pass a given point in unit time usually an hour.
 Unit - Vehicle / lane / hour
Vehicle/ hour / lane
PCU / hour / lane
 Traffic volume represent an actual rate of flow to
variation in traffic demand while capacity indicate max.
rate of flow with a certain level of service of roadway.
 Capacity of roadway depends on prevailing of roadway
and traffic condition. Based on these condition traffic
capacity is divided into following types-
i. Basic / Theoretical capacity
ii. Possible capacity
iii. Design / Practical capacity
(i) Basic / Theoretical capacity :-
 It is the max. no of vehicles that can pass a given point
on a lane or roadway during one hour under most ideal
roadway and traffic condition.

(ii) Design/ Practical capacity:-

 O ≤ possible capacity ≤ Basic capacity

(iii) Design / Practical capacity:-
 The maximum no. of vehicle that can pass a given point
on a lane or roadway during one hour without traffic
density being so great as to cause unreasonable delay
hazard or restriction to driver’s freedom in traffic
manoeuvre under roadway or traffic condition. On the
basis of practical capacity designers provided highway
facilities.
 Design / practical capacity < Basic capacity
Determination of theoretical maximum Capacity:-

Vehicle / lane / hour

Where,
V - design speed in KMPH
S – average c-c min. spacing
S = (0.2V+L) m or (0.7v+L) m
Passenger car unit :- (PCU)
 In Indian traffic condition heterogeneous traffic or mix.
traffic flow exist, it means different class of vehicles exist
on roadway. These different class of vehicles are
represented by specific number on the basis of PCU.
 This number is called equivalent number/factor
S/N Different class of vehicle Equivalent Factor
1. Passenger car, auto rickshaw, tempo, 1.0
agricultural tractor
2. Bus, truck, agricultural tractor trailer 3.0
3. Motor cycle, scooter & pedal cycle 0.5
4. Cycle rickshaw 1.5
5. Horse drawn vehicles 4.0
6. Small bullock cart & hand cart 6.0
7. Large bullock cart 8.0
 Factor affecting PCU Values:-
 There are following factors-
 Vehicle characteristic such as dimension, power, speed,
acceleration and breaking characteristic.
 Transverse & Longitudinal gaps on clearances between
moving vehicles which depends upon speed, driver
characteristic and vehicles classes etc.
 Composition of different vehicles classes, mean speed
distribution etc.
 Roadway Characteristic such as road geometry including
gradient, curve etc. and location like – rural or urban
road presence of intersection etc.
 Regulation and control of traffic such as speed limit, one
way traffic and different traffic control devices.
 Environmental and climatic condition.
(e) Traffic flow characteristic:-
 It represents physical diagram of road/lane like-diverging,
merging, weaving & crossing etc. are used to transfer
traffic one lane to another lane.
(f) Origin & destination study:-
 This study is carried out mainly-
i. Plan the road network and other facility for traffic.
ii. Plan the different modes of transportation for trip demand
of passenger.
Note-
 On the basis of O & D study mass rapid transit system are
given.
 Methods to study of O & D:-
i. Road side interview method
ii. License plate method
iii. Return post card method
iv. Tag on car method
v. Home interview method
vi. Desire line method
 Desire line method:-

 Width of desire line no. of trips in both direction

(g) Parking study:-
 There are two type of parking facilities are given-
i. On street parking/ kerb parking
ii. Off street parking

(i.) On street parking:-

 In this type of parking vehicles are parked on the kerb.
 Kerb parking is also divided into two type-
(1) Angle parking
(2) Parallel parking
(1) Angle parking:-
 Angle parking developed more conflict than parallel
parking.
 At 900 angle parking, maximum no of vehicle can be
parked.
 Best angle parking is 450 angle parking.
 Angle parking is given on that road where adequate
space found on kerb
(2) Parallel parking:-
 It developed negligible conflict on the road.
 This type of parking is provided where space on kerb is
limited.
Note- Parking study can be done by video recording.
(h). Accidental studies:-
 This study is done because to know the reason behind
accident & control to no. of accident.
 There are following steps considered in accidental studies-
(i) Location file :-
 To locate and identify high accident points.
(ii) Spot map:-
 Accident location shows on map by symbols or letters.
 A map of suitable scale, 1cm = 40 to 60m.
(iii) Condition diagram:-
 A condition diagram represents all important physical
condition like- roadway limit, narrow bridge, curves, kerb
line, merging, diverging, weaving & crossing etc.
(iv) Collision diagram :-
 In this diagram vehicle & pedestrian, vehicle & animals are
involved.
(3) Traffic operation and control:-
(a) Traffic sign:- (IRC:67-2001)
 It is used to control traffic by law.
 The traffic sign should be placed 0.6m from edge of kerb.
In absence of kerb (in rural highways with shoulder) the
sign should be placed 2 to 3 m from edge of carriageway.

 There are three type of traffic sign-

i. Regulatory /mandatory sign
ii. Warning sign
iii. Informatory sign
(i). Regulatory/ mandatory sign:-
 Regulatory or mandatory sign are meant to inform the
road users of certain laws, regulation and prohibitions.
 The violation of these signs is a legal offence.

 Regulatory signs are classified in following parts-

A. Stop & give way sign
B. Prohibitory sign
C. No parking & no stopping sign
D. Speed limit & vehicle control sign
E. Restriction end sign
F. Compulsory direction & other sign
(A) Stop & give-way sign:-
900 mm

900 mm

Stop sign:-
 It is octagonal in shape with red background colour an
white border colour.
Give-way sign:-
 It is a triangular shape with downward apex.
 It has white background colour and red border colour.
(B) Prohibitory sign:-

 These signs are circular in shape with white background

and red border colour.
(C) No parking and no stopping sign:-

 No parking sign is in circular shape with a blue background

and red border colour. Oblige bar is in red colour with is 450
angle.
 No stopping sign also is in circular shape with blue
background colour & red border colour. Oblige red bar at 450
angle each and crosses at 900 angle.
(D). Speed limit and vehicle control sign:-

Speed limit width limit

 These signs are circular in shape with white

background & red border and black numerals/letter.
(E). Restriction end sign:-
 This sign indicate end of all restrictions
on road.
 This sign is in circular shape with
white background and a broad diagonal
bar at 450 angle.
(F). Compulsory direction & other sign:-

 These signs are circular in shape with blue background

colour and white direction arrows.
(ii). Warning sign:-

 Warning sign are used to warn the road user of certain

hazardous condition exist on roadway.
 Warning signs are in shape of equilateral triangle with apex
pointing upward.
 They have white background, red border and black symbols.
 The warning signs are to be located at sufficient distance.

