An Empirical Study of Moral Reasoning among Managers

Author(s): Robbin Derry

Source: Journal of Business Ethics , Nov., 1989, Vol. 8, No. 11 (Nov., 1989), pp. 855-862
Published by: Springer

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/25071976

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An Empirical Study of Moral Reasoning
Among Managers RobbinDerry

ABSTRACT. Current research in moral development sug-research

* examines how the moral reasoning process
differs between individuals in work-related conflicts.
gests that there are two distinct modes of moral reasoning,
one based on a morality of justice, the other based on a In order to develop a better understanding of the
morality of care. The research presented here examines the
process of moral reasoning, this research tests the
kinds of moral reasoning used by managers in work-related
thesis (Gilligan, 1982) that there are two distinct
conflicts. Twenty men and twenty women were randomly
methods of reasoning about moral conflicts: one
selected from the population of first level managers in a
based on morality as justice, the other based on
Fortune 100 industrial corporation. In open-ended inter
morality as care. The concept of morality as justice
views each participant was asked to describe a situation of
moral conflict in her or his work life. The results indicatedreflects
a the theories of Immanuel Kant (1959) and
John Rawls (1971), and a deontological approach
clearly preferred mode of moral reasoning among the
participants who described moral conflicts. Nearly all of to moral philosophy. In this method of reasoning
these predominated with a justice orientation. These find morality is based on individual rights, contractarian
ings suggest that a correlation between gender and preferred rules of society, and fair treatment.
mode may be context specific. In contrast, the concept of morality as care reflects
a set of concerns that has been articulated less
frequendy or formally in moral philosophy. The
Introduction concerns of this approach are the responsibility of
the individual to respond to another in the other's
terms, acting out of care for the other person (Gilli
The focus of the research presented here is moral gan, 1982). This is distinct from morality as justice in
reasoning in organizations. The term "moral reason that it does not attempt to follow universal rules or
ing" as used here describes the process by which insure equitable treatment. It focuses on responsive
individuals deal with moral conflicts. The process ness to another's needs. It also includes caring for
includes a definition and framing of the conflict, as oneself in a nurturing rather than a self-maximizing
well as an evaluation and resolution of the conflict way. This approach to morality as care is perhaps
by the individual. An underlying assumption is that closest to agapism in moral philosophy (Matthews
different people do experience moral conflicts dif etal, 1985).
ferendy, even when facing the same situation. This In this study the two different approaches to
morality, justice and care, are considered in relation
to the context of a corporate organization. Are
different definitions of morality used in work en
vironments? Do individuals selectively vary their
Robbin Derry is an associate professor at The American College in
Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, where she holds the Lamont Post
moral reasoning process depending on their personal
Chair in Business Ethics. She recently completed a year as a
or professional environment? Are the factors of sex,
Rockefeller Fellow at The Ethics Institute at Darthmouth age, religious affiliation, length of time with the
College. She has presented and published numerous articles on the company, or position in the company related to the
ethical decision-making of managers and is currently working on type of moral reasoning used by an individual?
a business ethics textbook.
These questions are directly addressed.

Journal of Business Ethics 8:855-862,1989.

