PHILIPPINE POLITICAL and CULTURAL

HISTORY

VOLUME I

The Philippines Since Pre-Spanish

Times

GREGORIO F. ZAIDE

CHAPTER I

GEOGRAPHICAL FOUNDATIONS

Geography plays a vital role in the life and culture of nations. Since Aristotelian days, social scientists
have affirmed that soil, climate, topography, mineral resources, and other geographic forces affect, to
some extent, the growth of countries and the character of their people. The German Hegel alluded to
geography as “the basis of history and the Scot Carlyle regarded it as “one of the two lamps of history.”
Considering the geographical background of the Philippines, we can assume that with the favorable
climate, fertile soil, rich natural resources, abundant fauna and flora, and scenic beauties given her by
God, she bids fair to cradle an enlightened democracy in the Far East.

Origin of the Philippines. The origin of the Philippines is one of the most puzzling mysteries in the field
of Asian studies, a subject which fascinates the imagination of fictionists and intrigues the acumen of
scholars. Many theories have been woven, each purporting to explain the origin of the archipelago.

Theological writers, inspired by Christian theology, assert that The Philippines was part of God’s creation
of the world. To them the archipelago was either fashioned by God at the beginning of time or brought to
existence after the Great Deluge, in accordance with His Divine Will.

The folklorists recount two Filipino cosmogonic myths in an effort to unravel the mystery of Philippine
origin. The first myth runs as follows: “Long, long ago, the world was a vast ball of solid rock borne by a
mighty giant on his shoulders. For untold ages he carried his burden patiently. But one day he became
tired and let his burden slide down his shoulders. As it fell, it crashed to pieces. Out of the shattered
fragments arose the continents and islands, including the Philippines. The second myth, more imaginative
than the first, reads as follows: “Once upon a time there was no land. There were only the sky, the sea,
and flying bird. For a long, long time, the bird flew and flew, without resting, because there was no place
to rest. One day the tired bird incited a quarrel between the sea and the sky. The sea hurled big waves
against the sky. The sky rose higher and higher to escape the foaming waves. The sea continued to hurt
the waves to higher heights. The angry sky then threw down boulders of rocks which pacified the raging
sea. Out of these rocks originated the first land-the Philippines.”

Certain geographical scientists, such as Chamisso, Hoffman, Semper, Jordana, and Cabaton, opined that
the Philippines was a remnant of a vast continent in the Pacific which, in prehistoric times, sank beneath
the waters like the fabled Atlantis. This lost Pacific continent was called Mu or Lemuria. Its remnants
included (aside from the Philippines) Borneo, Celebes, the Moluccas, Java, Sumatra, Pelews, the
Carolines, Hawaii, Samoa, Tahiti, and other islands in the Pacific.

Some geologists, notably Dr. Bailey Willis asserted that the Philippines was of volcanic origin. The
eruptions of sea-volcanoes in remote epochs caused the emergence of the islands above the waters, and
in this way the Philippines was born.

The most popularly accepted theory, however, and one which is advocated by many scientists and
scholars, states that the Philippines was once a part of Asia. During the post-glacial age, about 25,000
years ago, the world’s ice melted, causing the level of the seas to rise; consequently, the lower regions of
the earth, including the land-bridges connecting Asia and the Philippines, were submerged. Thus it came
to pass that the Philippines was separated from the Asian mainland. Four reasons have been advanced in
support of this theory, namely: (1) similarity of fauna and flora in Asia and the Philippines, (2) similarity of
their rock structure, (3) existence of the shallow China Sea between Asia and the Philippines, and (4)
presence of a fore-deep at the eastern margin of the Philippines indicating that the archipelago was the
edge of the Asian continental platform.”

