Human Learning and Instruction Whole

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Human Learning and Instruction
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Human Learning and Instruction*
City College of New York
New York, N.Y.
@Hope J. Hartman 1997
*This was a textbook I wrote for students in my

undergraduate course, Human Learning and
Instruction.
Human Learning and Instruction
Table of Contents
Page
Chapter 1 Introduction 4
B AC E I S Model 4
Rich Instruction Model 7
Chickering & Gamson 11
Journal Forms 12
Chapter 2 Reading and Remembering 17

Reading Skills 17
Graphic Organizers 19
Mental Imagery 20
Reciprocal Teaching 23
My use of Metacognition in Reading 30
Remembering 31
Homework 35
Chapter 3 Scaffolding and Cooperative Learning 37

Scaffolding 37
Cooperative Learning 38
Group Roles for Structuring Student Participation 39
Training Students in Cooperative Skills 41
Teacher's Role in Cooperative Learning 42
Group Processing 43
Reciprocal Education 45
Cooperative Learning in Mathematics 45
Group Investigation 58
Jigsaw 62
Chapter 4 Higher Level Thinking Strategies 66

Time Management 66
Test Taking Skills 67
Error Analysis 70
Critical Thinking 73
I DREAM OF A:WRITING 74
Self-Directed Learners 77
Transfer 81
Homework 85
Chapter 5 Communication Skills 87

Characteristics of Effective Communication 88
Listening Skills 89
Speaking Skills 93
Feedback 94
Nonverbal Communication 94
Cultural Issues in Communication 95
Communication Breakdown & Repair 97
Homework 101
Chapter 6 Tutoring Intelligently 102
Goals of Tutoring 102

Roles & Responsibilities 103
Tutoring Principles 104
Getting Started: First Tutoring Session 106
Integrated Learning Model 106
Ideal Tutors and Students 107
Characteristics of Adult Learners 108
Ethical Issues in Tutoring 110
Characteristics of a Successful Tutoring Environment 111
Scheduled Tutoring Session Components 112
Matching Students for Tutoring 114
Thinking About Tutoring 115
Intelligent Management Principles 119
Homework 124
Chapter 7 Emotions that Promote Intelligent Performance 125
Motivation 125
Affective Factors in Thinking and Learning 131
Self Regulation of Emotions 141
Homework 144
Chapter 8 Theories 145
Family Tree 145

My Beliefs About Learning 146
Introduction to Behavioral, Cognitive & Humanistic Theories 147
Behavioral Theories 147
Cognitive Theories 149
Humanistic Theories 159
Motivation Theories 161
Homework 165
Intelligence 167
Homework 179
Chapter 9 Social Aspects of Teaching 181
Building Good Relationships in Teaching 182

Cultural Dynamic 183
Troubleshooting 185
Classroom Management 189
Peer Mediation 195
Structuring Student Participation in Groups 196
Homework 197
Chapter 10 Questioning and Thinking Aloud 198
Question Types and Levels 202

Homework 204
Prior Knowledge 205
6PQ Method of Discovery Learning 206
Guided Questioning 210
Thinking Aloud and Pair Problem Solving 211
I DREAM of A:Math/Science 214
4
Chapter 1 Introduction
This textbook is slightly different from most other educational psychology texts. In addition to this
book being designed to teach the subject matter of educational psychology, especially for prospective
teachers, it is also designed to help readers develop skills and attitudes that will make them better
thinkers, learners and teachers. This text is based on the assumption that teachers need to be effective
learners who can use principles of educational psychology to facilitate their own learning as well as that of
their students. Learning activities and homework assignments are incorporated in the text to help ensure
readers will actively work with the material to be learned.
The triarchic theory of intelligence (Sternberg, 1985; see chapter 8 in this text) and B A C E I S
model of improving thinking (Hartman and Sternberg, 1993) underlie my experiences teaching educational
psychology. The BACEIS model is a comprehensive framework of factors internal and external to the
student which affect a student's academic performance (Hartman & Sternberg, 1993). Factors internal to
the student are cognition and affect; factors external to the student are academic and nonacademic
environments. The BACEIS acronym letters stand for the following: B =behavior, A=affect, C=cognition,
E=environment, I=interacting, S=systems (Figures 1 & 2). The model suggests that internal factors of
cognition (intellect) and affect (emotions) are related to each other and are also related to interacting
external factors from academic and nonacademic environments. The combination of these factors and
all of their reciprocal influences has implications for how, how much, and how successful students are
when engaged in academic work. Such information may be useful for understanding students' academic
performance and for designing instruction which improves it. To promote intellectual development, a
teacher may intervene at any point in this complex array. This text addresses all major areas of the
BACEIS model. The cognitive part of the internal supersystem is made up of two parts: first is cognition
and metacognition (thinking about one's own thinking; see chapter 4 in this text). These cognitive
components have three major applications: critical thinking, creative thinking and learning strategies. The
affective part of the internal supersystem consists of motivation, affective self regulation and attitudes (see
chapter 7 in this text). The external supersystem consists of the academic environment (teacher
characteristics, content, class environment & instructional techniques) and nonacademic environment
(socio-economic status, family background and cultural forces). These environmental factors interact with
each other and with the rest of the BACEIS system components. The combination of these interacting
variables leads to behavior consequences regarding intellectual performance. . More extensive discussion
of the components of this model can be found throughout this text, as is serves as the conceptual
framework underlying this book. The B AC E I S model is summarized below and an illustration of the
model is presented in Figures 1& 2.
5
Hartman and Sternberg (1993) A Broad BACEIS* of Improving Thinking

Instructional Science Vol 21 pp. 401-425
* BACEIS acronym: B = Behavior A = Affect (Emotions) C = Cognition

E = Environments IS = Interacting Systems
6
INTERNAL SUPERSYSTEM
Keisha's Cognitive System Keisha's Affective System

Metacognition Motivation
skims makes mental images interested in learning content
self questions monitors comprehension wants to correctly answer questions
wants to please teacher and parents
Cognition Affective Self Regulation

encodes information expects to be good reader
comprehends values reading
Critical Creative Learning Attitudes

Thinking Thinking Strategies positive reading self concept
evaluates invents new selective attention curious about content due to
alternative way to relates new father's occupation
energy purify ideas to persists when reading difficult material
sources gasoline prior knowledge
EXTERNAL SUPERSYSTEM
Keisha's Keisha's
Academic Contextual System Nonacademic Contextual System
Teacher Characteristics Family Background

reading specialist native speakers of English
extensive teaching experience family reads and discusses books
positive attitude towards students and newspapers at meals
diverse teaching repertoire brothers and sisters are good readers
father owns gas station
Content (text) Cultural Forces

gasoline emissions reading is a survival skill in society
ozone in atmosphere (signs, labels, job applications)
cars vs. mass transit television inhibits reading
alternative energy source video games inhibit reading
Class Environment SocioEconomic Status

students can challenge authority father's income crucial for family support
resources accessible leisure time for reading
content at appropriate level money for books, newspapers,
Instructional Techniques
reciprocal teaching
imagery formation
BEHAVIORAL CONSEQUENCES
correctly answers comprehension questions
paraphrases text
self regulates reading
writes essay, rejects author's conclusion & proposes new technology
This systems theory model views training intellectual development very broadly and suggests it
can be approached through a broad array of functions and roles including teacher, administrator,
7
theoretician, researcher, evaluator, curriculum specialist, staff development expert, and generalist who
works with both across-domain and domain-specific components of thinking, a practitioner and an
author/editor who disseminates ideas to maximize their impact. The Rich Instruction Model lesson plan
format is derived from this theoretical model, and is summarized below, showing a concrete application of
the B AC E I S theory.
Rich Instruction Model

1. Explicit Objectives
A. Content
Subject matter of lesson, e.g. -Students will understand and be able to use quadratic equation.
B. Thinking Skills
1. Focused: specifically targeted for improvement in this lesson. Both cognitive and
metacognitive dimensions explicitly addressed.
2. Tapped: others used in lesson, but not specifically targeted for improvement in the
particular lesson
C. Attitudes
1. Focused: specifically targeted for improvement in this lesson. Both cognitive and
metacognitive dimensions explicitly addressed.
2. Tapped: applicable to lesson, but not specifically targeted for improvement in the
particular lesson
2. Lesson Plan Core
A. Why?: Immediate Purpose and Long Term Benefits

Teachers identify reasons for learning and communicate them to students.
B. What Should I Build On? Students' Prior Knowledge/Experience

Teachers identify relevant prior knowledge, skills, experience, and elicit them from students.
C. How? Instructional Techniques & Modalities

Teachers determine how they will achieve the targeted objectives, using a variety of instructional
techniques and multiple modalities.
3. Transfer
Build at least two of these into each RIM unit.
A. Apply Within Subject, Across Tasks
B. Apply Across Subjects
C. Apply to Everyday Life
D. Practice for Automaticity
E. Several Varied Examples of Application
8
This page shows a teacher-developed science lesson based on this model.
Sample RIM Lesson*
1. Explicit Objectives
A. Content: Students will understand that science is not value free. Topic genetic engineering
B. Thinking Skills
1. Focused: encoding, evaluating
a. executive management
b. strategic knowledge
2. Tapped: inferring, generalizing
C. Attitudes
1. Focused: predispositions, openmindedness
2. Tapped: reflective style, locus of control
2. Lesson Plan Core

A. Why?
Immediate Purpose: so students understand that scientists are regularly confronted with ethical decisions.
Long Term Benefits: to promote openmindedness in judging scientists' decisions, and to learn to critically
evaluate their own and others' positions. Purpose and benefits will be explicitly discussed in class.
B. What Should I Build On?
Students' Prior Knowledge/Experience: ten years of science education and a general understanding of
values and decision making - to be discussed before the lesson.
C. How?
Instructional Techniques: give reading materials on pros and cons of genetic engineering, elicit relevant
prior knowledge, model desired skills, ask higher-order questions.
Modalities: auditory, visual, verbal
3. Transfer
A. Apply Within Subject, Across Tasks
Follow-up exercise: in small groups students list four scientific areas where value questions would be
important and indicate specific value questions
C. Apply to Everyday Life
Homework: interview 10 neighbors about their views on the value questions involved in women's rights to
choose whether to have an abortion.
*adapted from D. McNamara (1986)

9
Rich instruction model lesson: Sample Elaborated RIM Lesson Plan

(for Bruner-Ausubel Unit in chapter 8)
I. Objectives
1. Content Objective: to help you learn to think like Bruner and Ausubel (in Chapter 8) by applying their
ideas on the structure of knowledge to the design of a handout. The content of the handout will be about
their learning approaches. The handout will be targeted at a hypothetical scenario of high school students
who are taking your psychology class.
2. Thinking Skill Objective: Application - to apply the abstract concepts you learn to the concrete
instructional tasks of designing a handout.
3. Metacognition during this activity:

A. Executive management:
planning, monitoring, and evaluating/revising the content and design of a handout, ensuring
quality .
B. Strategic knowledge:
1). WHY should I make a handout?
Most teachers make up their own and/or select instructional material to be handed out to
students. Given you will probably be designing/choosing instructional material, if you learn to apply
characteristics of effective knowledge representations, you are more likely to succeed in helping your
students acquire, comprehend, retain and transfer information you want them learn.
2). WHY should I apply the theories of Bruner & Ausubel?

Bruner's and Ausubel's theories have useful implications for representing information to be taught
in ways that will facilitate the achievement of your teaching objectives. Their ideas on the structure of
knowledge illustrate the characteristics of effective representations, upon which handouts should be
based. Understanding and applying Bruner's and Ausubel's key principles about how information should
be structured can help you become a more successful teacher.
3). HOW will I apply their theories?

In a group you will design a handout in which you will:
1.structure knowledge according to Bruner's:
a. mode
b. economy
c. power
2. use Ausubel's Advanced Organizers.
4. Attitude Objective: Curiosity - to stimulate interest and inquiry into Bruner's and Ausubel's approaches
to learning and their ideas about the structure of knowledge.
II. Lesson Plan Core
A. Purpose
The immediate benefit is to immerse yourselves in Bruner and Ausubel so that by concrete
experience you will better understand their principles of learning and instruction.
The long term value is for you to learn to think about the design of instruction from the perspective
of educational psychology.
B. Prior Knowledge
10
The class previously wrote about and discussed their own experiences with handouts from two
perspectives: as a learner and as a teacher. In addition, students analyzed the handouts they have
received in this course in terms of the characteristics of Bruner's and Ausubel's theories.
C. Method
1. Assign Groups & Roles
2. Plan Content
3. Establish Context
4. Prepare Draft
5. Turn in
1. Assign Groups and Roles

a. Assign yourselves to Cooperative Learning groups of three students. Remember to maximize
group heterogeneity and to try to create groups of people who have not worked together during previous
classes.
b. Check up on (monitor) your group composition.
c. Assign group members to their roles.
Group Roles:
1. recorder: writes down the content and prepares the final handout
2. moderator: makes sure everybody contributes and nobody dominates
3. (&4). monitor(s): checks up on the recorder and moderator- monitoring their performance in
their roles to make sure they are fulfilling their responsibilities effectively.
2. Plan Content
You will be focusing on Bruner's Discovery Learning and Ausubel's Meaningful Reception Learning. As a
group, using your text as a resource, determine the content to be included in your handout.
PARAPHRASE any material from it. DO NOT COPY it.
CONTENT
a. a brief summaries of both approaches
b. advantages of both approaches
c. disadvantages of both approaches
3. Establish Context
Establish a context for your handout by discussing and deciding how you would use it for teaching your
hypothetical high school students about Bruner's Discovery Learning and Ausubel's Meaningful Reception
Learning. Do not feel limited by the identified functions. Other uses of the handout as a teaching/learning
tool are acceptable.
4. Prepare Draft
Plan the construction of your handout. Your handout will be based on Bruner's and Ausubel's teaching
principles as identified below. This is the part of the activity in which you will be thinking like Bruner and
Ausubel, applying their ideas to your handout design. Always prepare a draft of your handout before
attempting to do a final copy. While preparing the draft, monitor your work in progress, making sure that
you are including the right content and that you are faithfully applying Bruner's and Ausubel's teaching
principles. Evaluate your handout as the draft is taking shape, and Revise your plan as appropriate.
5. Turn In
At the end of today's class you should turn in the draft of your group's handout with the name of all group
members on it.
III. Transfer
Write an essay or prepare a graphic organizer summarizing how you can use what you learned in this
lesson for preparing materials for tutoring or teaching.
11
Chickering and Gamson (1987) have identified "Seven principles for good practice in
undergraduate education" (see adaptations of these principles below). These principles have been
endorsed by the American Association of Higher Education, the Johnson Foundation and the Education
Commission of the States. When reading about these seven principles, ask yourself "What might be some
implications of this principle for the teaching I want to do?"
Good practice in higher education:

1. Encourages frequent contact between students and faculty. Contacts should occur both in and
out of class. Contact with faculty encourages students to think about their own values and future plans
and enhances students' intellectual commitment.
2. Encourages cooperation among students. Good learning is not competitive and isolated, it is
collaborative and social. Students get more involved in learning when they work with others. Exchanging
ideas with others deepens understanding and improves thinking.
3. Encourages active learning, so that students can make what they learn part of themselves.
This doesn't happen just listening to teachers, memorizing content and regurgitating it on an exam.
Internalizing what is learned occurs by students talking and writing about it, by relating it to their past
experience, and applying it to their everyday lives.
4. Gives prompt feedback. In getting started, students need assistance evaluating their existing
knowledge and abilities. They need chances to perform and receive suggestions for improving their
performance. Students need opportunities to reflect on what they have learned, what they still need to
learn, and how to assess themselves. Knowing what they do and don't know focuses their learning.
Appropriate feedback helps students learn.
5. Emphasizes time on task. "time + energy = learning." Both teachers and students need
effective time management skills for effective learning. Students usually need help learning to be good
time managers. One area to address is making realistic estimates of how much learning time will be
needed for a given set of material. There is no substitute for time spent engaged in learning.
6. Communicates high expectations. When teachers and institutions have high expectations for
student performance and when they make extra efforts to help students, a self-fulfilling prophesy tends to
occur. High expectations benefit students from the highest to the lowest levels. Teachers can
demonstrate
they have high expectations for students by giving them challenging assignments, being patient, and by
giving students encouragement. These behaviors show students that teachers expect them to succeed
and they help motivate students to persist when confronted with difficult tasks.
7. Respects diverse ways of learning and talents. First students need to show their talents and
learn in ways that work for them. Then they can acquire new and more difficult ways of learning. There
are multiple paths to learning. People all tend to be better in some areas that others. Colleges are filled
with students with diverse talents and diverse ways of learning.
.
These seven principles are intended as general guidelines for improving teaching and learning in
undergraduate education. I have tried to incorporate most of them into the design of this text and the
course.
I am very interested in feedback on this book from people who use it, so I can continue to make revisions
and refinements.
Hope J. Hartman
July, 1997
12
Name____________________ Course Section____ Journal # 1Date Written___ Date Submitted___
Circle Type: classwork, text, homework, midterm, teaching project, fieldwork or substitute
Description of Activity
Reflections and Applications
Assessment of My Own Performance

13
Name____________________Course Section____ Journal # 2 Date Written___ Date

Submitted___

14
Name____________________ Course Section____Journal # 3 Date Written___ Date

Submitted___

15
Name____________________ Course Section____ Journal # 4 Date Written___ Date

Submitted___

16
Name____________________Course Section____ Journal # 5 Date Written___ Date

Submitted___

17
Chapter 2 Reading & Remembering

This chapter focuses on strategies for enhancing the comprehension of what students read and on
strategies for helping students remember what they learn. Students generally learn and appreciate
these techniques best when they are applied to specific content in specific courses and academic tasks.
Many experts have acquired their most valuable academic skills without a conscious awareness of their
existence and certainly without a recognition that some students lack those same types of skills. For
those people it is a valuable exercise to concentrate on their own thought processes when confronted
with intellectual tasks. Think about your own thinking and learning skills and strategies, and when, why
and how you use them in the various subject areas of your academic curriculum. This thinking about
your own thinking is called metacognition.
Create mental pictures of yourself performing different specific tasks, like reading a science text, writing
a research paper, doing math homework, taking notes in class, preparing an essay, or studying for a
history test. Describe your image.
Reading Skills
Reading is probably the most important academic skill for students. Students with severe reading
difficulties are likely to fail until those problems are corrected. Most institutions have reading specialists
and reading courses; students with severe deficiencies should be directed to those resources rather
than attempting to deal with them solely in a tutoring/teaching relationship. Most students will not have
severe problems but many will have reading skills that can and should be improved. This situation
exists because reading is not a single skill, but a complex web of skills which need to be used
selectively, automatically, and in a coordinated fashion.
The basic, lower level, cognitive skills of reading include: letter and word recognition, comprehension,
finding the main idea, identifying supporting details, making inferences, and drawing conclusions. Even
for students who have some degree of competence with these skills, ongoing assessment, instruction,
practice and feedback can effectively improve them.
The higher level, metacognitive skills of reading include: skimming, activating relevant prior knowledge,
forming mental images, predicting the direction of the text, self- questioning about content, checking up
on comprehension, clarifying, reviewing, summarizing and connecting new material with prior
knowledge. Students cannot be expected to be competent with these skills because they are rarely
taught and not everyone develops them independently. They need to be continually addressed,
practiced, and polished. Improvements in these skills can lead to dramatic improvements in academic
achievement. Students who are aware and in control of their metacognitive reading behaviors are at a
distinct advantage because many of them involve monitoring one's comprehension, taking steps to
clarify difficulties and restoring the comprehension process when it has broken down. Effective
instruction in metacognitive reading skills requires: explaining the skills or strategies, modeling them for
students, giving examples, explaining when, why, and how to use them, emphasizing the value of
flexibility in selecting specific skills to fit the particular context , providing guided practice on a range of
texts, and giving corrective feedback. Reciprocal teaching, discussed later in this chapter, is specifically
designed to develop these skills.
Long and Long (1987 ) reported that good comprehenders in college are more mentally active while
reading than poor comprehenders. Good comprehenders engage in mental activities with the text
through visualizing, self-questioning, and inferring. Although poor comprehenders engage in some of
the same metacognitive activities as good comprehenders, (for example, skimming, rereading, and
pointing to key words) they do not coordinate them to achieve understanding.
18
Maxwell's (1993) review of reading and study skill research shows that often college reading is based on
the invalid assumption that the texts students read are "considerate" or "friendly" to readers and have
explicitly stated main ideas, clear organization, appropriate density, and have instructional devices that
promote effective information processing. Students are taught strategies for reading easy texts, but not
for reading difficult texts, which are more common. Maxwell recommends analyzing reading instruction
from the perspective of Stahl, Simpson and Hayes's (1992) ten recommendations for teaching
developmental reading. These recommendations involve: 1. adopting a cognitively-based philosophy, 2.
stressing transfer, 3. assessing reading reliably, 4. using process measures, 5. broadening students'
conceptual background knowledge, 6. reconceptualizing vocabulary development, 7. using research-
validated learning strategies, 8. systematically training students to self-regulate and control their strategy
use, 9. beginning instruction with "high utility", immediately transferrable strategies, and 10. incorporating
writing into reading instruction.
It is important for teachers and students to realize that just knowing and using a good reading
strategy does not guarantee successful reading comprehension. Research by Anderson (1991) on native
Spanish speaking university ESL students showed that both high and low comprehending readers used
the same strategies. The key to successful reading comprehension was knowing how to use the
strategies and how to apply them in combination with other reading strategies.
The following is based on a college reading/writing center handout. It offers excellent suggestions for
helping students get more out of what they read by following four steps: Preview, Read, Outline, and
Review/Recite.
Reading Your Textbook
When reading a textbook, read it differently than you would other books. Four steps may seem like
extra work, but they actually save time in the long run. Teachers can use this information as diagnostic
tools to identify types of reading problems students might have and to recommend effective strategies to
overcome these problems. For example, if a tutor realizes that a tutee is not checking up on her/his
comprehension, the teacher can recommend that the tutee ask self-questions while reading, such as "Is
there anything I don't understand? Can I say this in my own words?"
General Principles
Allocate sufficient time for reading- avoid overload. Read carefully, actively and for
meaning. For example, make meaningful connections within and between reading materials, class notes,
prior knowledge, and everyday life experience. Also separate relevant from irrelevant, concepts from
examples, main points from details, fact from opinion or assumption. Periodically review. Analyze and
integrate maps and illustrations with written material. Plan what you will remember, why and how.
Step I: Previewing
Before you play a game you must know the general rules - how it starts, finishes, etc. Likewise, when
you read a chapter, get a general picture of the main points. This will make for more "goal directed"
reading because you'll know what to look for. These steps will help you:
1. If it is included, read the chapter outline and summary to reinforce major points.
2. Read the first and last paragraphs of the chapters, again; the main theme will be presented to create a
general picture.
3. Flip through the entire chapter, observing headings, subheadings and illustrations. Note italics, bold
print, underlined words. What does the organization tell you? Create an overview of the information in
your mind.
4. Plan your reading time. Consider the length, complexity and your familiarity with the material; decide
how long it will take to read and understand (always overestimate). .
19
Step II: Reading

General principles. Once you begin, take the chapter one paragraph or section at a time. Set a general
purpose for reading the material. Establish specific learning objectives. Identify key concepts and terms.
Note any questions, problems, and issues raised. Translate concepts into your own words
1. Convert any subheading into a question. For example, if the sub-heading of a paragraph reads "The
Causes of Nuclear Accidents", read with the question in mind "What are the causes of nuclear accidents?"
The answers to these questions will be the main points of the paragraphs. If highlighting, underline only
this "answer". This ends "coloring the whole page," which defeats the purpose of highlighting.
2. Record your own examples. If you know something specific that helps you to remember a main idea,
jot it down in your outline.
3. Look up unfamiliar words. Again, this may seem time consuming; however, if you can't understand
the content because you are stuck on a word, the time spent is wasted. Have a dictionary on hand in case
you can't figure out the meaning on your own.
4. Don't continue if you don't understand. Take the time to go back and master what you've read before
proceeding, or again, you'll be wasting time.
5. Ask questions like:
What information is important, relevant as opposed to irrelevant?
What is the central idea or concept of this section?
What don't I fully understand? (Flag it).
What key information should I underline?
What do I already know about this topic?
6. Use text digestion techniques: underlining, making notes in the margins, outlining and graphic
organizers.
.
Step III: Outlines & Graphic Organizers
Use a selective and concise skeleton outline to show major topics, subtopics and their
relationships. Turn outline sections into questions to self-test your learning, understanding, and
comprehension of information in the outline. Leave room for additions and modifications of your outline.
This is a very effective way of studying a chapter because it's active - you're actually writing instead of
staring at a page, so you're less likely to daydream.
1. Use the subheadings of paragraphs as a skeleton outline. This will organize the information. Make an
outline, using these main ideas but use your own words; you'll remember it better.
2. Fill in your outline with diagrams, examples, etc. This provides an effective study guide when test time
comes.
Networks of related ideas (schemata) that the reader brings to the text set up expectations that influence
understanding and interpretations of what is read. If there is a mismatch between reader's and writer's
ideas, comprehension can break down. Learning to understand the structure of ideas in a text can
improve comprehension. (Mulcahy, 1987). For example, teaching students "story grammars" such as
that a novel usually has a protagonist, antagonist, climax, and denouement helps the reader set up
appropriate expectations that make the text easier to understand. Graphic organizer techniques can help
students analyze text and see how it is structured. Several of these organizer techniques have been
found to be especially useful for reading text. The following models of graphic organizers are from Jones
et.al. 1988/89, who describe the specific function of each type of representation. "A good graphic
representation can show at a glance the key parts of a whole and their relations, thereby allowing a holistic
understanding that words alone cannot convey "( p. 21). These specific graphic representations are used
to understand text and solve problems. Other graphic organizers found to be useful for reading text
include: network tree, fishbone map, cycle, spider web, continuum/scale, series of events chain, compare
contrast matrix and a problem/solution outline. See Jones etal. 1988/89 for details on these models.
20
Step IV: Review and Recite

Reviewing your work is the best tool for remembering. Summarize and compare yoursummary to
the book's, checking to ensure you recalled and understood all the main points. Think about how what you
read links up with class notes and other readings. Decide what you will try to remember, why it'sworth
remembering and how you're going to remember it (e.g. what you already know that you can connect it
with). Test yourself.
1. Find interesting ways of remembering facts. Give meaning to what you have read by applying
memorable events, words, etc. to each idea. Use memory devices - they are excellent if you need to
memorize a list, for example.
2. Distribute your study time. If you dislike a subject, don't make yourself do it for four hours in a
row. One hour per subject is usually plenty; then you're less likely to get bored with the material. Although
time must be invested to really master a chapter, this time is productive; and it helps put an end to
cramming before exams. A great deal of information is available in your textbooks; look for ways to tie
together what your instructor covers and what you read. You'll find you remember much more of the
important things and learn to filter the extra material that may distract you.
What are your strengths and weakness for each of these four steps?
Strengths Weaknesses
Step 1 Preview
Step 2 Read
Step 3 Outlines & Graphic

Organizers
Step 4: Review/Recite
Mental Imagery
Imagery appears to be a promising, relatively under-utilized tool for facilitating thinking and
learning. Huttenlocher (1968) found that the construction of spatial images facilitates reasoning with
transitive inferences. To her surprise and apparent dismay, Huttenlocher found that subjects were
ashamed of using spatial images to mediate their solution of reasoning problems, and tended to view
them as "intellectual crutches." Mcintosh (1986) studied the effect of teacher-induced image generation on
students recall and transfer of scientific rules and found that it had a significant effect. They
recommended having a pre-experimental imagery training period to teach subjects how to form images.
In contrast, Anderson and Kulhavy (1972) showed that merely encouraging students to create images
during a learning situation facilitated recall of prose. However, other research has shown that students do
not always use what they have been asked to, even if they have been trained. Much information students
have stored remains inert.
This phenomenon raises the issue of accessibility of knowledge represented. Why is it that
students may not apply potentially useful strategies, like visual images, that are in their repertoire? There
are many potential variables operating to influence strategy use . Students' beliefs about their own
competence to perform tasks can profoundly influence their motivation to perform, their acquisition of
specific strategies, and their use of acquired strategies. Impulsive students may act too quickly and
haphazardly to allow the processing required for effective strategy use. (Pressley, 1984). Marks (1973)
examined individual differences in imagery and found that subjects with vivid imagery showed superior
recall to those who had poor visual images.
Visual images are potentially accessible knowledge representations which have been
demonstrated to improve reading comprehension by systematizing initial encoding of textual material and
facilitating later retrieval of that information Paivio (1971), Pressley (1976), Kulhavy and Swenson (1975)
.In their discussion of the work of Sternberg (1977,1981) and Pelligrino (1985) on solving formal
21
analogies, Bransford etal. (1986) note that both researchers emphasize that initial encoding time is a
crucial variables in successfully solving analogies. According to Anderson, (1985) when people operate
on their mental images, they apparently undergo a process which is actually analogous to operating on the
physical object itself. He cites several reasons for making a distinction between images and mental
pictures. One reason is that images are abstractions that do not necessarily have visual properties .
Images also can be auditory or tactile. Based on the research he reviewed, Anderson listed the following
general properties of images: (p.95)
1. They are capable of representing continuously varying information.