? 1989 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

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856 Robbin Derry

Moral development format has been used to explore the hypothesis that
men and women define moral issues differently and
The contemporary empirical studies of moral rea use different bases on which to reason them out
soning are grounded in theories of moral develop (Gillgan, 1977; 1982). Langdale (1983) and Lyons
ment. Interest in moral development emerged from (1983) found empirical results which verified Gilli
the field of cognitive development in psychology gan's thesis that two distinct moral orientations were
and education. Moral development has traditionally significantly related to gender. In both studies the
examined perceptual stages through which individ care orientation predominated in female thinking
uals pass as their ability to reason about moral issues and the justice orientation predominated in male
matures. thinking. Neither of these studies suggests an abso
The field of moral development was long domi lute split along gender lines. In each there were men
nated by the research of Lawrence Kohlberg (1981). using the care orientation and women using the
Kohlberg's theory suggests that there are six univer justice orientation, but there was a statistically sig
sal and invariable stages through which individuals nificant relationship between gender and moral
progress as their moral reasoning develops. Kohlberg orientation.
created hypothetical moral dilemma scenarios as the
basis of interviews that probed and assessed the
participants' moral reasoning. The stage theory de Problem development
lineated and ranked different types of moral reason
ing into levels which Kohlberg claimed were se Gilligan's hypothesis and Lyons' methodology (Lyons,
quentially "higher" in terms of individual cognitive 1983) suggest some interesting possibilities for re
development. search within organizations. This type of interview
In 1977 Carol Gilligan challenged the field to allows us to begin to explore how men and women
consider the bias inherent in Kohlberg's model define morality in the workplace. Before the level of
(Gilligan, 1977). The longitudinal sample which had moral responsibility within corporations can be
given Kohlberg his critical data was entirely male. In measured, there needs to be some comprehension of
conducting interviews for a project with Kohlberg, the many different definitions of moral responsibility
Gilligan found what she subsequently called "a which are in operation in any given company. The
different voice", the perspective, voiced more fre interview and coding scheme developed by Lyons
quently by women, that morality was not defined by (1982) offer the potential of interpreting and cate
justice, fairness, or universal rights, as Kohlberg gorizing diverse views of morality and individualistic
argued. Instead this perspective described a morality constructions of reality.
based on care, on responsibility to others, on the Many of the empirical studies in the field of
continuity of interdependent relationships. This business ethics have attempted to assess the level
orientation resulted in clearly different reasoning of ethical performance or decision-making among
and ways of resolving moral conflict situations. executives or MBA students. This requires a pre
Gilligan described it as a morality of care and determined standard of ethical behavior. In too
suggested that it was a distinct moral orientation, not many instances, we as researchers in the field have
merely one of Kohlberg's stages or moral develop skipped over the stage of listening to managers to
ment. understand their concepts of ethics. What are the
ethical issues which they face? What is their percep
tion of the basis of moral action? Certainly there are
Alternative moral orientations issues and situations which they confront in their
everyday work lives which would enlighten re
searchers and enrich our understanding of moral
Gilligan et al. (1982) developed a research interview
as the basis for examining the different types ofreasoning. Several recent studies have contributed
moral reasoning proposed by Gilligan. The open first steps in this direction. A careful study of man
ended, semi-structured interview pioneered by Pia agerial experiences by Waters, Bird, and Chant
get was adapted as a research tool. This interview(Waters et al, 1986) used open ended interviews to

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 Moral Reasoning among Managers 857

reveal important moral questions and the circum challenging questions as an invitation for further
stances in which managers took significant action on research.
these questions. Similar research in Zimbabwe used
essays by managers in an MBA program to analyze
their moral concerns (Gifford and McBurney, 1988).
Data gathering
The essays described on-the-job experiences of
moral conflict. This "listening to managers" is criti
The site selected was a major manufacturing facility
cal to a deeper understanding of the real issues
of a Fortune 100 industrial corporation. The com
which need to be addressed by research.
The interviews described here address several pany is referred to here by a pseudonym, Steng
Corporation. In order to obtain equal numbers of
research questions. What are the moral conflicts that
male and female participants, the first level of
arise for a group of first-level industrial managers?
managers and staff professionals was selected as the
What are the considerations they use in attempting
population. Two random samples were obtained,
to resolve the conflicts? Do people experience clearly one for the males and one for the females of this
different types of moral conflicts within the same
population. These who were not interested in par
organization and managerial level?
ticipating were replaced by further random selec
tions from the population in order to maintain the
desired level of forty participants.
Hypotheses
All participants were personally interviewed by
the author. Equal numbers of men and women were
The research presented here applies Gilligan's theory
interviewed, ranging in age from thirty-two to sixty
in a corporate setting by testing the following hypo
theses: two. The interviews, each approximately sixty minutes
in length, were tape recorded and transcribed. These
HI: There are two distinct modes of moral transcriptions served as the basis for the coding
analysis. The coding scheme was developed by Lyons
reasoning used in work-related conflicts;
(1982) specifically to analyze interview data for
these are consistent with Gilligan's de
categories defined by Gilligan (l 982).
scriptions of morality as justice and mor
The interviews were open-ended and semi-struc
ality as care.
tured, in which an individual presented an actual
H2: Morality as care is more frequently moral conflict faced at work and described the
voiced by females and morality as justice conflict, how she or he evaluated what should be
is more frequently voiced by males in
done, and how it was resolved. The coding process is
describing work-realted moral conflicts.
a form of content analysis.