Philippine Names in Song and Story. In song and story, the Philippines has been garlanded with
various names. The name “Philippines”, by which she is known today, was given in 1543 by the ill-starred
Spanish navigator, Ruy Lopez de Villalobos, in honor of Prince Philip of Asturias, who later became Philip
II of Spain.
Long before Magellanic times the Philippines was said to be known to ancient geographers and
navigators as Ophir, the land which supplied King Solomon with gold, and Maniolas, which appeared in
Magini’s edition of the geographical work of Claudius Ptolemy (ca. 150 A.D.). In the ancient Chinese
records the Philippines was referred to as Ma-I (Land of Barbarians), Chin-san (Mountain of Gold), Liu-
sung (Land Adjacent to the Mainland). And San-tao (Three Islands).

In 1521 Magellan named the country “Archipelago of St. Lazarus,” for it was on the feast day of this saint
when he reached the Philippines. Since then other names had been applied by European writers to the
archipelago, such as Islas del Poniente (Western Islands), Islas del Oriente (Eastern Islands), lalas de
Luzones (Islands of Mortars), Archipielago de Magallanes (Archipelago of Magellan), Archipielago de
Legazpi (Archipelago of Legazpi), and Archipielago de Celebes (Celebes Archipelago).

The romantic name of the country Is “Pearl of the Orient Seas,” which was immortalized by Dr. Jose Rizal
in his famous poem Ultimo Adios (Last Farewell). Other writers have used such names as “Gems of the
East,” “Emerald Islands,” “Virgin of Malaysia,” “Seven Thousand Emeralds,” “Isles of Fear,” “Isles of
Hope,” “Isles of Faith,” “Ireland of the East,” “Switzerland of the East,” “Treasure Islands of the Pacific,”
“Orphans of the Pacific.” And “Only Christian Nation in the Orient.”11

Location and Area. On the map, the Philippines appears as a sprawling archipelago fringing the
southeastern rim of the Asian continent. Its northernmost point is Y’Ami Isle, which is 78 miles from
Formosa, and its southernmost tip is Saluag Isle, only 34 miles from Borneo. It consists of 7,100 islands
(including Turtle Islands) extending in the form of a triangle measuring 1,152 statute miles from north to
south and 688 statute miles from east to west. Of the total number of islands, 2,782 are named and the
rest still unnamed. The biggest island is Luzon with an area of 40,814 square miles; the second biggest is
Mindanao, 36,906 square miles; and the third biggest is Samar, 5,124 square miles. Other big islands are
Negros (4,903 square miles), Palawan (4,500 square miles), Panay (4,448 square miles), Mindoro (3,794
square miles). And Leyte (2,799 square miles),12

The total land area of the Philippines is 115,600 square miles. In size, the country is larger than New
England and New York combined, twice bigger than Cuba or Greece, slightly bigger than the British Isles,
as big as Italy, nearly as large as Japan Proper, and two-thirds the size of Spain. The island of Luzon
alone is as big as the combined areas of Belgium, Denmark, and Holland. It is as large as Ohio and larger
than Bulgaria. Mindanao is as large as Indiana and larger than Austria or Switzerland.

Topography. The Philippines is a rugged land traversed by mountain ranges, with irregular seacoasts,
extensive coastal plains, arable valleys and deltas, navigable rivers, brooding volcanoes, and cascading
waterfalls. The irregular configuration of the country makes it appear as “a giant sloth sitting on its
haunches, slightly inclined forward, the head and the shoulders represented by Luzon, the vertebrae and
the ribs by the Visayan Islands, the pelvis by Mindanao, the forelegs by Palawan and Cuyo, and the hind
legs by the Sulu group.”13

In general, the land is mountainous. It has seven mountain ranges, the greatest of which is the Sierra
Madre in Luzon. The highest peak is Mount Apo in Mindanao, which is 9,690 feet high. Other peaks are
Mayon and Pulog in Bicolandia: Banahaw, Makiling, and San Cristobal in Laguna: Arayat in Pampanga;
Halcon in Mindoro; and Kanlaon in Negros.

The lowest part on earth is the “Philippine Deep” situated about 45 miles northeast of Mindanao. It is
34,218 feet below sea level, and can “submerge Mount Everest, the highest mountain in the world, by
almost one mile.”14

Coastline, Rivers, and Lakes. The Philippines has an extensive coastline which “is greater than that of
continental United States. “Is The seacoasts of the islands are indented with numerous bays, harbors,
and gulfs. There are 61 fine harbors, eight land- locked bays, and numberless coves. Manila Bay, with
rocky Corregidor standing guard at its entrance, is one of the finest harbors in the Far East.