Class of road NH/SH MDR ODR VR Urban

road
Distance (m) 120 90 60 40 50

(iii). Informatory sign:-

 These signs are use to guide the road users along routes,
inform destination and distance, to provide with information
to make travel easier, safe & pleasant.
 The information signs are divided in to following sign-
A. Direction & place identification sign
B. Facility information sign
C. Parking sign
D. Flood gauge sign
E. Other useful sign

 The direction and placed identification sign are

rectangular with white background, black border & black
arrows and letters.
 The facility information signs are rectangular blue
background & white oblige black letters, oblige symbols.
These signs are useful to indicate public telephone, petrol
pump, hospitals, hotel etc.
 Parking signs are in square sign board with blue background
and white coloured letter ‘P’.
(b). Traffic signal:-
 At intersection where there are large no. of crossing and
right turn traffic, there is possibility of several accident if
vehicles can not be orderly move to control these a
regular movement. We use traffic signal along with traffic
signs.
 Advantage of traffic signal:-
 They provide orderly movement of traffic an increase the
traffic capacity on road intersection.
 They reduce certain type of accident like- right angle
collision.
 Pedestrian can cross the road safely at signalised
intersection.
 The signal allow crossing of heavy traffic flow with safety.
 When signal system is properly co-ordinated there is a
reasonable traffic speed may be obtained during major
traffic flow.
Disadvantage of traffic signal:-
 The rear end collision may increase.
 In proper design at location of signals may lead to
violation of control system.
 Failure of signal due to failure of electric power.

Terms related to traffic signal:-

i. Cycle length:-
 A complete cycle is done by a traffic signal is called cycle
length .
C=R+A+G
ii. Interval:-
 Time difference between two signal is called as interval.
 There are two type of interval -
(A) Clearance Interval:-
 Time gap between two red signal is called as clearance
interval like- green & amber.
(B) Change interval:-
 Time gap between red signal and green signal is called as
change interval like- amber time.
iii. Time lost:-
 When use of intersection is not effectively worked for
traffic flow, in this condition loss time is known as time
lost.
iv. Red time:-
 It means to intend to stop the vehicles.
v. Green time:-
 It means ‘Go’.
 This time depends upon traffic volume.
vi. Amber/yellow time:-
 It is also known as clearance time.
 The main object of amber time is to clear the intersection
or rotary.
 Amber time depends upon SSD length of vehicle and
length of rotary & vehicle condition.
 It is provided generally 2 to 6 second.

Where,
SSD ⟶ Stopping sight distance
W ⟶ Length of intersection
L ⟶ Length of vehicle
 Type of traffic signal:-
 The signals are classified into following types-
i. Traffic control signal
A. Fixed time signal.
B. Manually operated signal.
C. Traffic acuted (automatic) signal.
ii. Pedestrian signal
iii. Special type of signal (flashing because for warning)
 Type of traffic signal system:-
i. Simultaneous system
(Division of cycle length is same along all intersection).
ii. Alternate system (better than simultaneous).
iii. Simple progressive system (Pretimed/fixed time)
iv. Flexible progressive system (best).

 Method of signal design:-

i. Trial cycle method
ii. Approximate method
iii. Webster’s method
iv. IRC method (combination of approximate & Webster’s
method)
 Webster’s method:-
 It is designed on the basis of optimum cycle length (C0)
and total time lost (L) .
 There are following steps are considered to design of
Webster’s method-
Steps-
(a) Optimum cycle length-

Where,
L = Total lost time per cycle.
Y = Ratio of normal to saturation traffic flow.
Step (b) Total time lost-

L = 2n + R

Where,
R = Red time
n = no. of phase
Step (c) Effective green time:-

Step (d) Check:-

C0 = G1 + G2 + A + R
Que. The average normal flow of the traffic on cross roads
A & B during design period are 400 and 250 PCU/hour and
the saturation flow value on these roads are 1250 and 1000
PCU/hour respectively. The all red time required for
pedestrian crossing is 12 sec. Design two phase traffic signal
by Webster’s method.
Solution-
Given data,
q1 = 400 PCU/H
q2 = 250 PCU/H
n=2
SA = 1250 PCU/H
SB = 1000 PCU/H
R = 12 sec.
 Total time lost, L = 2n + R
L = 2 × 2 + 12
L = 16

 optimum cycle
length

C0 = ≃ 67.50
Effective green time,

C0 = GA + GB + A + R
C0 = 29 + 22.5 + 4 + 16
C0 = 67.5 Sec
Note – Determination of effective green time-
Effective green time = actual green time – time lost + amber time

Ex.- Actual green time is 25 sec

Amber time is 3 sec
Time lost is 3 sec
Solution-
Effective green time = 25 – 3 + 3
= 25 sec.
(c).Intersection:-
 Intersection may be classified as two types-
i. Intersection at grade
ii. Grade separated intersection
i. Intersection at grade:-
 When all roads meet at same level allowing traffic manoeuvres
like-merging, diverging, crossing and weaving are called
intersection at grade.
 There are two type of intersection at grade-
A. Unchannelized intersection
B. Channelized intersection
C. Rotary intersection

(A)Unchannelized intersection:-
 No restriction to vehicles in any part of intersection area.
 It is the lowest class of intersection easiest in design but
most complicated in traffic operation.
 This type of intersection have more no. of accident or
conflicts.
 No additional pavement width is provided for turning
movement.
(B) Channelized intersection:-
 It confined vehicle to definite path.
 It reduces speed on intersection.
 Proper merging, diverging and weaving path in available.
 Reduces major and minor conflict points.
 Point of conflict can be separated.
Potential conflict point on unchannalized intersection:-

No. of lanes No. of potential conflict

Road A Road B Both roads two way A – One way A – One way
B - Two way B – Two way

2 2 24 11 6
2 3 24 11 8
2 4 32 17 10
3 3 24 13 11
4 4 44 25 18
(i) When both roads are two way:-

 On a right angle road intersection with two way traffic,

the total no. of conflict points are 24.
 This consists of 16 crossing (900 crossing and acute angle
crossing) conflict point which is known as major conflict
point and no. of minor (merging & diverging ) conflict
point are 8.
(C). Rotary /Round about intersection:-
 A rotary intersection or traffic rotary is an enlarged road
section where all converging vehicles are forced to move
round a large centre Island in one direction (clockwise)
before they can weave out from traffic flow.
 IRC has suggested that traffic rotary is given when
minimum traffic volume is 500 vehicle /hour and
maximum traffic volume is 3000 vehicle /hour.
 AASHTO (the American association of state highway
official) has suggested that traffic rotary is given when
minimum traffic volume is 500 vehicle/hour or maximum
Traffic volume is 5000 vehicle/hour.
 IRC recommended that traffic rotary may be provided
where the intersection traffic is about 50% or more of
total traffic passing through intersection or where the
fast traffic turning right is min. 30% of total traffic.
Design of rotary: -
(1) Design speed:-
For rural area, V = 40 KMPH
For urban area, V = 30 KMPH

(2) Shape of central Island:-

 When all roads are equally important on intersection
then circular Island is provided.
 When two roads are more important than other roads on
intersection then elliptical Island is provided
 When only one road is important on intersection then
tangential Island is provided .
 When speed has to reduce then turbine rotary is
provided.

(3). Sight distance:-

 Rotary is designed on the basis of SSD.
 For 30kmph, SSD = 30m
 For 40kmph, SSD = 45m
(4) Radius of rotary:-
 Adequate super elevation can not be provided on the
rotary, only friction is taken into consideration.