The findings offer unique insights into what a

sample of first-level managers in a major corpora
tion perceive to be moral behavior. The interview Results
data may reflect the selective memories and the self
justifications of behavior of managers in difficult The major findings were as follows:
situations. Rather than using an arbitrary definition
of morality to measure if managers are ethical, this 1. One third of the participants said they never
research seeks to compare and categorize the differ faced a moral conflict at work.
ent ways that people experience their sense of moral 2. All but one of the participants who described a
ity on the job. moral conflict at work did so with primarily
The field of business ethics is seriously lacking in justice reasoning.
empirical data which describe the decision making 3. There were no significant statistical correla
process of managers facing ethical dilemmas. The tions between gender and the reported experi
contribution of this study does not fill that gap ence of moral conflict, or between gender and
but it make the hole slightly less gaping and raises the strength of the justice orientation.

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 858 Robbin Derry

The analysis and interpretation of the occurrence detract from organizational productivity, described
of "no conflict" experience is reported at length her situation:
elsewhere (Derry, 1987b). Other additional findings
from the interview data have been examined in I felt that I would be, it's almost like I would be drawing
money out of the company and not giving the company
depth, such as the relationship of demographic
anything back, except protecting this particular individ
variables with the categories of moral reasoning, and
ual. So, I felt that my personal sense of values was being
respondants' definitions of personal and professional violated, and my notion of how to conduct business
morality (Derry, 1987a). efficiently and effectively was being violated.
Presented here is an interpretation of the findings
specifically related to the hypotheses. These are An experienced manager described a repeated
results two and three listed above. conflict:

There are a number of times when you know as manager

that a particular individual has been identified to be laid
Analysis off. . . and everyday, and it may go on for several weeks,
you have to come to work and acknowledge the person,
Why is there an overwhelming use of the moral deal with them, work with them, knowing that at a given
orientation of rights, rules, and justice among the point in time they are going to be out of a job literally.
managers and non-management professionals inter And yet, you can't prepare them, because your job as a
manager is to try to get the pieces done, work with the
viewed? Fundamentally, a corporation is a group of
company, and maintain the morale. It's a moral difficulty
people joined together for the purpose of accom
because I always feel that if I know that a particular
plishing some defined, common goals. Each person
individual is going to have something like that happen,
has an assigned role to play in the accomplishment that I should tell him . . . however I also understand . . .
of those goals. Everyone expects others to fulfill their that in the business we do need his services for three
roles as organizational members. Steng has a "team" more months.
culture. Although there have been significant layoffs
within the past decade, the people who have lived Reasoning about moral conflicts from this per
through the belt-tightening times are loyal to the spective of one's role and obligations within the
organization and its ideals. They sometimes have corporation falls into Lyons' category of rules, rights,
conflicts with their immediate supervisors and their and justice. One is following a clearly defined set of
directives, but almost to a person, they express great rules. They may not be written, and they are often
broader than one's job description, but they are the
faith in the driving purpose, goals, and intentions
of top management. There is a sense of belonging implicit commitment to the achievement of the
among Steng employees. It is for this sense as well as group's purpose. This commitment is a fact of life
for their own job security that they want Steng to among most of Steng's managers. It is not surprising
then that it is a dominant factor in the reasoning of
survive, to do well in the face of growing national
and international competition. Some of the conflict these managers and staff professionals. At work, they
are committed to their organization, themselves, and
discussions gave evidence of a feeling of personal
responsibility for Steng's image in the community at other people who might be involved, in approxi
large. This type of strong culture builds, often mately that order. This is not to say that they take
intentionally, a deeply held commitment to the care of the organization before they take care of
themselves, but their initial reasoning process, about
organization, a clear sense of one's role, duties, and
moral issues as about any other problems, is "What
obligations (Katz and Kahn, 1978; McCoy, 1985).
should I do as a Steng Manager/Buyer/Engineer/
Certainty about roles and obligations seemed to
Foreman?" One engineer put it this way:
underlie many of the considerations people voiced
in resolving their moral dilemmas. The following A situation comes up, if there are moral aspects to it, I
excerpts from two participants demonstrate this think the first approach is to handle it like you are
point. handling other situations so it's not really a conflict or
A young woman, struggling with a proposed problem. It's part of the decision or behavior require
ment.
"deal" which would benefit her superior but would

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 Moral Reasoning among Managers 859