2. They are capable of having operations performed on them that are analogs of spatial
operations.
3. They are not tied to the visual modality, but seem to be part of a more general system for
representing spatial and continuously varying information.
4. Quantities, such as size, are harder to discriminate in images the more similar the quantities
are.
5. Images are more malleable and less crisp than pictures.
6. Images of complex objects are segmented into pieces.
Mental representations of information to be learned or used in problem solving are important

determinants of whether and how learning will occur. Sternberg (1985) argues one should select multiple
representations, including internal representations, like mental images and external representations, like
charts or tables, as metacognitive aides. In his review of the learning strategies literature, Dansereau
(1978) noted that research on combining visual imagery strategies with mnemonic (memory) techniques
has provided evidence to support the idea that multiple encodings have a more positive effect on recalling
information than do single encodings. Bean, Singer, Sorter and Frazee (1986) trained 10th grade
students to use graphic organizers and outlines to help comprehend history text. Training included teacher
prompting to use the graphic organizer on multiple choice quizzes. This prompting was phased out on the
6th quiz. One of the graphic organizer groups had prior training in question-generation and summarization
techniques. This group significantly outperformed the others.
In a recent review of research on using concrete, visual models to facilitate understanding of

scientific information, Mayer, (1989) found that there was a consistent pattern of such models helping
lower aptitude learners think systematically about scientific material they have to learn. He identified
seven characteristics of effective models in this review. The good models he found were: complete,
concise, coherent, concrete, conceptual, correct and "considerate" (i.e. using vocabulary and organization
appropriate for the learner). "In short, models are "good" with respect to certain learners and certain
instructional goals. The current review, although consistent with the seven characteristics above, does not
confirm them. Systematic research is needed to identify the relative contributions of each characteristic
and to establish better operational definitions of each" (p. 60). He also identified some guidelines for
application of concrete models, including when and where they should be used, why to use them, and who
models are good for.
In a related study, Guri-Rozenblit (1988) looked at use of a diagram in learning from social
science texts, and found that a diagram was better than a verbal explanation in representing spatial and
hierarchical relations. In the same study, she found that a combination of nonverbal information, i.e.
diagrams and verbal information, i.e. explicit explanations of them, was more effective than diagrams
without explanations. The main contribution of this study was its integration of verbal with nonverbal
information; with each facilitating processing of the other.
Mental imagery was first studied over a century ago by Sir Francis Galton (Travers. 1982). He
investigated how people picture objects inside themselves, and found a range of individual differences.
Traditionally imagery has been viewed as a representation of stored information. More recently, Piaget
and others have viewed images from a more constructivist standpoint. (Travers, 1982). Imagery
strategies include : forming mental pictures, (internal representations), and drawing pictures or diagrams
(external representations) to help encode or clarify information.
22
Read for Relationships

Most of what students have to learn in school involves organized bodies of knowledge rather than discrete
pieces of information. When students understand how that knowledge is organized, the information is
more meaningful, easier to understand and easier to remember. However, students are seldom taught to
make those connections while reading. If students know in advance what kinds of relationships to look
for, and remember to look for them while reading, they should find it easier to identify important
relationships in the material they read. Understanding how ideas are related is often needed for
successful performance on tests. Many exam questions are considered "tricky" by students because they
require students to think of higher-order relationships rather than simple associations.
Constructing graphic organizers of what you read is an excellent way of understanding relationships
between ideas. Sample graphic organizers are presented later in this chapter. Relationships can be
coded and added to notes. For example, use "P" to show a part-whole relationship, such as the heart is
part of the circulatory system. Use "E" to show an example, such as Orion is an example a constellation.
How can students identify relationships? Teachers can teach students relationships such as the following
and teach them to recognize key words that identify these relationships (adapted from Spurlin, 1985)
Type of Relationships Key Words and Descriptions to Read for
Part: part of, portion of, segment of - one thing is part of another
(object, idea, process, concept), piece.
Type/Example: type of, category, examples of, kind of - one thing is a

member of a class, or an example of a class, category,
process, concept, object or instance.
Cause/Effect: leads to, results in, causes, is a tool of, produces, outcome.
Analogy: similar to, analogous to, like, corresponds to, in common.
Characteristics: has, characterized by, feature, property, trait, aspect, quality, detail.
Evidence: indicates, illustrates, demonstrates, supports, documents,
proves, shows, confirms, facts, data.
23
Teachers can help students look for relationships while reading by teaching them to ask questions, such
as, What type of relationship is described in this paragraph? Is it a cause-effect relationship? Is it
making a comparison? Questioning while reading helps students interrelate information and connect it
with what they already know. Additional examples are:
What is ________ part of?
What is an example of ________?
What caused ________?
What did ________ lead to?
What did ________ compare to?
What does the evidence suggest?
How good is the evidence ?
What conclusion(s) can I draw?
What other types of relationship questions can you think of?
Which of the strategies for improving students' reading seem most useful at this point ? How might you
apply them to your reading/tutoring/teaching?
Most Useful Reading Strategies How I Might Apply Them

1.
2.
3.
Reciprocal Teaching
Reciprocal Teaching is a cooperative learning method of improving reading comprehension that can also
be used in individual tutoring/teaching. In reciprocal teaching a teacher/tutor and a group of students take
turns leading discussions about specific segments of text using reading strategies of questioning,
clarifying, summarizing and predicting (Palincsar & Brown, 1984). Instructional techniques involved
are: demonstrate, or model and explain, practice with feedback, dialogue or "simple conversation with a
purpose" (Palincsar, Ransom & Derber, 1988/89, p. 37), scaffold or provide students with temporary
support and take turns leading text dialogues. The combination of these techniques leads to student self-
regulation or self-management of reading comprehension ( Hartman, 1994).
Reciprocal teaching is based on four principles: 1. The purpose of reciprocal teaching is to improve
reading comprehension by equipping students with strategies needed to monitor comprehension and
construct meaning. 2. Teacher (or tutor) and students share responsibility for acquiring the reading
strategies. After initially assuming major responsibility for teaching these strategies, the teacher gradually
shifts responsibility to the students. 3. Every student is expected to participate in discussions. The teacher
provides assistance as needed to support student participation. 4. The teacher regularly tries to turn
control of the dialogues over to students (Palincsar, Ransom & Derber, 1988/89)
Advantages of reciprocal teaching are: students are actively engaged in learning; reading strategies are
used in an integrated, coordinated way in a meaningful context; students enjoy working together and
being "teacher"; students are able to learn with the benefit of repeated tutor modeling and learn to take
responsibility for their own and each other's learning.
An overview of five stages of reciprocal teaching is shown in Figure 1.They are: 1. teacher demonstration,
2. student learning and guided practice in using the four comprehension strategies, 3) coordinated
practice using the strategies with segments of text in small groups led by the teacher, 4. practice in small
groups of students, and 5. student competence and self-regulation. These are described in more detail in
Hartman (1994).
24
Reciprocal Teaching Stages (Hartman, 1994)
Stage 1: Teacher Demonstration

Instructor models and explains coordinated use of
the four reading strategies: predicting, clarifying,
questioning and summarizing.
Stage 2: Student Learning & Practice
Instructor directly instructs students on the four
strategies and their coordinated use. Students get guided
practice and feedback from the instructor.
Stage 3: Teacher-Student Groups
Instructor leads dialogues about text in small groups,
repeatedly modeling the strategies. Students take turns
leading dialogues, getting feedback from the instructor.
Stage 4: Student Groups
Students take turns leading dialogues using the four
strategies in small groups with other students. Students
give each other feedback on strategy use. The
instructor moves from group to group observing progress
and providing assistance as needed. Instructor phases out.
Stage 5: Student Self Regulation
Students competently use the four reading comprehension
strategies on their own and provide their own feedback.
Self-test your comprehension of the section above by paraphrasing important ideas.

25
Sample Dialogue
teacher) Today let's use that reading method where we take turns teaching.
Do you remember which reading strategies we use?
student 1) I remember three of them: questioning, predicting and clarifying.
teacher) That's right, are there any more?
student 1) I think there's at least one more, but I don't know what it is.
student 2) There definitely is one more. Is it summarizing?
teacher) That's it. Do you remember why we use these strategies and this method?
student 2) The strategies are supposed to improve our reading comprehension and the method is
supposed to help us learn to use the strategies on our own.
teacher) Let's all read the article on p. 25
Looking at the title "New York's Big Ditch" I predict it's an article about a giant pothole in the
heart of New York City. Who has another prediction?
student 1) I think it's going to be about a gutter where homeless people sleep.
teacher) OK. now let's all read the story silently. I have something that needs clarifying. What do
they mean by an "Indian portage"?
student 2) I think it means an area where Native Americans used to trade.
teacher) That makes sense. Like a port of entry. Does anyone else have something they'd like to
clarify?
student 1) I didn't know what portage meant either, but I think I understood everything else.
student 2) I didn't understand a few things in the last article, but this one I didn't have any problems
with. OK. One question that could be asked about this story is
"What is New York's Big Ditch?"
Student 1) Well, I was wrong. It's not about homeless people. It turns out the big ditch was the Erie
Canal!
teacher) OK, now I'll summarize what we read.
The story tells how the Erie Canal was built on an old land route between Albany and Buffalo. It
tells about the history of the land and how it used to be an Indian trading post where Native Americans
met to exchange goods and services. Does anyone want to add anything to my summary?
Students 1 & 2) No. what you said gets all the main point.
teacher)OK, Now let's read the article on p. 40 and this time you lead the dialogue.
Reading Comprehension Strategies in Reciprocal Teaching
Questioning Teachers can teach students to formulate and ask questions about a reading, a
task to perform, how someone feels, or about a problem to solve. In reading, questions are usually better
if they focus on important information in the text - not unimportant details. A leader or facilitator may
asks questions that are answered by others in the group or everyone may be expected to ask questions.
Questioning is important because it improves comprehension and helps students integrate information.
Students can practice writing " where, when, why, and how" questions and get feedback from their peers
and the teacher. Teachers should help students evaluate their own questions (e.g. To what extent are
they about important ideas - not unimportant details?) , and then see whether students can answer their
own questions. Tutor modeling of good questions can help students learn to identify good questions.
Clarifying involves checking up and recognizing when something is unclear (comprehension

monitoring) and taking steps to achieve comprehension (clarification). Seeking clarifications promotes
both comprehension monitoring and text reprocessing strategies, such as reading and searching for
relevant content. When comprehension breaks down, students reread the parts before and after the
unclear section to get contextual clues to its meaning. Students look for signals to word meanings, such
as "or" signifying a definition/synonym and search for referents of potentially vague terms such as "them"
26
and "it". When students cannot figure out the meaning on their own , they often seek outside help
(externally clarify) by asking someone else a clarifying question ("What does this mean? Does it mean...?)
or checking a dictionary.
Predicting involves finding structure and/or clues about what might come next when reading a
text. Making predictions activates prior knowledge and creates expectations, which makes information
more meaningful and easier to remember . It encourages students to think about what they already know
and compare that to what they are now learning, doing or planning. These processes establish
expectations about what students will encounter while they work, which motivates students to persist and
continue to work to see if their predictions are correct. It doesn't matter whether the predictions are right
or wrong. What's important is the expectations established in the reader.
Initially predictions may come from several sources, including clues in a title, students' prior knowledge or
experience. Later predictions come from clues within the body of the text. For nonfiction, students may
underline clues such as: main concepts, examples, and connections to other things the class has
discussed. For fiction, clues include: the main character, when and where the story takes place, and
what happens. Questions and clues are related and used to make predictions based on students' prior
knowledge and past experiences. Teachers should model predicting for students and provide them with
practice and feedback on their predictions.
27
Summarizing involves making a few sentences state the most important ideas. Good
summaries do not include details or unimportant information. Selecting information (main ideas and very
important details) and reducing it to its essentials (eliminating redundancy, substituting general ideas for
specific details) are the most fundamental processes in summarizing. The length depends on the
particular material. It can be as short as a sentence or two. Summarizing aids comprehension and
memory because it encourages one to analyze and to differentiate between relevant and irrelevant
information. It can also promote comprehension monitoring and clarifying unclear material, because it is
hard to summarize without understanding and remembering. In a study by Hare and Borchardt (1984)
junior high school students
learned summarization rules, checking rules and a polishing rules. Summary rules included: using topic
sentences, collapsing lists, collapsing paragraphs and getting rid of unnecessary detail. Checking rules
included: making sure you understand the text, rethink, look back, check and double check. The polishing
rule was to edit the summary. They also taught students what the summarization strategy was, when to
use it, why to use it, where to use it, how to use it, and how to evaluate its effectiveness.
When students summarize they develop a simplified representation of the major focus of the material.
They judge the importance of ideas/information in the text. (It may help to ask students to rate the
importance of each idea on a four point scale, from least to most important). Students select or construct
sentences that reflect the main topic of the text. Students condense text by getting rid of relatively
unimportant and/or redundant information. Finally, they organize the material to be included in the
summary. Summarizing is easier for students when they have clear structures for organizing the material
(e.g. cause /effect, similarity/difference, problem/solution, heading/subheadings) and can identify clues
about what is important information. (Hartman, 1994). Reciprocal teaching and reading in general
requires reader-based summaries, not writer-based summaries.
Reader-based vs. Writer-based Summaries
Depending upon the purpose of the summary, a student may choose to write a reader or a writer-based
summary. A Reader-based summary is designed so that the reader gets an accurate picture of what the
author considered most important . It is an objective representation of what the author wrote . It is a
summary produced for someone else to read. The summary writer must be very familiar with what the
author said and meant to write an effective reader-based summary. Armbruster (1984) identified devises
that authors use as signals when stressing the importance of an idea. Such devices include: introductory
statements/ topic sentences (often the first sentence), summary statements (often the last sentence),
italics, underlining, and repetition. In contrast, a Writer-based summary is designed in any way that suits
the writer. It is a subjective representation that helps the writer understand what was read and it reflects
what is personally meaningful to the summary writer - not the author (Anderson & Hidi, 1988/1989). Where
would a summary writer's personal opinions belong, in a reader or writer-based summary?
Reader and writer-based summaries correspond to a distinction Block (1986) made between
reading in an extensive mode and reading in an reflexive mode in a study that examined the
characteristics of successful and less successful nonproficient college readers. Readers using a reflexive
mode related emotionally and personally to the text, directing their attention toward themselves, their own
thoughts, and feelings and directing their attention away from information conveyed by the author.
Readers using a extensive mode tried to focus on the author's message and understanding the author's
ideas and did not relate the text to themselves. Like the writer-based summary, the reflexive mode
emphasizes a subjective interpretation of text, while the reader-based summary and extensive mode
emphasize an objective interpretation of text. Block found that the readers who made the most progress in
reading and had the most success in college after one semester tended to read in an extensive mode,
were generally aware
of text structure, monitored their understanding effectively and consistently and integrated information in
the text.
28
Following are research-based guidelines for effective reciprocal teaching (Woolfolk, 1993):
1. Shift gradually. The shift from teacher control to student responsibility must be gradual.
2. Match demands to abilities. The difficulty of the reading material and the responsibility given to
students must match the competencies of each student and grow as these competencies develop.
3. Diagnose thinking. Instructors should carefully observe the "teaching" of each student for clues about
how the student is progressing in mastering the reading strategies and whether or what kind of followup
instruction is needed.
29
Adapting Reciprocal Teaching

Adaptations of reciprocal teaching emerged in an study designed to improve developmental students'
reading and writing skills in a prefreshman summer program (Hartman, Gourgey, Everson & Tobias,
1991). Three instructors were trained in the conventional method of using reciprocal teaching but were
encouraged to adapt the model as they saw fit for their particular students.
When the four reading strategies were introduced to the students, some of them expressed appreciation
for learning concrete tools for improving their reading comprehension. According to the instructors,
students had more difficulty with summarizing than any of the other reading strategies. One instructor
devised a checklist so students could evaluate their own summaries based on specific criteria. Several
students were frightened of questioning, but were relieved when they learned it is okay to be wrong.
Errors were viewed as learning experiences. In one class reciprocal teaching was done occasionally as a
form of whole class instruction, so all the students became resources for answering questions. Some
students had trouble formulating questions about important ideas rather than unimportant details.
Students were better at recognizing good and bad questions than generating good questions. An
evening class of older, returning students found questioning exciting.
One effective adaptation involved students compiling questions as a group and giving them to other
groups to answer. Each group would write its questions and trade with another group. Clarifying was
easier than questioning for students, but some only felt comfortable asking for clarification about words in
bold print. Apparently these students felt it was acceptable to not know the meaning of words that are
highlighted as important or new, but felt embarrassed about clarifying words in regular print because they
felt they were supposed to already know them. Some students expressed insecurity about their ability to
use context clues to figure out the meaning of unfamiliar words. Instructors reported that predicting was
the easiest of the four strategies for the students in this study. Instructors commented that they had to
frequently remind students why and how to use the four strategies. Several students spontaneously
commented that they had begun using the four reading strategies on their own. Instructors reported that
developmental students especially enjoyed taking turns being the instructor and leading dialogues about
the text through reciprocal teaching.
Another adaptation involved using reciprocal teaching to integrate reading and writing. This adaptation is
described later in this chapter.
How might you use the reciprocal teaching method or an adaptation of it?
30
My Use of Metacognition in Reading
Name_________________________
Define each term, then look back at what you have read so far in this chapter and analyze your
use of metacognitive reading strategies. Indicate (Yes/No) which of the strategies below you used when
reading this material and indicate your general use each of them when reading, as yes, no or sometimes.
Metacognitive Reading Strategies

Strategy Definition Used Here Generally Use______
1. skim
yes no yes no sometimes
____________________________________________________________________________
2. predict
____________________________________________________________________________
3. image
____________________________________________________________________________
4. check comprehension
___________________________________________________________________________
5. clarify
____________________________________________________________________________
6. self question/ test
on content yes no yes no sometimes
____________________________________________________________________________
7. review
____________________________________________________________________________
8. summarize
___________________________________________________________________________
9. activate prior knowledge
____________________________________________________________________________
10. connect prior knowledge
to new information yes no yes no sometimes
31
Remembering
"Last week I taught my students how to factor polynomials. At the end of the week most students did it by
themselves and did it perfectly. At the beginning of the next week we were almost back to ground zero.
What happened in such a short time?"
Many teachers have experienced teaching something to a student only to find that the student has forgotten it
by the next class. Has this ever happened to you? Have you ever had that experience yourself as a learner -
for example, following the instructor when s/he goes over something in class but find out that you can't do it
when trying it for homework on your own? Just because a learner records and understands what an
instructor says doesn't mean the student can remember and apply what was "learned".
When asked to define "effective learning", two categories emerged from teachers' responses: retention and
application. Representative responses were: "Effective learning is when the person who receives the
information can retain it and become the source of that same information"; and "Effective learning combines
long-term retention of the material and the ability to apply concepts" (p. 1). Teachers characterized
application as connecting new material to prior knowledge; applying knowledge to future situations, life needs
and practical problems; and understanding how knowledge is connected to other content areas. Retention
was characterized by remembering, retaining, maintaining and not forgetting (Condravy, 1993).
A frustrating circumstance for many students is the fact that they study hard, but frequently cannot remember
the material. These students often try to overcome the problem by "studying harder," but since they continue
to study in ineffective ways, the material is still not remembered. As a result they may believe that they suffer
some brain defect or are simply "too dumb" for college. The solution is more often studying smarter than
studying harder.
Start this section on "remembering" by trying the learning activity given below. The experience is designed to
help the tutor working with a student who is having trouble remembering.
Learning Activity: Study the list of words below for 1 minute only. Try to remember all the words on the list.
The order is not important.
List: piano, chair, saxophone, table, guitar, drums, toothpaste, bed, lamp, desk
2. Cover the list and write as many words from it as you can remember in any order.
3. Compare the list of words from step 1 with the list you wrote for step 2. Think about HOW you tried to
remember those words. In the space below, describe your approach(es) to remembering the words from that
list.
Compare your strategies with others.
There are many different ways of remembering information. Some ways are generally better than others, but
much depends upon a host of factors including the individual, content and purpose. The simplest memory
strategy is repetition – stating the material over and over again – exactly the way it was presented. This
strategy is called rote learning. Rote learning is characterized by memorizing isolated pieces of information
and/or memorizing without understanding. Rote learning works quite well if you look up a phone number and
repeat it over and over as you dial. It may work well for remembering a social security number or home
address, but it is one of the least effective strategies for most college level work. Sadly, it is a commonly used
approach for many students who think they have trouble with their memory. The problem is not their memory.
32
The problem is their method of remembering.
Common memory strategies that are forms of rehearsal include rereading material, using flash cards,
reciting names, concepts or definitions, and underlining/highlighting. Other common approaches involve
mnemonic techniques of simple associations - such as first letters, locations and images. The best memory
techniques tend to be those that emphasize the learner's use of prior knowledge. Using prior knowledge
enhances meaningfulness through active, personal construction of ideas and their relationships. They best
memory techniques are those that emphasize insight into concepts and relationships instead of memorization
of them. The more concepts and their relationships are understood, the lighter is the burden on memory.
More can be remembered by using basic reasoning skills.
Teachers should help their students differentiate between short term and long term memory goals. Many times
students only want to remember material long enough to use it for a test. When remembering is done with
this goal in mind, students usually treat the material to be learned very superficially. This goal is usually short
sighted. In many cases, students need long term memory of the information because it is likely to be a
building block for later learning. It's more efficient to learn it well initially and save time by avoiding having to
relearn it in the future. For information to last in memory, students need to use it and think about it more
deeply. Teachers can help students think about ways to store or record the material to be remembered and
ways to retrieve or recall what they have stored as well. Research suggests long term memory can be
improved if students take a relatively complete set of notes during lectures and review the notes soon after
each lecture to promote accuracy, completeness and consolidation for memory.
Graphic organizers can be excellent tools for promoting long term memory. Deciding what to include in
graphic representations and how to organize them as well as actually drawing them helps students store
important information. Graphic organizers are effective tools for notetaking, reviewing, self testing and
remembering. While taking a test, mentally picturing the completed graphic organizers can help students
recall important ideas and the relationships between them. Teachers should encourage students to
experiment with a variety of memory strategies in all of their subjects. It should not be assumed that the same
memory technique is appropriate for all subjects or for all tasks within the same subject. The basic rule,
however, is that whenever possible, teachers should emphasize memory with understanding rather than rote
memorization. Memory techniques which emphasize meaningful relationships between units of information
are generally superior to techniques which emphasize arbitrary relationships or fragmentation of information
(such as mnemonic devices and simple rehearsal).
Understanding information has a direct relationship to memory. The more students understand about the
information they are expected to know, the less of a burden there is on memory. If students understand a
concept, they can reconstruct in more easily and not have to depend on rote memorization. As a result,
teachers should emphasize meaningfulness when students are learning.
Meaningful learning requires the student to make connections between new information and information
already in her/his cognitive structure. For most academic tasks, meaningful learning is far more effective (long
lasting and transferrable) than rote learning. In meaningful learning, the learner tries to make sense of all the
information even when it seems that there are many separate and distinct pieces of unconnected data. The
student who uses meaningful learning will normally try to organize or group information according to some
common theme. The common theme joins the separate information into one group rather than many pieces.
If separate pieces of information can be remembered as one group, the task of remembering is greatly
simplified. For example, in the learning activity above, most terms could be organized into two groups:
musical instruments and furniture. The particular organization of material will depend on the individual and,
frequently, the organization that is helpful for one learner is of limited value for another. At the same time,
some organization is almost always better than none at all. Due to our limited capacity to hold information in
our working memories, we need to find economical and powerful ways to organize and represent information.
Effective organization and representation strategies can help learners best utilize their memory capacities.
Teachers need to be flexible about accepting how their students initially organize their knowledge.
33
Organization of information changes (improves) over time as the learner gains more experience and
knowledge. For example, after one learns individual pieces of music, they may be grouped into categories like
jazz, and then subcategories like boogie woogie, blues, dixieland, and improvisational. In a teaching
relationship the teacher is the expert with superior knowledge of the subject matter. The student is the novice
with inferior knowledge of the subject matter. But research shows that the superior knowledge of experts is
not only in the quantity of information, but also in the organization of that information. Consequently, teachers
and their students may deal with exactly the same information in substantially different ways.
For the teacher, one major goal is to communicate clearly the ways the teacher thinks about the organization
of the material. When the teacher teaches how to make connections between topics, those connections may
be more important than the individual topics because they reveal important relationships and show how a
subject is organized. The situation may be compared to two people looking at a hidden-3D picture. The
expert sees a deep underlying structure which creates a new and three-dimensional picture with the
objectively same information. The expert knows how to look at and organize the information. The novice just
sees the two dimensional images immediately apparent on the surface. Or, think about the knowledge of
experts as analogous to a brick wall where each brick is connected to all the other bricks by the mortar of the
wall. The knowledge of a novice is more like the bricks in a pile where each brick represents a separate entity,
there is simpler organization and fewer connections. If teachers teach students how subject matter is
organized by experts, students can use this knowledge when taking notes, reviewing notes or a text, and
preparing for a test. Mestre identifies three major differences between experts and novices:
Experts Novices
1. construct a richly cross-referenced, 1. construct a poorly cross-referenced,

hierarchical knowledge base. incomplete, amorphous knowledge base.
2. focus on deep structures. 2. focus on surface features
3. strategize before solving a problem. 3. jump into solving a problem without

strategizing
What happens when you have to go somewhere for the first time? Usually at the beginning you have to get
directions and follow them carefully so you don't get lost. If you go there often, eventually you can get there
automatically without even having to think about where you are going. You can go while on "automatic pilot".
You have had so much practice that memory of the location and how to get there is well-ingrained in your
mind. It has become internalized and is a part of you. That is what is meant by automaticity or "overlearning"
Automaticity is another intelligent teaching principle for improving memory. There are some concepts or
skills that are so basic that learners need to be able to use them automatically. For example, what would it be
like reading a textbook if every time you read you had to try to remember what all the letters and words stood
for ? This principle explains why ESL students often must spend much more time reading their texts than
students for whom English is their native language. The times tables are an example of math content that
need to be on "automatic pilot" because they are so fundamental. Extensive practice with varied types of
material are what students need to learn information or skills to the point of automaticity. The more
knowledge and skills that are on "automatic pilot", the more mental energy, space,
What are some concepts and/or skills in your subject that students should be able to use automatically?
How could you help students get the practice they need so they can put these on "automatic pilot"?
34
The following is a list summarizing some excellent suggestions for improving memory from a learning center
handout.
1. Plan to remember. Most people can remember ideas, facts, and details that they feel are important
and/or interesting to them. Be positive. Tell yourself that you can learn and prove it to yourself by doing it.
2. Distribute your time. Don't try to do all your studying at once. For a long assignment, break it up into
several shorter assignments.
3. Look for principles. Having difficulty remembering is most often related to an attempt to memorize
isolated facts rather than to understand the material. Understanding is aided by generalizing and organizing
learning. 4. Organize the material. It is difficult to learn and to remember large amounts of material,
especially facts, if they are not organized in meaningful ways
5. Make up formulas to help remember items on a list. This device, known as a mnemonic, has been used
for a long time. For example, to remember how many days there are in each month, many people learned a
rhyme beginning with "Thirty days has September."
6. Apply the information learned. For example, studying the structure of plants in biology may help to
understand how the vegetables in a garden grow.
7. Discuss the material to be learned. Talking with someone else about what is to be learned helps to fix
the material in the mind. The discussion is helpful whether it occurs with another student, your roommate, a
friend, or the professor.
8. Continue to work on the material after it has been learned. Experiments have shown that students who
"overlearn" after initial mastery retain the information longer.
9. Spend more time reciting than rereading. Reciting is a better strategy than rereading because it forces
you to think harder. Recitation makes you an active participant in the study process; it allows you to test
yourself; it gives you the opportunity to review your material again, and to use another of your senses to
remember.
10. Don't try to remember everything. By evaluating the relative importance of each item, you will be thinking
actively and learning. If you have difficulty differentiating the important from the unimportant material, then you
probably have not mastered it in the first place, in which case you need to reread and restudy it. It is easier to
remember a unit than isolated details.
11. Review often. Unless learned information is reviewed often, it is forgotten. Periodic review prevents you
from forgetting.
12. Integrate your learning. Try to establish connections between what you have previously learned and the
information you are now acquiring. Also try to connect this information you are learning in various subjects...
Is there anything you don't understand in the section above? Test your comprehension by paraphrasing
concepts or giving your own examples. How might you clarify what remains unclear?
Summarize the main points you want to remember from this chapter.
35
LASSI RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

NAME_________________________________
ACCORDING TO THE LASSI MY STRENGTHS ARE:
ACCORDING TO THE LASSI MY WEAKNESSES ARE:
TO WHAT DEGREE DO I AGREE/DISAGREE WITH THE LASSI RESULTS AND WHY
LEARNING IMPROVEMENT PLAN
WHAT I WILL TRY TO IMPROVE (PICK ONE AREA)
WHY I HAVE CHOSEN THIS AREA
MY SPECIFIC PLANS FOR IMPROVEMENT ARE:
I WILL CHECK ON MY PROGRESS IN IMPROVING IN THIS AREA BY: (give a strategy -

not a date)
36
name________________________ 36
Part I.
Complete the graphic organizer below using ideas from this chapter of our text. Tell what the ideas
are, why they're useful and how you might use them. Part is filled out for you as a model; please
complete the rest of it based on information from Chapter 2 of our text. Add your own “how” to the
second row and your own “what, why and how” to the third row.
WHAT is the idea? WHY is it useful? HOW might I use it?
Reader-based summary To make sure I have After reading a chapter of a

identified, understand and textbook, I'll look for the
can remember the author's author's signals about the
main ideas. main ideas, identify the most
important ones, check my
understanding by briefly
writing them in my own
words. I'll be objective and
selective.
Writer-based summary To remember the ideas I'm
personally most interested in.
Part 2
Do a reader-based summary of 100 words or less on ” Remembering” , beginning with the last paragraph on
p. 31 ("There are many..." ) and ending at the beginning of the section on Meaningful Learning on p. 32.
37
Chapter 3 Scaffolding & Cooperative Learning

Both major teaching techniques topics, scaffolding and cooperative learning, have been shown to be
effective for developing students' higher level thinking strategies and abilities to work independently.
Some cooperative learning techniques were presented in earlier in this text. Reciprocal teaching for
reading comprehension was discussed in chapter 2 while the 6PQ method of discovery learning, pair
problem solving and I DREAM of A are discussed in chapters 3, 4 and 10.
Scaffolding
Teachers can aid intellectual development in students by providing them with information and temporary
support which can be gradually decreased as the students' competence increases. The goal of providing
scaffolds is for students to become independent, self-regulated thinkers who are more self sufficient and
less teacher dependent. Using a scaffolding approach in teaching is comparable to the scaffolding of a
building which is gradually removed as its structure becomes better able to support its own weight.
Scaffolds are like training wheels on a bicycle which provide temporary support while the rider learns to
maintain balance. Once the bike rider is secure about maintaining balance, the training wheels are
removed and the rider self-balances. Scaffolding involves providing support (models, cues, prompts,
hints, partial solutions) to students to bridge the gap between what students can do on their own and what
they can do with guidance from others. Teachers use scaffolding as a strategy for shifting instruction
from others' (teacher's) control to student self-regulation. The teacher's role shifts from being a model
or an instructor to being a manager, who gives prompts and corrective feedback.
At the beginning, the teacher (expert) completely guides the student's activity, modeling how to perform
the task. The student observes the teacher and does little independent thinking during this phase, other
than reading the material and observing the expert's behavior. Once internalized, the student can copy the
expert's thinking/learning strategies and apply them to his/her own academic work.
Next, the student attempts to do the task with the teacher providing supportive cuing, assistance, and
additional modeling, as needed. If the student has trouble using the strategies, then sometimes the
teacher has to model or demonstrate again how to think about and use them. This gives the student
another opportunity to observe the thinking and behavior that is appropriate for the situation. Gradually the
student plays a greater teaching role and assumes more responsibility for self instruction and for teaching
peers.
Scaffolding often involves the following basic components: 1. Present the new cognitive strategies, 2.
Regulate difficulty during guided practice, 3. Provide varying contexts for student practice, 4. Provide
feedback, 5. Increase student responsibility, and 6. Provide independent practice (Rosenshine & Meister
1992). Eventually the student learns to do all the thinking- applying the content, skills, and strategies
without the teacher-expert's assistance. The teacher plays only a supportive role at this point.
Can you give your own examples of scaffolding? Compare with others and critique.
Cognitive Behavior Modification (Meichenbaum 1977) is a method of gradually changing behavior

based on scaffolding instruction through five stages:
1. Cognitive Modeling: the model (teacher) performs the task while talking out loud to
him/herself.
2. Overt, External Guidance: the student performs the same task under the teacher's direction.
3. Overt, Self Guidance: the student performs the task while instructing him/herself aloud.
4. Faded, Overt Self-Guidance: the student performs the task while whispering instructions to
38
her/himself.
5. Covert Self Instruction: the student performs the task while guiding her/his performance
through silent self talk, private speech, or nonverbal self-direction.
The following example shows cognitive behavior modification for scaffolding the use of self- questions
while reading in order to monitor comprehension and clarify misunderstanding. The procedure starts with
teacher direction and leads to student self-direction.
1. Cognitive Modeling: The teacher reads a section of the text aloud. While reading
aloud the teacher asks and answers comprehension monitoring and clarifying self-questions aloud. For
example, the teacher says, "Does this all make sense to me? Well, some of it does and some doesn't.
Maybe I should reread the parts that are unclear." Then the teacher rereads the unclear parts aloud and
says, "That makes more sense now. I skipped over some key words when I read it the first time."
2. Overt, External Guidance: This time the student reads a different portion of the text aloud. The
teacher says to the student "What question will you ask yourself to check up on your understanding?"
Then the student asks and answers a self-question such as, "Is there anything in here I don't fully
understand?" If the student finds there is something unclear, the teacher says, "What can you do to clarify
your understanding?" The student then uses a clarification strategy, such as looking a context clues.
3. Overt, Self Guidance: The student reads another section of text aloud, asks a comprehension
monitoring question aloud, and seeks clarifying information as needed. At this stage, the teacher listens
actively to make sure the student asks a comprehension monitoring self-question and clarifies, if needed.
If the student forgets to ask a comprehension monitoring question, or has trouble doing it, the teacher
prompts or assists the student.
4. Faded, Overt Self-Guidance: The student repeats the procedure in step three, but this time
whispers while reading aloud and self questioning. The teacher listens to the whispering and tries to tell if
the student asks and answers self questions. If the teacher isn't sure because the whispering made it
hard to hear what the student was saying, the teacher asks the student about it when the student has
finished the section of text.
5. Covert Self Instruction. The student reads a section of text silently and silently asks and
answers self questions to comprehension monitor and clarify as needed. The teacher watches the
student, and when the student is finished, asks what self-question was asked and what, if any, clarification
occurred and how. At this point the student has become self-directed in the use of self-questions to
monitor comprehension and clarify confusion.
Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning involves students working together towards a common goal in a teaching-
learning situation. There are three basic forms of cooperative learning: tutoring (peer or cross-age), in
which one student teaches another; pairs, who work and learn with each other; and small groups of
students teaching and learning together. Not all groupwork is cooperative learning. When using
cooperative learning approaches teachers need to make sure that all students are actively involved in the
process working towards a common goal.
There are good reasons for the old saying, "The best way to learn something is to teach it." Teaching
requires considerable depth of knowledge, understanding, organization and memory of important
concepts and skills. Cooperative learning provides situations for students to teach each other. When
students explain and teach concepts to each other, retention of these concepts improves Explaining also
helps students connect their prior knowledge with new information. Contrary to some current speculation,
39
cooperative learning is more than an educational fad.