(e=0)
(a) Radius of curve at entry :- (Rentry)
 Entry Radius is provided on the basis of design speed.

Design speed (KMPH) Rentry (m)

30 15-25
40 20-35
(b) Radius of curve at exit :-(Rexit)
Rexit = (1.5 to 2.0) Rentry

(c) Radius of central Island:- (RCI)

RCI = 1.33 × Rentry

Note – Rexit > RCI > Rentry

(5). Coefficient of friction:-

For Rural area, f = 0.43 (V = 40 KMPH)

For Urban area, f = 0.47 (V = 30 KMPH)
(6) Width:-
(a) Approach width:-
 Approach width is provided on the basis of entry width.
 Approach width is always greater than entry width.
 Min. Entry width should not be less than 5m.

Entry width (e) Approach width

5m 7.0 m
7.5 m 10.50 m
8m 14 m
13 m 21 m

 For design purpose, e2 ≥ e1

(b) Rotary width:-

(7). Angle:-
a. Entry angle = 600
b. Exit angle = 300
c. Weaving angle = 150
(8). Weaving length:-
 The length between to channelized adjacent splitter/legs
is known as weaving length.
 Weaving length should not be less then 4 times of rotary
width . (L ≮ 4W) Design speed (KMPH) Weaving length (m)
30 30-60
40 45-90
(9). Capacity of rotary:-

Where,
e = Avg. width of entry & exit width
W = Rotary width ( 6 to 18m)
P = proportion of weaving traffic

a = Left turning traffic moving along left extreme lane.

b = Crossing / weaving traffic turning towards the right
while entry the rotary.
c = Crossing/weaving traffic turning towards left while
leaving the rotary
d = Right turning traffic moving along right extreme lane
Advantage:-
 Crossing manoeuvre is converted into weaving or
merging and diverging operation.
 Turning right and turning left have equal opportunity on
rotary.
 There is no necessity of traffic police or signal to control
the traffic on rotary.
 The possible no. of accident are quite low because of low
relative speed.
 Rotary can be constructed when the no. of intersecting
road is between 4 & 7.
 The capacity of rotary intersection is the highest of all
other intersection at grade.
Disadvantage:-
 Rotary required large area compared to other
intersection. Where space is limited then rotary is not
justified.
 Total cost of rotary is higher than other intersection.
 In places where there is mixed traffic and large no. of
cyclists & pedestrian then design of rotary would be
complex.
 When the angle of Intersection of two road is too acute
or when no. of intersecting road is more than 7 then
design of rotary is complex.
 When the traffic volume is very low in most of the rural
areas of India, construction of rotary can not be justified.
(ii) Grade separated Intersection:-
 Grade separated intersection is the highest from of
design of intersection.
 This type of intersection causes least delay and hazard to
the crossing traffic.
 A highway grade separation is achieved by means of
vertical level.
 Two different type of grades are connected by ramp.
Partial clover leaf Full clover leaf

 It is combination of  It is combination of
two indirect ramp. four indirect ramp.
(d) Road marking (IRC 35 : 1997)
(i). Centre line marking:-
 These are meant to separate the opposing stripes of traffic
of undivided two way road.
 For NH/SH in rural highway with two or three lanes.
Single broken line of width 0.1m and length 4.5m and gap
7.5m on straight stretch. These may be decreased 3m
length and 6m gap on horizontal curve.
 On other roads at straight road 3m length and 6m gap.
 On 4 or 6 lane undivided road of two solid continuous
parallel lines of 0.1m width and 0.05 to 0.01m spacing.
(ii) Cross Walk Line :-
 The width of pedestrian may be 2 to 4m.
 On urban road with less than 4 traffic lane width of white
broken line is 0.10 to 0.15m and length 3m and gap is
4.5m.
Note:-
Road Lighting :-
 According to Indian standard for important road carrying fast
traffic average level of illumination is 30 lux and 15 lux for
other main roads.
 The ratio of minimum to average illumination is 0.4.
 Chapter-4 (Pavement Design)
 Pavement is designed to wear & distribute traffic load
and to provide smooth riding.
 Based on structural behaviour pavement are generally
classified into two categories-
(a) Flexible pavement
(b) Rigid pavement
 Flexible pavement Rigid pavement
1. IRC 37 : 2012 1. IRC 58:2011
2. Flexible pavement can be divided 2. Rigid pavement can be divided into
into four layers three layers

3. Flexural strength (strength in 3. Flexural strength is high.

bending ) is low. (fcr = 0.7 )
 Ex. Bitumen, asphalt & coal tar  Ex. CC pavement , RCC, prestress etc.
4. Transfer of load from top to bottom 4. Transfer of load is due to slab action.
is grain to grain.
5. Joints are absent. 5. Joints are present.
6. Initial cost is low but maintenance 6. Initial cost is very high but operating
cost is high. cost is less.
7. Design life is 10 to 20 years 7. Design life is 20 to 30 years.
Other type of pavements :-
(i). Composite pavement:-
 A thin layer of bitumen is laid over CC pavement for smooth
riding is called as composite pavement.
 It is not used for strength.
(ii) Semi-rigid pavement:-
 If sub base and base course of flexible pavement is replaced
by pozzolanic concrete (Lime+fly ash + aggregate) then
strength is increased significantly, this is called semi-rigid
pavement.
Note- Strength –
Function of component of pavement-
(a) Subgrade:-
 It is also called as foundation of road because it is a
bottom most layer of pavement.
 Local soil is used in this layer.
 50 cm layer of soil from top is compacted at max. dry
density (on OMC).
Test:-
i. California bearing ratio test (CBR test)
ii. California resistance value test (CRV test)
iii. Triaxial compression test
iv. Plate load test
(b). Sub base & Base course:-
 These layers are made of broken stone, bound or unbound
aggregate, selected granular (Gravel, sand) and broken
bricks.
 Base course & sub base course are used under flexible
pavement primarily to improved the load supporting
capacity by distributing the load through a finite thickness.
 Base course are used under rigid pavement for-
i. Prevent mud pumping
ii. Prevent frost action
 Mud Pumping:-
 Mud pumping is a failure of rigid pavement.
 If base course is not provided in rigid pavement then
water percolate to soil subgrade through joints then
excess water present in soil subgrade which reduces MDD
of soil and formation of mud is developed and bearing
capacity of soil reduces. Due to vehicle load mud comes
on pavement surface by which cavity is developed below
CC pavement so cracking is developed on CC pavement.
Due to mud, less friction is obtained by vehicle tyre on
pavement. This phenomena is called as mud pumping.
Test:-
i. Plate bearing test
ii. CBR/Stabilometer test

Note-
1. Pressure/stress
Psurface > Pbase > Psub base > Psubgrade

2. Strength
Esurface > Ebase > Esub base > Esubgrade
(c) Surface course /Wearing course:-
 The purpose of wearing course is to give a smooth riding
surface.
 It resist tyre pressure and takes up wear and tear due to
traffic.
 Wearing course also offers water tight layer against
surface water infiltration.
 In flexible pavement bitumen, asphalt & coal tar are used
as a surface course but in rigid pavement plain cement
concrete (PCC), reinforcement cement concrete (RCC) &
prestress concrete are used as surface course.
Test:-
i. Marshall stability test
ii. Bankelman beam test
iii. Plate bearing test
 Design of Pavement

(a) Flexible pavement (b) Rigid pavement

(a) Design of flexible pavement

Empirical method Semi-empirical or Theoretical

(Based on physical Semi theoretical method
Properties & method (Based on
strength (Based on stress – mathematical
characteristic) strain relationship) computation)
 Group index  Triaxial test  Burminster
method  Stabilometer elastic layer
 CBR method test method
 CRV method
Design factor to be considered in flexible pavement:-
(1). Design standard axle load:-
 For highways the maximum legal axle load at specified by
IRC is 8170kg (≃8200kg=8.2 tonnes)
 Total load influences the thickness requirement of
pavement.
 It consider single rear axle with two wheel on both side of
axle.