There are no arid deserts or bleak tundras in the Philippines. Nearly all the islands are watered by rivers,
many of which are navigable. The largest river in the Philippines is the Cagayan River which is 352 miles
long. Other rivers are the Rio Grande de Pampanga, the Agno, and the Pasig rivers in Luzon; the Jalaud
and the Panay rivers in Panay; the Agusan and Lanao rivers in Mindanao; and the famous Underground
River in Palawan.

There are numerous lakes in the Philippines. The largest lake is Laguna de Bay. Other lakes of
importance are Taal Lake in Batangas, Lake Naujan in Mindoro, Lake Bito in Leyte, and Lake Lanao in
Mindanao.

Mineral Springs and Waterfalls. Mineral springs or spas are plentiful in the Philippines. These spas
can compare favorably with the famous baths of America and Europe in therapeutic qualities. The well-
known spas are found in Pagsanjan, Pansol, and Los Baños in Laguna; in Pandi and Marilao, Bulacan; in
Lemery and Nasugbu, Batangas; in Goa, Camarines Sur; in Mag- singal, Ilocos Sur; and in Murcia,
Negros Occidental.

There are many waterfalls in the Philippines. Pagsanjan Falls is the most famous because it is one of the
country’s main tourist attractions. The largest waterfall is the Botocan Falls in Laguna the Hinulugan
Taktak Falls in Antipolo, Rizal, is rich in legendary lore. In Mindanao, the most important waterfall is the
Maria Cristina Falls,

Water Power. Water power is an invaluable factor in the industrialization of a country. The Philippines
has potential sources of water power. The Beyster Report of 1947 stated that sufficient hydro-electric
power could be obtained from the rivers and water- falls “to meet the entire commercial and domestic
requirements of the country. Accordingly, it recommended the installation of a series of hydro-electric
plants in various parts of the archipelago at Maria Cristina Falls to supply power to the whole of
Mindanao; at Botocan Falls, Caliraya River, and Angat River to furnish power to Manila: at Agno River to
give power to Northern Luzon; and at the rivers of Camiling, Barit, Bosigon, Cawayan, Mantayupan,
Sibulan, Casgas, Peñaranda, and Talavera to supply the power needs of Central Luzon.

Climate. The Philippines has a tropical climate, with two distinct seasons: the dry and the wet. The dry
season is from March to June, while the wet season is from July to October. The intervening period, from
November to February, is neither too dry nor too wet. The coolest months are January and February, and
the hottest months are April and May. The average daily tempera ture in Manila is 79.5°F, and that in
Baguio is 64°F. During the dry season people can escape the heat by going up to Baguio. Tagaytay, and
other mountain resorts, where the air is cool and bracing.

The rainfall Is heavy in all parts of the Philippines, except in Cebu and Zamboanga. In some places it
amounts to as much as 250 inches yearly. The world record for a 24-hour rainfall is held by Baguio,
mountain resort in the Philippines; this record was taken on July 14-15, 1911.10 Contrary to popular
conception, the climate is not enervating and deadly to the white man. Many Occidental residents live well
in the Philippines. As early as 1569, Legazpi, first Spanish Governor-General of the Philippines, reported
to the king: “This country is salubrious and has a good climate.” And in the words of Justice Malcolm:
“Broadly and truthfully speaking, the climate of the Philippines is the most healthful and comfortable of
any portion of the tropics inhabited by man,”

Typhoons, Earthquakes, and Volcanoes. Year in and year out, the typhoons from the Pacific Ocean
or the China Sea lash the Philippines with fury. Batanes and Samar lie within the path of these typhoons,
while Mindanao is comparatively safe from them. The year 1947 was an “unusual year of typhoons.
During that year ten typhoons, all named after women, swept the Philippines, causing great destruction to
life and property. The last of the 1947 typhoons, named Jean, lashed the country on December 26, 1947
and wrought great damage.