It has been successfully used in the Netherlands since the early 1970's. Now word is out internationally
that cooperative learning is a powerful instructional method for developing content knowledge and higher
level thinking skills across the curriculum .
Academic work is usually much more fun and exciting to students when they work together cooperatively.
The social context and active involvement make it more motivating to learn. Research has shown that
cooperative learning increases confidence in students' abilities. It improves self-esteem as well as
feelings of competence in specific subjects. Research has also documented the positive effects of
cooperative learning on improving social relations with students of different ethnicity and cultural
backgrounds (Hartman, 1996).
It is useful to have a repertoire of teaching strategies. Even the most effective instructional technique
does not work in all situations. Teachers need to have multiple techniques available to allow them to be
flexible and shift as the situation requires. In addition, variety is necessary to prevent boredom. There is
an increasing amount of ethnic and linguistic diversity in classrooms in the U.S.A. Cooperative learning
has been demonstrated to be an especially effective method of teaching in settings characterized by such
diversity. Cooperative learning can be done at almost any age and often with teachers' existing
instructional materials. It helps improve achievement from elementary grades through graduate school.
Teachers should carefully observe group so they can serve as effective resources and assess
performance. They should evaluate at least three aspects of group performance: 1). How students
approached their tasks, e.g. What strategies were considered? Which approaches were rejected? Why?
Were there any careless mistakes? Did students check and evaluate their work? 2). the ideas students
generated, and 3). How well did the groups function as cooperative learners? This is called "group
processing" and it is discussed later in this chapter.
What experiences have you had working in cooperative learning groups?
How would you assess your experiences with cooperative learning?
What is your opinion of how students working together and arriving at consensus on how to revise a paper
can help students emotionally? What is your opinion of how can it help them intellectually?
Helps Emotionally
Helps Intellectually
Group Roles for Structuring Student Participation

If you are having trouble getting all students in a teaching group to take an active part, then it may
be useful to assign each group member a specific assignment or role to fulfill. Jigsaw (Aronson etal.
40
1978) is a method of assigning each student responsibility for solving a particular part of the problem,
structuring material and activities so students become experts on their parts, and teaching their parts to
the rest of the group. Problems need to be carefully selected so that students can learn their own parts
relatively independently.
Roles can be focused on specific subject matter e.g. a problem restater in mathematics, or can be more
general and used across subjects e.g., an encourager of participation. The chart of group roles below is
based on Johnson and Johnson's work on cooperative learning. These models are to stimulate your
thinking about different ways to help students take an active role in their own learning. Experiment!
Sample Group Roles, Reasons & Responsibilities
What _______ When/Why How

Facilitator To structure and maintain Orients group to
effective group functioning task, raises issues, calls on people,
keeps group on task, pushes for
decisions, initiates ideas for solution
____________________________________________________________________________
Encourager To make sure everyone Gives own ideas, asks for others'
participates and no one ideas, reacts to others' ideas, asks
dominates the discussion for reactions to others' ideas, stops
anyone from dominating
_____________________________________________________________________________
Checker To make sure everyone Asks: "Does anyone
understands, agrees, and have a question or
completes work in allotted want clarification?"
time "Does everyone agree?"
Reminds group of
time and amount
of work remaining
_____________________________________________________________________________
Praiser To recognize positive Says: "That's a good
contributions from group idea". "You're doing a
members and make them good job as checker".
feel good about their
participation
_____________________________________________________________________________
Recorder/Reporter To preserve group's ideas, Writes down ideas
and present group's work contributed, writes up
to the teacher and/or work to be turned in,
the rest of the class gives oral reports
_____________________________________________________________________________
Observer To improve individual and Takes notes on how
group performance of roles group members perform
roles, gives feedback
based on observations
_____________________________________________________________________________
41
41
Training Students in Cooperative Skills
Johnson and Johnson are well known for their contributions to cooperative learning. They emphasize
face-to-face interaction as students work in heterogeneous groups with individual accountability on tasks
that require positive interdependence. They believe that students need to be taught cooperative skills so
that the groups function effectively. Their guidelines for training students' cooperative skills are:
1. Make sure students see the need for the skill.

2. Make sure they understand what the skill is and when it is used.
3. Provide opportunities to practice and master the skill.
4. Give students feedback on their use of the skills and adequate time for skill development.
5. Make sure students practice the skill until it is internalized.
6. Have students process (evaluate) their use of the skills.
In order for students to develop and use skills effectively, they need to know what the skills are, and when,
why and how to use them. Finish the following chart and compare you ideas with others.
Strategic Knowledge about Cooperative Skills
What When/Why How

Asking for clarificationWhen recognizing something "What does...mean?"
is unclear and it is worthwhile "Does it mean...?"
getting it clarified
____________________________________________________________________
Providing clarification
____________________________________________________________________
Paraphrasing
____________________________________________________________________
Coming to consensus
______________________________________________________________________
Providing encouragement
______________________________________________________________________
Criticizing an idea,
not the person
who presented it
____________________________________________________________________
Johnson and Johnson's work on cooperative learning has important implications for teaching. The
teacher has to make decisions, plan instruction, monitor students' performance, evaluate students'
progress and provide feedback. Johnson, Johnson & Holubec's (1986) "The Teacher's Role in
Cooperation" follows for useful suggestions for managing teaching. They characterize the information
below as some of the" Essential Elements of Cooperative Learning Groups".
42
The Teacher's Role in Cooperation
Planning I: Make Decisions
Specify Academic and Collaborative Objectives. What academic and/or collaborative skills do you want
students to learn or practice in their groups? Start with something easy.
Decide on Group Size. Students often lack collaborative skills, so start with groups of two or three
students; later advance cautiously to fours.
Assign Students to Groups. Heterogeneous groups are the most powerful, so mix abilities, sexes, cultural
backgrounds, and task orientations. Assign students to groups randomly or select groups yourself.
Arrange the Room. The closer the students are to each other, the better they can communicate. Group
members should be "knee to knee and eye to eye."
Plan Materials. Materials can send a "sink or swim together" message to students if you give only one
paper to the group or give each member part of the material to learn and then teach the group.
Assign Roles. Students are more likely to work together if each one has a job which contributes to the
task. You can assign work roles such as Reader, Recorder, Calculator, Checker, Reporter, and Materials
Handler or skill roles such as Encourager of Participation, Praiser, and Checker for Understanding.
Planning II: Set the Lesson
Explain the Academic Task. Prepare students by teaching them any material they need to know, then
make certain they clearly understand what they are to do in the groups. This might include explaining
lesson objectives, defining concepts, explaining procedures, giving examples, and asking questions.
Structure Positive Interdependence. Students must feel that they need each other to complete the group's
task, that they "sink or swim together." Some ways to create this are by establishing mutual goals
(students must learn the material and make certain group members learn the material), joint rewards (if all
group members achieve above a certain percentage on the test, each will receive bonus points), shared
materials and information, and assigned roles.
Structure Individual Accountability. Each student must feel responsible for learning the material and
helping the group. Some ways to ensure this feeling include frequent oral quizzing of group members
picked at random, giving individual tests, having everyone in the group write (pick one paper at random to
grade), or having students do work first to bring to the group.
Structure Intergroup Cooperation. Having groups check with and help other groups and giving rewards or
praise when all class members do well can extend the benefits of cooperation to the whole class.
Explain the Criteria for Success. Student work should be evaluated on a criterion-referenced rather than a
norm-referenced basis. Make clear your criteria for evaluating the groups' work.
Specify Expected Behaviors. The more specific you are about the behaviors you want to see in the
groups, the more likely students will do them. Make it clear that you expect to see everyone contributing,
helping, listening with care to others, encouraging others to participate, and asking for help or clarification.
Younger students may need to be told to stay with their group, take turns, share, ask group members
questions, and use quiet voices.
Teach Collaborative Skills. After students are used to working in groups, pick a collaborative skill they
need
43
43
to learn, point out the need for it, define it carefully, have students give you phrases they can say when
using the skill, post the phrases (praise, bonus points, stars), and observe for and encourage the use of
the skill until students are doing it automatically. Then teach a second skill. Consider praising,
summarizing, encouraging, checking for understanding, asking for help, or generating further answers.
Monitor and Intervene
Arrange Face-to-Face Interaction. The beneficial educational outcomes of cooperative learning groups
are due to the interaction patterns and verbal exchanges that take place among students. Make certain
there is oral summarizing, giving and receiving explanations, and elaborating going on.
Monitor Students' Behavior. This is the fun part! While students are working, you circulate to see whether
they understand the assignment and the material, give immediate feedback and reinforcement, and praise
good use of group skills.
Provide Task Assistance. If students are having trouble with the task, you can clarify, reteach, or
elaborate on what they need to know.
Intervene to Teach Collaborative Skills. If students are having trouble with group interactions, you can
suggest more effective procedures for working together or more effective behaviors for them to engage in.
You can ask students to figure out how to work more effectively together. If students are learning or
practicing a skill, record on an observation sheet how often you hear that skill, then share your
observations with the groups.
Evaluate and Process
Evaluate Student Learning. Assess how well students completed the task and give them feedback on
how well they did.
Process Group Functioning. In order to improve, students need time and procedures for analyzing how
well their group is functioning and how well they are using collaborative skills. Processing can be done by
individuals, small groups, or the whole class. To start, have groups routinely list three things they did well
in working together today and one thing they will do better tomorrow. Then summarize as a whole class.
Group processing is discussed in the next section of this chapter.
Provide Closure. To reinforce student learning you may wish to have groups share answers or paper,
summarize major points in the lesson, or review important facts.
Is there anything you don't understand in the section above? Self- test your understanding by creating
some of your own examples.
Group Processing
The social dynamics of cooperative learning can often be improved through systematic "group
processing". Group processing refers to a group systematically reflecting on and evaluating its social
interactions. Johnson and Johnson consider group processing an essential element of well- functioning
groups.
One example of group processing involves group members discussing their communication patterns,
for example, "Did everyone in the group participate about equally? Did anyone dominate the discussion?
To what extent did people patiently listen to each other without interrupting? To what extent did group
members give and receive useful feedback? To what extent did group members maintain eye contact
44
during discussions? Instead of focusing on just one area, groups can evaluate a few different issues such
as communicating, sticking to assigned roles, budgeting time effectively, and staying on task.
In the approaches above issues are addressed at the group level. Another approach to group processing
starts with thinking about issues on an individual level. This approach involves completing a rating scale,
like the one below, which is an elaboration and adaptation of Johnson and Johnson's "Student Checklist:
Cooperation". Individuals fill it out and share their responses with the group. The group discusses
individual ratings within the context of the overall functioning of the group. Then the group arrives at
consensus about its own overall functioning. Yes- No or open-ended formats may be used instead of the
4 point scale. For example, Yes-No: I talked or I didn't talk or Open-ended: To what extent did I talk?
Group Process Rating Scale
Group Behaviors very little very much

1 2 3 4
1. I talked. 1 2 3 4
2. I shared materials. 1 2 3 4
3. I gave feedback. 1 2 3 4
4. I received feedback 1 2 3 4
5. I interrupted others. 1 2 3 4
6. I was interrupted by others. 1 2 3 4
7. I asked for help when I needed it. 1 2 3 4
8. I encouraged others to participate. 1 2 3 4
9. I helped others learn. 1 2 3 4
10. Others helped me learn. 1 2 3 4
11. I maintained an open mind. 1 2 3 4
12. I tried to understand others' ideas. 1 2 3 4
13. I made sure others understood my ideas. 1 2 3 4
14. I clarified when needed. 1 2 3 4
15. I summarized our ideas/information. 1 2 3 4
16. I maintained eye contact. 1 2 3 4
17. I listened actively and carefully 1 2 3 4
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45
Reciprocal Education
Reciprocal teaching is already established as a powerful technique for improving reading comprehension.
Students and a tutor or teacher alternate roles leading text dialogues structured around modeling the
strategies of predicting, clarifying, questioning and summarizing. This teaching procedure is based on a
set of instructional principles that have practically unlimited application potential. Fantuzzo , King and
Heller (1992) have successfully used a related instructional method, "reciprocal peer tutoring" (RPT),
for elementary students in math computation. RPT is based on cognitive theory and research showing the
academic benefit of explaining material to other students. In this strategy two or more students work
together cooperatively and follow a structured format in which students teach, prompt, monitor, evaluate
and encourage each other. Students alternate between teacher and student roles and engage in peer
teaching, peer choice of rewards, and peer management. Fantuzzo etal. emphasize that it is the
combination of these components (peer teaching, peer choice of rewards, and peer management) that
produces greater academic and motivational gain than using them in isolation.
Reciprocal questioning involves students taking turns asking and answering questions about the
material after a lesson or presentation. Students learn to ask questions through a scaffolding procedure in
which the teacher provides question stem prompts such as "What do you think would happen if...?, What
is a new example of...? and What are the strengths and weaknesses of...? Eventually students can create
their own questions without the teacher's stems (King, 1990).
Reciprocal tutoring is a model in which all tutors first get experiences as tutees as part of their
apprenticeship for becoming a tutor. This model provides tutors with an experiential basis for tutor-
centered learning (Gartner & Riessman, 1993).
There are other variations of this type of approach. The pair-problem solving method of Whimbey and
Lochhead (1982) and I DREAM of A methods in this book involve reciprocal teaching types of activities.
The varieties of reciprocal teaching types of procedures have a core of two common principles: students
work with other students and students take on roles of both teachers and learners. Instructional models
that share these basic elements can be called "reciprocal education". The term "reciprocal" is used to
reflect students taking turns, especially with other students. The term "education" is chosen to represent
participation in both teaching and learning activities. Reciprocal education may be adapted for use in
virtually any subject area (Hartman, 1994).
How could you use reciprocal education to develop students' study skills? What do you see as the
possible advantages and disadvantages of reciprocal education methods?
How might you apply the reciprocal peer tutoring approach or some other form of reciprocal education to
your teaching?
Why Use Cooperative Learning ?*
*Adapted from Cooperative Learning Approaches to Mathematical Problem Solving Hope J.

Hartman (1996) The Art of Problem Solving: A Resource for the Mathematics Teacher. Alfred S.
Posamentier (Ed.). Corwin Press, Inc. Newbury Park, CA
There are good reasons for the old saying, "The best way to learn something is to teach it."
Teaching requires considerable depth of knowledge, understanding, organization and memory of
important concepts and skills. Cooperative learning provides situations in which students are required to
teach each other. When students explain and teach concepts to each other, retention of these concepts
improves. Explaining also helps students connect their prior knowledge with new information. There are
many good reasons for using cooperative learning and at least 16 advantages to using cooperative
learning in high school . Contrary to some current speculation, cooperative learning is more than an
educational fad.
46
46
As a professional educator it is useful to have a repertoire of teaching strategies. Even the most
effective instructional technique does not work in all situations. Teachers need multiple techniques
available to allow them to be flexible and shift as the situation requires. In addition, variety is necessary to
prevent boredom. Many classes have students of widely ranging achievement levels. There is also an
increasing amount of ethnic and linguistic diversity in classrooms in the U.S.A. Cooperative learning has
been demonstrated to be an especially effective method of teaching in classrooms characterized by such
diversity. Cooperative learning can be done at any age, often with teachers' existing curricular materials. It
has been demonstrated to be successful for improving achievement from elementary grades through
college.
Students can learn to solve problems and can improve their understanding of concepts without
lecture or other forms of direct instruction. In math, through studying worked-out examples of
factorization and learning by doing their own problems, students learn to recognize when the procedures
are applicable, and to apply them. Cooperative learning is another alternative to direct instruction and
lecture. In comparison to lecture and direct instruction, cooperative learning requires students to be more
actively involved in the learning process. The social nature of cooperative learning, and the relative
emphasis on student rather than teacher control over instruction, makes it fun and highly motivating for
most students. Because the teacher is more of a manager of instruction than a transmitter of information,
cooperative learning promotes student self regulation as students make, detect and correct their own and
each other's errors.
The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics supports the use of cooperative learning for
teaching mathematics because it enables students to discuss and learn to listen to each others' ideas,
ask questions, make mistakes and offer constructive criticism. Students help each other connect new
information with what they already know and discover their own meaning as they explore ideas that arise
in groups.
Cooperative Learning and Achievement
By comparing problem solving processes and outcomes with other students, they can learn to
differentiate between appropriate and inappropriate strategies to use with different problem types and in
specific cases. They can learn what strategies not to apply. Learning this from other students rather than
from the teacher can help demystify the problem solving process and reduce anxiety. Anxiety and
misconceptions about the learning process can contribute to poor self concepts and can inhibit success in
thinking and problem solving. Too often students feel dependent upon the teacher's expertise for
learning. Problem solving is one component of higher level thinking. To think effectively, students also
need to develop their metacognitive skills of planning, monitoring and evaluating so they can plan, monitor
and evaluate their academic work Cooperative learning is an especially effective method of
spontaneously activating metacognitive aspects of thinking, learning and problem solving.9
Studies comparing cooperative learning with competitive and individualistic learning have
demonstrated that cooperative learning promotes higher achievement than the other two methods. Not
only do students solve problems more successfully and learn and retain concepts, but cooperative
learning also results in more use of higher level thinking, more frequent discovery, generating new ideas
and solution strategies, and more transfer of what is learned about problem solving in groups to
individual problem solving situations. These benefits are a result of students internalizing concepts and
problem solving through their discussions and explanations of problem solving strategies and approaches
with their peers. Giving explanations to other students requires deeper understanding than just putting an
answer on a worksheet.11
There are numerous effective strategies students can learn, such as working backwards and
trying extreme values, to help them become effective mathematical problem solvers. A major benefit of
47
using cooperative learning in mathematics is that it gives students a chance to compare the strategies
they use and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using different strategies, depending upon
the specific problem. When structuring groupwork around instruction in such problem solving techniques,
make sure groups of students ask and answer key questions about their strategy use. These questions
include: What is the strategy? Why is it a good strategy to use in this situation? How will it be applied?
What other strategies could be used? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each? Through
dialogue with other students about the use of problem solving strategies, misconceptions can be clarified
and strategy use improved.
Students can work cooperatively on significant, interesting and complex tasks. Through working
with others they can enhance their ability to communicate about mathematics, to understand it, and to
think critically about it 12. Discussing problems helps students become aware of what they know and
what they do not know and what they understand and do not understand. This awareness leads to control
over the problem solving process as students begin to see the need for specific problem solving strategies
and the limitations of other approaches. When students find their approaches and outcomes for the same
problem differ, this discrepancy can stimulate reorganization and development of their thinking to a new
and higher level.
Scaffolding
Cooperative learning can be used as a strategy for scaffolding instruction from other (teacher)
direction and control to student self regulation. Scaffolding means providing support (models, cues,
prompts, hints, partial solutions) to students to bridge the gap between what students can do on their own
and what students can do with guidance from others. The goal of scaffolding is for students to become
independent, self-regulating problem solvers who are more self-sufficient and less teacher dependent.
Scaffolding is an especially effective teaching approach for developing higher level cognitive strategies,
such as those involved in problem solving. Based on his experiences with small group mathematical
problem solving, Schoenfeld believes it is valuable for giving teachers a chance to give students support
and assist them while they are actively engaged in the problem solving process.
Many educators believe that to learn, students must construct and reconstruct concepts,
relationships and procedures in their own minds and within the contexts of meaningful situations.
Teachers can start with think-aloud modeling and direct instruction, then shift to cooperative learning
formats for extensive and varied practice with feedback. Students can then guide each other to effective
thinking and problem solving. As students generate and evaluate alternative approaches, they learn that
there are different ways of approaching tasks and solving problems, and that some ways are better than
others. Students internalize feedback and gradually learn to detect and correct their own errors, enabling
them to think effectively and solve problems on their own. ( See p. 150, Vygotsky and the Zone of Proximal
Development.)
Personal and Social Aspects of Cooperative Learning
Learning and problem solving are usually much more fun and exciting to students when they work
together cooperatively. The social context and active involvement make it more intrinsically motivating to
learn. Research has shown that cooperative learning increases confidence in students' abilities,
improves self esteem as well as feelings of self efficacy in approaching . Other research has documented
the effects of cooperative learning on improving interpersonal relations with students of different ethnicity
and cultural backgrounds 14.
Students using reciprocal peer tutoring in mathematics not only improved their achievement, but
also improved in their adjustment to school. School adjustment measures included student self
perception measures of: behavioral conduct, scholastic competence, social acceptance and global self
worth, and teacher-reported conduct.15
Specific affective objectives targeted by cooperative learning include: positive attitudes,

48
confidence in one's thinking, willingness to take risks and try various strategies, accepting frustration and
persevering when solving difficult problems, and attributing failure to not using the right strategy yet rather
than to lack of competence. Studies have documented that cooperative learning in mathematics classes
improves students' attitudes towards mathematics as a subject and towards math instruction. Students
feel more confident in their ability to do mathematics and are therefore less anxious about it. Cooperative
learning enables students to get and receive help in a relatively nonthreatening context.17
How Does Cooperative Learning in Mathematical Problem Solving Work?
The following is a simple cooperative learning segment of a lesson from a senior honors
mathematics class. The class was studying related-rate word problems. The problem was:
A boat is pulled in to a dock by means of a rope with one end attached to the bow of the boat, the
other end passing through a ring attached to the dock at a point 4 ft. higher than the bow of the boat. If
the rope is pulled in at the rate of 2 ft./sec., how fast is the boat approaching the dock when 10 ft. of rope
are out?
Students were assigned to heterogeneous groups of 3-4 students to work on the problem. Their
task was to: a) individually generate questions for solving the problem, b) share their questions with the
group, c) as a group decide on the best questions for this problem, d) individually solve the problem using
the group's questions, and e) share and compare individual solutions and explain how they were obtained
from applying the questions selected. Students were taught to use self questioning as a strategy for
thinking through the problem solving process. Initially the students found it strange to be asked to write
questions for a mathematics class. They learned how to use questioning to help them plan, monitor and
evaluate problem solving. Examples of questions were modeled by the teacher thinking aloud how to use
them when solving a problem. Then students generated and used their own questions. Questions
generated for this problem were:
Group 1
Student 1) What should the diagram look like? Where do the values belong?
What do I want to find?
Student 2) Where do I start? How do I find the desired answer? Where do the numbers belong in the
formula? Which number goes to which part?
Student 3) What does the diagram look like? What variables should I use?
Where does the 2ft./sec. go? What derivatives do I have to find?
Student 4) How do I draw a picture to represent what the problem says?
What parts of the diagram get labeled? What is the unknown?
What equation do I use to get the derivative?
This group discussed their questions and made the following list for their group to use when solving the
problem:
1. What should the diagram look like?
2. How should it be labeled?
3. What do we have to find?
4. What equation do we use to find the derivative?
Group 2
Student 1) What does this look like? What formula do I use? How do I approach it? What do I want
to find?
Student 2) Are they on the water? How long is the rope? Is this a controlled area with no waves and no
current? How heavy is the boat?
Student 3) What do I have to find? What speed, velocity, and rate will help me solve the problem?
Why can't I figure this out? How do I differentiate the problem with respect to time?
Student 4) What am I given? What must I find?
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After discussing their questions, this group made the following list:
1. What is given and what must be found?
2. What variables must be considered and how?
3. How do we approach this?
Group 3
Student 1) What do I find? What does the diagram look like? How do I draw this? Is it similar to
something we've done? What is the equation? Is my algebra correct? Am I using the right
formula? Is the diagram correct?
Student 2) What type of diagram will this be? What are the dimensions of the diagram? What is the
rate of the rope being pulled in? What is the problem looking for? What is given? What formula will
be needed?
Student 3) Is the rate 2ft/sec. horizontal or vertical? Where does the equation come from? Is 10 ft. used
here right now or after the derivative? How is the Pythagorean Theorem used if the hypotenuse isn't
there?
This group's discussion led to the following set of questions:

1. What is given?
2. What should the diagram look like?
3. Is the diagram correct?
4. Is this similar to something we've done before?
5. What formula will be needed?
6. Is this the right formula?
7. What do we do with the speed and distance of the rope?
8. Is the algebra right?
While the groups worked on their questions and used them to solve the problem, the teacher
walked around to watch and listen to each group to make sure they were on task and making reasonable
progress. As she checked up on each group she saw that some students still could not solve the
problem. She checked the individual and group lists of questions and realized they were incomplete, so
she decided to have the groups share their questions, evaluate them as a class, and come up with a
composite list. She guided the discussion to make sure the class generated questions for all three phases
of the problem solving process (planning, monitoring and evaluating). The following is the composite list
that emerged:
Planning:
1. Does this problem resemble a problem already done?
2. How should I diagram this problem?
3. What do I have to find?
4 . What equation must I differentiate?
Monitoring
1. Is my algebra correct?
2. Am I using the correct formula?
3. Is my diagram labeled correctly?
Evaluating:
1. Does the answer make sense?
2, Did I find what I was supposed to find?
3. How can I check my answer?
Students then returned to solving the problem with the new set of questions. Individuals within the group
shared their answers with each other, decided on the correct answer, and raised their hands to let the
50
teacher know when they were finished so she could check their solutions. She randomly asked
students to explain their solutions to make sure everyone in the group understood the problem
and solution process. Then she had students who had solved the problem help those who had difficulty.
At the end of the lesson the class looked at how the questions related to each part of the problem solution.
Constructing, comparing, discussing and evaluating problem solving questions, individually, in small
groups and with the entire class enriched students' understanding of what questions and strategies were
best suited for the particular problem. Some of the students said that in the past, they had been so
concerned with getting the right answer that they had never given as much thought to the thinking
process.
When each student has just his/her own knowledge, thoughts and questions, the perspective on
problem solving is much more narrow and shallow. Mathematicians frequently discuss their solution
strategies and outcomes with others . They know that others can sometimes detect limitations, suggest
alternative approaches to and applications of problem solutions. By discussing problem solving with
others, students learn to think more like mathematicians.
The Math Solution (Marilyn Burns, 1987)
The Math Solution is an elementary school in-service program for teaching mathematics as a tool
for solving problems and as a way of thinking. It is based on the assumptions that for learning
mathematics to occur, students need maturity, physical experience, and social interaction. Communication
between students should be encouraged so that all children get experience explaining and clarifying their
thinking and can move from subjective to more objective views. This program recommends teaching
mathematical problem solving in heterogeneous groups of four, seated together. Three rules govern
groupwork:
1. Students are responsible for their own work and behavior. 2. Students must be willing to help any
group member who asks, and 3. Students may ask the teacher for help only when everyone in the group
has the same question. Encouragement, practice and discussion are needed for students to learn to work
together successfully.
Three stages of instruction comprise a Math Solution lesson. Lessons may vary in length, lasting
from a class period to a week or longer. The stages are: introduce, explore and summarize. Whole class
instruction occurs during the introduction stage, and teachers: 1. Review or present concepts that are
needed, 2. Pose a similar or smaller problem or part of the problem for students to try.
3. Present the problem to be solved, 4. Discuss to make sure students understand what to do.
Cooperative learning begins with the exploration stage. As students work on the problem, the teacher: 1.
observes student interaction, listening to each group's strategies, procedures and ideas 2. assists only
when needed (if hands are raised or the group is not working), and 3. provides an extension activity for
groups that finish early. The teacher may pose several problems at once so groups can continue working
at their own pace. The third stage, summarizing has three goals. First, groups share their problem
solving processes, procedures and strategies. Students critically evaluate their approaches and consider
alternatives for future application. Second, groups present solutions, showing their work whenever
possible. During this stage it is recommended to ask, "How did you decide if your findings made sense?
How can you check the solution? "19 Third, generalize from the solutions. During this stage students
abstract what they did in solving a particular problem to think about how they would approach related
problems. Questions to ask include: "Are there patterns or relationships you can see from your solution?
Does the problem remind you of another problem you have solved? How are they alike or different?"20
Finding Out/Descubrimiento (DeAvila & Duncan, 1980)
This mathematics and science curriculum was developed specifically for bilingual, elementary
school students. It is designed to develop thinking skills and improve the academic and linguistic
performance of children in culturally and socially heterogeneous classrooms. Since 1979 research has
demonstrated this curriculum to be successful in promoting student achievement in mathematics and
51
science. The key features of the approach are: differentiated tasks, delegation of authority, student
interaction, and the treatment of status.
Proponents of the method argue that "the development of thinking skills requires increased amounts of
task-related interaction, through which students have the opportunity to develop problem solving
strategies" 22. Students work together, continually communicating about their hands-on work at learning
centers where they learn to use problem solving strategies and explore the world around them. Complex,
multiple ability tasks are carefully selected for cooperative, discovery-oriented learning. Two instructional
features are built into this model to address the inequalities of heterogeneous groups: Multiple Ability
Treatment and Assigning Competence. The former involves a direct statement by the teacher that many
abilities are needed to perform each task. No one is good at absolutely all of them, and everyone is good
at some of them. The teacher emphasizes this point repeatedly and points out specific skills and abilities
needed for various tasks. Teachers assign competence to low-status students to help equalize their
interaction because low status students are often perceived as unable or unwilling to help others and are
generally less influential. Observing and recognizing low status students being competent is the essence
of this technique. The teacher looks for low status students making valuable contributions to the group
and then publically identifies the particular skill reflected by the contribution. For example, a low achieving
student may be excellent at cutting out the shapes needed for a group task, which reflects good visual,
spatial and motor skills. This person gains status as the group's official cutter. As a result of public
recognition, low status students often raise their expectations for their own performance.
Real Maths/Maths for All (The Netherlands - National Curriculum Development Foundation)
This curriculum for students ages 12-16 is based on the theory of Van Hiele, an internationally
known Dutch mathematics teacher and researcher. Van Hiele's level theory identifies three levels:
Zero or perceptive level: students look at the whole problem without analyzing the parts.
First or descriptive level: students describe the parts and their characteristics, have an intuitive
understanding, but there is no reflection on fundamental ideas,
Second or theoretical level: students' intuitive concepts are formulated more explicitly and
students reflect on concepts and on the relationships between problem parts and the whole.
Van Hiele recommends a five stage teaching-learning process:

1. Information: students get materials (e.g. objects, graphs, papers...) to use in exercises.
2. Structured Orientation: Students are assigned specific tasks. Each task is designed to teach
students one characteristic of the material they are using.
3. Expliciting: Students describe the characteristic verbally.
4. Free Orientation: Students are given general tasks that require them to find their own way in a
network of relations.
5. Integration: Students reflect on different solutions, explore relationships between them and
formulate laws of a new and higher level structure.
The Dutch were pioneers in using cooperative learning in mathematics. Real-life settings are
essential features of all mathematics problems in this approach. The lesson design model for this
curriculum consists of three stages:
1. Introduction. Working with the whole class, the teacher introduces the problem, explores aspects of it,
and may give hints about the solution and place it in an everyday life context.
2. Group Work . Students work in groups as the teacher observes and manages their cooperative
problem solving. When necessary, the teacher deals with individual problems.
3. Reflection and Evaluation. Students discuss several topics related their group process and results.
The discussion involves: identifying of all the different solutions and strategies groups used to solve the
problem ; teacher questioning to explore other possible solution strategies; reformulating and
summarizing solutions; and generalizing about solutions.
Sample lessons involve using newspaper ads, deciding which video shop to become a member
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of, and selling badges as a small business enterprise. The Real Maths curriculum has accompanying
teachers manuals as resources for using real life situations for mathematical problems and for teaching
with heterogeneous, small groups. It also has student materials and videotapes.
Team Accelerated Instruction 24
Team Accelerated Instruction, (TAI), formerly called Team Assisted Individualization, involves
specially developed curricular materials for cooperative learning in mathematics. The major components
are: Teams, Placement Test, Curriculum Materials, Team Study, Team Scores and Recognition,
Teaching Groups, Fact Tests, and Whole-Class Units. TAI has been used at elementary, middle and
high school levels. This approach combines individualized instruction with cooperative learning, and
individual accountability with group rewards. Slavin suggests that mathematics, in particular, requires
individualization because students often show a wide range of individual differences in ability or
achievement because learning in mathematics is so dependent on prerequisite knowledge and skills. TAI
was developed to address the high level of student heterogeneity in mathematics classes. A middle school
teacher made the following comments about using TAI, " The teacher has flexibility to vary from group to
group or individual to individual. TAI lets students process a lot of the paperwork that ties a teacher down.
Students check each other's work as they progress through the units. This is important because it
provides immediate feedback students need and it identifies problems that often can be handled in the
group or answered by the teacher if further help is needed." 25 A fifth grade teacher reported that
individual accountability and group rewards are especially effective for students who dislike mathematics.
TAI enables students to work at their own level and achieve success, thereby eliminating frustration and
boredom. Student success is translated into team points, which motivates students to do well. The
students gets self satisfaction; the group gets a reward and positive reinforcement from the teacher. A
high school special education teacher who used TAI noted that working toward a team score led students
to encourage each other to complete class assignments and resulted in a faster rate of mastery than did
individualized mathematics instruction. Mastery of 80% is required to move to the next level, so the
quality of work remains high.
Teaching and Pair Methods
Reciprocal Peer Tutoring
Reciprocal peer tutoring (RPT) is for elementary students learning mathematical computation. In
this approach two or more students work together cooperatively and follow a structured format in which
they teach, prompt, monitor and evaluate each other. Students alternate between teacher and student
roles and engage in peer teaching, peer choice of rewards, and peer management. Variations of RPT
have been used successfully in urban, low income public schools with minority and white elementary
students. Students are trained to use the procedures in two or three sessions of 45 minutes each.
Modeling the procedures and using instructional prompts enables students to use these procedures
without assistance. Training includes discussing with students the value of working with peers, teamwork,
partnership and cooperation. A unique aspect of this approach is the emphasis on student involvement in
the reward structure. The use of group rewards has been found to improve conduct in the classroom. It is
the combination of these components (peer teaching, peer choice of rewards, and peer management) that
produces greater academic and motivational gain than using them in isolation.
What is the Teacher's Role in Cooperative Mathematics Problem Solving Lessons?
One of the key features about cooperative learning is that the teacher delegates considerable
responsibility to the students. Both teachers and students must adopt roles that are quite different from
whole class instruction. "The essence of good problem solving is self-correction "... "teachers should
become facilitators of learning, not sole dispensers of truth."... "Teachers must relinquish the safe seat of
authority and step into the classroom"...35.
53
An important task in making cooperative learning successful is attitude change. The teacher's
own 53
attitude has to shift from teacher as transmitter of knowledge and center of attention and authority to
teacher as manager and facilitator of learning. Attitudes towards noise in the classroom sometimes must
be changed. Many people equate a "noisy classroom" with disruption, chaos and learning not taking
place. In cooperative learning, noise in the classroom can reflect high level thinking and learning about
mathematics!
Both teachers' and students' attitudes about learning and how it occurs must change for
cooperative learning to be successfu. Teachers attitudes that require change were just described. Several
student attitudes must change. Student attitude change is needed so students show interest in finding
solutions, confidence to take risks and try various strategies, willingness to be wrong, accepting
frustrations from not knowing, persevering when solutions are not immediate, and understanding the
difference between not having found an answer yet and not knowing it. Students must shift from
depending on teachers for the answers to becoming independent thinkers and learners. Students need to
become responsible for their own and for each other' learning. Teachers as role models must emphasize
to students the importance of being good thinkers, learners and problem solvers. Students must become
active learners and seekers who are willing to take risks and make errors. Mistakes should be treated as
learning opportunities and student must understand that important aspects of problem solving lie beyond
the correct answer. Teachers and students alike must learn to value the learning process - not just its
products, such as grades and test scores.
A "Pretty Good List" of nine steps for teachers to follow in implementing cooperative learning is:
1. Ensure a successful experience the first time; 2. Decide what to watch for, 3. Decide on a grouping
strategy, 4. Prepare the materials, 5. Prepare yourself, 6. Explain the rules and expected behaviors, 7. Do
it!, 8. Debrief the class and 9. Debrief yourself. 37
Planning for Cooperative Learning
Training Students for Cooperation
Although many everyday life activities require cooperation, seldom are students taught how to
work together cooperatively. For cooperative learning to work effectively, some educators recommend
giving specific training in skills needed for cooperative learning. These skills include: careful observations,
reasoning, asking key questions, being supportive and helpful to others, explaining clearly, thinking
visually, reasoning spatially, recording data, exploring new solution strategies, understanding the problem,
being persistent and using ideas of other students.38
Teacher modeling of social skills and role playing are effective strategies for training students for
cooperative learning. Johnson and Johnson's six guidelines for training students for cooperation were
described on p. 41. They identify four categories of skills to be developed for cooperative learning: forming
skills, functioning skills, formulating skills and fermenting skills.
Forming Skills :
* moving without noise
* staying within the group
* using quiet voices
* encouraging participation by all
Functioning Skills:
*using names
* looking at the speaker
* being respectful of others
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* directing the group's work
* expressing support
* asking for help or clarification
* offering to explain or clarify
* paraphrasing other people's work
* energizing the group
* describing feelings when appropriate
Formulating Skills :
* summarizing out loud
* seeking accuracy by correcting and/or adding to summaries
* seeking elaboration
* seeking clever ways of remembering information
* demanding vocalization
*asking other members to plan out loud
Fermenting Skills:
*criticizing ideas not people
* integrating ideas
* asking for justification
* extending other students' answers
* asking in-depth questions
* generating further answers
*checking the group's work
Group processing is recommended as the final stage of a cooperative learning group activity.
Group processing refers to students reflecting on, analyzing and evaluating how the group functioned.
This can be done in at least two different ways. The group as a whole can evaluate its overall
performance by systematically discussing issues such as: Did everyone participate? Did anyone
dominate? To what extent did group members stick to their assigned roles? To what extent did students
listen to each other carefully without interrupting each other? To what extent were students courteous and
respectful of each other? How well did the group use its time? To what extent did group members
maintain eye contact while communicating? What were the group's greatest strengths? How could the
group work better together next time? Another way group processing can be conducted is to have a
group discussion about the issues just described after students have individually assessed their own
performance in the group. Once each group has evaluated its performance, the teacher can ask groups
to share their results, list each group's strengths and weaknesses on the blackboard, and as a class
discuss whether and what additional training in cooperative learning may be appropriate.
Structuring Groups
Most proponents of cooperative learning in mathematics recommend student pairs or

heterogeneous groups of 3-5 students but there is not total consensus on group size or structure. Some
teachers begin with students working in pairs and gradually shift to 3, then 4, and finally 5 students
working together. Many people recommend groups of four. Some of the advantages of groups of four
are: they are large enough for generating ideas and discussing solutions of challenging problems; they
are small enough for all students to participate; they can be conducted without a leader; and they can be
split up into pairs for occasional practice. 40 Groups may stay together for a single class period, a week,
school term or the entire school year. Many proponents of cooperative learning recommend changing
groups often enough that eventually all students in the class have the opportunity to work together. Some
teachers allow students to choose their own groups; many assign students to groups to ensure
heterogeneity. Assignment can be done on the basis of students' achievement records, randomly, or
their regular seats in the class. Research supports the value of gender, racial and ethnic diversity in
cooperative learning groups.
55
Deciding how to arrange groups in the classroom is another decision teachers have to make.
Groups can be structured into small circles, squares/rectangles or triangles to facilitate communication
that will not disturb other groups. Moveable desks or, tables and chairs are important but not necessary.
Pairs can easily be used even in large lecture halls with no moveable furniture or room to sit on the floor.
There are numerous ways to use cooperative learning for teaching mathematical problem solving.
Some methods are relatively informal in structure but involve students working together cooperatively to
achieve a problem solving goal. Other methods are highly structured in terms of student roles,
instructional techniques, materials and assessment strategies. Well-structured cooperative learning
groups can increase the chances that all students will examine alternative solution strategies, observe
peers engaged in problem solving, and will formulate, analyze, and interpret problems and solutions.
Positive interdependence and face to face interaction are guiding features behind some approaches to
cooperative learning in mathematics. These are facilitated through assigning distinct roles to perform
within groups. 42
Assigning Student Roles (See p. 40 for examples)
Teachers sometimes have each group member fulfill a distinct role to ensure all students
participate in the process and to achieve a variety of goals. However, specific roles are not necessary.
For example, the "Small-Group Discovery Method" of using cooperative learning in mathematics does not
involve student roles.43 Some teachers prefer to assign students to their roles, other teachers prefer for
students to choose their own roles in the groups. Students should understand that their participation in the
group is not limited to the roles they perform. Their roles are just one aspect of their participation in the
group's problem solving activities. Students need to see and be part of the "big picture" of problem
solving. Many teachers have students change roles after one class period or after one group project.
Regardless of which method is used, teachers should make sure that eventually all students get a chance
to function in each of the group roles. There are several models of roles that can be use for problem
solving groups.
Model 1
* Problem Restater: paraphrases the problem and says what information is given and what must be found,
* Elaborator: asks group members whether the problem is similar to others they have solved before,
* Strategy Suggester/Seeker: makes suggestions about possible strategies that could be used to solve the
problem, and/or asks groupmates for alternative strategies,
* Approximator: gets the group to estimate what the answer will be before they begin actually solving the
problem,
*Reviewer/Mistake Manager: has the group figure out how they can learn from whatever mistakes may
have been made and when the group is successful, has the group determine how their solution could be
even better next time
*Confidence Builder: encourages the group to keep going because they will succeed if they persist and
work together effectively. 44
Model 2
* Initiator: gets the group started and keeps them on task,
*Idea Person: gives mathematical ideas to the group, e.g. how to solve the problem
*Challenger or Rebel: does not passively accept the approaches selected and the answers, but
questions whether they are correct,
* Synthesizer: resolves differences by reconciling opposing views, the peacemaker ,
*Ego Builder : builds pride in the group by praising its members.
Model 3
* Jigsaw is a method of assigning each student responsibility for solving a particular part of the problem,
structuring material and activities so students become experts on their parts, and teaching their parts to
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the rest of the group. Problems need to be carefully selected so that students can solve their parts
relatively independently.
Model 4
* Facilitator : leads the group in the problem solving process ,
* Comprehension Monitor/ Clarifier: checks up on group members' understanding of the problem and how
they are solving it; clarifies and/or asks for clarification as needed,
*Checker for Accuracy and Direction: checks for mistakes, makes sure the approach they are using is
leading in the right direction,
* Encourager: praises group members and invites their contributions,
*Summarizer:, reviews progress the group has made and what still needs to be done,
* Recorder/Reporter: writes down the group's strategies, calculations, and answers, and presents this
information to the class.
Model 5
* Accountant : makes sure all group members perform mathematical operations, *Architect: ensures all
group members contribute to the overall group product, and *Elaborator: relates current work to prior
mathematical problems. 47
There at least two different types of group roles that can be assigned: management and
instructional roles. Examples of management roles include facilitator and recorder; examples of
instructional roles include chief investigator and advisor. Some controversy exists about the value and
effectiveness of different types of roles. Management roles have been found to be especially important for
younger children because they help prevent confusion, wasted time and conflicts, while instructional
roles sometimes create problems for both older and younger children.48
Selecting or Preparing Materials
Although some teachers find they can adapt their existing mathematics curriculum for cooperative
learning, others find that more appropriate materials are needed. There are several resources specially
developed for implementing cooperative learning in mathematics. One especially good resource is Get It
Together: Mathematics Problems for Groups Grades 4-12 49, developed by Project Equals at Lawrence
Hall of Science, University of California - Berkeley. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
handbook on cooperative learning in mathematics is a clear and concise guide with carefully constructed,
rich problems, clear instructional objectives, problem sheets, activities and teaching notes.50 Others
include the Real Maths 51 curricular materials in the Netherlands, the Finding Out/ Descubrimeinto
curriculum from the University of California - Stanford and Focus on Developmental Mathematics.53 The
final chapter of the outstanding book by Davidson, Cooperative Learning in Mathematics, 54 identifies
additional resource materials. In general, problems should be rich, meaningful to students, and often
have more than one solution. Designing Groupwork contains excellent descriptions of several cooperative
learning methods and especially useful materials and procedures for training students for cooperation.
Monitoring and Evaluating Groupwork
As a manager of learning, teachers using cooperative learning must monitor groups as they are
problem solving and evaluate their performance. Monitoring involves checking up on students'
performance of the assigned task. While cooperative learning is in progress, the teacher circulates from
group to group observing and listening to students, and interpreting the results. It is best for the teacher to
think about what will be looked for in the groups before the lesson begins. Johnson and Johnson
describe monitoring as "the fun part" of cooperative learning for the teacher. Students can become
enthusiastic problem solvers, and this is exiting to observe in progress. Behaviors to check up on include:
seeing if students are on task, if they understand the assignment, if they are really working together
cooperatively, if they are functioning in any roles that may have been assigned, and if there are any
57
problems that should be dealt with. Intervention in groupwork by the teacher should be avoided unless
absolutely necessary. If intervention is called for, it should come in the form of questions that guide
students to resolve their own problems or that steer them in the right direction. Teachers should resist the
temptation to tell students answers or how to solve problems. During this
phase the teacher can provide feedback and praise students for good performance. While observing
groups the teacher may discover that students need additional information to help them solve a problem
or additional training in working together cooperatively. Therefore, part of the monitoring process is to
evaluate groupwork and to plan for followup instruction.
Teachers need to evaluate at least three aspects of group performance: 1). how students solved
their problems, e.g. What strategies were considered? Which approaches were rejected? Why? Were
there any careless mistakes? Did students verify their solutions? 2). the solutions students generated,
and 3). groups processes, i.e. how the groups functioned as cooperative learners. Some teachers offer
rewards to groups for good performance. Competitions between groups are sometimes used as an
incentive. Praising groups for good performance is usually an effective motivational tool.
An important decision teachers need to make is how they will evaluate individual student
achievement of the specific mathematical problem solving objectives that were targeted by the lesson.
Both individual and group accountability are important to emphasize. To ensure individual accountability,
teachers can give tests (in-class or take-home) , quizzes, or randomly ask group members to explain
problem solutions. Additional measures include: classwork (attendance, participation, cooperation), group
projects, homework, self evaluation and peer evaluation. When evaluating the group product, the teacher
can give each student a grade for her/his individual contribution. Students should know the specific
evaluation criteria that will be used to assess their performance.
What are Potential Pitfalls of Cooperative Learning?
Like other teaching methods, cooperative learning can be ineffective if it is not handled right. Not
all groupwork is cooperative learning. Students can sit side by side in a group and do their work
completely independently without cooperating. Potential problems implementing cooperative learning in
high school mathematics classes may be student-oriented or teacher-oriented Student-oriented
problems include: a group of students may become bored with each other, there may be inadequate
leadership within a group, students may feel abandoned by the teacher, difficult problems may cause
feelings of defeat while easy problems may be boring, and students may need a change of pace or more
praise. Teacher-oriented problems include: teachers may feel uncomfortable not being the center of the
classroom, they may not have explained the task adequately, and they may get mixed feedback about
what students have learned 58.
Although many students prefer working cooperatively to working independently, some students
would rather work alone. Such students can inhibit effective group interaction. The teacher's role as
observer and supervisor is important in this type of situation. Depending upon the particular class and
curriculum, teachers may decide to use cooperative learning as an option for students rather than as a
requirement.
Another problem is that one or two students can do all the work solving problems while the
others do not. To prevent this, individual accountability is essential. Groups must be structured to
foster cooperation between students. Assigning roles, sharing materials, requiring a group product and
using group incentives can be used to structure effective cooperation.
Time can be a problem when implementing cooperative learning and sometimes lessons end
without summarizing what was learned and assessing the group process. One way of handling this
problem is to assign roles of summarizer and leader of group processing. Otherwise the teacher can lead
the summarizing and group processing at the end of each lesson (or set of lessons).
Cooperative learning can lead to incoherent presentation and interruptions while working so that
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students need more time reviewing and practicing. If initial training of students to work cooperatively is
not adequate for some students or groups, followup training may be needed. Sometimes problems arise if
teachers set only academic goals rather than specifying both academic and social goals in advance.59
Summary and Conclusion
Cooperative learning has many advantages for teaching. It improves achievement and higher
level thinking Working in pairs or small groups is highly motivating for most students and improves
students' attitudes about themselves as learners and problem solvers. Improved interpersonal relations
between students of different ethnic/cultural backgrounds is another benefit of cooperative learning.
There are many different approaches to using cooperative learning just for teaching mathematical
problem solving. Some methods involve small groups of 3-5 students learning together; others involve
pair of students working together. Small group methods include: The Math Solution, Finding
Out/Discubrimiento, Real Maths, and Team Accelerated Instruction. Teaching/Pair Learning methods
include: Reciprocal Peer Tutoring, the 6PQ Method of Discovery Learning, Pair Problem Solving, and I
DREAM of A. The Reciprocal Teaching method of using cooperative learning to improve reading
comprehension was described in Chapter 2.
The teacher's role in cooperative learning is different from whole class instruction. In cooperative
learning, the teacher is more of a manager and facilitator of learning, or a coach, than a transmitter of
knowledge. Major teacher responsibilities include: training students for cooperation, structuring groups,
deciding whether/how to assign roles, selecting and/preparing instructional materials (planning) and
monitoring and evaluating student performance. Teachers can develop personal action plans to design
cooperative learning lessons that meet the needs of their specific students and curriculum. Resources are
available for cooperative learning lessons in many subjects.
Cooperative learning is not just a fad. It has over a twenty year history of success as a technique
for developing students content knowledge, thinking and problem solving skills. There are some potential
pitfalls to using cooperative learning for teaching problem solving. Some problems are student-oriented,
others are teacher -oriented. The benefits of using cooperative learning as a technique for teaching
have been well documented. The advantages far outweigh the disadvantages. There is not a "right" way
of using cooperative learning; there are numerous options. Cooperative learning can make teaching and
learning more lively and fun for both teachers and students.
Group Investigation
Sharan and Sharan's Group Investigation method has six stages and involves conducting
research through cooperative learning in small groups and cooperatively making a presentation about that
research to the class. One advantage of this method is that it gives students choices about what they will
investigate and how. It can be implemented in as short as one-to-two weeks or as long as several
months, depending upon the particular research, students and teacher. Research on the effectiveness of
Group Investigation has been conducted with elementary and secondary school students in the Middle
East and Western countries. The results generally show Group Investigation to result in higher academic
achievement and better performance on questions evaluating high-level when compared to whole -class
instruction. Group Investigation helps develop positive social interactions between ethnically diverse
students and promotes helping and cooperation whereas whole class instruction tends to foster
competition between students. Research on teacher reactions to Group Investigation indicates that after
using this method teachers had better attitudes about their schools work (less need to control students)
and their schools (more positive environment). Comparing the nature of teaching under Group
Investigation and whole class instruction, research shows this method of cooperative learning promotes
students' communication, support, feedback, and intimacy whereas whole class instruction tends to be
characterized by long lectures, questions requiring short answers, and giving students orders The six
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stages, guidelines and a worksheet for Group Investigation follow. (Sharan and Sharan, 1989/1990).
GROUP INVESTIGATION: OVERVIEW (based on R. Slavin (1990). Cooperative Learning)

STAGE 1: IDENTIFYING THE TOPIC & ORGANIZING STUDENTS
a. Students scan resources, propose topics & categorize

suggestions.
b. Students join the group studying the topic of their
choice.
c. Group composition is based on interest & is heterogeneous
d. Teachers aids information gathering & organization.
STAGE 2: PLANNING THE LEARNING TASK
Students plan together:

a. What do we study?
b. How do we study?
c. Who does what? (division of labor)
d. Why do we want to investigate this topic? (What are our purposes/goals?)
STAGE 3: CONDUCTING THE INVESTIGATION
a. Students gather information, analyze data, & reach conclusions.

b. Each group member contributes to the group effort.
c. Students exchange, discuss, clarify, & synthesize ideas.
STAGE 4: FINAL REPORT PREPARATION
a. Group members determine the essential message of their project.

b. Group members plan what they will report and how they will make their class presentation.
c. Group representatives form a steering committee to coordinate plans for the class presentation.
STAGE 5: FINAL REPORT PRESENTATION
a. The class presentation is made in a variety of forms.

b. Part of the presentation should actively involve the audience.
c. The audience evaluates the presentation's clarity and appeal based on pre-established criteria.
STAGE 6: EVALUATION
a. Students share feedback about the topic, the work they did, and about their affective
experience.
b. Teachers and pupils collaborate in evaluating student learning.
c. Evaluate higher-level thinking.
An Example of Group Investigation Guidelines

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Your Individual Investigation
This work is to be done on your own time, outside of class. Each student should prepare a 2-3
page report on her/his topic. Make sure your individual report is consistent with the group goals and
essential message.
Your Group Report
On November 19 your group will discuss and clarify the essential message of your project and
begin preparation for the class presentation (see section below).
Your Group Report Presentation
On November 19 your group will have 20-30 minutes to discuss, clarify, synthesize ideas and plan
its presentation. The plan should include what each group member will do and how your group will
present what it learned, including how it will actively involve the audience (the rest of the class) in the
presentation. On November 28 your group will meet briefly (about 20 minutes) to update and continue the
prior discussion and synthesis. A representative of your group will meet with a representative of the other
groups in a steering committee to coordinate the class presentation. The class presentation should
involve a variety of formats (e.g. poster, boardwork, discussion, lecture, modeling etc.). The class will
have approximately
an hour and fifteen minutes (75 minutes) for all group presentations. The steering committee will allocate
time for each group.
On December 3 your group will make a class presentation.

The rest of the class will evaluate your group's presentation according to the criteria outlined below.
CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING FINAL REPORT PRESENTATION
The audience will evaluate your group's presentation in terms of the following criteria:
Group Project Evaluation
Excellent Good Fair Poor

1. clarity
2. brevity
3. usefulness
4. presentation form /variety

Comments:
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GROUP INVESTIGATION WORKSHEET
STAGE 2: GROUP PLANNING OF THE INVESTIGATION
OUR RESEARCH TOPIC:
NAMES OF GROUP MEMBERS:
WHAT WE WANT TO INVESTIGATE:
OUR RESOURCES:
HOW WE WILL DIVIDE THE WORK:

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JIGSAW
In this original version of the Jigsaw method, developed by Aronson, each student becomes an
"expert" on a topic and teaches it to the rest of her/his group. All group members are responsible for being
good teachers and good listeners. The group members must depend on their teammates to learn about
material which they will later be quizzed on. In Slavin's adaptation, Jigsaw II, all group members read all
the material.
Example: From faculty development on cooperative learning

For today's class, just read the section to which you are assigned. For homework, read the rest of the
material assigned, as well as the rest of chapters 2 and 5. These page numbers refer to Slavin’s book -
not our text.
Directions
1. Set up heterogeneous groups, with four people per group.
2. Each group member will assume responsibility for learning and teaching one of the following in
the Slavin book:
a. Chapter 1 p. 12 & Chapter 2: Cooperative Learning and Student Achievement pp. 13-17
(through "Pitfalls...")
b. Chapter 3: Cooperative Learning and Outcomes Other than achievement pp. 34-46
c. Chapter 3: Cooperative Learning and Outcomes Other than Achievement pp. 47-53
d. Chapter 5: TAI and CIRC pp. 79-92
3. Read the section you are responsible for teaching to the rest of your group. Focus on topics
identified on your "Jigsaw (Expert) Worksheet".
4. Meet in "Expert Groups" with people from different groups who have the same
assignment to discuss the material and how to teach it for 20-30 minutes. Appoint a discussion
leader to call on people and make sure everyone participates.
5. Return to your group and teach your teammates. Make sure they take notes. Each group
member has 5-10 minutes to teach what they have learned from their reading and their discussions in the
expert groups.
6. When all group members have finished teaching, take turns quizzing your teammates on the
material until you are satisfied that they all have mastered the material and are ready to take a quiz.
(Optional).
7. Quiz (with equal number of items from each unit).
8. Scoring: The group score is the average of each of the team members. Each person also
has an individual score. If you have prior quiz grades for students, you can use them as "base" scores,
and grade students for improvement over their past quiz performance.
9. Reward high scoring groups.