Rear axle Wheel

2042.5

4085 kg 4085kg
(2). Stress Distribution:-
 The vertical stress completed under a uniformly distributed
load based on ‘Boussineq’s theory’

Where,
a = radius of loaded area
z = Depth below the load where stress is calculated
p = tyre pressure
Tyre
a
Z=0

Z
(3). Load transferred though wheel:-
 When wheel load is transferred in pavement layers then
two type of pressure (tyre pressure & contact pressure) is
developed.
 Tyre pressure influences quality of surface course but
contact pressure represent total thickness of pavement.

 Contact pressure =

Contract area or area of imprint

CP
Note- In actual condition area of imprint is elliptical in shape
but for calculation purpose we consider area of imprint is
circular in shape.

A = πa2 A = area of imprint

Rigidity Factor:-
 It is the ratio of contract pressure and tyre pressure.
 Rigidity factor depends upon the degree of tension
developed on wall of tyre.
 According to IRC, average tyre pressure is taken as
7 kg/cm2.

TP (kg/cm2) CP (kg/cm2) RF
>7 <7 <1
<7 >7 >1
7 7 1

Note –
1. For design & analysis purpose,
TP = CP = 7 kg/cm2
So, RF = 1
2.

CP CP
TP > CP TP < CP

 Wall of tyre in tension  Walls of tyre is in compression

(4). Equivalent single wheel load:-(ESWL)

Where,
S = c-c spacing = d + 2a
a = radius of wheel
d = clear distance between wheel
 2P
ESWL (log scale) P’

Z=0 Log (z= x) (log (z = 2s)

Depth (log scale)

(1) Empirical method-
(i) Group index method:-
 It depends upon physical properties (like – wL, wP & IP etc.)
of soil subgrade.
GI = 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01bd

a = p – 35 ≯ 40
b = p – 15 ≯ 40
c = wL – 40 ≯ 20
d = IP – 10 ≯ 20
Where,
p = % finer passing through 75𝜇 ( 0.075 mm)
IP = Plastic index (IP = wL – wP)
wL = Liquid limit
wP = Plastic limit
Note-
1. Value of GI range in 0 - 20
2. Higher the value of GI, lower the quality of soil subgrade.

GI Quality
0–1 Good
2–4 Fair
5–9 Poor
10 – 20 Very poor
3. Thickness of pavement is provided on the basis of
value of GI.
GI Value Base course + Sub base course
Surface course
0–4 15cm 10cm
5–9 20.5cm 20cm
10 – 20 30cm 80cm

Limitation:-
 According to GI Method, quality of pavement layers is not
considered, only thickness of these layers are considered
individually.
Que. A soil subgrade sample obtained from a site was
analysed and re-obtained are as given below-
i. Soil proportion passing through 0.075 mm sieve is 60%
ii. Liquid limit = 45%, Plastic limit = 23%
Determine the group index and design thickness of
pavement.
GI t (cm)
0 22
5 35
10 43
15 48
20 52
Given data,
P = 60% GI = 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01bd
GI = 0.2 × 25 + 0.005 × 25 × 5 + 0.01 × 40 × 12
WL = 45%, Wp = 23%
GI = 5 + 0.625 + 4.8
a = p – 35 ≯ 40 GI = 10.425
a = 60-35 ≯ 40
a = 25 ≯ 40 Thickness-
b = p – 15 ≯ 40
b = 60 – 15 ≯ 40
b = 45 > 40 (=40)
c = WL – 40 ≯ 20
c = 45 – 40 ≯ 20
c = 5 ≯ 20
d = IP – 10 ≯ 20 y = 43.425 cm
d = 22 – 10 ≯ 20
d = 12 ≯ 20
(ii). California bearing ratio method (CBR method):-
(IRC 37:1970)
 CBR method depends upon strength characteristics of soil
subgrade.
 Its depends also strength of other pavement layer.

(1.25 mm/min)
 IRC Recommendation:-
 This test is performed on remoulded soil in the laboratory.
 Soil subgrade (50cm) should be compacted at OMC for
MDD with the help of Proctor test.
 The soil sample may be soaked for 4 days before testing.
 Atleast 3 sample should be tested on each type of soil at
the same density at the same moisture content.
 CBR test is performed on 2.5 mm and 5 mm of standard
penetration value.

Standard penetration Standard load

2.5 mm 1370 kg
5.0 mm 2055 kg
 2055kg
P 1370kg

𝞭
2.5mm 5.0mm

Note-
1. Generally CBR2.5 > CBR5.0 then Provide CBR2.5 .
2. If CBR2.5 < CBR5.0 the recheck test procedures and calculation.
It we got again CBR2.5 < CBR5.0 then provide CBR5.0 .
 Thickness of pavement:-

(CBR ≯12%)

Where,
P = wheel load (kg)
p = tyre pressure = P/A
A = Contact area (cm2)
 Limitation:-
 This method gives total thickness of pavement but each
layer have different CBR value and corresponding have
different strength.
Note-1.
Type of soil Range of CBR Rating
Value
Clay 2-5 Very poor subgrade
Silt 5-8 Poor subgrade
Sand 8-20 Fair to good subgrade
Gravel 20-30 Excellent subgrade

Note-2.
Que. Determine CBR Value
Load (kg) Penetration(mm)
60.5 2.5
80.5 5.0
Solution -

 Provide higher value of CBR so CBR2.5 = 4.416%

 Modified CBR method - (IRC 37:1984)

Where,
N = Cumulative no. of standard axle in MSA
r = Annual growth rate of commercial vehicle
n = Design life of vehicle 10-15 year
F = Vehicle damage factor
D = Lane distribution factor
A = No. of commercial vehicle/day when construction
is completed. [ A = P (1 + r)x]
P = No. of vehicle per day during construction period.
x = Construction period.
Que. A two lane single carriageway road is carrying a traffic
of 1500 commercial vehicle per day. The vehicle damage
factor has been found to be 3. The rate of growth are 10%
per annum. The period of construction is 10 year. The design
life of road is 15 years. After completion, calculate the
cumulative standard axle used in design.
Given data-
p = 1500
x = 10 year
r = 10%
n = 15 year
A = p (1 + r)x
A = 1500 ( 1 + 0.1)10
A = 3890
 N = 135.37 MSA

Note- For N = 20-30 MSA

 Minimum thickness of sub base course = 390 - 405 mm.
 Minimum thickness of base course = 250 mm.
 Minimum thickness of surface course of 15 mm dense
bitumen macadam and 40 mm asphaltic concrete.
(iii). California resisting value method:- (CRV)
 Thickness of pavement,

Where,
T = Total thickness of pavement in cm
K = Numerical constant = 0.166
(TI) = Traffic index = 1.35 (EWL)0.11
R = Stabilometer resistance value
C = Cohesiometer value.
 This method is explained by stabilometer (R = Value) and
cohesiometer (C-Value)
Relation between thickness & cohesion –

 Thickness of pavement of pavement

(2). Semi-empirical method:-

(i) Triaxial method:-
 This is an semi-empirical method.