The Philippines lies within the seismic belt of the Pacific world. The eart’quakes, unlike those in Japan,
are seldom terrific. Bohol and Palawan are free from earthquakes. The most destructive earthquake
recorded so far occurred on June 3, 1863. It destroyed the Manila Cathedral, 46 public buildings, and 560
private houses: killed 400 persons and injured 2,000; and damaged P8,000,000 worth of property. During
the second and third weeks of January, 1948, a series of violent earthquakes rocked the Visayas,
especially Panay, causing heavy property losses but few casualties.

There are 52 volcanoes in the Philippines, of which eleven are active. The greatest is Mount Mayon which
has the most perfect cone among world-famous volcanoes. It erupted more than 30 times from 1616 to
1947, the most horrendous eruption of which took place in 1814, which buried the town of Daraga,
damaged other towns, and killed 1,200 persons. Another famous volcano in the country is Taal Volcano,
which is reputed to be the smallest volcano on earth. It erupted more than 22 times from 1572 to 1911.
The most devastating eruption of which occurred on January 30, 1911, which destroyed 13 villages and
killed 1,300 persons. On September 1, 1948, while Manila was being lushed by a typhoon named
Gertrude, Mount Hibok-Hibok in Camiguin erupted and caused great panic and fear among the islanders.
For two weeks the volcano belched forth ashes, lava, and smoke, causing considerable damage to crops
and forcing thousands of the in habitants to evacuate the island.

Fauna. The Philippines abounds in animal life. There are more than 60 species of bats, five species of
monkeys, three species of deer, and various species of horses, water buffaloes (carabaos), dogs, cats,
cattle, pigs, squirrels, and sheep in the islands. Three unique mammals exist in the Philippines. They are
as follows: (1) tarsius, the smallest monkey in the world, found only in Bohol and is believed by scientists
to be an important link in the evolu tion of mammals; (2) tamaraw, a cross between the carabao and the
boar, found only in Mindoro; and (3) mouse deer, the smallest deer on earth, found in Palawan.

There are more than 750 species of birds in the Philippines, ex- ceeding those of Japan, Australia,
Celebes, and other countries in the Pacific. Many of these birds are unusually interesting: the monkey-
eating eagle, one of the biggest eagles known to man; the tiny curved-beak sunbird, whose brilliant
plumage shines with metallic gleam; the peacock pheasant, which skulks in the woods of Palawan; the
parrot which can talk and sing like a human being: and the wood-trush, sweetest troubadour of Philippine
skies. The largest bird in the Philippines is the tipol (Sharpe’s Crane).

Both harmless and venomous snakes are found in the different islands. The venomous snakes are of 25
varieties, including the cobras and the pythons. The lizards are of varied kinds, such as the house lizards,
the flying lizards, the geckos, and the monitors. Crocodiles exist in some regions which are still sparsely
populated.

About 25,000 species of insects are known to exist in the Philippines. Among them are the ants, bees,
beetles, butterflies, bugs. Cockroaches, mosquitoes, locusts, spiders, bean flies, rice stem borers,

Mango twig borers, diamond-black moths, cane grubs, and leaf- miners. There is an abundance of marine
fauna as shown by the existence of 2,000 kinds of fish, sponges of variegated forms, land and sea shells,
turtles, pearl oysters, chambered nautilus, and other mollusks.

Flora. The Philippines surpasses other Oriental countries in the wealth of her plant life. She has
approximately 10,000 species of flowering plants and ferns. Numerous kinds of edible fruits and
vegetables grow in abundance everywhere. The famous Phil ippine fruits are the sweet lanzones, “the
queen of Philippine fruits:” the delicious mango, “the ezarina of Philippine fruits,” and the magnificent
durian, the “king of the jungle fruits.” Innumerable species of medicinal plants thrived in the archipelago.

The Philippines has the richest collection of orchids In the whole world. She has over 900 species, many
of which are exquisitely beautiful and are not found in any other country. Aside from orchids, she can take
pride in her gorgeous hibiscus, majestic morn ing glory, queenly rose, stately camia, romantic cadena de
amor, fire-red dapdap, lovely gardenia, sweet sampaguita, fragile kamu ning, radiant poinsettia, and
odoriferous ylang-ylang.