In short, the individual manager's commitment to moral referent for Steng's managers and employees,
her or his role within the corporation shapes his or explaining their reliance on a right, rules, and justice
her reasoning about work-related conflicts, includ approach to moral conflicts at work.
ing moral conflicts.
Another aspect of the individual's role in the
organization is that these people get rewarded for Gender differences and the lack thereof
following the rules, for making fair and just deci
sions. They do not get rewarded for being caring, Why is there no significant gender difference in the
building strong relationships at work, or for alleviat moral reasoning used in these work conflicts, as one
ing others' burdens. Steng is not a social service would expect from Gilligan's theory and other
organization. It is not in operation to make its recent research? The findings described here suggest
workers or customers feel cared for. Steng is a profit that whatever gender differences have been found in
dependent corporation, striving to manufacture reli other research may be context specific. If there is a
able, competitive products. It rewards its employees general difference between men and women, it does
for goal achievement. Following a behaviorist argu not carry over into strong organizational cultures
ment, the corporation builds in rule-following by its where both women and men are trained to think
reward structure, and similarly discourages behavior and judge as corporate members. In such settings,
focused on caring and responding to others' needs in either the "carers" have been selected out or they
a personal way. have learned to used the reasoning dominant to the
Larue Hosmer focuses on the corporate rewards organization. The voice of care, responding to others
and structural pressures which influence managerial in their terms, maintaining relationships for the sake
ethical decisions in his article, "The Institutionaliza of interdependence, and alleviating the burdens or
tion of Unethical Behavior" (Hosmer, 1987). He suffering of another, does not have a major role in
argues that organizations frequendy offer personal corporate culture.
benefits to unethical behavior for middle managers. A major study of over 400 MBA students and
His findings and those presented here suggest that their projected responses to ethical dilemmas re
the organization does have a significant role in how vealed a gender difference in expected action in
managers experience and react to situations of moral questionable business practices. A higher number of
content. The corporate rewards, pressures, expecta women participants indicated a willingness to take
tions, goal statements, and compensation systems all action against unethical business practices than their
communicate to the individual manager a set of male counterparts Qones and Gautschi, 1988). While
behavior patterns. These behaviors carry with them gender differences such as these are interesting for
moral implications. These implications are rarely speculation, this finding does not contribute signifi
acknowledged, but all such policies and priorities do cant insight into how women and men actually
embrace an implicit moral policy. perform on the job. It would be expected that the
The experience of Steng managers suggests a variable of prior work experience is a major factor in
phenomenon that is entirely consistent with popular individuals' projections of their own behavior. The
literature about survival in the corporate arena as a women in this study may have less business experi
matter of learning and playing by the "rules of the ence and therefore less ability to accurately predict
game." Those who can play by the corporate rules their future behavior in ethical conflicts. There is
stay in "the game", those who can't, or don't want to, no indication of this factor, and little discussion of
leave (Maccoby, 1976). By the time people have the validity of self-reported, projected behavior.
made it to a managerial level at Steng, they have for Researchers must look to on-the-job performance.
the most part agreed to the rules of the game, or they More studies are needed which compare men and
have opted out. Thus there is a self-selection factor women's behavior at work.
in this sample. It is not representative of the general Looking back to the data, it is clear that most
population. It is a group of men and women who people voiced some care issues along with their
have proven themselves good corporate players. justice considerations. This confirms the earlier
Therefore, these organizational rules become the findings that many people have the ability to reason