(For single layer)

Where,
T = Total pavement thickness in cm.
P = Wheel load in kg.
ES = Modules of elasticity of subgrade in kg/cm2.
a = Radius of contact area in cm.
△ = Design deflection = 0.25 cm or 2.5 mm.
x = Traffic coefficient
y = Rainfall coefficient

(For double layer)

 Relationship between thickness of pavement &

modules of elasticity:-
Note:-
 This method is designed on the basis of Boussineq’s method.
(3). Theorietical method:-
(i) Burmister’s method:-
Assumption:-
1. Materials of pavement layer is isotropic, homogenous and
linear elastic.
2. Pavement forms a stiffer reinforcing layer having modulus of
elasticity higher than underlying subgrade.
ESG < ESB < EBC < ESC

TSG > TSB > TBC > TSC

3. Surface is semi-infinite.
 Displacement:-
(i) For flexible pavement,

Subgrade
(ii) For rigid pavement,
plate

Subgrade
Where,
p = tyre pressure, kg/cm2
a = Contact radius , cm
ES = Modulus of elasticity of subgrade, kg/cm2
F2 = Deflection factor which depends upon h/a ratio.
Note – if the test is conducted on subgrade then,

⇒ F2 = 1
 Design of rigid pavement:-
 Their are following factor are considered to design to
rigid pavement.
a. Modulus of subgrade reaction
b. Radius of relative stiffness
c. Equivalent radius of resisting section

(a) Modulus of subgrade reaction:-

 Modulus of subgrade reaction represent resistance of
subgrade.
 From plate load test,
p ∝ Δ
p = kΔ Where,
k ⟶ Modulus of subgrade reaction
(kg/cm3)
Δdesign ⟶ 0.125 cm = 1.25 mm
Note -

ka = constant

K1a1 = k2 a2 ⟶ Correction factor

Size of plate,
Diameter = 30 cm, 45 cm, 60 cm, & 75 cm
Thickness = 2.5 cm
Standard size of plate = 75 cm
(b). Radius of relative stiffness:-

Where,
E = modulus of elasticity of concrete Slab, kg/cm2
h = thickness of concrete slab, cm
k = modulus of subgrade reaction, kg/cm3
μ = Poisson’s ratio of concrete (≃ 0.15)
(c). Equivalent radius of resisting section:-

b=a
Where, a ⟶ Radius of wheel
 Stress in Rigid Pavement:-
Stress

1. Wheel load stress 2. Temperature stress

(i). Warping stress (ii). Frictional stress

(Due to daily variation) (Due to seasonal variation
of temperature) of temperature)

 Critical condition of stress:-

a. At interior
b. At edges
c. At corner
(1). Wheel load stress:-
 It is explained by H.M. Westergaard.
 Westergaard assume the cement concrete slab is
homogeneous, thin elastic plate with subgrade reaction
being vertical and proportional to deflection.

 Nature of wheel load stress:-

(a) At interior/edge- (b) At corner-

Top – Compression (c) Top – Tension (T)

Bottom ‒ Tension (T) Bottom – Compression (c)
 Critical stress:-
i. At interior-

ii. At edges-

iii. At Corner-
Where,
Si, Se, Sc = Max. Stress at interior, edge and corner
respectively in kg/cm2.
h = Slab thickness in cm
P = Wheel load in kg
a = Radius of wheel load distribution
l = Radius of relative stiffness in cm
b = Equivalent radius of resisting section
 According to Westergaard max. stress at edges is greater
than max. stress at corner but on the basis of experimental
studies max. stress at corner is more than max. stress at
edges.
 According to Westergaard:-
Se > Sc > Si
 According to experimental studies:-
Sc > S e > Si
Question. Calculate the stresses at interior edges and
corner region of cement concrete pavement using
Westergaard equation use the following data.
i. Wheel load, P = 5100 kg
ii. Modulus of elasticity of concrete, E = 3×105 kg/cm2
iii. Pavement thickness, h = 18 cm
iv. Poisson ratio of concrete, μ = 0.15
v. Modulus of subgrade, k = 6 kg/cm3
vi. Radius of contact area, a = 15 cm
Solution-
l = 70.6 cm

b = 14 cm
(i). At Interior:-

Si = 19.3 kg/cm2
(ii). At edge :-

Se = 28.54 kg/cm2
(iii). At corner:-

Sc = 24.55 kg/cm2

(2). Temperature stress:-

i. Warping stress-
 This type of stress is developed due to daily variation of
temperature.
(a) At day time:-

 At day time, temperature of top portion is greater than

temperature of bottom portion so due to temperature
variation elongation is developed on top portion and
contraction is developed on bottom portion. Here self weight
acts as a resisting force to counteract a elongation at top and
contraction at bottom so compressive stress is developed on
top and tensile stress is developed on bottom.
(b). At night time:-

 At night time, temperature at top portion is lower than

temperature at bottom portion so elongation is developed
in bottom layer while contraction is developed in top layer.
Here self weight acts as a resisting force which counteract
elongation and contraction on pavement. So tensile stress
is developed on top portion and compressive stress is
developed on bottom portion.
Where,
E = Young modules of elasticity of concrete
α = Coefficient of linear thermal expansion per 0C
t = Change in temp. in 0C
Cx = Coefficient based on lx/l in desired direction
Cy = Coefficient based on ly/l in desired direction
l = Radius of relative stiffness
y = Poisson ratio = 0.15
 lx and ly are the dimensions in x & y direction.
(ii) Frictional stress :-
 Frictional stresses are developed due to seasonal
variation of temperature and no temperature difference
developed across thickness of slab.
(a) In Summer-
Top = C
Bottom = C

(b) In winter-
Top = T
Bottom= T

Friction Stresses (Tension)

 b

L/2

Frictional force = Force developed by stress

Where,
γc = Unit weight in kg/m3
f = Coefficient of friction developed in subgrade (1.5)
L = Slab length in meter
b = Slab width in meter