Sampaguita, National Flower. Greatest of all the island flowers is the sampaguita (Jasminum
sambac), which Governor Frank Murphy proclaimed on February 1, 1934, as the national flower of the
Philippines. Possessing the regal grace of America’s wild rose, the creamy purity of France’s fleur-de-lis,
the scented effulgence of Japan’s chrysanthemum, the majestic beauty of China’s sacred lady, and the
tropic charm of Hawaii’s hibiscus, it is a dainty flower, shaped like a star, snowy white, and lingeringly
sweet.

Various legends have clustered around the sampaguita, one of which recounts that long ago a Spanish
cavalier, charmed by its beauty, brought a plant to Spain; but no matter how much care he gave to it, the
plant would not bear any flower. Another legend relates that the flower originally bloomed at the grave of
Liwayway, the beauteous princess of a barangay (kingdom) in ancient Philippines. This princess died
waiting in vain for the return of her lover, Lakan Galing, the dashing prince-warrior, who had gone to war
on the eve of their wedding. He failed to return because he had been killed in battle.

It is a custom among Filipino women to wear rosaries of sampaguita during Maytime, a custom peculiar in
the Philippines as the wearing of flower leis in Hawaii. Thus chants the Filipino poet in Spanish, Manuel
Bernabe:

What a graceful flower

The Sampaguita

Whoever wears

it not Is no Filipina.

Agricultural Wealth. The Philippines is a rich agricultural country. Divine Providence has endowed her
with fertile soil and favorable climate. The potential agricultural area is 18.162.668 hectares. Of this area
only 3,953,810.64 hectares, or less than one fourth, are under cultivation.

The major agricultural products are rice, coconuts, corn, hemp (abacá), sugar, and tobacco. Rice is the
basic food of the people. And ranks first among their crops. The area planted to rice is nearly 50 per cent
of the cultivated land. The average annual harvest of this crop is 54.000.000 cavanes. At least a thousand
varieties of rice are grown in all parts of the country. The greatest rice-producing region is the Central
Plain, “the rice granary of the Philippines.” Formerly, Nueva Ecija was the leading rice- producing
province; now it is Pangasinan. Corn is the second grain crop of the Philippines. It is the “daily bread” of
the people in Cebu, Bohol, Negros Oriental, Isabela, Cagayan, Bukidnon, Davao, Misamis Occidental,
and Misamis Oriental. The leading corn-producing province is Cebu, with Cotabato a close second.

The third agricultural crop is coconut. About 27 per cent of the cultivated area is occupied by coconut
plantations. There are 120,000,000 coconut palms in the country with an annual output of 3,000,000 nuts.
Laguna and Quezon (Tayabas) are the leading coconut-producing provinces.
Hemp, the fourth agricultural product, is grown in 7 per cent of the total cultivated area. The leading
hemp-producing provinces are Davao, Albay, and Sorsogon.

Sugarcane, the fifth agricultural product, is raised approximately in 6 per cent of the total cultivated area.
Negros Occidental. Pampanga, and Tarlac are the leading sugar-producing provinces.

The sixth agricultural product is tobacco, which is raised in 1.5 per cent of the total cultivated area. The
leading tobacco-producing provinces are Isabela and Cagayan.

Among the countries of the world, the Philippines ranks first in hemp and coconut production, second in
sugarcane production, and fifth in tobacco production,

Next to farming, livestock raising is an important industry in the Philippines. Almost every farming family
has its livestock, poultry, or hogs.

The most useful of the Philippine animals is the carabao, Slow, but hardy and powerful, the carabao is
truly a farmer’s friend and helper. It ploughs the field, hauls the cart to and from the market, and furnishes
the family with milk and meat.