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860 Robbin Derry

either in the justice mode or the care mode (Lyons, accepts [the other position] before the promotion here
1983; Johnston, 1985). If men and women do have comes through, then I would have looked bad in terms of
the ability to use both moral orientations and the my management to say hey, you've got this guy that's a
ability to choose which one is most appropriate in valuable man and you let the guy skip and he's going to
another department. So why did you let him do it? ... I
different settings (though not necessarily in the
just really weighed the fact that how would I feel if I was
vocabulary of moral development theory or philoso in his shoes? How would I feel if I was cut off from
phy), then the smart business players should figure
pursuing an opportunity in another area that I was
out early on which mode is most credible within interested in?
their work environment. People who use a moral
reasoning of care or response in their personal life In this excerpt the manager's concern is about
may simply know not to use it at work. Individuals how to do what is right for an employee from the
who do not have the ability or willingness to use employee's perspective. This is a care consideration.
justice reasoning do not stay very long or do not But other considerations come into play to weigh
advance in a dominantly rights and rules environ the balance towards a justice focus: What would my
ment. managers say? (a duty or role consideration), How
would I feel if I were in his shoes? (fairness, justice as
These explanations apply equally well to men as
to women. But it is the women whom one would the golden rule), I might lose a valuable resource in
have expected to use the care reasoning, given the the department (effects to self). This case could be
earlier findings. However, in the last decade women seen as one in which the manager is predominantly
have been coached from all sides to succeed in busi rights or justice oriented with some care considera
tions taken into account. This is strictly consistent
ness, to make it big, to compete, to increase the ranks
of corporate women, in short to learn the rules by with the coding results.
which men have succeeded, and to play the game Alternatively the theory above suggests the major
aggressively (Henning and Jardim, 1977). It should issue of concern is a care issue but the setting for the
be no surprise that first-level managers, women inconflict requires that it be reasoned out in justice
their thirties and forties are using the same vocabu terms. The person may tend more toward a care
orientation in defining moral dilemmas, but the
lary, the same thought processes as their male coun
terparts. They have learned what is required. work environment imposes certain modes of reason
Those women and men who have the ability and ing and decision making. This perspective is sup
interest to reason as corporate members are building ported by England who argues that individual man
on and strengthening that ability. It is important to agers come to work with certain "intended values",
interpret the findings of this study in the contextbut of the expression of these values is blocked by
the complex demands of corporate life, as well as the organizational factors (England, 1975). In this case
context of society's current interpretation of successthe manager may have attached a strong personal
and its requirements. value to providing support and encouragement to
An additional interpretation of the strong justice employee, but the Steng environment did not
his
orientation voiced in these interviews was suggested permit the expression ofthat value except as it fit the
by the verifying coders. Several of the participants dominant logic of fairness.
seemed to be describing issues that were fundamen A national survey of nearly 1500 managers sup
tally care concerns but justifying them in justice ports this view of conflict between personal values
terms. Perhaps in the Steng environment they had and to organizational demands. The survey found that
justify their conflicts in those terms. An example de pressure to compromise personal principles for the
monstrates this point. sake of the organization is strongest at the lower
level of managers (Posner and Schmidt, 1987). These
Actually the conflict for me was how I knew that the first line Steng managers certainly had the least
right thing to do was to let him go [to another job within "clout" or stature with which to resist the organiza
Steng] and from his standpoint, but for me I might wind tional pressures.
up losing a valuable employee in the department and he Some managers may be basically care oriented in
has been a good employee.... If I let the guy go, and he their moral reasoning, but in the work environment

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 Moral Reasoning among Managers 861

zational leaders. The lack of discussion of this broad

they may be required or trained to use justice rea
soning even in conflicts which arise from care area of managerial life creates uncertainty about how
concerns. This differs from an interpretation which to manage ethical conflicts. Such uncertainty was
suggests that the managers and other professionals evident in the interviewees' hesitation and searching
are justice oriented people, by nature, by self-selec for words throughout the Steng interviews. In the
tion, or by early training. From this study it is absence of direct leadership on these issues, there
not clear which of these theories more accurately were nonetheless significant patterns in the moral
describes the sample. While the work environment reasoning used.
theory has some face validity, it is important to It is important for organizational leaders to un
guard against interpretation of results in ways that derstand and recognize the factors and pressures
merely explain away inconsistencies with past find which influence the ethical decisions of their man
ings, in an unwillingness to seriously question the agers. They have the opportunity and a social re
hypotheses. quirement to manage these factors to achieve the
highest ethical decisions within their operations. I
wholeheartedly support and encourage the urgings
Conclusions of Waters and Bird in their analysis of morality in
organizational cultures:
The implications of this research are significant. The To the extent that morally appropriate behavior requires
field of moral development has been challenged by that additional costs be borne or revenues forgone in the
the hypothesis that there are two distinct definitions short-run in the service of longer-run benefits to the
of morality which shape moral reasoning. The re organization, decisions to do so can be made publically
search presented here examines this hypothesis in a and explicitly with responsibility lodged at the proper
level. . .
setting which has been traditionally male-dominated.
Women's roles in industry still beg definition. The In all these suggestions, the meta-message is the discus
absence of the traditionally female voice of morality sion of moral issues must become a familiar, comfortable
within this context may be a reflection of the part of the manager's job (Waters and Bird, 1987, p. 22).
organizational culture, or it may signal the adapta
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