Note - Generally frictional stresses assume to be constant

along length but in relative it is not constant it is zero at ends
and maximum at centre of slab.
Location Portion Wheel Warping stress Frictional stress
load Worst combination
Day night Summer Winter

Top C C T C T Si = (+Sl +Sw +Sf)

Interior At bottom during day
Bottom T T C C T
time in winter season
Top C C T C T Se = (+Sl +Sw + Sf)
Edge At bottom during day
Bottom T T C C T
time in winter season
Top T C T C=0 T=0 Sc = (+Sl +w)
Corner At top, during night
Bottom C T C C=0 T=0
 Design of Joints:-
Joints

1. Transverse joints 2. Longitudinal joints

i. Expansion joints ii. Contraction joints

1. Transverse joints :-
 This joints are provided perpendicular to along the road.
 There are two types -
(i) Expansion Joints:-
 The purpose is to allow expansion of pavement due to rise in
temp. with respect to construction temperature.
 According to IRC-
 Maximum width of expansion joints is δ ≯ 25 mm.
 The maximum spacing between expansion joints is L ≯ 140 m.
 The Fillers provided at expansion joints are assume to
compress by 50% of it thickness width.
 So spacing between expansion joints,

L α ∆T = δ/2 ⇒
Que. - The Width of expansion joint gap is 2.5 cm in cement
concrete pavement if the laying or construction temperature
is 100C and maximum slab temperature in summer is 540C
calculate the spacing between joints. α = 10 × 10-6/0C
Given data,
δ = 2.5 cm = 2.5 × 10-2 m
α = 10 × 10-6/0C

L = 28.4 m
 Dowel bar:-
 It is provided on expansion
& contraction joints both.
 They are made of mild steel round
bars bonded on the side and free on
other side.
 Its main object to keep member at
the same level.
 Dowel bar resist shear stress, bending stress and bearing stress.
 It is used to provide load transfer through one slab to another slab.
 Dowel bar has 25-40 mm in diameter and 400-500 mm in length.
 For 15 cm thick slab spacing between dowel bar is 200 mm and for
20 cm thick slab spacing between dowel bar is 300 mm.
 Dowel bar are designed at 40% strength of total strength of
pavement.
(ii) Contraction joint:-
 It is provided to control cracks due to shrinkage and
moisture content.
 If the shrinkage is resisted then tensile stress is developed.
 Spacing between contraction joints,

 Maximum spacing , Lc ≯ 4.5 cm.

Where,
σ = allowable tensile stress (≃ 0.8kg/cm2)
γc = Unit weight of concrete (2400 kg/m3)
f = Coefficient of friction (1.5)
(2) Longitudinal joint:-
 This type of joint is provided along the length of pavement.
 It resist warping stress.
 Longitudinal joints are provided when width of slab is
greater than 4.5 m.

 Tie bar:-
 It is provided on longitudinal joints.
 Tie bar is provided to ensure to adjacent slab to remain
firmly together (to resist tensile stress due to frictional
stress).
 Tie bar is available 10 to 15 mm diameter and 1 m length.
 Generally spacing between tie bar is 60 cm but it can not be
greater than 75 cm.
 Length of tie bar is provided on the basis of development
length.
 Length of tie bar = 2.Ld

Where,
σst = Permissible tensile stress in steel.
ϕ = diameter of bar.
τbd = bond stress between steel & concrete.
Ld = development length.
 Chapter-5
(Highway Material & testing & miscellaneous)
Construction material

Soil subgrade Aggregate Binder

1. Soil subgrade:-
Sand - 60-80%
Silt - 5-15%
Clay - 10-20%
 Earth fill should be done at 60 cm height or more from
ground level by which not effected by rainfall water.
 Desirable properties of soil subgrade:-
 Stability
 Incompressibility
 Permanency of strength
 Good drainage facility
 Ease of compaction
 Negligible effect of weather

2. Road aggregate:-
 Gravel, kankar, stone ballast, brick ballast moorum etc.

3. Binder material:-
 Bitumen , asphalt, coal tar, cutback, emulsion and
cement are used.
(i) Bitumen:-
 Bitumen is used as a binder material which is obtained
by fractional distillation of crude oil.
 Bitumen is a petroleum product.
 Bitumen is in grey and black colour and obtained in solid
or semi-solid state.
 It is a mixture of oxygen (3%), Hydrogen (10%) and
carbon (85%) and other hydrocarbon product.
 It is soluble in carbon disulphide (CS2) and
carbon tetrachloride (CCl4).
 It is resistance of water and acid
 Specific gravity of bitumen is 0.97 to 1.02.
 It is chemically inert and oxidies slowly.
 It is thermoplastic, i.e. It becomes soft on heating and in
the reverse process becomes hard on cooling.
 Source of Bitumen:-
Source

A-type S-type
(Assam-type) (other source type)

 That type of bitumen which is used for construction of

road and air field is called as paving grade bitumen.
 That type of bitumen which is used for construction of
industrial floor is called as industrial grade bitumen.
 S.N. IS grade Penetration Softening Working Application
Point temp.
1. S-30 30-40 50-650C 178-1800C For premix &
grouting
purpose of road
2. S-65 60-70 40-450C 165-1800C Used for WBM
road
3. S-90 or A-90 80-100 35-500C 160-1750C Used for surface
dressing and
seal coating
4. S-120 100-120 35-500C 155-1700C Used for surface
dressing

Note-1. In India most used between grade is 30/40 & 80/100

Test of bitumen :-
1. Penetration test 5. Flash and fire point test
2. Ductility test 6. Float test
3. Softening point test 7. Specific gravity test
4. Viscosity test 8. Water content test
9. Solubility test
(1). Penetration test :-
 This test is done on penetrometer device which is
standardized by BIS.
 This test is used to measure hardness and softness of
bitumen. It means, this test represents consistency.
 It measure the distance a standard pointed needle
vertically penetrate a sample of material, the load being
100 g in times of application of 5 second.
 This test is done at standard 270C.
 The unit penetration is 1/10 mm.
Ex. – Thus 80/100 penetration means a penetration of
8-10 mm.
 30/40 grade bitumen is used in hot-mix work in areas
while 80/100 grade bitumen is used in cold areas.
 Tars are soft so penetration test is not used.
2. Ductility test :-

 Bitumen binder should be sufficiently ductile, i.e., it should

be capable of being stretched without breaking.
 Ductility is measured by stretching a standard briquette of
bitumen having a cross-sectional area of 1 sq cm at a
temperature of 270C the rate of pull being 5 cm/min.
 The distance in cm that the briquette can be stretched
before breaking is the ductility.
 Its value varies from 5 to 100 for different grade of
bitumen but minimum value is 50 cm specified.
 ISI has recommended a minimum ductility value of 75 cm
for grades of 45 and above.
3. Softening point test:-
 This test is measured by “Ring and Ball” apparatus.
 Ring is made of brass and ball is made of steel.
 Bitumen sample is suspended in liquid (water, glycerin)
and heating @50C/min.
 Softening point is the temperature at which bitumen
attains a particular degree of softness under standardised
test conditions.
 The temperature at which a standard steel ball placed on
a layer of bitumen kept in a standard ring passes through
the bitumen layer and touches the bottom plate kept at a
distance of 2.54 cm is the softening point.
 The softening point of various bitumen grade varies from
350C to 700C.
4. Viscosity test :-