Forest Resources. Forests constitute one of the rich natural resources of the Philippines. They are found
in all provinces and in all islands. The total forest area is estimated at over 17,000,000 hectares, or
approximately 59 per cent of the total land area of the country. The government owns 97.5% of the
forests; the remaining 2.5% belong to private persons. The forests are capable of producing
461,740,000,000 board feet of timber with an estimated value of P8,000,000,000. There are 3,000
species of trees in Phil ippine forests, of which the following are in great demand for construction
purposes; apitong, almon, white and red lauan, guijo, ipil, tangile, narra, tindalo, and yakal.

Besides timber, the forests yield by-products of great commercial value, such as dye-woods, tanbark
(cutch), resins, rubber, gutta percha, nipa palms, rattan, and various medicinal plants. Because of the vast
forest resources, forestry has come to be one of the major industries of the Filipino people.

Narra, National Tree. Most famous of the Philippine woods is the narra (Pterocarpus indicus), which is
considered by foresters as “the queen on Philippine woods.” It is the national tree of the Philippines, in
accordance with an executive proclamation of Governor Frank Murphy dated February 1, 1934. In the
forests it can be seen towering in majestic height with a crown adorned with golden flowers, a massive
trunk measuring 70 to 80 centimeters in diameter and clothed with a soft grayish bark which exudes a
scarlet liquid of great value for dyeing and medicinal purposes.

The narra is symbolic of Filipino character and Ideals. This is graphically explained by Forest Ranger
Jose Viado in the following:

It is a tall tree, which characteristic seems to be expressive of the lofty aspiration of the people to be
one of the independent nations of the world. It is stalwart and enduring, which fact could be taken to
signify the steadfast persistence of the Filipinos in their demand for freedom. While other trees are bent or
uprooted by tempests, the narra tren usually withstands such disaster. A storm may strip it of its leaves
and breaks off its smaller branches, but the tree itself remains upright. As the narra resists the tempest,
so has the Filipino fought his oppressors. When the bark of the narra is injured, red sap oozes out-a
constant reminder of the blood that has consecrated Philippine soil in the numerous daring attempts of
the Filipinos to free their country from foreign domination, and of the blood still running through the veins
of the people ready to be shed upon their country’s call.
During certain parts of the year, the narra tree sheds its foliage, and new leaves grow. Every year it grows
anew, undergoes a rejuvenation. This symbolizes the disappearance of old customs and their
replacement by new ones, or, in other words, the onward march of progress.

The narra has a thousand uses in the daily life of man. It is carved by skilled Filipino woodcarvers into
Catholic images before which people kneel in prayer. It is made into beautiful chairs, tables, beds,
dressers, cabinets, and other forms of furniture, and is used in the construction of ceilings, floors, and
walls of aristocratic homes and swanky offices. Because of its beauty and durability, it is the most
desirable wood for building and ornamental purposes.

Fisheries and Marine Resources. The rivers, lakes, and seas of the Philippines teem with fishes,
pearls, shells, and other marine resources of practically every description and color. It is estimated that at
least 2,000 species of fish, or approximately “one tenth of all the known kinds of fishes in the world, “” are
found in Philippine waters. Among the commercially known fishes are the following: dalag (mud-fish), dilis
(anchovy), banak (mullet), bangos (milk fish), tamban and tunsoy (sardines), talakitok (pampano), tangui
gui (mackerel), and lapulapu (sea-bass). The smallest fish in the world is Pandaka Pygmaea, which is
found in Manila Bay. It is smaller than the tabius of Lake Buhi, Camarines Sur. The Philip- pines is a
“Paradise of Shells.” Out of 60,000 species of shells known to science, 10,000 are found in the
Philippines. The smallest shell in the world (Pisidium) and the largest shell (Tridacna gigas) exist in our
archipelago. The rarest and most valuable shell in the world is called the “Glory of the Sea” (Conns
gloriamaris). Only 13 shells of this rare species are in existence, three of which came from Philippine
waters.

Excellent fishing grounds are found in Manila Bay, Laguna de Bay. Subic Bay, Taal Lake, Lingayen Gulf,
Ragay Gulf (Tayabas and Camarines Sur), Bantayan Channel (Cebu), Estancia (Iloilo).