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Jigsaw Quiz
1. Which of the following is not true of cooperative learning methods?

a. Groups have cooperative goal structures.
b. Task specialization methods can help prevent the "free rider" effect.
c. Individual accountability is not recommended.
d. Scoring methods can help ensure that all students have an equal opportunity to contribute to
their teams.
2. How do cognitive theories contribute to our understanding of cooperative learning?

a. They show the importance of peer norms which promote academic success.
b. Some developmental theories show the value of social interaction in learning
c. They show that adult guidance is the only way students can learn.
d. Developmental theories concentrate on individual restructuring of the material to be learned.
3. What does research show about the effects of cooperative learning on intergroup relations?
a. Cooperative learning does not affect students' friendships.
b. Traditional instruction is better than cooperative learning from improving intergroup relations.
c. Cooperative learning groups are best when students are from the same ethnic group.
d. Cooperative learning promotes cross-racial friendships.
4. What does research show about the effects of cooperative learning on students' self perceptions?
a. Cooperative learning has a positive effect on students' self esteem.
b. Cooperative learning has no effect on students' self esteem.
c. Cooperative learning increases students' external locus of control.
d. Cooperative learning has no effect on peer proacademic norms.
5. Which of the following has not been found in cooperative learning research?
a. Many studies show it increases time-on-task.
b. Cooperative learning has noncognitive benefits.
c. Cooperative learning can increase positive affect among students.
d. Research consistently shows that students prefer cooperative learning to other methods of
instruction.
6. What does research suggest about the relationship between cooperative learning and altruism?
a. It clearly has no effect on altruism.
b. Competitive goal structures enhance the development of altruism.
c. Cooperative goal structures enhance altruistic behavior.
d. Cooperative goal structures inhibit altruistic behavior.
7. Which of the following is true about TAI and CIRC?

a. They are content-based approaches to cooperative learning.
b. They emphasize competition more than cooperative learning.
c. They do not focus on particular curriculum areas.
d. They are task specialization methods of cooperative learning.
8. The TAI method was primarily developed for which purpose?

a. to integrate reading and writing instruction.
b. to adapt instruction to students' individual differences.
c. to avoid the need for specific instructional materials.
d. to improve intergroup relations.
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Jigsaw Worksheet
Assignment A
1. What are the characteristics of cooperative learning methods?
2. Why does cooperative learning facilitate student achievement?
3. What are some pitfalls of cooperative learning?
Jigsaw Worksheet
Assignment B
1. How does cooperative learning affect intergroup relations?
2. What does research show about cooperative learning and mainstreaming?
3. How does cooperative learning affect students' self perceptions?
Jigsaw Worksheet
Assignment C
1. How does cooperative learning affect time-on-task?
2. How does cooperative learning affect how students' school-related attitudes?
3. What does research suggest about the relationship between cooperative learning and being
cooperative?
Jigsaw Worksheet
Assignment D
1. What is the TAI method of cooperative learning?
2. What is the CIRC method of cooperative learning?
3. How do TAI and CIRC differ from generic forms of cooperative learning?
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name______________________________ 65
Part 1: Graphic Organizer
Using your own words, briefly summarize what the most important ideas you want to remember from
this chapter why they're important and how you might you use them.
WHAT is the idea? WHY is it useful? HOW might I use it?
Part 2 Do a reader-based summary of 100 words or less on the section of this chapter on scaffolding
p. 37 and ending on p, 38 at the end of the information on Cognitive Behavior Modification.
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Chapter 4 Higher Level Thinking Strategies

This chapter has some of the most important and useful information because it focuses on
areas of great need for many students. The five main topics in this chapter, time management, test
taking, critical thinking, self-directed learning and transfer are areas that can "make or break" academic
success. Although they are extremely important, they are generally not explicitly taught. They are the
kinds of skills and strategies successful people tend to figure out for themselves and that some people
never learn.
Time Management
Do you consider yourself a good time manager? Why or why not?
How do you budget your time?
One of students' most common complaints is that they do not have enough time for all the reading,
studying, and other academic work they are assigned Even excellent students tend to have trouble
managing their time.
Tips on how to schedule and manage time are the most commonly requested handouts at learning
centers (Maxwell, 1993). Too often students cram at the last minute on material they should have been
learning over an extended period of time. Many students take heavy course loads and/or have
competing responsibilities, such as job and family obligations, to balance with their academic work .
Sometimes priorities get confused because short-term needs conflict with long-term goals.
Four major factors are involved in the time management of college students:
1. Setting goals and priorities. Ending conflict between short term and long term
goals.
2. Mechanics, including planning and scheduling.
3. Perceived control of time
4. A general preference for organizing one's workspace and approach to projects.
Of these four factors, perceived control is the best predictor of grade point average. Controlling how
time is spent is also related to measures of stress and self-evaluations of performance. Students who
perceive themselves as having control over time also reported greater satisfaction with their job and life
roles (Macan et.al. 1990).
Time Management Tips
Determine whether your students are adequately managing their time and help them develop and
implement good time management strategies. Find out if students spend time in a way that is
consistent with their priorities. Ask students to:
1. Set short-term goals and establish priorities Sometimes students need a teacher's help clarifying
their short and long term goals. An example of a short term goal is to read a history chapter a particular
week. An example of a long term goal is to graduate from college. Do students have conflicting
priorities? If so, how do they handle them?
An example of a low priority activity is waiting in line to see a new movie. An example of a high priority
activity is preparing for an important test.
2. Keep a 24 hour time log of their daily activities for at least a week. Logs should be kept from waking up
to going to bed so students can figure out exactly how they are using their time. This provides a baseline
for future time management plans. It will also help determine whether there is down time that could be
used more effectively, such as waiting in line at the grocery store, riding the bus or subway or doing
67
laundry. The log can help students evaluate how their time is spent with regard to their short and long term
goals and priorities.
3. Use the Log to Compare how they spend their time with their stated goals and priorities. How much
time is spent on low priority versus high priority goals? Is too much time being spent on low priority goals?
Is enough being spent on high priority goals?
4. Develop a time management plan (schedule) that is more consistent with their own goals and priorities.
Help students identify the strengths and weaknesses of the existing schedule. Try to identify poor
organizational habits, for example walking back and forth across campus unnecessarily, when better
planning could lead to fewer trips and more available time. Determine whether interruptions or
procrastination is a factor in how time is being managed, and if so, what strategies can be used to
overcome these problems?
Pay particular attention to time allocated for high priority tasks, like keeping up with schoolwork so
students can achieve their long-term career goals.
The following guidelines can aid scheduling:
THINGS TAKE TIME, usually more than we think. It's often recommended to estimate how long a
task should take, then multiply it by 3 to get a realistic estimate.
FIT THE INDIVIDUAL. Most people are more alert and work more efficiently during one part of the
day or night than another. Schedule activities accordingly.
BE SPECIFIC about what activities will be done and how much time is allotted
for each.
FOCUS ON ECONOMIZING time. Organize the schedule to create the most
available time possible.
SCHEDULES ARE FLEXIBLE, not etched in stone. Modify them as needed.
Expect the unexpected. Unscheduled time is often needed for emergencies and unanticipated demands.
SCHEDULE FUN & RELAXATION. A happy healthy person is generally a more efficient worker.
5. Regularly monitor how they are spending their time in comparison to their priorities.
Both the teacher and student should check up on whether/how the time management plan is being
followed and how it is working. How does the student feel about the new schedule?
By keeping a log, the student and teacher can examine whether and how the schedule is being followed
and can make changes as needed.
Follow up this suggested list of activities with appropriate activities or discussions. Unless this follow-up
occurs, no benefits can be expected.
Students can benefit from finding more constructive ways to use "dead" or "down time." Even when
commuting or standing in line at a grocery store, students can mentally review important concepts.
Encourage discussions among students about their creative ideas for making the most of their time.
Successful strategies often emerge from such brainstorming.
What tips might you offer students?
Test-Taking Skills
Learning how to improve skills in preparing for and taking tests is another very common student need.
Test-taking strategies need to be adapted to the particular type of test. Strategies for multiple choice tests
are somewhat different than strategies for essay test. Some students have not had much experience with
essay exams, while other students, especially those who went to school abroad, have not had much
experience with multiple choice tests. Even students who are experienced with both types of tests often
have never received explicit instruction in test preparation and test taking.
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What are some strategies you use when preparing for and taking multiple choice tests?
What are some strategies you use when preparing for and taking essay tests?
Share and discuss your strategies with others.
There are several factors to take into consideration in test taking: the psychological state of the learner,
her/his physiological condition, content knowledge and basic testwiseness skills. The psychological state
primarily involves the student's level of confidence and degree of relaxation/anxiety. To build self
confidence, the student needs 1) to have the knowledge and skills needed for the test content and
questions, 2) a positive academic self-concept in the particular subject, 3) strategies for becoming aware
of and controlling lack of self-confidence, and 4) relaxation techniques.
Another important psychological state in testing is avoiding implusivity. Sometimes students get the wrong
answer because they too quickly settle on something close to the right answer rather than being exactly
on target. Being accurate and complete requires careful, deliberate thought, and being reflective instead
of impulsively jumping to the wrong conclusion about what is required for the answer.
The student's physiological state includes her/his overall general health, whether the student has had
proper nutrition - not too much or too little to eat - and whether the student has had enough sleep. Lack of
sleep is a common problem for college students. If students cannot control their lack of sleep, they should
be extra careful about attending to other aspects of being well prepared for and testwise when taking a
test.
Test-Taking Tips
Teachers/teachers can give students practice tests where students can try out using some of the
strategies suggested below. Guided practice with feedback can help students master various techniques
so they can be used with ease during a test situation. The following strategies include ideas from
Harckham and Spurlin etal. (1984)
1. Know and understand test content and teacher expectations. Students should know all the material
they are responsible for on a specific test. A good teaching technique is to have the student predict test
questions. If the student can develop the questions to the exam, he/she can answer them or identify
areas for further study.
Students should also know what the teacher expects of them. It's important for teachers to know this too
if they are going to effectively help students. For example, if it is an essay, is there a particular length it
should be? How will it be graded? Will writing skills, such as spelling and grammar be counted in the
grading? Do some questions count more than others? Discuss with your students why their teachers
think it is important for them to know the material, and why they individually feel they should learn it.
Teachers need to be aware of their own strengths and weaknesses in the areas being taught. If a
student needs help in an area outside of your strengths, refer the student to a different teacher for that
information. Or, improve your own knowledge in the area so you can help your student. Do not be afraid
to tell the student that you do not know or understand something. Teachers sometimes are afraid that if
they admit they don't know something, their students will lose respect for them. However, most
experienced teachers will tell you that students usually respond well to the teacher's admission of lack of
perfection, as long as it remains the exception and does not become the rule. Lack of perfection also
makes the teacher more "human" and more of an equal or peer with the student. This peer quality is one
of the strengths of peer teaching.
2. Understand and follow directions. Encourage students to monitor their understanding of the directions
and to ask questions if they are unclear about anything. Anxiety sometimes interferes with students' ability
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to calmly figure out what to do. Emphasize the importance of reading the directions carefully and making
sure all the test items are answered as completely and accurately as possible within the allotted time.
3. Understand and answer the specific question asked. Identifying and defining the question or problem
is perhaps the most important test taking skill. If you examine student's errors on tests, you often will find
students have given the "right answer to the wrong question". That is, students often misinterpret what the
question is really all about and construct or select an answer to a related question rather than to the actual
question. Sometimes it helps to break the question into parts. Students can use other test items to find
clues that might help them figure out the meanings of unclear terms or concepts and try to think back to
the textbook and lectures where they encountered them. Recalling information related to the
terms/concepts might help clarify their meaning. Students can try paraphrasing the question in their own
words or diagramming it.
4. Use time wisely. Teachers should help students develop effective strategies and habits for managing
their time in preparation for and during testing. Students should learn to first review the entire test, and
then to answer the questions they are sure of before moving on to the more difficult ones. Caution
students against getting bogged down on difficult/time consuming items, unless these items are heavily
weighted in scoring. Teachers should teach students to mark those items they skip so they can be
identified easily when time permits returning attention to them. Students can benefit from practice tests
administered under testlike conditions with similar questions, item formats, and time constraints.
5. Mark answers properly. Make sure the answer sheet responses are correctly matched with the test
question numbers. For objective test items, students should make sure they have not marked more than
one answer. When skipping an item on an objective test with an answer sheet, the student must be very
careful not to accidently fill in the space intended to be blank with an answer to another item. This would
throw off all subsequent items and could have a devastating effect on the student's score. Determine
when answers are to be based on course content or provided material, such as on reading
comprehension tests rather than when answers are to be based on the student's own prior knowledge and
experience. Sometimes students' "right answers" are not what the teacher is looking for.
Teachers should remind students to only select an answer after reading and carefully thinking about
all the alternative choices. Students often jump to conclusions and mark the first possible answer, which
is not always the best answer.
6. Guess intelligently. On multiple choice, true-false and matching tests students should only rely on
guessing after making a concerted effort to figure out the correct answer. Before guessing, the student
should use a process of elimination to get rid of options which are clearly wrong, such as outrageous,
vague or illogical choices. Teach students to use content on the test itself as clues about answers s/he
cannot recall or doubts. Remind students to not leave multiple choice answers blank when turning in a
test, unless there is a penalty for guessing.
7. Plan essays. Research examining students' notes on test papers shows that students who plan their
answers received the highest grades (Maxwell, 1993 citing Gillis and Olson, 1991). Webs or spider maps
may be better for planning than outlines because outlines may be too linear for students to think flexibly
about the main points, supporting details, and organization of the information to be included in the essay.
Find out whether organization, grammar, spelling and punctuation will count in grading and budget time for
editing essays for these factors as needed. Leave enough time to reread and revise an essay before
turning it in.
8. Use memory strategies to recall important information. Constructing or recalling mental images of
lecture scenes and notes, text, and graphic organizers can aid memory of ideas and their connections. If
students can't find the exact information when searching memory this way, they can look for related
information. They should try to get a big picture of the overall context in which the material was learned.
Self-questioning strategies can guide students through various searches. For example, "What did the
diagram that she put on the blackboard have in it?" "Where in my lecture notes is this?" Clues from
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other test items and answer choices can help students remember.
9. Self pace. Help students learn to keep track of time during testing and to budget their time intelligently
based on how the test will be graded. Students should tune into test starting and ending times, and
monitor the amount of time remaining in relation to the amount and value of work to be done. Time
budgeted should include both time for answering the questions and time to check answers.
10. Check answers. Students should try to pace themselves so there is enough time left over at the end
of a test to review their answers and judge their accuracy and adequacy. Often students know the
material, but make careless mistakes due to anxiety, feeling rushed, or a question/problem appearing to
be relatively easy. If an answer has been changed, make sure the grader can clearly determine which is
the answer intended. If a student decides to change an answer upon reviewing her/his responses, the
student should be very sure there is a good reason to change the answer (e.g. test content triggered
student's memory of the correct answer). Many times students' first impressions are correct, and upon
reviewing their answers correct ones are changed to incorrect ones. For math/science problem solving
tests, check answers through applying reverse operations. For reading/language based tests, read the
question and answer together as a unit to evaluate logic and coherence.
11. Know oneself. Students should understand their own strengths and weaknesses in specific test
content, in their attitudes, and in their test taking practices. Student awareness of strengths and
weaknesses is the first step in student control over these areas of strength and weakness. Control
strategies include error analysis (discussed later in this chapter) for test content and skills, self- talk to
prevent negative self-fulfilling prophesies, and relaxation techniques such as deep breathing, progressive
relaxation, muscle tension/relaxation, imagery, and meditation (discussed in Chapter 11). It is important
for students to be aware of their attitudes during testing and to maintain a positive state of mind. Too
often valuable testing time and mental energy are wasted on negative self-talk, self-doubts and worrying.
Error Analysis
The error analysis procedure outlined below is a technique for converting mistakes to mastery. It provides
a structured opportunity for students to learn important course content which they did not get correct on
the first try. By analyzing their own errors, students can identify their own learning patterns and how to
improve them. Consequently, error analysis helps develop students' critical thinking about their own
learning and test performance. It also helps students learn to connect their actions, for example specific
learning strategies, to their outcomes, such as grades on tests. The more students can connect their own
outcomes to their own actions, the more likely they are to self-correct and become independent, self-
directed learners who plan, monitor and evaluate their work.
As a teacher you are encouraged to apply error analysis to two situations:

1. Teaching students to learn from their mistakes by figuring out what they got wrong, why, and how they
will prevent future similar mistakes, thereby transforming failure into success.
2. Learning from your own mistakes as both a learner and as a teacher/teacher.
Error Analysis Model

1. What answer I had and what the answer really was. OR
WHAT I did wrong and what I should have done.
2. WHY did I choose the wrong answer? OR

Why did I do it wrong?
3. HOW will I remember what I now know is the correct answer? OR
How will I make sure I don't make the same mistake again?
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Sample Error Analyses
Reading Comprehension
Test Item:
The content in paragraph 3 indicates that the writer's belief was:
a). The first stage of the civil rights movement was a failure.
b) Supreme Court decisions do not have as much influence on society as actions
by the Congress.
c). Social movements are able to influence the political process.
d). The costs of civil disobedience sometimes outweigh the benefits.
Error Analysis of Item (Write out the specific concepts instead of identifying them as “a” or “c”).
1. What I got wrong and what the right answer is.
I thought the answer was "a ", but now I know the answer is "c".
2. Why I got it wrong.
I confused my beliefs with what was actually in the text. I thought of what the author called "the
first stage" as a failure, but the author didn't say or imply that. The author was really trying to make a
different point.
.
3. How I will remember this and prevent future similar mistakes.
My teacher taught me to ask myself questions about what I read. So I'll ask myself a question
like, "Is this what I think or is this what the author is really saying?"
Essay
1. What I got wrong and what I should have done.

There were two major things wrong with my paper. First, I didn't elaborate on my
ideas enough. I should have developed the ideas in my topic sentences more and given more examples
to support my points.
The paper was not as well organized as it should have been. In some paragraphs the
ideas I started off with were not related to later ideas in the paragraph. Then in the next paragraph I would
pick up on ideas I started in the previous one. I should have followed through with related ideas in the
same paragraph instead of jumping around.
2. Why I did this wrong.

I was so concerned about coming up with ideas and getting them on paper that I didn't pay that
much attention to where the ideas were and how organized it was.
3. How I will prevent similar mistakes in the future.

I'm going to make a checklist to use when I revise and proofread my papers. One thing on the
checklist will be: Development of Ideas. Another thing will be Organization of ideas.
Error Analysis of Research Report
1. What I got wrong and what I should have done.

I lost credit because I did not cite the sources of my information in the text. I should have put the
authors' names and publication years at the end of the information I got from them.
2. Why I did this wrong.

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In high school we didn't have to do this so I didn't know it was the correct procedure. I didn't
understand "plagiarism". I also didn't read the assignment sheet carefully enough to see this was required.
I just read it to get a general idea of what was expected and missed some details.
3. How I will prevent similar mistakes in the future.

I'll remember to cite my sources in the text because I'll think about how I would feel if someone
took my ideas and didn't give me credit for them.
I'll also read my assignment sheets more carefully, looking for specific details instead of general
ideas.
Math problem
Subtract
2668
-1629
1049
The answer 1049 is wrong. The correct answer is 1039.
I forgot to change the "6" in the tens column to a "5" after borrowing to subtract 9 from 18 in the
ones column.
3. How I will prevent mistakes like this in the future.
From now on, instead of trying to remember I borrowed in my head, I will cross out the number I
borrowed from, and write the new number above it. For example,
5
2668
1629
1039
Biology test item:

Which of the following is correct for the resting membrane potential of a typical neuron?
a) It is negative outside compared to inside.
b) It depends on high permeability of the membrane to sodium and potassium ions.
c) It carries impulses from one region to another.
d). It results from the unequal distribution of ions across the membrane.
Error Analysis of Item

I thought the answer was "b", but now I know the answer is "d".
I know there was high permeability to potassium but I forgot it was impermeable to sodium.
3. How I will remember this and prevent future similar mistakes.
I'll remember that the resting potential of a neuron depends upon the imbalance. The unequal
distribution of ions results from the difference in permeability between sodium and potassium. The
membrane is highly permeable to potassium, but it is impermeable to sodium. This causes it to be
negative inside compared to the outside.
I'll also try to use the process of elimination more so I can rule out some of the answer choices.
Sample Error Analysis of Tutoring
1. WHAT I did wrong and what I should have done.

When my student called me at home and begged for an emergency tutoring session, I met him at the
student cafeteria and spent 2 hours helping him cram for an important math test when I should have
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been studying for my own physics test. I should have told him that I was sorry but he should have seen
me about this earlier and that I had my own test I had to study for.
2. Why did I do it wrong?

He sounded so desperate that I felt sorry for him. I knew I should be studying for my own test, but we
have a good relationship and I didn't want to let him down.
3. HOW will I make sure I don't make the same mistake again?
In the future I'll try to find out when my students are having important tests and help them make study
schedules so they're not frantic at the last minute.
Do an error analysis yourself and show it to someone else for feedback.
Critical Thinking
One of the advantages of error analysis is that the procedure helps students critically evaluate their own
past performance and plan for future improvements. Part of "intelligent teaching" is teaching for critical
thinking. Critical thinking can be defined as "... reasonable, reflective thinking that is focused on deciding
what to believe or do" and has both cognitive and emotional components (Ennis, 1987, p. 10). Cognitive
components include analyzing and judging arguments; emotional components include openmindedness
and being sensitive to the level of knowledge, feelings and degree of sophistication of others.
Work by Perry (1970) suggests students in their first couple of years in college are unlikely to be good
critical thinkers. In his research on intellectual development during and through the college years Perry
found that students tend to enter college thinking "dualistically", that is dividing everything up into two
realms, such as good versus bad, right versus wrong, we versus they or success versus failure. They
believe there is one right answer to each problem and that authorities know these answers. They believe
that these answers should be memorized by hard work. Knowledge is how much information you have,
regardless of how good the information is. Feelings of effectiveness come from outside sources, the
authority figures. By the time students leave college they are more likely to think more critically, by
thinking more in terms of "multiplicity" and "relativity". Multiplicity refers to recognizing there is diversity of
legitimate opinions and values where right answers aren't known yet. Everyone has a right to one's own
opinion and no one can claim that opinion is wrong. Relativity refers to knowledge being qualitative and
dependent upon the context in which it occurs. Analysis and comparison are made possible by
recognizing diverse opinions, values, and judgments, which are derived from evidence, logic and
coherent sources. Thinkers at the highest level of Perry's theory are characterized by commitment, which
is an affirmation of choice made with awareness of relativism. Feelings of effectiveness come from within
the student at this stage.
How else can teachers help their students become better critical thinkers? Strategies include encouraging
them to think aloud and make graphic representations of their work, such as papers they are writing or
problems they are solving. These strategies are effective because they externalize the students' thinking
processes, which makes it easier for students to evaluate their own thinking objectively. Self-questioning
is another powerful technique that promotes critical thinking. By asking and answering questions such
as "How can I state this in my own words?" the student is directed toward reflecting on and critically
evaluating what is understood and what is unclear and what is and isn't known. In the process of
answering such questions students sometimes discover that their initial understanding was incomplete or
incorrect. This discovery can reveal some important misconceptions that interfere with learning. Self
questioning is discussed more in the next section on self-directed learners. Some students prefer
checklists to self questions. Checklists should fit the specific subject and task. Teachers can help their
students develop their own checklists. A sample critical thinking checklist might include:
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Assess Progress On Progress Rating (Yes, Some, No, Unsure)
Understand the question

Know how to approach it
Remember important concepts
Judge ideas for quality
Express ideas clearly
Answer is organized logically
Evidence supports conclusion
answer is complete
ensure answer fits question
check answer for mistakes
In a review of research on college teaching and critical thinking, three aspects of instruction were found to
make a difference: explicit emphasis on problem solving, student discussion, and modeling and
verbalizing thinking strategies to encourage the development of metacognition (McKeachie, Pintrich, Lin
and Smith 1986) . Teaching students to manage their work by planning, monitoring and evaluating helps
develop critical thinking skills. Such management strategies for academic work are discussed in the next
section on self-directed learners and in the I DREAM of A approaches to writing and math/science. This
problem solving approach emphasizes using questioning and thinking aloud to help students plan,
monitor and evaluate their work in specific subjects. Below is the writing version of this approach. The
math/science version is described in Chapter 10.
I DREAM OF A
The I DREAM OF A technique is a combination of several strategies discussed in this book. This
problem solving approach is based on Bransford and Stein's (1984) IDEAL Problem Solver model. I
DREAM of A expands and integrates this general problem solving model with specific subject area
content, students' attitudes and effective instructional techniques. The I DREAM of A process is not a
rigid, cookbook formula, but rather is intended to be personally transformed by each person who uses it,
each time it is used, adapting it to each unique situation.
I DREAM of A is an acronym for a systematic approach to writing. Its purpose is to increase students'
awareness of how they write, and help them take control over their own performance, becoming better
writers. It is designed to help students plan, monitor and evaluate their work, with a positive attitude.
The first four letters are all planning steps which may be accomplished in any order. Often it's best to start
problem solving with "D" because diagramming the writing task can help students identify and define it
("I"). Planning is often described as the thinking that comes before actually beginning to write. Students
often err by jumping in and trying to write before they understand the specific topic or assignment.
Monitoring can be described as checking up on students' understanding of the content and procedures to
follow, and checking up while work is in progress to make sure of being headed in the right direction.
Upon discovering a problem, clarification occurs or a different approach to the task is tried. Evaluating
involves judging both the finished work product and the process of how it was completed. Teach students
to apply these thinking processes to practically everything they do until they become automatic. Also
teach students to be selective in when they apply these forms of thinking. Not all are needed all the time.
I = identify and define the task; establish positive attitudes

D = diagram or outline
R = recall relevant content, vocabulary, grammar, syntax rules, formulas, algorithms,
definitions, and prior writing assignments and feedback on types of errors.
E = examine alterative methods for approaching the topic or expressing an idea
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A = apply the results of the planning process, developing a draft of the writing
assignment.
M = monitor progress on the task. The student's attitude is also monitored.
A = assess the final product based on feedback, determine what and how to improve for
the next task, and reward successful performance.
The value of I DREAM of A when applied to a writing task can be seen in the research of Hayes
and Flower (1986) who suggest that the three major processes needed are planning, sentence
generation, and revising. The questions and suggestions shown below illustrate the application of I
DREAM of A to a writing assignment. Look for the correlation between this process and the three major
writing processes described by Hayes and Flower.
I Identify
What is the general topic of you essay?
What are some points you'd like to make? Why?
Think out loud about the topic.
What is your topic sentence?
Which points support your topic? How good are they?
How would you clearly state your thesis?
How could you elaborate on/clarify that?
How do you feel about your ability to write on this topic?
How can you benefit from this writing assignment?
D Diagram
Make a web or sketch of the main points and other important ideas.
How could the ideas be connected and organized effectively ?
Create a mental picture of what your paper will look like.
What might be included in the introductory paragraph?
What could be included in the developmental paragraphs?
Do an outline or web of what each paragraph might look like.
Are the parts in a logical sequence?
Make a tree diagram to show your topics, main points and the supporting
examples
R Recall
What content needs to be incorporated?
What content tenses will you use?
What types of grammatical problems have been encountered in the past?
What needs to be reviewed before writing begins?
E Explore
Think out loud about what might be put into an introductory paragraph.
What are some good examples to choose from?
Are there other points that might go in the introductory paragraph?
How could the situation be viewed from a different perspective?
What might be a better way of saying that?
How might the whole paper be reorganized?
A Apply
Take the plan and write a draft.
Look back at notes to remember key points.
Don't worry about grammar or spelling now.
Get out your ideas first and take care of the rest later.
Talk out loud to hear what is being written.
Maintain a positive outlook.
M Monitor
How is the writing going so far?
Reread aloud what has been written.
How do you feel about what you've written so far?
Are your ideas flowing smoothly?
How could it be better?
Are you developing all your main points sufficiently?
Is the path of your thinking clear?
How well is it organized?
Is there anything important that's missing?
A Assess
What did your instructor think about your essay/paper?
What did you do well?
How could you do better next time?
Did you edit your work before wordprocessing/typing it?
Did you and someone else carefully proofread the final copy before turning it in?
Should you reward yourself for a job well done?
The above questions are phrased as a tutor would ask a student, or a student would ask another student.
Following are examples of self-questions students would learn to ask:
Did I express my ideas clearly?
Do my examples support my thesis?
Are my conclusions logical?
Am I varying my vocabulary enough?
How well am I avoiding repetition?
Do I have any irrelevant examples?
Do I have run-on sentences?
How to Use the I DREAM of A Model
These questions are intended to stimulate thinking about the types of questions to ask during each phase
of the writing process. Questions are more effective when they are self-generated than when they come
from an external source. Students (and teachers or tutors) can paraphrase questions from other sources
if they wish.
There are at least four ways to use this model. The first way is for teachers or tutors to model their
own processes as writers, using self-questioning and thinking aloud strategies so students can see how
they think through the writing process. The second way is for teachers or tutors to ask students such
questions when guiding them through the writing process. The third way is for teachers/tutors to teach
their students to use the model as a guide for questioning each other as they collaborate in guiding each
other's writing. Students can take turns alternating between question asker and question answerer. The
fourth way is for students to use the model when working on their writing alone, either in tutoring or at
elsewhere. The main point is to use questioning and thinking aloud as techniques for guiding writers
through a systematic approach to writing that they can internalize and use to help them in the future. With
practice, students learn to automatically self-question and guide their own writing through the stages of the
writing process.
Remember that I DREAM of A is intended to be used flexibly and adapted each time it is used to the
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needs of the specific situation.
How would you rate your own critical thinking abilities? What are your specific strengths and
weaknesses?
Why is critical thinking important for self-directed learning?
Why are learners who are dependent upon their teachers not likely to be critical thinkers?
Self-Directed Learners
As mentioned previously in this text, the major purpose of a teacher is to create a student who no longer
needs teaching. This purpose can be described as creating a self-directed learner, as summarized in the
following graphic representation.
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This visual representation identifies affective components of self- directed learning:
Self- motivation so the student is motivated to learn for learning's own sake
Self-confidence, so the student feels s/he can succeed
Feeling one is the master of one's own educational destiny, so the student knows that her
/his efforts and strategies can affect her/his outcomes.
Controlling self messages to eliminate negative thoughts and feelings which undermine
effective performance. Persisting when faced with difficult, boring, or tedious tasks
Self- reinforcing, so one gets internal rewards and does not need rewards from others.
This representation also reflects higher level thinking process involved in executive self-management of
students' own academic work.
Planning work on academic tasks, like homework, papers, studying for tests
Knowing what material is to be learned and knowing what knowledge and skills are needed
for learning particular material or doing a task, e.g. research paper.
Monitoring academic work in progress, including verifying:
Comprehension - checking up on whether and how well a student really understands
material or a task or whether clarification is needed.
Approach-checking up on whether/how well an approach or strategy is working and deciding
whether to stay on course or change.
Memory-checking up on whether there is information already stored in memory that should
be retrieved for a task whether there is new and useful/important information that should
be put into memory for future reference or use.
Evaluating schoolwork by looking not only at grades received, but also at teachers'
comments and examining wrong answers and using them as the basis of learning for the
future. Identify error patterns and use error analysis as a systematic action plan for
transforming mistakes into future successes.
Finally, the representation refers to applying or transferring knowledge and skills learned to other subjects
(or other situations in the same subject) and to everyday life experience. Being able to recognize
similarities or make connections can help the learner know it's appropriate to use or adapt their existing
skills or knowledge to the specific situation.
Self-directed learners seek evaluations of their performance from external sources such as teachers,
teachers, peers and from themselves. The worst situation occurs when someone is wrong, makes a
mistake, or fails, but does not learn from the experience. In such cases, the failure is likely to be
repeated! Self-correction is an essential part of self- directed learning, and it is an important component
of both monitoring and evaluating performance. See the section on error analysis for self-correction
strategies.
Many students experience academic difficulty because they constantly focus on retaining subject matter
content without first learning the intellectual skills needed to support that effort. In order for the students to
function intelligently, teaching needs to develop both cognitive and metacognitive skills as well as positive
affect of emotions (attitudes and motivation). When Condravy (1993) asked tutors to identify methods that
were most effective for promoting learning, tutors' responses showed the need to address emotional,
cognitive and metacognitive aspects of learning. After completing a nine hour training program,
Condravy's tutors reported spending most of their teaching efforts on students' metacognitive needs,
followed by emotional needs, especially motivation, and finally students' cognitive needs. In my
experience, untrained tutors are less likely to tutor for students' emotional and metacognitive needs.
:
Cognitive (worker) skills perform the intellectual work decided on by the metacognitive bosses. Example
of cognitive skill include encoding (registering information), inferring, comparing, and analyzing.
Metacognitive (boss) skills involve executive management processes such as planning, monitoring and
evaluating. Metacognition refers to "thinking about thinking", such as deciding how to approach a task.
Without devaluing the cognitive skills, teaching needs to emphasize metacognitive skills because:

1. Teaching specific strategies, like the order in which to perform a particular task, will not give
students the skills they need in the long run. Students must learn general principles like
planning, and how to apply them over a wide variety of tasks and domains.
2. Both the long term benefits of training in cognitive skills and the ability to apply cognitive skills
to new tasks appear to depend, at least in part, on training at the metacognitive level as well
as the cognitive level. Metacognitive knowledge and skills are needed for effective cognitive
performance.
3. Generally students have a history of blindly following instructions. They have not acquired the
habit of questioning themselves to lead to effective performance on intellectual tasks.
4. Students with the greatest metacognitive skill deficiencies seem to have no idea what
they're doing when performing a task.
5. Students have metacognitive performance problems of :
a. Determining the difficulty of a task.
b. Monitoring their comprehension effectively, i.e. they don't recognize when they don't
fully understand something (e.g. task directions, information in textbooks).
c. Planning ahead (e.g. what they need to do, and how long each part should take).
d. Monitoring the success of their performance or in determining when they have studied
enough to master the material to be learned.
e. Using all the relevant information.
f. Using a systematic step-by-step approach.
g. Jumping to conclusions.
h. Using inadequate or incorrect representations.
6. Metacognitive skills and knowledge, as important as they are, are not often taught in most
areas of the curriculum (Wagner & Sternberg, 1984).
A recent study by Hostetter (1994) focused on teaching metacognitive strategies to international students
who were repeating a developmental reading course. Tutors were trained to tutor metacognitively, to plan,
monitor and evaluate their tutoring sessions and to teach students metacognitive reading strategies, such
as comprehension monitoring and identifying error patterns so they could change them. The tutorials
followed a structured format consisting of: warm up, mental preparation for testing, testing, discussing
passages, and discussing questions and answers. The results suggest that students who received
metacognitive tutoring improved in reading comprehension and did better than students who did not
receive metacognitive tutoring.
Others in the field of tutoring have developed theoretical models designed to plan tutor training that will
help students become self-directed learners. One model emphasizes student development and
metacognition. The student development component of the model suggests tutors should learn how to
help students monitor their progress. It also suggests tutors should confront students who fail to take
responsibility for their own learning, develop effective communication skills, and learn about instructional
support and other campus resources. The metacognitive component suggests tutors should teach
students a problem solving model with four components: individual learner characteristics of motivation,
learning styles and culture; task, or specific learning goals, strategies, including predicting test questions,
categorizing information, and managing time; and materials, including use of print and media. Tutors
should help students become aware of the components of the model and help them implement specific
strategies designed to meet their individual learning goals (Rings and Sheets 1991).
Another model describes good teaching as helping students ..."discover what the learning process is
about so that they can become lifelong learners" in addition to helping them master content (Gourgey
1992b, p. 67) Her tutoring model is intended as a guide for the tutoring process and as a blueprint for
tutor training. Its components are: dialogue, developing metacognitive skills, response to affective
(emotional) needs and reeducation about the learning process. Gourgey notes that often students need
reeducation about the learning process because they have unrealistic expectations and don't
..."appreciate the importance of intellectual struggle, incubation, and understanding ideas rather than just

following procedures" (p. 67).
Strategies for Developing Self-Directed Learners

The most important point is that through self-awareness and efforts at self-control, students can develop
voluntary control over their own learning. To develop self-directed learners teachers can enhance
students' awareness and control over learning by teaching them to reflect on how they think, learn,
remember and perform academic tasks. Teach students to reflect before, during and after their work, and
learn to become executive managers of their own performance through effective planning, monitoring and
evaluating..
Plan Before beginning, think about what is to be done, when to do each
step, decide how it is to be done, consider alternative strategies, and
determine why a particular way needs to be chosen.
Examples: What steps should I take to write this term paper?