 It is fluid property of bitumen which measure resistance

to flow influences the strength of resulting mixes.
 Very low and high viscosity decreases the stability of mix.
High viscosity-non homogenous mix. Low viscosity-non
uniform film on aggregates, just lubricates.
 The viscosity of liquid bitumen is measured by efflux
viscometers.
 The liquid is kept at a constant temperature and is made
to pass through an orifice, the time required to pass a
measured quantity through the orifice is noted and is an
indirect measure of the viscosity.
 The diameter of orifice varies in the range of 3 to 10 mm
and the volume of fluid is in the range of 50 to 200 ml.
5. Flash and fire point test :-
Thermometer
 At high temperature, bitumen becomes volatile, and thus
catches fire which is very hazardous. Thus it is necessary
that we quantify this temperature for each grade of
bitumen.
 According to BIS, flash point is the temperature which the
vapour of the bitumen momentarily catches fire in the
form of flash.
 Fire point is the temperature at which the material gets
ignited and burns atleast 5 sec under specified conditions.
 Flash point should be minimum 1700C to 1750C.
 This test is done on pensky martens apparatus.
6. Float test :-
 Normally the consistency of bituminous material can be
measured either by penetration test or by viscosity test.
 The float test is a modified viscosity test adopted for use
with small quantities of very viscous bituminous materials.
 It is the time in seconds
required for a small plug
of chilled bitumen, which
is held in an open mould
attached to the bottom
of a saucer, to become
sufficiently fluid when
the saucer is floated
in water at 500C.
7. Specific gravity test :-
 Specific gravity of bitumen is determined by the
pycnometer method.
 The measurements are taken at 270C.
 Specific gravity of pure bitumen is in the range of
0.97 to 1.02 where as tars have specific gravity ranging
from 1.10 to 1.25.

8. Water content test :-

 Bitumen is distilled from petroleum product and heated.
 Weight of water condensed and collected is expressed as
the percentage by weight of original sample.
 Allowable maximum water content should not be more
than 0.2% by weight.
9. Solubility Test :-
 The solubility of bitumen in trichloroethylene is a
measure of its purity.
 A minimum value of 99% is generally desired.
(ii). Tar :-
 It is obtained by destructive distillation of coal or wood.
 It is soluble in toluene.
 Specific gravity of tar ranges between 1.10 – 1.25.
S.N. IS grade Softening Working temp. Application
point
1. RT – 1 480C 900C Surface dressing in cold or hilly region

2. RT – 2 500C 1000C Surface dressing in normal climate

3. RT – 3 520C 1150C Premix for surface course and surface

dressing for renewal of road
4. RT – 4 540C 1300C Premix for base course

5. RT - 5 560C 1400C For grouting purpose

Note –
 Viscosity of RT-1 grade is least while viscosity of RT-5 is maximum.
Comparison between tar & bitumen :-
 Bitumen is a petroleum product whereas tar is produced
by the destructive distillation of coal or wood.
 Bitumen is soluble in ‘carbon disulphide’ and ‘carbon
tetrachloride’ but tar is soluble in only toluene.
 Bitumen is more resistant to water than tar.
 Tar is more temperature susceptible resulting in great
variation in viscosity with temperature.
 The free carbon content is more in tar as seen from the
solubility test.
(iii). Cutback bitumen :-
 The viscosity of bitumen is reduced by volatile diluents, a
product is formed is known as cutback bitumen.
 In cutback bitumen, proportion of bitumen is 80% &
solvent (diluent) is 20%.
 Solvents are gasoline, benzene & kerosene.
 It is used minor and maintenance work like – stabilization
of bitumen and soil macadam.
 There are three type of cutback bitumen –
1. Rapid curing (RC)
2. Medium curing (MC)
3. Slow curing (SC)
1. Rapid curing :-
 The volatile dilutents added are having low boiling point so
as curing will be faster.
Ex. – Neptha or gasoline
2. Medium curing :-
 The volatile dilutents added are kerosene & light diesel oil.
3. Slow curing :-
 The volatile dilutents added are having high boiling point
Ex. – high boiling point gas.
Note –
1. The cutbacks are designated by numerals representing
progressively thicker or viscous cutback. For example RC-2
is more thick than RC-1 but RC-2, MC-2 & SC-2 have same
viscosity.
2. RC-0 and SC-0 may have 45% solvent and 55% bitumen
where as RC-5 and MC-5 may contain 15% solvent and 85%
bitumen.
3. Penetration value for RC cutback is 80 to 120.
4. MC cutback have good wetting properties.
(iv). Bitumen Emulsion :-
 Emulsion is a two phase system consisting two immiscible
liquids.
 The bitumen/tar content in emulsion range from 40 to 60%
and the remaining portion is water.
 The average diameter of globules of bitumen portion is
about 2 mm.
 Emulsion are used especially in maintenance and patch
repair works. It is also used in rainy weather.
 It can be used for soil stabilization in deserts.
Mix design Methods :-
 There are four methods of mix design –
1. Marshall method
2. Hubbard-field method
3. Hveem method
4. Smith triaxial method
 Objectives of mix design :-
 Sufficient bitumen to ensure a durable pavement.
 Sufficient strength to resist deformation at high temp.
 Sufficient air voids in bitumen to allow additional
compaction by traffic.
 Sufficient workability to permit without segregation.
 Sufficient flexibility to avoid premature cracking due to
repetition of traffic.
 Sufficient flexibility at low temp. to prevent shrinkage cracks.
 Marshall method :-
 AIM :-
 To find the optimum bitumen content in bitumenous mix
with the help of –
i. Stability – Maximum load carried by specimen at 600C in kg.
ii. Flow value – Deformation in the specimen at maximum load
represented in the form of 0.25 mm which mean 1 unit.
 Specimen Preperation :-
 Appoximately 1200 gm of aggregates and filler is heated to a
temperature of 175 – 1900C & bitumen is heated at a
temperature of 121 – 1250C with the first trial percentage of
bitumen (say 3%, 3.5%, 4% by water of aggregate)
 The heated aggregate and bitumen are mixed at a
temperature of 1540C – 1600C
 The mix. Is placed in a preheated mould and compacted by a
rammer with 50 blows on either side at temperature of
1380C to 1490C.

 The weight of rammer is 4.5 kg & height of free fall is 45 cm.

 After compaction specimen is placed in water for 3-4 hrs.
 Now specimen placed in equipment apply load 5 tonne
with the loading rate of 50.8 mm/min and measure
maximum load and deformation with the help of dial
gauges.
 Vary the bitumen content in the next trial by + 0.5% and
the repeat the above procedure up to about 8% bitumen.
 Parameters :-
Wa = 0 VV
Air voids
W 4 = WB Bitumen VB = V4

W3 = Wf Filler V f = V3

W2 = Wfa FA VFA = V2

W1 = WCA CA VCA = V1
(1). Theoretical specific gravity :- (Gt)
 Volume of air voids is not considered.