Malampaya Sound (Palawan), the Sulu Sea, and in the waters of Basilan and Zamboanga.

Aside from fish, the waters of the Philippines yield other marine products, such as edible turtles and turtle
eggs (especially found in the Turtle Islands), pearls (found in the waters of the Sulu Archi pelaga and
Palawan), sponges, snails, shells, and edible sea-weeds.

In view of such rich marine resources, fishing is one of the major industries of the people. It ranks “next to
farming and livestock raising in point of usefulness, value and the number of people engaged in it.”ss
Fish, along with rice, is a basic part of the daily Filipino diet.

Mineral Resources. The Philippines is rich in mineral resources. Mineral resources are classified into
metallic and non metallic. The metallic minerals found in the Philippines are gold, iron, copper, silver,
platinum, chromium, manganese, lead, and zinc: and the non-metallic minerals are coal, oil (petroleum).
Asbestos, clay, gypsum, lime, salt, sand and gravel, sulphur, building and ornamental stone (adobe stone
and marble), and mineral waters.

Before the Second World War, the Philippines ranked ninth among the world’s gold-producing countries.
Gold mining is a very old industry in the country. Long before the arrival of the Spaniards the Filipino
people were already mining gold in Paracale (Camarines Norte), the Mountain Province, Masbate, and
Mindanao. In recent years Surigao has become a rich gold-producing region, and “one of its mines is
unquestionably the richest in the Far East, if not in the world.

Silver is not mined directly in the Philippines as an ore, but is obtained as a by-product of gold, copper, or
lead. It has been discovered in many gold deposits in natural alloy “in the ratio of one part silver to about
four parts gold.”
Copper, like gold, had been mined by the Igorots of Northern Luzon during pre-Spanish times. The best
known copper district in the Philippines is Mankayan (Mountain Province), where the oldest and largest
copper mine is still found. This mine continues to produce most of the Philippine copper output. Other
known copper deposits are found in Rapu Island (part of Albay Province), Negros, and Zambales,

Iron, the most needed metal for industrial purposes, is found in great quantities in the Philippines. The
greatest iron-bearing region in the country is Surigao, whose iron ore deposit is estimated at
1,000,000,000 tons, being “one of the richest undeveloped deposits in the world.” Other rich iron ore
deposits are in Angat, Bulacan: Larap, Camarines Norte: Mambulao, Camarines Norte: Marindu que: and
Samar.

Coal, an important mineral for fuel and power, is found in many places of the Philippines, especially in
Batan Island; Polillo Island; Sibuguey Peninsula in Mindanao: Uling and Cahumahumayan, Cebu:
Cataringan, Masbate; Sugod Bay, Sorsogon: Bulalacao, Mindoro and Semirara Island, south of Mindoro.
The coal reseryes are estimated to reach between 25,000,000 and 45,000,000 tons.

The Philippines has not yet produced oil or petroleum in com mercial quantities, Certain areas, however,
are known to contain oil, such as the Bondoc Peninsula and the Cagayan Valley: Central and
Southeastern Luzon; the islands of Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol, Masbate, Ticao, Burias, Leyte, and
Samar; and the coastal areas of Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago,

In the manufacture of iron and steel, certain minerals are used as ingredients to give certain qualities to
the product. These are Called ferro-alloy minerals. Examples are manganese and chromite Ores.
Manganese is found in locos Norte, Pangasinan, and Masbate: while chromite occurs in Antique, Ilocos
Norte, and Zambales. Lead and zine are found in the Philippines, especially in Masbate. Tin exists in
Palawan. Natural asphalt, a non-metallic mineral useful for road construction, is found in Leyte. The
deposit is estimated to contain between 2,000,000,000 and 10,000,000,000 metric tons. Gypsum, another
non-metallic mineral used in the manufacture of Portland cement, exists in Batangas, Cebu, Rizal, and
Leyte. Asbestos occurs in Ilocos Norte and Zambales. Salt is generally obtained by the people from sea
water by means of the old method of evaporation. No beds of rock salt have as yet been discovered in the
Philippines. There are salt springs, however, and they are found at Mainit near Bontoc, at Salinas, Nueva
Vizcaya, and at Asin near Buguias in Benguet. Sand, gravel, and stone for construction purposes are
abundant. Adobe stone is quarried in Rizal and Laguna Provinces. Marble for ornamental work is found in
Romblon. Cement exists in the country. Clay deposits suitable for making pottery are found in Laguna,
Rizal, Camarines Sur, and Pampanga. The known sulphur deposits are in Camiguin Island, Cagayan
Province; Lubuagan, Mountain Province; Biliran Island and Burawen, Leyte; Mount Silay, Negros
Occidental; Balut Island, Davao; and Mount Apo, Mindanao.