What should I do first? What should I wait until later to do?
Where can I find the information I need to answer this question?
How am I supposed to conduct this experiment?
Monitor While working, check up on progress to determine how well you understand
what you're doing, whether what you're doing is really leading you where you
want to go, and whether you're forgetting anything important.
Examples: Am I sure I understand what the professor expects for this question? Is my
answer heading in the right direction? Have I included all the major causes of the war in my
answer? Am I leaving out anything important? What do I remember from my class notes that
could help me solve this problem?
Evaluate After task performance, judge what you have done and how you did it.
Find/figure out what could have been done better and what you can do to
improve performance next time. Develop a specific plan of action to improve
performance.
Examples: How well did I do on the test? How could I have done better? Did I make
any careless mistakes? I'm going to remember to study my class notes while I'm reviewing the
textbook to see where they overlap. That will help me have a better idea about what will be covered on
the test. .Next time I'll check more carefully before turning in my paper.
Another strategy for developing self-directed learners is for teachers to be role models and demonstrate
examples of self-directed learning. Talk out loud to yourself, let students see and hear you plan, monitor,
and evaluate your work and how you would approach tasks like theirs. (Do not do their work for them!)
When modeling the performance of a self-directed learner, it's a good idea to intentionally make mistakes,
discover their own mistakes, and self-correct.
. Questioning and self-questioning strategies are effective ways of promoting self-directed learners.
Teachers can also discuss and illustrate use of metacognition in school and everyday life situations. Ask
students questions such as "How do you prepare for a test? How would you plan, monitor, and evaluate a
surprise party?" Have students generate and use self- questions. Model self questioning for them.
Developing the habit of self- questioning may be the best way of improving these skills. Research on
self- questioning shows that questions created by the student are much more effective than questions
given the student by a teacher or other teacher. It is preferable to have each student generate his/her own
self- questions . To stimulate and guide student thinking, provide sample questions for students to use as
models. Self-questions such as " Have I left out anything important ?" can help a student self-direct in
identifying omission of important points or examples. The I DREAM of A approach to writing and to

solving math/science problems is designed to help learners become more self-directed. If students can't
do this individually, try doing it in pairs or small groups. Teachers can listen to students executing tasks
while using their self-questions and give them feedback on their questions and answers. They can
encourage students to keep a readily accessible list of their own self questions to use or adapt for the
particular situation. It is important to regularly have students adapt their self questions to the needs of the
specific subject and task. Self questioning can guide the learner's performance before, during, and after
task performance. Self-questioning can have the following benefits:
a. Improved awareness and control over thinking and thereby improved performance.
b. Improved long term retention of knowledge and skills.
c. Improved ability to use knowledge and skills.
d. Improved attitudes and motivation
Teachers should not be satisfied with putting students in situations which require them to use a skill or
knowledge to the best of their ability. Practice isn't enough. It's also important to provide explicit
instruction in when, why and how to use skills and/or information. Students need to know procedures
and rationales for using knowledge and skills as well as to be able to recognize contexts for their use and
criteria for evaluating their use.
Finally, and most importantly, teachers should repeatedly emphasize, and demonstrate through actions,
that students are responsible for and can control their own educational outcomes. Student performance
in college should not be blamed on a teacher or professor.
Teachers are most likely to help their students become self-directed thinkers when they work at the skills
which underlie intellectual achievement. Specific teaching principles are more likely to produce the
desired results than lectures or demonstrations covering subject matter content.
Make a graphic organizer of your own design and with your own characteristics of a self-directed learner.
Transfer
Transfer is when prior learning affects later learning or performance. Transfer involves the
application of one's prior knowledge. Sternberg identifies transfer as one of the characteristics of
intelligent performance. Transfer may be positive, negative or zero . In positive transfer, the prior learning
helps performance of a new task. It is like practice; it helps students learn to learn. Information learned in
one situation carries over and is used in another situation. Learning therefore has a spinoff effect - it
leads to learning other things. For example, knowing how to use a typewriter makes it easier to learn to
use a computer keyboard. In negative transfer, the prior learning interferes with later learning. For
example, knowing the pronunciation of vowels in Spanish might make it confusing when learning to
pronounce the same vowels in English. Zero transfer is when prior learning has no effect on later
learning. For example, knowing the history of World War II is unlikely to have any effect on learning
calculus. Usually when educators talk about transfer, they are referring to positive transfer - the kind that
facilitates future learning.
Transfer may be lateral or vertical. Lateral transfer is applying prior learning to a task at the
same level of difficulty but in a different area. For example, if a tutor helps a student to set up a schedule
for reading a text in one course, the student can transfer that scheduling strategy to reading a text in a
comparable course. Vertical transfer is when prior learning aids learning something more complicated
in the same subject area (Biehler & Snowman, 1990). For example, if a tutor helps a student learn how to
add polynomials, the student can apply or transfer that knowledge when learning to factor polynomials.
Transfer can be "high road" or "low road" (Salomon & Perkins, 1989). High road transfer
involves consciously applying information learned in one situation to another situation. It requires
reflective thinking. For example, a student may consciously decide how to apply test taking strategies

learned in tutoring to all the different subject areas. Low road transfer is the spontaneous and automatic
application of highly practiced skills. For example, once a student knows how to add, the student can add
many different combinations of numbers. It does not require reflective thinking. When the student sees
numbers and a plus sign, automatically the student knows what to do.
What are examples of concepts and/or skills that involve "high road" transfer? What are examples of
concepts and/or skills for "low road" transfer? Compare your examples with those of others.
What are some examples of transfer from your own learning experiences? Give examples of high road,
low road, lateral and vertical transfer. How can teachers help their students with each of these types of
transfer?
The following are guidelines for teaching for transfer (adapted from Gage and Berliner 1991; Kiewra,
1988): Don’t confuse the guideline itself with the example!
1.Teachers should make the learning situation as similar as possible to the transfer situation. For
example, if teaching a student test taking strategies, the student should apply the strategies to a practice
test that is similar to the test that will be given in class.
2. It's important for tutors to help students get extensive practice on similar problems or tasks.
For example, if teaching a student to use mental images while reading, the student can describe her or
his mental pictures from several scenes in the same chapter and from several different types of readings..
3. Teachers should help students get lots of practice on different types of problems or tasks. For
example, teachers can have students practice asking self-questions when reading literature, solving
problems in science and math and when writing essays.
4. Teachers and students need to be alert to the possibility of negative transfer. Prior learning
can interfere with learning new material when some information is the same-for example, the vowel "i" in
English also occurs in Spanish-but the responses are different. In Spanish it is pronounced like "ee"
whereas in English it tends to be pronounced as "eh" or "eye". Because of negative transfer interfering
with learning the new language, the native Spanish speaker may have a tendency to mispronounce the
English letter while the native English speaker may have a tendency to mispronounce the Spanish letter.
5. Teachers should make sure students have prerequisite knowledge and skills before asking
them to complete complex tasks. For example, a student must know what "spell check" is and how to use
it in order to spell check a paper before turning it in.
6. It helps to give students a model of what needs to be learned. For example, a teacher can
teach students a model of looking for the main characters, setting, plot, crisis, and denouement when
analyzing a novel. Such models aid understanding and memory.
7. Transfer is facilitated when students are asked to give many different illustrations of a
generalization. For example a teacher tells a student a sentence should never end with a preposition, the
student should identify several different examples of sentences that should be changed because they do
end with prepositions.
8. When students know when, where, why, and how to use their knowledge and skills, it is easier
for them to transfer what they have learned.. Understanding the appropriate context for using knowledge
and skills helps students recognize when situations are appropriate for them to use what they already
know.
9. Teachers should encourage students to "overlearn" important concepts and skills, that is to or
learn them to the point that they are internalized as a part of students' minds. Then the knowledge and
skills have a better chance of being use automatically when needed.

10. Teachers can help students learn to convert the unfamiliar to the familiar. They can teach
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to look for some part of the new material that has a relationship to something with which they are already
familiar. It can be a similarity based on structure, function, shape, sound, size, color or any other attribute
that is meaningful. Connecting new and seemingly unfamiliar information with prior knowledge can make
the new material more meaningful to them and help them apply their prior knowledge to new situations.
Three Types of Knowledge that Aid Memory and Transfer

Three basic categories of knowledge are needed for students to effectively remember and use what they
have learned. They are characterized as strategic, metacognitive knowledge because they help students
manage the use of the knowledge and skills they already have learned.
1) Knowing WHAT: Declarative knowledge is facts, definitions, concepts, etc. in a subject area.
Declarative information is elicited by a "What" question. Each of the following questions seeks some
declarative knowledge:
What is the meant by a symbiotic relationship?
What is the meaning of the small 2 to the upper right of x in x2?
What is clarifying?
2) Knowing HOW: Procedural knowledge is knowing how to apply information or skills students
have learned. It includes procedures and techniques. Often procedural information is activated by a
"How" question. Each of the following questions seeks some procedural information:
How is carboholic acid stored in tropical climates?
How is the equation x2 + 5x + 6 = 0 solved?
How do you clarify?
3) Knowing WHEN & WHY: Contextual or Conditional knowledge is information regarding the
situation in which the student applies some information. Contextual or conditional information is often
sought by a "When" or "Why" question. This type of knowledge lets students identify conditions and
situations in which it is appropriate to use specific information and skills.
Each of the following questions seeks some contextual information.

Why is the economy of Poland more volatile than that of Finland?
Why is the presidency of Herbert Hoover blamed for the Great Depression?
When do you clarify?
When do you use the quadratic equation?
Successful students treat these three types of knowledge differently. Successful teachers use the fact
that knowledge is not enough unless the student knows when, why and how it is used. For example,
even if Denny knew all the formulas that were going to be covered on the test (declarative knowledge) and
knew how to apply them (procedural knowledge) he could fail the test if he didn't know which formulas to
use with which types of problems (conditional knowledge).
The 6PQ Method of Discovery Learning (p. 209) has transfer as the final stage of discovery
learning. In this tutoring method the "process" stage requires the student to transfer what was learned
during the session. Examples: A student learning to compute the mean for a math class can use this skill
to figure out how much money s/he spends each week on average or how many pages to read each night
in order to finish a chapter in a week. A student learning to brainstorm ideas to include in an essay can
use brainstorming to come up with possible ideas for a birthday present to buy for a friend. A student who
learns to make mental pictures while reading a novel can transfer the use of mental imagery to
remembering rules and formulas for chemistry. In addition to the 6PQ Method, The Rich Instruction

Model (p. 6) , Learning Cycle Model (p. 162) and Teaching Intelligence Model (p. 173) all have
transfer or application built in as the final stage of the model.
Is there anything you don't understand in the section above? If so, how might you clarify it?
Motivating Students to Use What They Learn

To what extent do your students use their effective thinking and learning strategies when they need to?
Recent research on learning emphasizes the importance of attention to higher level thinking, and
emotional aspects of learning in addition to the traditional focus on content and basic skills. Learning is
best when it is active, meaningful, retained over time, and transferred to a variety of contexts. A vitally
important but often neglected aspect of learning is that often students have the requisite knowledge and
skills for performing complex tasks but do not use them; i.e., they remain inert. Sometimes this is
because students are not motivated or confident to apply them, and sometimes students simply do not
recognize when situations call for use of particular knowledge and skills to be applied and transferred.
Children and adults often fail to use the strategies at their disposal because of 1. minimal
motivation, 2. minimal transfer, 3. attributing their successes and failures to external factors beyond their
control, and 4. classroom practices do not support strategy use. For example, teachers often do not
present strategies in enough different contexts for students to generalize their use effectively. Impulsive
students not only need to learn to eliminate distractions, focus their attention, and slow down when
applying what they have learned, but also need specific instruction on how to plan, monitor and evaluate
their performance. Tutoring is especially useful for teaching students effective strategy use because
tutors can think aloud, thereby externalizing what are normally hidden thinking processes (Garner, 1988).
Memory: Students must remember what they have learned. They should consciously plan to use specific
strategies to help them remember important information. How can they remember what tutors have taught
them? What memory strategies can they learn?
Context: Students must know when and why to use what they have learned. What cues can they use to
determine if it's an appropriate situation to use particular knowledge/skills?
All the knowledge and skills in the world won't help students if they don't know the right time to use them.
Procedures: Students must know how to use/do what they have been taught. Tutors should emphasize
approaches both for storing information in memory and retrieving it from memory. How can they figure out
or remember the steps, strategies and sequences needed?
Value: Students must recognize personal meaning and benefits of what they have learned. For example,
have students create webs (and perhaps write an essay) on how better English will help them get a job
or how math will help them with engineering.
Summary
Using your own words, briefly summarize the most important ideas you want to remember from this
chapter, indicating how you might use them.

NAME___________________________
WRITER-BASED SUMMARY of SELF- DIRECTED LEARNERS


NAME___________________________
READER-BASED SUMMARY On TRANSFER (p. 81-through the end of p. 83.)
100 WORDS OR LESS


Chapter 5 Communication Skills


Whether you are teaching students one-on-one or instructing classes of students teaching is a social
interaction. Communication is one of the most basic aspects of the teacher-student relationship.
Teachers must refine their listening and speaking skills if they are to effectively "get through" to students.
This chapter addresses speaking, listening, following directions and cultural issues in communication.
Due to the social nature of teaching, effective communication is crucial. As a teacher, it's your
responsibility to ensure that you really understand your students and your students really understand you.
Moore and Poppino (1983) note that, "Often, the best tutor is the best listener, not the best talker or
lecturer". (p. 18). The same is generally true for teachers. Sometimes the communication process is made
difficult by different native language backgrounds of teachers and students. In some classes, 4 or 5
different native language backgrounds can be found in a single group of students. What native
languages are common around your institution? To what extent will the students you teach have a
different native language background from you? Communication can also be hindered by students not
having enough prior content knowledge to communicate effectively about what they need help learning.
For example, if a student needs help with sines and cosines or with mitosis and meiosis, but doesn't know
these terms, it might be hard for the student to explain what problems he or she is having. What
examples can you think of? Describe them briefly below:
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Communication skills of speaking and listening often are taken for granted because we do them all the
time. But in teaching, it's essential that they are not just done, but are done carefully and effectively.
Speaking and listening effectively are more complicated than often realized, because speakers and
listeners not only need to be careful and effective in what they say and hear, but also need to carefully
attend to how they communicate, and what they do NOT say and what they do NOT hear. In addition, both
speakers and listeners should attend to nonverbal as well as verbal information.
Communication will be most effective if it occurs in a way that is consistent with how the student learns
best. For example, some students learn best by listening, others learn best by seeing pictures or
diagrams, while still others learn best by reading and writing about what they needed to know. Multiple
Intelligence theory suggests that all people have at least 7 different types of independent intelligences, and
have strengths in specific ones (Gardner 1983 ). The 7 intelligences are: linguistic, logical-mathematical,
spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal and are described more later in this
book. Teachers should try to determine the strengths of each student and communicate information
accordingly. If a student's strength is linguistic intelligence, emphasize words (oral and written); if a
student's strength is spatial, use pictures or diagrams; if the strength is bodily-kinesthetic, use physical
movement to act out (dramatize) or role play the concept.
Characteristics of Effective Communication
Because speaking and listening are so much a part of our everyday life experience, we all are
likely to have experienced both effective and ineffective speaking and listening. Think about your own
specific past experiences regarding the following:
1. When you heard a very effective speaker, what were the features that made the person's speech so
effective?
2. When you have been effective speaking, what was it that made your speech so effective?
3. When you have been a good listener, what was it that made your listening good?
4. When someone else has been a good listener for you, what made that person's listening so good?
5. When you have been effective in giving someone feedback on their performance, what is it that made
their feedback effective?
6. When someone has given you effective feedback on your performance, what was it that made the
feedback effective?

7. If you have a pretty good idea what the speaker is going to say when talking to you, is
it good to finish the sentence for the speaker? Why or why not?
What are your own ideas about the characteristics of effective communication? Record them
below in "Effective Communication". Use the seven questions above to stimulate your thinking.
Effective Communication
Effective Speaking
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Effective Listening
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Effective Feedback
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
After you have generated your own ideas, compare them with those of others if possible.
Listening Skills
Listening is developmentally our first communication skill, and therefore it is often taken for granted. Good
listening is sometimes hard work. What do you think some differences might be for a student who has a
passive, superficial listener as a teacher, as compared to a student who is taught by an active, analytical
listener? Research on tutoring suggest tutors need to be trained to listen actively (Sheets, 1994).
Effective and Ineffective Listening Strategies
Evaluate your own and your students' listening strategies by asking the following questions.
Summarize your listening strengths and weaknesses in the chart that follows the questions.
When listening, how typical is it for you to:


1. Make only literal interpretations of what you hear rather than listening for implications and
symbolic interpretations?
2. Focus on words and isolated sentences rather than on relationships between ideas?
3. Listen selectively for important information or unselectively to everything equally ?
4. Pull ideas together into a whole (synthesize) and draw conclusions?
5. Relate information to your knowledge and experience?
6. Subjectively/ objectively evaluate what you hear?
7. Passively take information rather than actively think about it?
8. Identify/not identify supporting information?
9. Recognize when you do not understand something?
10. Seek clarifying information when you don't understand something that seems
important?
11. Concentration on what you're listening to and shut out distractions?
12. Make conscious attempts to remember important information?
13. Listen carefully only when you are interested in the topic?
14. Translate what you hear into your own words?
Self-questioning about one's listening while listening is a good way to monitor or checkup on listening so it
can be improved. Almost everyone can benefit from being a better listener. Teachers should ask
themselves questions about how well they listen while their students are speaking, and students should
self-question about their listening to their teachers and to other students.
My Listening Strengths My Listening Weaknesses
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
Moore and Poppino (1983) emphasize two effective listening strategies: "reflecting the feeling" and
"paraphrasing". Teachers should take into account the emotional or affective states of the learner.
Sometimes a student is so upset that affective concerns must be addressed by the teacher before
teaching can continue. Once troubling emotions have been dealt with, the student's mind is free to deal
with learning.
The same principle applies to a whole class that might be upset about something.
Reflecting the feeling is a listening skill that conveys understanding and empathy to the speaker. It
involves the mental equivalent of "holding up a mirror" to the speaker so she/he becomes more aware
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of his or her emotional reactions and how they might be affecting the learning process. It does not mean
literally holding up a mirror. Often, by acknowledging a student's feelings through reflecting them back, a
teacher can refocus on the academic content targeted for the teaching session or postpone the session
until the student is more receptive to learning. (Moore & Poppino, 1983).
"Reflecting the Feeling"
WHAT: A listening strategy in which the listener verbally reflects the speaker's emotions.
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WHY: It is intended to address feelings that could interfere with learning. It helps the speaker become
more aware of his or her emotional reactions (especially negative) and the impact they have on him or
her.
HOW: Acknowledge the student's feelings by verifying your impression of what the student is feeling and
encouraging the student to talk about it. e.g. "So you're worried that you're going to get so anxious that
you'll forget everything you know, is that right? Or, "You look worried, what's wrong?"
Your own examples:__________________________________________
"Paraphrasing"
Paraphrasing is similar to reflecting feelings because it involves reflecting back what you heard or the
impression you get while listening. The 6PQ Method of Discovery Learning, described in Chapter 10,
systematically incorporates teacher paraphrases into this questioning technique. Paraphrase is an
important teaching strategy which teachers are not likely to use unless they have received formal training
in it (Sheets, 1994).
WHAT: Restating what the speaker said in your own words, focusing on the ideas, not the feelings.
WHY: It shows the student you were paying attention and understand what s/he said. It helps you stay
actively involved with the student, which encourages the student to continue working. It enables you to
check up on your comprehension and clarify or verify what was said. It enables you to reinforce the
student and build on the student's developing knowledge and understanding. Teachers and students can
paraphrase what was covered during a teaching session as a mid-session review or end of session
summary.
HOW: Translate what the student says into your own words. For example:
Student) "I think what I wrote in the third paragraph sounds like the opposite of what I wrote in the
second paragraph".
Teacher) "So you think there's an inconsistency in what you wrote at different points in your
essay?"
Your own examples:_________________________________________
Factors that Interfere with Listening
Why is it sometimes hard to be a good listener, even if you have good intentions? Many times our minds
wander and we just can't concentrate. What are some factors that affect your ability to be a good listener?
Several external and internal factors that interfere with listening have been identified.
I. External Causes
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A. Listening Environment
1. temperature of room
2. noise
3. visual distractions
B. Speaker 's Delivery

1. distracting gestures or mannerisms
2. volume, pitch, tone
3. pronunciation
4. length and complexity of sentences (structure not content)
C. Subject of Speaker's Message

1. content too simple
2. content is unfamiliar or difficult
3. contains irrelevant information
II. Internal Causes

A. Physical Condition of Listener
1. poor hearing
2. poor health
3. fatigue
4. hunger
5. anxiety
B. Lack of Concentration
C. Lack of Interest
1. laziness
2. "know it all" attitude
D. Inability to Determine What is Important
E. Not Follow and Anticipate Speaker's Line of Thought
F. Unselective Notetaking
G. Insufficient Eye Contact
H. Emotional Reaction to Message
1. get upset with what speaker is saying
2. allow prejudices and/or pre-established ideas to interfere with objective understanding of
speaker's message
I. Allow Oneself to Become Distracted by Speaker's Delivery and Other External Factors
Which of these factors are common listening interferences for you?
What Can be Done to Improve Listening?
The effective listening strategies identified above show teachers the types of listening activities they might
check up on (monitor), for both themselves and their students, while teaching. Results of checking
teachers' own and their students' listening can be used to plan teaching for more effective listening.
Teachers may want to videotape actual teaching in progress to more carefully examine the process and
for students to examine and assess their own listening and other teaching skills. The following model
summarizes some important aspects of listening.
O.C.E.A.N. Model
The "Focus on Listening" materials and O.C.E.A.N. model approach developed at Chemeketa Community
College are designed to help reduce internal and external interferences in the listening process. The
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model entails: Open channels of communication, Caring attitude, Empathy, Asking, and a
Non-judgmental attitude.
Open Channels of communication - expressed verbally and nonverbally

For example, smile and say enthusiastically "It's good to see you!".
Caring attitude. Student should know you are interested in her/his performance and progress.
For example, ask "How did you do on last night's homework?"
Empathy. Try to realize and understand how students might react differently from you and each other.
Express your understanding of how your student feels in particular situations.
For example, after privately being delighted your student received a "B" when you feared
he might get a "C" you can frown and say "I'm sorry you're disappointed you didn't get an "A".
Ask for suggestions on how to reduce interferences.
For example ask, " What do you think we could do so it's a little more quiet?"
Nonjudgmental attitude. Openmindedness helps listening while evaluations interfere with listening.
For example, before deciding that you think the student is developing a research topic in a
direction that is inconsistent with the assignment, withhold your judgement until you have heard the entire
plan. It is possible that the student will head in the right direction by the end of the student's description.
How might you use the information above and your own ideas to improve listening in your teaching in
general and to address the specific listening interferences you identified above?
Listening Problem Strategies for Addressing Listening Problems
Speaking Skills
What types of speaking occur in teaching?. What kinds of things do teachers talk about with students?
What kinds of things do students say in teaching situations? List in the spaces below some of the
common topics teachers and students speak about in a teaching session (for example, teachers often
give students feedback on their performance).
Teacher as Speaker Student as Speaker
There are several aspects of your speech which you should be aware of and try to fine tune when talking
with your students. Teachers are often aware of some aspects of the importance of the content or what
they say, but are often unaware of the importance of aspects relating to the style or how they
communicate.
Content issues include: selecting relevant versus irrelevant information, the quantity and degree of
completeness and specificity of information to be conveyed, and how the material is organized.
Style issues include: choice of vocabulary words, speed of speech, tone of voice, clarity of pronunciation,
volume of speech, eye contact, enthusiasm, and nonverbal communication.
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Teachers should listen more than they speak. Teaching should not be equated with telling or lecturing
to students about the material to be learned. Effective speaking in a teaching context is characterized by
the teacher acting as a coach who guides student learning – not a lecturer who fills students’ heads with
required information.
To be effective, speech should be adapted to the needs of the particular individuals and situation. See
cultural issues in communication for suggestions regarding effective speaking with students from
culturally different backgrounds.
Teaching can be improved by audiotaping some teaching sessions so teachers can hear how they come
across. When listening to such tapes teachers can ask themselves questions such as "To what extent did
I allow the students to speak without me interrupting? Did I allow enough "wait time" for students to think
silently about their answers before I asked for an answer or followed up with another question?"
Feedback
Jerome Bruner (1966) identifies important considerations to take into account when providing students
with feedback. He emphasizes the form and timing of feedback, including:
 Feedback should be presented in a way that is useful to the learner.
 Feedback should be timed carefully for maximum impact – given to students at a time and place
where the information you give them can be used to correct their mistakes or otherwise improve their
performance.
 The learner should be in an appropriate frame of mind for receiving feedback – not when in a
state of "high drive" or anxiety.
 For feedback to be used effectively, translate it into the learner's mode or way of thinking about
material or solving a problem.
 Avoid overloading the student with criticism. We all have limited capacities for taking in
information, especially criticism, so be selective and focus on the most important points rather than a
comprehensive account of all flaws at once.
 Structure feedback in a way that will encourage independent learning, so that students do not
become dependent upon the "perpetual presence of a teacher" (p. 53). For example, instead of telling
students the correct answer, pose a question which will lead students to think in the correct direction and
find the answer on their own.
Create your own examples of these principles and share them with others. Give and receive feedback on
the examples.
Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication or "body language" can be described as the idea that it's not what one says, but
what one shows through subtle, often unconscious, physical messages that captures the essence of
nonverbal communication. Body movements – facial expressions, arms, legs, posture, and even styles of
hair and dress send out cues to others which reflect the communicator’s emotional reactions in social
situations. Research has shown that nonverbal communication is often affected by gender and by the
status of the people engaged in communication. Typically, higher status individuals, like teachers, reveal
more assertiveness in their nonverbal communication than do lower status individuals, like students being
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taught, who reveal more passivity and subjugation. A similar pattern occurs depending upon gender –
males typically reflecting assertiveness and females typically reflecting passivity and subjugation.
However, these patterns are generalizations and do not take into account cultural and individual factors
which affect nonverbal communication. Research suggests that there is striking consistency in many
messages conveyed nonverbally by people from different cultural backgrounds (Beier and Gill, 1974).
Research also shows that people are not always aware of the signals they send out nonverbally.
Sometimes people intend to send one message but actually convey a different one.
Teachers should try to pick up on nonverbal messages communicated by students. They should
also be aware of and control the nonverbal signals they send to their students. A writing teacher (Irvine
1994, p. 140) observes, "Although I have learned to bite my tongue and control my enthusiasm for my
own ideas, I can never control my feelings completely. In fact, my attitudes come across loud and clear: I
flinch involuntarily at ideas I dislike; I nod my head wildly when the student feeds me a line I like".
Do you know how and what you communicate nonverbally? How sensitive are you to nonverbal
communication of others? What types of nonverbal cues do you tend to pick up? How do you use this
information? How might teacher smiles and chuckles be used effectively while working with a tutee? How
might they interfere with teaching? What do you generally think when you see someone yawn? How do
you think a tutee might feel about a teacher yawning?
Cultural Issues in Communication

In many teaching situations the teacher and student bring with them a set of communication habits, values
and perspectives which are influenced by their cultural backgrounds. Students born and raised with
values from the "mainstream", white, middle class culture in the U.S.A. are often used to asking questions
and often take somewhat of an active role in learning. Many students from other cultural backgrounds are
raised with a different set of traditions. Students from some cultural backgrounds are more used to a
passive role in learning and are not comfortable asking questions of their instructors. Teachers should
avoid assuming that the students they teacher have the same communication habits, values and
perspectives that they do. Similarly, teachers should avoid assuming that all students from any particular
cultural/ethnic background will have the same values, habits and perspectives. As a teacher you should
try to understand each student as an individual. Sometimes limited English speaking ability and heavy
accents can interfere with teaching success. Teachers working with English as a Second Language
students need to be especially sensitive to cultural issues in communication.
Tutoring/Teaching Writing of ESL Students