Where,
G1 = Specific gravity of CA
G2 = Specific gravity of FA
G3 = Specific gravity of filler
G4 = Specific gravity of bitumen
(2). Bulk Specific gravity :- (Gm)
 Volume of air voids is considered.

Note – Gt > Gm

(3). Percentage air voids :-

(4). Percent volume of Bitumen :- (VB = V4)

(5). Volume of mineral aggregate :- (VMA)

(6). Voids filled with Bitumen :- (VFB)

Graph :-
IRC recommendation :-
 Marshall stability = 340 kg (min.)
 Flow value = 8 – 16 unit (2 – 4mm)
 Percentage air voids in the mix. = 3 – 6%
 Voids filled with bitumen = 75 – 85 %
 Chapter-6
(Construction & Maintenance of Highway)

 Hill road :-
 A hill road is one which passes through a terrain with a cross
slope of 25% or more.
 BRO has classified hill road as follows-
i. National Highways
ii. Class 9 (6 m wide for 3-tonnes vehicles)
iii. Class 6 (4.9 m wide for 1 – tonne vehicles)
iv. Class 3 (2.45 to 3.65 m wide for jeeps)
 Camber :-
Type of surface Camber (%)
Subgrades, earth roads and shoulder 3.0 to 4.0
Gravel and WBM surface 2.5 to 3.0
Bituminous surfacing 2.5
High type bituminous surface and CC 2.0

Note :-
1. When the road has longitudinal gradients greater than
1 in 20, flatter camber may be provided.
2. The minimum lengths of transition recommended by IRC
are 10 m for design speed up to 40 kmph and 20 m for
design speed 40 to 50 kmph.
 Miscellaneous Structures in hill roads :-
1. Retaining walls :-
 Retaining walls are needed to retain the fill portion of the
highway cross-section due, to the warps of the hill faces,
it often becomes necessary to take the road partly in
filling and partly in cutting, fully in cutting or fully in
filling.
 In such circumstances, retaining walls become necessary.
2. Breast walls :-
 Breast walls are constructed to buttress the uphill slopes
of the road cross section. They should be stout enough to
withstand the earth pressure of the soil behind along
with the surcharge caused by the slope.
3. Parapet walls :-
 Parapet walls are needed to give protection,
psychologically and physically, to the motorists while
travelling on roads with steep valley slopes.
4. Check walls :-
 Check walls are small retaining structures constructed in
series on a sloping hill face, to check the slides and to
generally add to the overall stability of the hill face.
 The top width is generally kept 0.6 m and for a height of
1.5 m a bottom width of 1.0 m is provided.
5. Gabion walls :-
 Retaining walls, breast walls and check walls can be
contracted with dry stone masonry encased in wire
masonry encased in wire mesh. Such a construction is
called gabion walls and is popular in several developing
countries.
 The advantage is that the gabion walk can adjust
themselves easily, being flexible in nature to the
settlement or disturbances that normally take place and
hence do not get damaged.
 Different coatings in highway :-

1. Prime Coat :-
 Prime coat is define as application of flow viscosity liquid
bituminous material over an existing porous or adsorbent
pavement material like WBM base course.
 Purpose of Prime coat :-
 To plug the capillary voids.
 T coat and bond loose material son the surface.
 To harden or toughen the surface.
 To promote adhesion between granular and the
bituminous layer.

2. Tack Coat :-
 Tack coat is bitumen emulsion that is sprayed on existing
pavement surface which is relatively impervious like an
existing bituminous surface or a cement concrete
pavement or a pervious surface like the WBM which has
already been treated by a prime coat.
 Viscosity of tack coat is higher than viscosity prime coat.
3. Seal Coat :-
 Seal coating consists of the application of liquid asphalt
material on the surface course for following purpose –
 Seal out moisture and air.
 Rejuvenate dry weathered surface.
 Improve skid resistance of the pavement
 Improve visibility of delineation between the travelled
way and the shoulders.
 Failure of highway pavement :-
(a). Hair-line cracks :-
 These appear as short
and fine cracks at close
intervals on the surface.
Causes :-
 Insufficient bitumen content.
 Excessive filler at the surface.
 Improper compaction.
(b). Alligator crack :-
 These app[ear as interconnected cracking forming a
series of small block which resemble the skin of an
alligator. This pattern is also called map cracking.
Causes :-
 Excessive deflection of the surface over unstable
subgrade, sub-base or base of the pavement.
 Excessive overloads by heavy vehicles or inadequate
pavement thickness, or both.
 Brittleness of the binder either due to ageing of binder.
(c). Longitudinal Crack :-
 These cracks appear, more or less, on a straight line,
along the road. These cracks may appear either at the
joint between the pavement and the shoulder, or at the
joint between two paving lanes.
Causes :-
 The cracking at the pavement
shoulder joint may be due to
alternate wetting and drying.
 The lane joint crack is caused
by a weak joint between
adjoining spreads in the layers
of the pavement.
(d). Edge Crack :-
 Edge cracks are formed parallel to the outer edge of the
pavement usually 0.3 – 0.5 m inside from the edge.
Causes :-
 Lack of lateral support form the shoulder.
 Settlement or yielding of the underlying material.
 Inadequate surface drainage; especially during flooding
conditions.
 Shrinkage due to drying
out of the surrounding earth.
 Frost heave.
(e). Shrinkage Crack :-
 These are cracks appearing in the transverse direction, or
as interconnected cracks forming a series of large blocks.
Cause :-
 The primary cause for such cracks is the shrinkage of the
bituminous layer itself with age. The bituminous binder
loses its ductility as it ages and becomes brittle.
(f). Reflection Crack :-
 Reflection cracks are the sympathetic cracks that
bituminous surfacing over joints and cracks in the
pavement underneath. The pattern may be longitudinal,
transverse, diagonal or block.
Cause :-
 Reflection cracks are due to joints and cracks in the
pavement layer underneath.
(g). Ravelling :-
 It is characterised by the progressive disintegration of the
surface due to the failure of the binder to hold the
materials together.
 In ravelling, loses of aggregates permanently occur.
Causes :-
 In inadequate compaction
during construction.
 Construction during wet
weather leading to stripping
of binder from aggregates.
 Insufficient binder in the mix.
 Excessively open graded mix.
 Improper coating of
aggregates by binder.
(h). Pot-hole :-
 Pot-holes are bowl-shaped of varying sizes in a surface
layer up to the base course caused by localised
disintegration of material. They usually appear after rain.
Cause :-
 Lack of proper bond between the bituminous surfacing
and the underlying water bound macadam. This bond
usually supplied by tack coat.
 Insufficient bitumen content.
 Too thin a bituminous
surface with heavy traffic.
 In dense-graded mixtures.
(i). Shear Failure cracking :-
 Shear failure causes upheaval of pavement material by
forming a fracture of cracking.

Cause :-
 Excessive wheel loading.
 Low shearing resistance of pavement mixture.