Scenic Beauties and Natural Wonders. The Philippines is a beautiful country which God has
embellished with scenic beauties and natural wonders. Like glamorous Hawaii, she has velvety beaches
where the surges of the seas murmur their eternal mono- tones; like picturesque New Zealand, she has
rippling seas of crystalline waters where multi-colored fishes of fantastic shapes gambol in and out among
emeraldine weeds and rainbow corals: like majestic Java, she has cool, towering highlands garlanded
with gossamer-white mists of the morning; and like sunny Spain, she has rolling vales basking redolently
within the shadow of church belfries.

The crowning glory of nature's wonders beneath Philippine skies Is the Ifugao rice terraces of Northern
Luzon. Built about 2,000 years ago on the massive slopes of the mountains, these terraces rise in
gigantic steps toward the clouds. If placed end to end, they extend over 12,000 miles, eight times as long
as the Great Wall of China, enough to embrace one-half of the earth’s circumference.
Other Philippine wonders of nature are the famous Pagsanjan Falls and Gorge in Laguna; the enchanting
Crystal Caves in Baguio; the amazing Salt Springs of Salinas, Nueva Vizcaya; the thrilling Montalban
Caves in Rizal; the lovely Sunset Beach in Cavite: the palm-fringed Atimonan Beach in Tayabas; the
magnificent Maria Cristina Falls in Mindanao; the incomparable Mayon Volcano, whose perfect cone is
unexcelled by even the famous Fujiyama of Japan: the petite Taal Volcano, smallest volcano on earth; the
inland Sampaloc Lake of San Pablo, Laguna; the Hundred Isles of Lin- gayen Gulf, Pangasinan; the
famed Underground River in Palawan, an amazing natural phenomenon without its equal in the world:
and the lovely Manila Bay sunset, the memory of which lingers long in the beholder’s heart like the spell
of Hawaii’s bewitching twilight.

The Philippines In Asian Geopolitics. The position of the Philippines on the map of the Orient is
strikingly strategic either from a political or a commercial point of view. Bounded by the Empire of Japan
on the north, the Pacific and its islands on the east, British Borneo and Indonesia on the south, India and
British Malaya on the southwest, Siam and Indo-China on the west, and China and British Hongkong on
the northwest, she constitutes the vortex around which gravitate the diverse forces of the clashing colonial
stakes, antagonistic commercial interests, and conflicting political ideologies of world powers. She
commands the gateway to Eastern Asia and Malaysia where more than half of the world population live.

By the logic of her geographical situation, she is the great entre pot of Oriental trade and the nerve center
of shipping and aviation routes in the Far East. She looms over the horizon of contemporary human
affairs as the spearhead of Christianity and Occidental civilization in the Orient, the melting pot of the
world cultures and races, and the Asian rendezvous of Orientalism and Occidentalism Today she stands
as a rampart of democracy in Southeast Asia where the tides of world communism are surging high.

THE 1987 CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC

OF THE PHILIPPINES – PREAMBLE
 We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring
The aid of Almighty God, in order to build a just
And humane society, and establish a
Government that shall embody our ideals and
Aspirations, promote the common good,
Conserve and develop our patrimony, and
Secure to ourselves and our posterity, the
Blessings of independence and democracy
Under the rule of law and a regime of truth,
Justice, freedom, love, equality, and peace, do
Ordain and promulgate this Constitution.