Research shows that not all writing problems are a result of the influence of the first language transferring
over to learning the second. Cognitive development, prior language and/or writing instruction and
experience are also important factors. Harris (1993) emphasizes that ESL teachers need to remember
that not all problems are a result of the native language interfering with learning English and that not all
students from the same background will have the same problems or cultural preferences associated with
their group.
Research on ESL writers suggests teachers can help students with the composing process by: 1.
including more work on planning, such as generating ideas and figuring out how to structure the text to
make writing more manageable; 2. having students write in stages, with each draft having a different
focus, such as content and organization in one, and linguistic issues in another; and 3. providing realistic
strategies for revising and editing, and keeping these two processes separate All three strategies help
students slow down the writing process. Whereas native speakers of a language have intuition about
"what sounds good", often second language learners, especially those with lower levels of proficiency, do
not have this intuition. As a result, they may be interested in learning explicit grammar rules. Sometimes
students get preoccupied with such rules, even when they are not the focal points of the writing program .
Common ESL writing errors are with verbs, nouns, articles and prepositions. See Harris for more details.
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Many ESL teachers do not have enough background in grammar to clearly explain such rules. When
tutoring/teaching native speakers in writing, teachers can often elicit grammar rules from students. In
contrast, ESL students often have not had enough previous English language instruction or experience to
draw on their prior knowledge and need to have some rules explained to them. Teachers may find it more
useful to emphasize teaching students how to communicate clearly and de-emphasize specific rules.
When tutees argue about this approach, teachers can try to adjust the tutees expectations and help them
understand that it is unrealistic to expect them to write like native speakers of English, with all grammar
correct (Harris, 1993).
Many students resist proofreading their papers, hoping teachers will do that for them. Teachers should
encourage students to proofread their own papers and resist student pressure to find and fix all their
mistakes; "... teachers are supposed to be educators, not personal editors (Harris p. 531).
Tutoring/teaching writing is intended to make better writers, not to make better papers.
Teachers can help student more if they are aware of their own strengths and weaknesses in English and
be willing to admit when they need more information. ESL teachers should be prepared for occasional
resistance. Not all students are in ESL or ESL tutoring/teaching willingly. Some have little if any desire to
improve their English. Some have no opportunity to practice English once they return home.
ESL teachers should know the academic priorities of the ESL program in general and of their students'
specific instructors. Is the program more concerned with writing than speaking? Does the program
emphasize the development of all language skills? How are students supposed to acquire them all? In
writing, is the teacher more concerned with fluency and clarity or with grammatical correctness? What
types of reading and writing assignments will students have? What are their deadlines? Will the teacher
make specific referrals to teachers and provide followup feedback?
Harris found that ESL tutors are often unprepared to deal with their students' different patterns of
grammatical errors and rhetoric. Teachers can help students most by prioritizing among students' errors
and focus on one or two at a time. It helps to set specific goals for each tutoring/teaching session. Harris
recommends providing teachers with a hierarchy so they can select the most important areas to focus on
in a session. For example, errors that interfere with the reader's understanding (global errors) are more
serious than minor grammatical errors (local errors). She also recommends teachers start from students'
strengths, find and acknowledge what they did well in writing their paper and move on from there.
ESL teachers can benefit by increasing their awareness of patterns of English errors students tend to
make because of the influence of their native language. Contrastive analysis, which highlights differences
between native and second languages, provides many useful insights by identifying such systematic
differences. Lay's (1991) Contrastive Guide To Teach English to Chinese Students describes such
differences and how to address them. For example, many Asian students have difficulties with definite
and indefinite articles. In Chinese, both definite and indefinite articles are nonexistent. Sometimes Chinese
students have trouble learning to use them and articles tend to be omitted when they are needed and
inserted when they aren't. Based on analyses of Chinese students' writing in English, Lay developed a
composition checklist to help address such problems. The section of the checklist that deals with articles
identifies several aspects of a paper to check for definite and indefinite articles, including whether they
are missing in front of concrete nouns, abstract nouns and before adjectives.
Consider your own writing checklist. How might it differ depending upon the student's native language?
Teachers need to speak and listen very carefully when working with students from culturally different
backgrounds. In addition to cultural backgrounds influencing verbal interactions, they can also affect
nonverbal communication. Even the physical proximity of a student and teacher working together, and
physical gestures, like a pat on the back, can be affected by cultural background. Some cultures are used
to working in close physical proximity and to using touch in communication. In some cases, people from
other cultures are more comfortable with greater physical space between them and are uncomfortable
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with touching. Again, do not make assumptions, but try to tune into your own communication patterns as
well as the reactions of each individual you teacher. Should teachers use "politically correct" language
with students or should they use whatever language they are comfortable with? For example, how might a
female tutee respond to her teacher referring to her as a girl rather than a woman? How might an African-
American student feel if referred to as "colored"?
Cultural differences in communication can directly impact on understanding content in teaching. For
example, when a teacher listened to her culturally different student reading a Langston Hughes poem
aloud, she noticed that the student's rhythms and intonations were completely different than her own
(Town, 1994). Subtle differences can obscure important aspects of meaning.
As a result of cultural differences, college students and their instructors often encounter a
communication gap between teaching styles and students’ natural learning styles. As instructors
observe differences they sometimes misinterpret them as deficiencies. Make sure you do not make that
mistake when teaching.
Try to record a teaching session on video or audio tape to analyze your own communication patterns
(verbal and nonverbal) as well as those of your students. Obviously, videotapes are better for examining
nonverbal communication. What are your strengths and weaknesses? Does anything surprise you about
how you communicate? How is your communication consistent and inconsistent with your students? How
could you improve your communication to be more in tune with your students?
Communication Breakdown and Repair

teacher) So how was yesterday's lecture?
student) It was a disaster. I left early.
teacher) What do you mean?
student) The speaker was driving me crazy. I couldn't concentrate on what I was supposed to be learning
so I left.
teacher) Just because you didn't like him? I'm disappointed in you. You can't let your personal biases
interfere with learning what you need to learn.
student, a bit annoyed) What are you talking about?
teacher) You're not going to like every speaker you get in every lecture. You have to be more tolerant for
your own good. Maybe that stuff will be on a test.
student) The woman who was giving the lecture wasn't the problem. I couldn't hear the
electric speaker because there was a break in the wire. All the seats up front were filled. That's why I left,
I couldn't understand what she was saying and the crackling, broken sound was driving me crazy! I'll get
the notes from a friend who was sitting up front.
What happened in the scene above? Why? Has this type of communication experience ever happened
to you? What are the dangers of miscommunication? Miscommunication can be a major stumbling block
in learning. In order to communicate effectively, a person must be aware of her/his own strengths and
weaknesses in speaking and listening.
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Recognizing Communication Problems
The biggest danger in miscommunication is not knowing it has occurred. People are not always aware
when misunderstanding occurs. They often believe they have effectively communicated the message
they want to send when in fact the message did not come through as intended. People sometimes hear
what they expected to hear despite what was actually said. Lack of understanding can occur as a result of
incomplete information; ambiguous, vague or confusing words and concepts;. inconsistent, conflicting
information; and erroneous information. Teachers and students should learn to monitor or check up on
the communications they send and receive to catch communication problems when they occur. It's easier
to clarify understanding if a problem has been detected! Awareness of the breakdown of understanding
is the first step, and it paves the way for the second step, repair of understanding through clarification.
What were the causes of the communication breakdown in the example above?
What can teachers do to help themselves and their students become aware when comprehension has
broken down? There are at least three strategies for recognizing problems of meaning.
1. Independent Recognition. Check up on their own understanding and be alert to the possibilities
of misunderstanding. Without the benefit of feedback from an outside source, by using one's own
knowledge and reasoning when examining the information in its context, the comprehension breakdown
can emerge. In the sample dialogue above, the teacher could have realized that the word "speaker" was
ambiguous in the context and could have asked the student a clarifying question.
2. Disconfirmation. Analyze information from other sources and look for feedback that
specifically invalidates or validates one's interpretation, to stimulate recognition of misunderstanding. In
the example above, when the teacher communicated the interpretation that the student left because of
the lecturer, and that interpretation was invalidated, showing that misunderstanding had occurred.
3. Relational Recognition. Look at information as a network of relationships instead as separate
pieces. Use knowledge from related units of information to elaborate on and clarify understanding. For
example, if the teacher knew the student was in the back of a lecture hall and needed amplified sound to
hear the lecturer, the student might have realized that speaker could have meant something other than the
lecturer. This awareness involves understanding information in its particular context.
Clarifying
Clarification can occur by using your own internal resources - when you figure something out for
yourself, or externally, when you seek information from outside sources . If you're alone or in a situation
where you can't communicate with anyone, you're dependent upon your ability to clarify internally.
Strategies for figuring out what something means on your own .include self-testing the implications of
possible interpretations "If she means.... then..... but if she means...then... ,examining the context of the
communication for relevant clues, activating prior knowledge that may be useful in general or in the
specific situation, and selectively combining this information to apply to the specific situation. For
example, in the teaching scenario above, if the teacher recalled his own experience in the large lecture
hall he might have remembered that occasionally he had similar problems understanding the lecturer. He
might have been less hasty in jumping to the conclusion that the student let personal biases interfere with
learning. He might have asked a clarifying question, such as "What speaker are you referring to?"
Internally clarifying is important for independent thinking and learning. Sometimes external sources of
information just aren't available and sometimes the sources available may not be trustworthy.
When understanding breaks down, verifying is an effective strategy that can be used to clarify confusion.
Verifying involves paraphrasing and testing your interpretation of what someone communicated.
Verification tells whether your interpretation is right or wrong. It checks on your understanding of what
was communicated. For example: "Do you mean that you forgot to write a conclusion to your essay?". In
this case, the answer is "No ". This is a closed question because it only elicits a one-word answered. If
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the interpretation turns out to be correct, verifying is an efficient strategy to use. The student may or may
not specify which parts of the interpretation are right and wrong. If the answer is wrong, followup is
needed.
What might be a good followup question ?_______________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Asking someone a question is an example of using an external source of information to clarify

understanding. So is using a dictionary. Research suggests that when asking clarifying questions, it's
generally better to ask more open-ended questions, "What did you mean about the problem you had with
the conclusion of your essay?" "I mean I forgot what I was supposed to include in the conclusion. I wrote
a conclusion but didn't put the right stuff in it. The problem was that I wrote the conclusion based on what I
remembered the assignment to be, but didn't check the directions on the handout. As a result, I left out
most of the points I was supposed to address in the conclusion." Open-ended questions elicit more
information, which enhances understanding.
How would you know if there have been any comprehension breakdowns for you in what you read so far?
Following Directions
How well do you follow directions? One of the most common communication problems in academic
situations is the failure to follow directions. Many times, if you examine a student's wrong answer, you will
find that it is the "right" answer to the "wrong question". Students tend to misinterpret communications to
say what they expected or hoped they would be asked rather than focusing on what is actually asked. This
communication problem happens on all types of tasks: objective tests, essay tests, questions in class, in-
class learning activities, research projects and homework assignments.
What Is The Topic?

Misinterpretation is a prevalent problem in practically all subjects, from determining a specific essay topic,
to understanding what's being asked on a multiple choice item, to identifying a math problem to be solved.
Students can learn techniques which will help them correctly identify the specific topic they need to
address. These techniques require students to carefully analyze the information provided, ask and
answer appropriate questions about it to clarify the meaning, and integrate this information with their prior
knowledge.
Students should know that there are just a few different basic types of essays, and should know the
characteristics of each. Record your thoughts about these characteristics in the spaces below and
compare your responses with others.
Type of Essay Characteristics

Descriptive
Persuasive
Narrative
Explanatory
Point of view
The following are sample self-questions students should learn to ask to help them clarify the writing task :
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What is the topic?
What do I know about this topic?
What are the most important parts?
Does this all make sense?
How do the parts fit together?
What might be other useful self questions?
Teachers can help students learn to analyze the topic through several strategies. Students can
paraphrase the topic to clarify its meaning and compare their paraphrase to the original topic statement. It
is often useful to break a complex topic into parts, determine the relationships between the parts, and
understand how the parts relate to the whole. It is also important for students to learn to differentiate
relevant from irrelevant information, and major from minor ideas. Students should form initial hypotheses
about the meaning, but avoid jumping to conclusions. They should not simply "assume" they are right, but
should continually verify, revise or reject initial interpretations. Key words and phrases can be used as
clues, like words and phrases including in contrast, however, eventually, caused, at first, similar, and
after.
Try out the following activity. It is a special set of tasks designed to see how good you are at following
directions. Get a piece of paper to work on them.
1. Read all the directions before doing anything else.

2. Write your name in the upper left hand corner of the paper.
3. Fold the paper in half, length-wise.
4. Write your name on the outside of the folded paper.
5. Print the letters of the alphabet beneath your name.
6. Add these numbers and write the sum underneath the alphabet: 3, 35, 9, 95, 308.
7. Open up the paper and write your teacher's name in the upper right hand corner.
8. Write today's date under your teacher's name.
9.Put the paper on the floor.
10. Do not do anything asked for in two through nine. Do not say anything. Raise
both hands high and smile.
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name_________________________________
Part 1 Comprehension monitoring and clarifying
What has been the hardest part of this textbook to understand so far? Did you clarify anything that
was confusing? If so, how?
Part 2 Identify five ideas from this chapter you might use in your teaching. Tell what each idea is, why
you
might use it, and how you might use it.
WHAT WHY HOW

1.
________________________________________________________________________________
2
________________________________________________________________________________
3
________________________________________________________________________________
4
________________________________________________________________________________
5
________________________________________________________________________________
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Chapter 6 Tutoring Intelligently

This chapter introduces many of the tutoring principles and strategies that are developed in the
rest of the book. Included are the goals of tutoring, characteristics of good tutors and good students,
tutors' responsibilities, and ethical issues in tutoring. The chapter gives suggestions for getting started
with the first tutoring session, describes what students need in tutoring, a summary of characteristics of
a successful tutoring environment and strategies for tutoring management.
GOALS OF TUTORING
1. Independent, Self-Directed Learners

The highest level goal of tutoring is to develop students who no longer require it!
Intelligent tutoring is not a quick fix or a bandaid approach to improving student achievement. That is, it
does not involve simply telling a student what is wrong and giving the correct answer to the student.
Intelligent tutoring is designed to help tutees become more responsible for and more effective
managers of their own thinking and learning . "When collaboration ends, the student's liberation
begins"(Cintron, 1994 p. 109). This goal and strategies for achieving it are discussed in more depth in
Chapter 7.
2. Active Involvement in Learning Process

Students need to be actively engaged in the learning process. Passively watching a tutor solve
a problem or listening to a tutor's explanation of how to revise a paper will not help tutees in the long
run. For learning to be meaningful and longlasting, student participation is essential. Meaningfulness is
best constructed through the learner's own actions. Tutors should guide students in doing their own
work, e.g. solving their own problems and in revising their own papers. Active learning strategies are
described in Chapters 3 - 8. For tutoring techniques that require active learning see Chapters 12-14.
.
3. Content Knowledge
Learning subject matter is the primary objective of many students in tutoring. Tutors are not
mini-professors, so you are not expected to know everything, or to give lectures on topics that haven't
been covered in the course yet. Tutors should focus on material students are already expected to know
and should not be embarrassed by consulting with another tutor, a text, or asking the tutoring director.
There are three categories of content learning : adding to it, refining it, and changing it
(Rummelhart and Norman, 1978). Often tutees need to learn concepts they missed when their teacher
went over it in class. Sometimes tutees do not read their texts, or do not read it effectively enough to
acquire all the important information. So one thing you will do as a tutor is add to students' content
knowledge base. For example, a student learning to read better may know that it is important to try to
understand what is being read, but may not know that it is also important to check up on or monitor
understanding of what is read.
A second type of work on content tutors do is to refine tutees' existing knowledge. In this case, the
tutee has the basic ideas, but they need to be fine tuned, clarified or elaborated. For example, a student
learning to compute the average may know you have to add all the numbers and divide, but may not
know what number to divide by.
A third type of work on content tutors will encounter is to change a student's information. Students
often have misconceptions that interfere with learning. Tutors must help students identify such invalid
information and replace it with valid conceptions. For example, math students may know they have to
multiply sets of numbers separated by parentheses, but may believe they can be multiplied in any
order, and may not know that the inner most parentheses must be multiplied first. Or, a student might
know the terms osmosis and diffusion, but might have the definitions mixed up with each other.
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4. Intellectual Skill Development
Tutors should try to help improve students' academic skills at the same time they are developing
content knowledge. The better students are at thinking, learning and studying, the more easily they will
grasp and remember content. Tutees often think that if they just work harder, meaning longer hours and
more concentration, they will do much better in their schoolwork. However, if students devote more time
to using ineffective strategies, they are likely to learn little and become very frustrated. More is not
necessarily better. Sometimes instead of studying "harder", they need to study "smarter".
5. Attitudes that Foster Thinking and Learning

All the knowledge and well-developed skills in the world will not guarantee success. Tutors need
to cultivate attitudes that enable students to use the knowledge and skills they have acquired. They also
need to develop tutees emotionally so they are likely to persist even when confronted with difficulty,
frustration, or boredom. Finally, tutors should help students feel responsible for and control over their own
learning.
6. Transfer
Transfer means applying what is learned to situations that differ, at least a little, from the initial
learning situation. In positive transfer, earlier learning aids later learning. For example, knowing how to
type on a typewriter aids learning to use a keyboard on a computer. Knowing how to add can make it
easier to learn to multiply. In negative transfer, earlier learning interferes with later learning. For example,
being accustomed to using footbrakes on a bicycle can make it harder to learn to use a handbrake. In
zero transfer, earlier learning has no effect on later learning. For example, knowing how to speak Russian
has no effect on learning to play the piano. Tutors should try to promote as much positive transfer as
possible. Tutors can teach students to apply what they learn to the same subject area, to different
subjects, to everyday life and to future professional situations.
ROLES & RESPONSIBILITIES
1. BLEND PROFESSIONAL & PERSONAL RELATIONSHIP. As a fellow student, you are a peer of your
tutee and a collaborator, which can help create a friendly, personal relationship. As a tutor, you are a
teacher of your tutee, which is a professional relationship. Sometimes there is subtle but strong conflict
between these roles. It is very important for tutors to maintain their professionalism when tutoring. Be
friendly, and blend academic assistance with friendship. But save very close friendships with tutees until
after the tutoring relationship has ended.
2. POSITIVE EXPECTATIONS. Convey the message that students can and will learn what they need to
learn. Tutor's confidence in students helps students have more confidence in themselves. If a tutor
"secretly" expects a tutee to have difficulty with a task or fail a test, the tutee is likely to pick up on
unconscious signals the tutor unknowingly gives and is likely to internalize this expectation. Often this
results in a "self-fulfilling prophesy" of failure. It is more constructive for a tutor to view a tutee as a
student who wants to get ahead instead of stereotypically perceiving a student who seeks help as "dumb"
(Harris, 1994). How can you communicate verbally and nonverbally that you expect tutees to succeed?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. BE PATIENT. This is probably the single best piece of advice for tutoring. Students need to work at
their own pace and often progress is a long, slow process. Students learn in different ways and at
different rates. Faster is not necessarily better! A student who has struggled with learning something may
learn more deeply and long lasting than a student who has breezed through an academic task. If you are
impatient with students, they are likely to become impatient with themselves, and as a result, quit working
before they have had a realistic chance to succeed at their own pace. Regularly tune into individual
differences in your students so you can effectively identify their individual needs and provide the
appropriate instructional techniques. Don't ASSuME what works for you should work for someone else, or
that what works with one student should work for another. (The bold, capitalized and underlined letters in
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the last sentence represent the old saying "When you assume you make an ass of you and me").
4. AVOID TELLING: GUIDE OR COACH. A tutor is not supposed to be just another lecturer about
academic content. Tutoring is more of a coaching process. Just as a coach doesn't play a sport, but helps
players learn to play better themselves, a tutor doesn't do academic work for a student, but helps students
learn and think about the material better themselves. Be prepared for student resistance to this approach,
and be confident when refusing to be pressured by requests or demands for you to spoonfeed them
answers.
5. AVOID ABSENCES AND LATENESS. Tutoring should be scheduled at a time the tutor can be sure
she/he can regularly arrive on time. Absence and lateness communicate the message that the tutor
doesn't care very much about the student or the tutoring session. Also, the tutor is a role model for the
tutee, and as such should model exemplary professional conduct.
6. EMPHASIZE MUTUAL RESPECT Both tutors and tutees are responsible for being courteous and
respectful of each other. Insulting or humiliating statements should not be tolerated by anyone. Everyone
has a right to be treated with dignity. Sometimes people use insults or "humorous" sarcastic remarks to
stimulate others to change. This strategy is more likely to be destructive to the person's self esteem in
general and to their self concept in the subject area. It is likely to stimulate less effort in the subject - not
change in the desired direction. Communication is very important in tutoring - including what is said, how
it is said, and how people listen to each other.
7. PREPARE FOR TUTORING. The tutor should prepare for the session - in advance, for scheduled
tutoring sessions and on-the-spot for drop-in tutoring. Preparation includes thinking about how to
approach a situation and having the necessary materials available. It is discussed in more detail in
Chapter 5. Preparation also includes knowing what resources are available at the learning center to give
to students, for example handouts on time management or test taking skills. Tutees also have
responsibilities to tutors. It's the tutee's responsibility to do her/his own work and the tutor's responsibility
to help by coaching. It's the tutee's responsibility to take an active role in his or her own learning and not
just passively listen to and watch the tutor. It's also the tutee's responsibility to come to the session
prepared, with the appropriate assignments, books, classnotes, and papers.
8. KNOW WHEN & HOW TO MAKE REFERRALS. In some cases a tutor has a tutee who has problems
beyond those that can be successfully addressed in tutoring. These problems might be personal, social or
academic. Tutors can't and shouldn't try to solve all of their tutees' problems. It's important for tutors to
know what resources are available at the institution other than tutoring. Is there a counseling or
psychotherapy center? Is there a drug and alcohol program? Is there a learning disabilities specialist?
Where can the student find out about financial aid?" Tutor trainers and directors can help tutors identify
campus resources and make appropriate referrals.
9. USE INSTRUCTORS AS RESOURCES. Tutoring may be at its best when it effectively dovetails with
classroom learning. Talking directly to a tutee's instructor can help make this happen. Sometimes it helps
for a tutor to know exactly what was assigned when are important due dates. Some instructors give tutors
guidance on what concepts to emphasize in tutoring and on preferred methods or approaches to be used.
Tutors often find it useful to see a class syllabus for an overview of the course, to know when tests will be
given, and what kinds of tests students will have. Occasionally it may be important to talk about specific
problems students are having. Instructors can also clarify areas of confusion and help tutors develop a
deeper understanding of the content.
Is there anything you don't understand in the section above? How might you clarify it?
Tutoring Principles
The following twelve principles are from research on instruction relevant for one-on-one teaching (
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adapted from McKeachie, 1994 p. 173-175):
1. Students are helped by a model of the desired performance. This may be provided by a tutor
demonstrating the technique, by a videotape, or by observation of a skilled performer. Positive examples
usually help more than examples of what not to do but examples of what not to do are useful as
supplemental information. When tutors demonstrate how to do execute a procedure, they should direct
the student's attention to crucial aspects of the technique.
2. Students are helped by verbal cues or labels that identify key features of the skill or concept.
Irrelevant details are generally distracting.
3. "Bare bones," simplified simulations or demonstrations are more useful as starting points than
complex real-life situations which may overwhelm the student with too many details. Sometimes less is
more; less information can enable more meaningful learning. Tutors sometimes err by giving students
more information than they can really use at the time. Because students can't always tell what's important
and what's not, they tend to treat all information as equally important. As a result they often try to
memorize everything instead of understand the most important points.
4. Give students the maximum freedom to experience successful completion of a task or a part of
a task. However, provide enough guidance so that they will not get bogged down in a rut of errors. This
implies that the learning experiences of students go from the simple to complex, with the steps so
ordered that each new problem can be successfully solved. Tutors should carefully think through the
components of an academic task and the sequence of learning activities for successful completion of
each component. This type of analysis can help ensure student success on the task as a whole.
5. Students need practice with feedback.
6. Feedback from the instructor or from peers may provide more information than the student can
assimilate. Be selective about what feedback is given. Don't try to correct everything on the first trial.
7. Feedback can discourage students. Try to provide some encouraging feedback as well as
identification of mistakes. If students feel overwhelmed with criticism they may not use the most important
feedback to improve their performance.
8. Feedback that identifies errors won't help if the learner doesn't know what to do to avoid the
errors. Give guidance for self correction so the learner knows. what to try next.
9. Extensive practice is needed to develop high-level skills. Simply reaching the point of successful
performance once is not likely to achieve the degree of organization and automaticity needed for
consistent success.
10. Practice with varied examples is likely to be both more motivating and more likely to transfer to
out-of-class performance than is simple drill and repetition.
11. Coaching is not simply one-way telling and criticizing. It is also important to ask the learners
about their perceptions of what they are doing and help them evaluate their own performance. In teaching
self-evaluation, model the sort of analysis needed. As you evaluate your work, think aloud as you go
through the process you are using and the basis for your evaluation. Like other skills self-evaluation is
learned by practice with feedback. Thus students need many opportunities for self evaluation with
feedback about their evaluation as well as about the work being evaluated.
12. Peers can help one another. You don't need to monitor everyone all of the time.
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Getting Started: The First Tutoring Session

Develop rapport. Before helping a student with academics it is best to establish a friendly
relationship so the student has a positive attitude toward your assistance. In the first tutoring session
rapport can be established by how you introduce yourself to the student and what you try to learn about his
or her own background and needs. Put the student at ease. S/he is likely to be much more anxious about
tutoring than the tutor. The student needs to feel you care about him or her as a whole person, not just a
student with a learning need, and that you're not just putting in time doing a job.
Self-disclosure can promote feelings of friendship and intimacy. Find out about the student's background
and share yours. Ask questions such as: How are you doing in this subject? Can I see your notes? How
are you doing reading your textbook? How much and how do you study for this subject? Do you have any
tests coming up? Do you know how you will be tested? Avoid jumping to conclusions, falling for cultural
stereotypes and making assumptions about tutees.
The student may be especially interested in knowing if you have ever been tutored yourself. If you are
working in a tutoring program with regularly scheduled tutoring sessions with the same tutee, a friendly
relationship will be easier to establish than if you are working in a drop-in tutoring setting where you do not
regularly see a particular student. However, it is important to establish rapport at the beginning of each
session regardless of the tutoring setting.
Clarify expectations. Make sure the tutee understands your role and what you expect from him or
her. Tutees sometimes have a misunderstanding about the nature of effective tutoring, and expect the
tutor to just tell them the answers or actually do work for them. For example, a tutee might expect a tutor
to actually solve a problem or correct mistakes in a paper rather than guide the student to solve the
problem or correct her or his own mistakes. Tutees sometimes also expect a tutor to be a "mini-
professors or subject-area expert" when a tutor's role is really more like a coach. If you have a regular
appointment with a student, trade phone numbers so you can inform each other if you are going to be
absent or late. Let the student know if you are going to expect him or her to bring specific materials to
the tutoring session. Make sure the student understands that your relationship is confidential and that you
will not share intimate details with others. If you are doing group tutoring, let students know you expect
each of them to participate and how you expect them to work together.
Establish goals. Determine what the student wants or needs to work on. Take a broad view of
your tutoring goals, focusing on content to be learned, developing academic skills and enhancing positive
attitudes. Try to establish both short and long-term goals. Identify strategies for determining when those
goals have been achieved. Tutors may need to negotiate agreements with their tutees. For example,
Michael might say his goal is to get at least a "B" on the math test, while the tutor's goal might be for
Michael to develop a better overall strategy for preparing for math tests.
Integrated Learning Model

Schmelzer, Brozo and Stahl (1985) train tutors in the Integrated Learning Model (ILM) in order to help
tutors identify the cause of their students' learning problems. Once identified, tutors can help their tutees
develop study skills to overcome these problems. The model consists of five phases: preparation, input,
processing, storage and output. In training, tutors brainstorm questions that could be asked for each of the
five phases.
What follows is a brief summary of components of each phase and sample key questions.
1. Preparation. This phase includes attention to students' physiological needs, their study environment,
learning style and time management. Key questions include, "Are you getting enough sleep? Do you
know how you learn best? and Do you find you don't have enough time to complete assignments?
2. Input. This phase includes purpose for reading, vocabulary, graphic materials, listening,
notetaking and reference skills. Key questions include: Do you determine your purpose before reading?
Do you have trouble understanding charts or graphs? What kind of notetaking system do you use?
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3. Processing. This phase includes: levels of understanding, study reading, reading
flexibility and student self-generated questions. Key questions include: Can you identify the main ideas in
a lecture and textbook? Can you put ideas into your own words after hearing or reading them? Do you
use a study reading technique such as PREP or SQ3R when reading textbooks? Do you adjust your
reading style to fit your purpose?
4. Storage This phase includes: techniques for memory and preparing for exams. Key questions include:
Do you review just before tests or regularly? Do you use memory and mnemonic devices when needed?
Do you have a system of preparing for exams?
5. Output. This phase includes writing and exam skills. Key questions include: Do you have trouble
expressing your ideas in writing? Do you find out in advance what kind of test you will be taking? Do you
pace yourself when taking an exam? Are you familiar with basic testwiseness clues?
Discuss with others how tutors might use this model overall and each specific phase to diagnose students'
learning problems.
Characteristics of Ideal Tutors
Close your eyes and imagine yourself going to someone to get tutored in a subject you are having
difficulty grasping to your level of satisfaction. Picture how it feels to go and get the help you need.
Consider what you want to get out of the session. Try to visualize the teachers (including tutors, parents,
relatives, religious leaders) who have had an impact on you. What made those teachers special? What
did they do for you as a student? To what extent were they sensitive to your individual needs? How do
you think those teachers acted as professionals? How and to what extent do you think they planned what
and how they would teach, checked up on how things were going during instruction, and evaluated the
lesson and their teaching? Sternberg's (1985) triarchic theory of intelligence suggests that intelligent
tutoring involves such thinking, either on a conscious or unconscious level. Professionals often internalize
such thinking processes and use them automatically, without conscious awareness.
Brainstorm a list of behaviors, attitudes, skills, knowledge etc. a good tutor would have. Enter
your ideas, in the order they emerge, into the space below.
Effective Tutoring
Your next activity will be reading and interpreting a series of six statements related to tutoring. It
involves applying some of what has been discussed so far in this book. Four of the statements represent
a tutor's thoughts; the other two statements focus on a student's thoughts. Your task is to determine what
principle of effective tutoring is reflected by each statement.
What principle(s) of effective tutoring is(are) reflected by each of the items below? The first four
items focus on the tutor's thoughts; the last two focus on the student's thoughts. Explain the principle(s)
of tutoring in the best way you know how, in your own words. Don't worry about using formal terms to
express your ideas. There is more than one right answer for several of the items.
(T) 1, What does he already know about that concept?
(T) 2. Am I listening carefully enough to figure out where s/he's going wrong?
(T) 3. a. Why is this concept confusing him/her?

b. How does s/he feel about being able to solve this problem?
c. What are her/his learning/thinking skill strengths and weaknesses?
(T) 4. How will I get her/him to apply this concept to:

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a. something else in this course
b. another course
c. everyday life
d. future professional situations
(S) 5. I thought the tutor would tell me the answers to my questions, but I'm telling her!
(S) 6. She's tutoring herself out of a job. Before long, I won't need tutoring, I'll be able to do this on my
own!
Characteristics of Ideal Students
Close your eyes and imagine yourself sitting with the best student you could imagine tutoring.
What nonverbal information might you get from that student during a tutoring session? For example, what
facial expressions might you see if the student is confused? How would that student handle confusion?
What kinds of questions might that student ask? What attitudes might you see in this student? What
motivates her/him? How does she/he feel about his/her likelihood of success? Imagine how that student
reacts when faced with a difficult task What study skills and habits would characterize this student? How
conscientious is the student in keeping up with assignments? Fill in the space below to represent your
image of an ideal student.
Successful students in peer learning situations do the following things. They admit confusion, question,
reveal misconceptions explain, and express their opinions. Additionally they listen to their peers, share
information to clarify their conceptions, and question their opinions (McKeachie, 1994).
Characteristics of Adult Learners

Does it make any difference if a tutor is tutoring adults as opposed to children? How do adult learners
generally differ from high school students? How do college students fresh out of high school differ from
students who are returning after being away from school for several years?
Many adult learners today must balance their academic lives with family responsibilities and jobs.
Sometimes there are conflicting priorities. How might that affect their academic work in general? How
might it affect tutoring?
Knowles (1978)identified six areas in which adults and children tend to differ as learners.
1) Need to Know. Whereas children tend to define what they need to know in terms of what the teacher
wants them to know, adults tend to define what they need to know in terms of what they themselves feel
they need to know. What are the implications of this point for tutoring?
2) Self Concept. According to Knowles, a child's self concept is characterized as a dependent learner,
who needs a teacher to learn. In contrast, an adult learner's self concept is one of a self-directed learner
who can generally self-teach. What are the implications of this point for tutoring?
3) Role of Experience. Because children have relatively limited past experience they do not have as many
resources for teachers to draw on to guide self-discovery and so teachers generally must transmit
information to students. Adults have considerably more experience which teachers can and should use as
building blocks for new material. Relevant background knowledge and experience should be elicited from
adult learners. What are the implications of this point for tutoring?
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4) Readiness to Learn. Children are generally comfortable when the teacher structures the timing of how
long to spend working on an academic task. Adults, however, generally prefer to make time management
decisions on their own. They are more comfortable self-pacing that going by someone else's schedule.
What are the implications of this point for tutoring?
5) Orientation to Learning. When children think about academic work, they tend to focus on it with
reference to the particular subject area, such as history. When adults think about academic work they
tend to center on specific problems or tasks. What are the implications of this point for tutoring?
6) Motivation. Parents and teachers, or extrinsic (external) factors have the strongest motivating impact on
children. Learners' own interests, or intrinsic (internal) factors have the greatest impact on their
motivation. What are the implications of this point for tutoring?
In addition to these psychological factors that affect adult learners, Arkin and Shollar (1983) note
there are physiological differences between adults and children that tutors should take into account.
Vision, hearing, energy, and ability to concentrate may be weaker in adult learners than children. Older
students may also have more disabilities and illnesses. Arkin and Shollar suggest that tutors vary the rate
and presentation of material, and try to prevent such adult learners from having to strain to see or hear
information to be learned.
Besides having problems of conflicting priorities due to trying to juggle family, work and academic
responsibilities, some adult learners have the added difficulty of their education establishing discontinuity
in their lives "...because it threatens to cut them off from their past culture, class, and roots, even as it
links them to the larger society and to the future" (Arkin and Shollar, 1983, p. 271). Rather than
supporting family members trying to improve their knowledge and skills and advance to better positions,
for some students it is not uncommon to be harassed, condemned, and held back from advancing
themselves. Others in their family and community may feel threatened and accuse them of "thinking they
are better" because of their more advanced educational status. Students from situations like this are
susceptible to a "fear of success", because that success can distance them from their past support
systems. For such students, who succeed despite their families and communities rather than with their
blessings and assistance, the already demanding juggling act can be made even more difficult. How do
you think tutees in this situation might feel? How might you help them?
There are at least six major factors affecting the motivation of adult learners (Wlodkowski 1986) . To
improve the motivation of adult learners, at the beginning of instruction tutors can ask themselves "What
can I do to establish a positive attitude in the learning sequence?" The purpose is to create a positive
attitude about the instructor, subject and learning situation. It can also establish the learner's expectation
to succeed. Tutors can structure initial activities so that they ensure students success, and help them
realize that with persistence and effort they can overcome their failures. Another question to ask at the
beginning is "What can I do to best meet my students' needs?" This question helps tutors make sure their
efforts are responsive to students' individual needs. Tutors should identify students' needs and design
instructional activities to meet them.
During instruction tutors should ask "How is this lesson stimulating students?" Tutors should structure
lessons so that they capture students' attention, interest and involvement in the lesson. To do this tutors
can use a variety of tutoring techniques, use humor, and relate content to students' interests. Another
question to ask during instruction is "How is the emotional climate of tutoring for the student?" Tutors
should try to establish the best emotional climate for students as possible, and encourage students to
express their emotions when appropriate.
At the end of instruction tutors can ask "How did tutoring enhance students' feeling of competence?" By
focusing on students' competence tutors can enhance students' self confidence and increase their
feelings of responsibility for their own learning. Tutors can emphasize students' responsibility and make
them aware of their progress. Finally tutors can ask "How did tutoring provide reinforcement for the
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students?" They can try to take advantage of natural consequences of students' learning and emphasize
the impact. For example, after finishing a major unit a tutor can say "Now that you've made it through this
section, the rest of the course will be alot easier ".
Chickering and Gamson's principles for undergraduate instruction identify additional points to consider
when working with adult learners. They were summarized on p. 10.
Ethical Issues in Tutoring

Peer tutors have a unique relationship to their tutees because both are students, so in some ways they are
equals, but in the tutoring context, the tutor has higher status than the tutee. With increased status the
tutor has increased responsibilities. These responsibilities go beyond helping the student academically.
The tutor has personal and social responsibilities that deal with ethical issues as well. Sometimes tutors
and tutees become interested in each other in ways that extend beyond academics - they develop
friendships and sometimes become romantically interested in each other.
It is totally inappropriate for a tutor and tutee to become romantically involved while they are involved in a
tutoring relationship. If such feelings develop, it is the tutor's responsibility to show self restraint and make
sure the relationship stays professional. Only after a tutor and tutee are finished working in a tutoring
relationship is it acceptable to act on these feelings. Tutors should know that a romantic involvement with
a tutee during a tutoring relationship will lead to immediate and unconditional dismissal as a tutor.
Friendships are fine as long as they don't become so close that it negatively effects tutoring.
Confidentiality is another ethical issue tutors must treat seriously. Tutoring can be an especially intense
and intimate relationship. Tutees will often confide in their tutors about personal and social as well as
academic aspects of their lives. Students often talk about their love lives, family lives and teachers when
discussing their schoolwork. Tutors must respect the privacy of their tutees and refrain from discussing
confidences with anyone except the tutor supervisor. Respecting confidences is one strategy a tutor can
use to establish a relationship of trust.
Sometimes tutees pressure tutors to do their work for them rather than the tutors guiding the students in
their own work. A tutor's job is to help the student, but help does NOT include actually doing the work for
the student. It is not professional to do the work for a student. Be firm and consistent about refusing to do
a student's work. Even if students have bad attitudes because tutors will not do the work for them it is
important to stick to this rule. If necessary, the tutoring director can intervene and explain to the tutee that
it is not appropriate for a tutor to "fix" a paper or solve the tutee's problem.
Finally, tutors should be careful to avoid getting caught in the middle of a conflict between a teacher and a
student. Sometimes this requires tutors to do a real balancing act and use self control, holding their
tongues to avoid taking sides in a dispute. Encourage the student to work out any problem directly with
the teacher, or to seek help from the appropriate department chair. When in doubt, ask the tutoring
director's advice on handling problems.
How will you remember the ideas you consider important?

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A SUCCESSFUL TUTORING ENVIRONMENT
One characteristic of a successful tutoring environment is that it develops tutors and tutees intellectually.
Tutors integrate subject-area knowledge with intellectual skills within and across subjects. Tutors
intentionally help tutees to accept responsibility for their own attitudes, motivation, thinking, learning and
content mastery so they become independent, self-directed learners. Tutors help students take control
over learning by teaching them to use self questioning strategies to plan, monitor and evaluate their
academic work and to think about when, why and how to use their knowledge and skills. Tutors help
students learn to separate relevant from irrelevant information and they provide students with techniques
for: time management, test taking, relaxing, studying, notetaking, organizing, representing and
remembering concepts and their relationships.
The environment in successful tutoring is one of connection making. By linking classroom l earning to
real life situations tutors can motivate students and help them appreciate why they are learning specific
material. By linking classroom learning with what students already know, tutors can make the unfamiliar
familiar, the new can be seen to have old parts, so that learning becomes easier and more meaningful.
By helping students identify and explain connections between concepts, tutors can help tutees see how a
body of knowledge is organized. Seeing "the Big Picture" can make it easier for the tutees to recall the
information in that organized structure.
A successful tutoring environment that is safe for making mistakes. Being wrong and changing answers
shows intelligence and growth not stupidity. Tutoring is a laboratory for making and learning from
mistakes so they get caught, fixed and don't happen when the consequences would be worse, e.g. on a
test or final copy of a paper. Students need self confidence, trust, and mutual respect /to feel such safety.
Tutors are patient when dealing with students. Tutors are also allowed to make mistakes in a successful
tutoring environment. The only thing unacceptable about making mistakes is not learning from them.
Errors should be followed with correction plans. No one should be held to standards of perfection. An
accepting, warm, nonjudgemental atmosphere prevails in an environment where tutoring works. A
supportive tutoring environment can encourage students to stay in school when the going gets tough.
Learning can be fun in a successful tutoring environment. Tutors and tutees with enthusiasm and a good
sense of humor can play with ideas to make learning more interesting. Developing and maintaining
students' motivation is crucial. Building on students' personal interests in or their needs for the information
can be used by tutors to help students persist when dealing with difficult or demanding material.
Tutors recognize individual differences in their tutees and adapt their instruction accordingly in a
successful tutoring environment. Tutors use multiple methods, such as questioning, thinking aloud, visual
imagery, collaborative and cooperative learning, brainstorming. boardwork, and role playing. They
present information using multiple modalities (e.g. tactile, kinesthetic, auditory, pictorial and written).
Based on tutees' needs, materials and activities are sequenced from concrete to abstract or specific to
general.
In successful tutoring environments tutors are sensitive to many characteristics of individual students,
including socio-cultural characteristics. They observe and analyze tutee behavior, they are sensitive to
subtle clues students' oral and body language, and have good communication skills. Tutors provide wait
time for students to develop and express ideas. They speak at the student's level - not below or above it.
They try to be flexible and look at a situation from a student's point of view.
Finally, a successful tutoring environment emphasizes collaboration for student improvement so that
students are less dependent on the need to be in a tutoring environment!
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General Components of a Scheduled Tutoring Session

Most tutoring is a one-on-one situation in which the tutor and tutee meet regularly for a scheduled
appointment. However, tutoring often occurs through a drop-in format at a learning center which may or
may not schedule appointments. Group tutoring, workshops, and study groups are commonly organized
by learning centers. While reading the information in this chapter ask yourself questions such as the
following to help apply the guidelines to your own tutoring situation. For example "How should I plan if I
will be tutoring groups of students? "What kind of on-the-spot planning can I do for drop-in tutoring?"
Self-questioning is a very powerful learning strategy (Wong, 1985). You may already be using self-
questioning as a strategy to guide your tutoring management or your own learning. Examples of tutor
self-questions are: "How can I help Teres improve her essay's organization"? " What comments did the
instructor make about revisions that are needed?" "How can I help Mira understand why to use that
formula for this type of problem?" " What worked best for her last time she had this type of difficulty"?
"Why does Tanya have that puzzled look on her face?" "Could a language barrier be affecting her ability
to understand and use my suggestions?" " Should I speak more slowly and enunciate more clearly?"
"How could I improve my tutoring when trying to get Michael to understand the main idea of the story?"
Which strategies for monitoring comprehension should I model for him?" Self-questions are most
effective when they are generated by the questioner. The self-questions in this book are provided to
stimulate your own thinking about self-questions that may be useful for you. The Thinking about Tutoring
questionnaire later in this chapter is designed to help tutors use self-questioning as a way of assessing
their tutoring management.
Often orientation or tutor training sessions acquaint tutors with paperwork that must be filled out, such as:
applications, schedules, payroll forms, timesheets, tutee diagnostic or referral forms, tutoring plans or
prescriptions, records of tutoring sessions, student progress reports, and tutor journals. Careful record
keeping is very important in tutoring. Often funding for tutoring depends on demonstrating student needs
for tutoring services. If a learning center cannot accurately show how much tutoring occurred, money to
hire tutors may be in jeopardy. Tutoring records can be useful for planning future tutoring sessions and
evaluating those that have already taken place. They can also be used for overall tutoring program
modifications and improvements. Tutors can help themselves and their learning centers by conscientious
record-keeping. If a learning center has extensive paperwork, tutors may need a checklist to help make
sure everything is completed accurately and on time.
Model 1
Details for implementing this model are presented later in the chapter in the sections on planning,
monitoring and evaluating tutoring.
Before the Session

1.Tutor reviews what occurred during the last session.
2.Tutor plans for the session by considering goals, materials and strategies.
3. Student knows in advance what will be focused on and plans for the session. For
example, the student brings the paper being worked on.
During the Session

1.Tutor establishes rapport and reviews objectives.
2.Tutor finds out what progress has been made since the last session or figures out where to start with a
new topic.
3.Tutor connects the tutoring topic or activity with lectures, textbooks, tests, labs, other subjects, future
professional goals and/or everyday life experience. An overview of the "big picture" can help the student
appreciate the value of what is being addressed in tutoring.
4.Tutor tutors on topic.
5.Tutor quizzes the student, asks questions, listens actively, gives feedback, observes
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behavior, and integrates the development of intellectual skills and attitudes with content
instruction.
6.Tutor and student periodically review and summarize to assess progress and identify follow-up as
needed.
7.Tutor monitors (self-checks) all components of the session as it is going on and makes changes as
needed.
After the Session

1.Tutor evaluates student progress on content, intellectual skills and attitudes.
2.Tutor evaluates tutoring processes (methods, procedures, materials, etc.) and outcomes (what was
accomplished).
3.Tutor and student begin planning for the next session. For example, they establish
a tentative plan or specific objectives.
How might this model be adapted for use in drop-in tutoring? How about for group tutoring?
Model 2
MacDonald (1994) recommends a 12-step tutoring cycle with three phases:
Beginning Steps
1.Tutor greets the student and sets the climate, including arrangement of seating.
2. Tutor identifies the task. Tutees choose what they want to work on.
3. Tutor guides the tutee in breaking the task into parts.
4. Tutor identifies the thought process. MacDonald considers this to be one of the two most important
steps in tutoring because it helps the student understand how to approach the task . This step is linked
with step number eight.
Task Steps
5. Tutor sets an agenda and budgets time according to the established objectives. However, the tutor is
flexible.
6. Tutor addresses the task and proceeds with tutoring, helping the tutee learn from the materials.
7. Tutee summarizes the content, demonstrating what has been learned. The tutee's explanation helps
move what was learned from short to long-term memory.
8. Tutee summarizes the underlying thinking processes. MacDonald considers this the second of the two
most critical steps in tutoring because it helps the student do the work independently.
Closing Steps
9. Tutor confirms, evaluates and congratulates the student for what was learned. Tutor encourages the
tutee to self evaluate and be proud of what was accomplished.
10. Tutor helps the tutee determine what's next - where to go from here.
11. Tutor and tutee arrange and plan the next session, setting a time, place and topic.
12. Tutor and tutee close the session and say goodbye, trying to leave on a positive note.
What do these models have in common? What is your preferred model of tutoring? Based on the
information above and your own ideas, begin to put together your own three phase sequence of tutoring
steps. How might you budget your time during a tutoring session to make sure you have time for each of
the steps you identify?
My Model
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

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Matching Students for Tutoring
Recall one of your own experiences being tutored and think about the characteristics of your tutor. How
well-suited were you to work together? What ingredients affected how well you worked together? Part of
a tutor supervisor's planning is pairing tutors with tutees. How should tutors and tutees be matched?
Research suggests several factors to consider are gender, ethnicity, class level, and similarity in
achievement level. Sometimes the "best" matches can't be made because of schedule conflicts. Then
supervisors have to make the best matches possible under the given circumstances.
Educationally disadvantaged tutees tend to earn higher grades when they work with same-sex tutors.
Sexual politics can affect tutoring because college students' interest in male/female relationships may
conflict with their interest in academic success. White females tend to be more motivated by romance
than African-American females. Program directors may want to consider gender when hiring tutors, and
may want to allow students to choose the gender of their tutors (Maxwell, 1991).
Make notes and discuss:

1. What are some common gender stereotypes?
2. Why might they affect the tutoring process and tutoring outcomes?
3. What are some common male-female problems than can arise in tutoring?
4. How can you prevent or minimize the potential negative impact on tutoring of gender stereotypes and
male-female problems?
5. How can tutors solve male-female problems if they do arise?
Unlike gender, ethnicity does not appear to affect tutees' grades. One study showed 80% of African-
American tutees had no ethnic preferences for their tutors. Another study found being tutored by someone
of the same ethnicity had no effect on grades. However, there is some evidence that minority students
relate better to minority tutors. Ethnicity affects tutoring in different ways, and in relationship to gender.
For example, it affects tutees' attendance at tutoring sessions. The number of hours a student attends
tutoring is positively related to grades. Whereas Asian-American and white tutees attended sessions
more often when they had female tutors, Latino students attended more regularly when they had male
tutors. Tutoring attendance by African-American tutees was not affected by tutor gender. Program
directors may want to consider the relationships between ethnicity and gender when hiring tutors (Maxwell,
1991).

1. When tutoring ethnically different tutees, what can tutors do to bridge the gaps in their cultural
backgrounds?
2. How might differences in linguistic backgrounds affect tutoring?
3. How might socio-economic class differences affect tutoring?
When matching tutors to tutees it is good to remember peer tutoring is usually viewed as a collaborative
process. "Peer" is generally conceptualized as someone similar in class level, age, and achievement
level. These similarities help tutors and tutees collaborate because they make it easier to view each
others as equals and communicate with each other. The similarities help tutors and tutees establish
bonds and make tutoring a less threatening experience (Maxwell 1991, Medway 1991).

1. How can tutors help tutees see the similarities between them, even if they are not readily apparent?
2. What can be done when there are no or few similarities?
3. What can be done when tutor-tutee matches don't work out?
4. How should tutor supervisors approach the problem of matching tutors to tutees in cases of drop-in
tutoring?
5. Consider the case of an older student being assigned to a younger tutor. What kinds of problems
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might arise? Why? How might they be handled?
Thinking About Tutoring
This questionnaire is used to help tutors assess their self-management skills and to help tutor
supervisors identify areas where training may be desirable. Questions focus on the thinking tutors do in
planning, monitoring and evaluating their tutoring. It is designed to be general enough to encompass most
types of tutoring. However, if your situation is different, adapt the questions to meet your particular
needs. The TAT could also be used as a research/evaluation tool, such as a pretest, before or at the
beginning of tutor training, and at the end, as a posttest to gauge tutors progress in particular areas of
self-management which are important for intelligent tutoring.
This chapter is intended to help you develop your tutoring management skills so that you can tutor
while intentionally using your intelligence to be the best tutor possible. The executive management skills
of planning, monitoring and evaluating your tutoring are derived from Sternberg's (1985) theory of
intelligence. You may find that you are already doing many of these management activities without
realizing it. Experienced tutors often do many of these automatically and unconsciously. New tutors
should consciously try to develop and apply these skills, using them selectively depending upon the
context. After conscious, extensive, repeated and varied use of these skills, eventually they will become
internalized and used automatically.
Sternberg's theory suggests that once content knowledge and tutoring skills/techniques are on "automatic
pilot", and are used unconsciously as needed, the tutor's mind is freed up to deal with novel or especially
difficult aspects of the task or situation. Creativity has mental room to blossom because intellectual effort
does not have to be expended on more basic aspects of the teaching/learning situation.
Tutoring management procedures and strategies require planning, monitoring and evaluating for effective
tutoring sessions. This chapter includes questions for discussion, a questionnaire for tutors to self-
assess their management skills, and activities for practicing them. Management is important for tutoring
sessions that are scheduled in advance, as well as for drop-in tutoring, and whether tutoring is done
individually or in groups. Just as tutors have to manage their tutoring sessions, tutor supervisors need to
intelligently manage their tutoring programs. They should plan, monitor and evaluate the tutoring that
goes on in their learning centers.
Please complete the Thinking About Tutoring Questionnaire (TAT) which starts on the next page. The
purpose of this questionnaire is to heighten your awareness of your own relative strengths and
weaknesses in managing your tutoring. After you have finished circling your answers (only ONE per item)
turn the page and self- score your results.
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Thinking About Tutoring (TAT)

This questionnaire asks you questions about your own thinking as a tutor. Please answer them to the best
of your own awareness about whether/how often you think about these issues when tutoring. There are
no right or wrong answers. Circle one answer for each item.
l. Before I start tutoring, I ask myself something like, "What does this student need to know or
understand?"
Never hardly ever sometimes most of the time always
2. When preparing to tutor a student, I ask myself something like, "What steps should I take to
ensure the student learns this"?
always most of the time sometimes hardly ever never
3. When preparing to tutor a student, I think about something like , "What should I do first, second,
third.--?."
never hardly ever sometimes most of the time always
4. When preparing to tutor a student, I ask myself something like, "What types of problems might
arise and how should I handle them?"
5. When preparing to tutor a student, I ask myself something like. "Should I present the information
verbally and/or diagrammatically ?"
6. When preparing to tutor, I ask myself something like, "Can I teach this any other way?"
7. When preparing to tutor, I ask myself something like, "How long is it likely to take for the student
to understand this?"
8. Before tutoring, I ask myself something like, "What does the student already know about this
topic?"
9. While tutoring, I ask myself something like, "Do I really understand what kind of problem the
student is having?"
10. Before tutoring, I think about, "Am I sure I understand this material well enough to teach it?"
11. While tutoring, I ask myself something like. "To what extent is what I'm doing helping the
student?"
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12. While tutoring, I ask myself something like. "Should I try a different approach?"
13. While tutoring, I wonder, "Does the student understand what I just said?"

14. Before tutoring, I ask myself something like, "How will I check to make sure the student
understands this?"
15. Before tutoring, I ask myself something like, "How have I successfully taught this before?"
16. Before tutoring, I ask myself something like, "Is there anything I should review in preparation for
this session?"
17. After tutoring, I ask myself something Like, "How did the session go overall?"
18. After tutoring, I ask myself something like, "What should I remember from this session that will
improve my tutoring on this topic next time?"
19. After tutoring, I ask myself something like, "What went well? What could have gone better?"
20. After tutoring, I think about something like, "Is there anything I could have done that might have
made the session more effective?"
21. After tutoring, I ask myself something like, "Did I respond to the student appropriately?"
22. After tutoring, I consider, "Did I forget anything important?"
23. After tutoring, I ask myself something like, "Did I pick up on the student's comprehension
failures?"
24. While tutoring, I ask myself something like, "How is the pace? Should I slow down or speed up?"
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Thinking About Tutoring
Scoring Sheet
Planning Monitoring Evaluating
Items Score Items Score Items Score

1 ____ 9____ 17____
2 ____ 11____ l8____
3 ____ 12____ 19____
4 ____ 13____ 20____
5 ____ 24 ____ 21 ____
6 ____ 22 ____
7 ____ Total____ 23 ____
8 ____ Average ____
10____ Total ____
14____ Average ____
15____
16____
Total ____
Average____
Key Calculate Average

always = 5 1. add all scores within category
most of the time = 4 2. divide total for each category
sometimes = 3 by number of items within category
hardly ever = 2 i.e.: planning: 12
never = 1 monitoring: 5
evaluating: 7
Averages
Planning ____
Monitoring____
Evaluating____
Interpreting TAT Results
The most productive way to use TAT results is for self-analysis and improvement. It is not as important
for you to focus on how your scores compare to those of other tutors.
High Scores
High scores (on a subscale like planning, or on an item like thinking about what the student needs to learn
or understand) generally indicate that you use the management skills frequently and that you are aware
that you use them. Look at your high scores and ask yourself a question such as "Do I really think about
this as often as I should? " Your answer will determine the appropriate followup. Try to make sure your
answers reflect what you actually think about, not what you believe you should think about.
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Low Scores
Low scores (on a subscale like planning, or on an item like thinking about what the student needs to learn
or understand) have two different interpretations, and you need to determine the best interpretation for
you individually. A low score could mean that you do not engage in this form of management very often or
it could mean that you do it so automatically that it occurs without your awareness. Examine your low
scores and ask yourself a question such as "Do I do this unconsciously?" "Should I be thinking about this
more than I do now?" If you decide that you should think about it more often, ask yourself a question
such as "How can I make sure I consider this more often?"
What Do You Think About Before a Session?
In the spaces below, write what you think about before tutoring a student. Then compare your ideas with
those of other tutors.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Intelligent Tutoring Management Principles

The following information summarizes the executive-level intellectual processes involved in tutoring. The
three major processes are planning, monitoring. and evaluating your tutoring. They can be thought of as
things to think about or do before, during and after tutoring. This list can serve as a guide for refining your
tutoring skills by increasing your awareness and control over your tutoring. Research suggests that
tutees benefit most from tutoring when tutors are actively involved in the tutoring session. Active
involvement includes planning instruction before the session and giving students tips and learning
strategies.
Planning: Before the Session – Time for Decision Making
Preparation for tutoring not only benefits tutees, but also increases tutors' own learning and motivation
(Medway, 1991). Peer learning is effective when it is well-planned. Planning can help ensure use of
effective peer learning techniques, such as alternating between listening and summarizing, that are likely
to enhance both learning and motivation (McKeachie, 1994). Planning benefits tutors because by actively
thinking about what to teach and how to teach it, tutors' knowledge broadens and deepens (Annis, 1983).
Experienced tutors can rely on their intuition and do not have to plan as much as new tutors. New tutors
should plan as carefully as possible to meet students' needs. A plans should be considered as a
tentative, general map rather than a rigid agenda etched in stone. Tutors should be flexible and prepared
to adapt plans to better meet the tutee's needs and to adjust to the tutor's own desires. (Arkin & Shollar,
1983).
Planning is the process of deciding what you're going to do as well as when, why and how to do it. If you
tutor students who have scheduled tutoring sessions, to the extent possible your planning should occur
before the session. If you tutor students that have drop-in tutoring, your planning should start on-the-spot,
when you and the student are discussing the student's reason for being there. Planning is intended to
help you establish the most effective way of meeting the student's needs. Not all dimensions of planning
will apply in every situation. Use the suggestions below as a guide, selecting/adapting what applies and
ignoring what does not.
1. Consider student's background and what the session should accomplish.

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If there is a student folder, review it to refresh your memory of what happened during the last session.
Look for a referral form or notes from teachers indicating what they want tutoring to address.
2. Reflect on student's prior knowledge, skills, and past errors concerning the topic. Break down the task,
content, and/ or skills to be learned into component parts. Consider what may be the best sequence for
approaching them. Also think about the student's attitude and whether/how to improve it.
3. Set a limited number of specific goals. Avoid overload. Not everything can be accomplished at once,
and not everything can be achieved in a tutoring context. Figure out how to teach for both immediate and
long term goals. Establish priorities and prepare to discuss them with the student.
4. Consider instructional materials and techniques to use in the session, including the use of multiple
methods and multiple modalities (for example visual as well as verbal). Identify back-up techniques in
case the initial approach does not work.
5. Describe desired outcomes of the session in terms of student behavior. What do you want the student
to be able to do at the end of the session that the student couldn't do at the beginning of the session?
Think about the tutoring session from the student's point of view to imagine how it will be received.
6. Ask self questions such as those in the Thinking About Tutoring questionnaire and those that follow.
SELF-QUESTIONS FOR PLANNING TUTORING SESSIONS
 What was the last thing I did with this person?

 What should we work on? What does the student need to know or understand?
 What will the student be able to do?
 How much does the student remember from what we did before?
 What problems did the student have during the last session?
 Is the student showing any signs of improvement?
 How is the student's attitude now? Has it been changing? If so, how?
 Could I skip any part of the material the student might not need?
 Have/how have I successfully taught this before? Can I teach this in any other way?
 What kind of practical, realistic examples can I use to help the student understand abstract
concepts?
 What types of problems might arise and how should I handle them?
 How can I encourage the student to work more?
_____________________________________________________________________
Monitoring: During the Session
Monitoring is the process of checking up on yourself and the student while you are tutoring. It is intended
to help you determine how well the session is proceeding by considering whether what you're doing is
leading you and the student where you want to go. If not, how can you shift gears and do something in
addition to/different from what was planned? Monitoring is a key component of effective tutoring.
What can a tutor do when working with a student who is capable but unsuccessful? Research suggests
some behaviors that can stimulate learning. Nonverbal behaviors include looking at the tutee more, and
more reaching toward the tutee. Verbal behaviors include actively explaining answers instead of just
telling students if they are right or wrong, and providing them with short cuts, rules, and different
approaches/strategies (Medway, 1991). Additional suggestions are listed below:
1. Negotiate the plan for the session with the student. Even if you have made a very careful, detailed plan;
remember it's primarily the tutee's session - not the tutor's.
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2. Observe students' body language (as well as listen) for clues regarding students' knowledge,
understanding and feelings. Use these clues to help detect and guide students in correcting errors.
3. Check up on your own performance and reactions. Restrain any tendencies to be impulsive and
emotional. Keep your place in the sequence of learning activities. Recognize when a subgoal has been
attained and communicate it to the student.. Consider the need for adjustments (e.g. shift focus or
priorities, change approach, postpone topic or schedule extra session).
4. Look ahead. Learn the structure of a sequence of operations. Identify areas where errors are likely.
Choose a strategy that will enable easy recovery from error. Identify different kinds of feedback that you
could provide at various points. Evaluate the potential usefulness of the various forms of feedback.
5. Look back. Detect errors previously made. Examine the types of errors and look for patterns. Help the
student use awareness of error patterns to self-check and self-correct. Note what has been done and
what should come next.
6. Monitor student comprehension and progress by looking at body language (e.g. arms, legs, eyes, and
mouth ). Give an informal quiz, asking the student to use scrap paper. Have the student think aloud or
listen to students working with each other to identify areas of strength and weakness. Ask questions such
as those under #7 below.
7 .Ask students to come to next session with two or three of their own questions regarding the material or
use some other technique to help make sure students will follow-up as needed and come prepared for the
next session.
_____________________________________________________________________
SELF-QUESTIONS FOR MONITORING COMPREHENSION
 How well does the student understand the important concepts?

 To what extent does the student understand how these concepts are interrelated?
 Does anything the student says appear vague, ambiguous, inconsistent or incoherent?
 To what extent can the student show illustrations/give examples of this concept?
 To what degree does the student understand how the evidence supports the conclusion?
 Can the student explain the subtle differences between the types of approaches?
 Can the student identify important issues, problems, conclusions, reasons, examples, or
assumptions?
 How well can the student identify important terms and explain them in her/his own words?
 Are there any significant gaps in the student's thinking?
SELF-QUESTIONS FOR MONITORING PROGRESS
 To what extent is the student confusing relevant with irrelevant information?

 To what extent is the student jumping to conclusions?
 Is the student making the task easier/harder than it really is?
 To what degree is the student being systematic in his/her approach?
 Is the student overlooking anything important?
 Is the student considering all the possibilities?
 How good is the student's organization of the material?
 To what extent is the student checking his/her own work?
 Does the student understand the reasons for any mistakes made?
 How well do I understand what kind of problem the student is having?
 To what extent am I using clear and precise language the student can understand?
 How much of what I'm doing is effective in helping the student?
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_____________________________________________________________________
Evaluating: After the Session – Time for Assessment

Evaluating is the process of judging what you and the student did in tutoring and how well you did it. It is
meant to help you determine what went well, what could have been done better, and how you could
improve tutoring in a similar situation next time. Evaluation is best accompanied by a plan of action to
improve your performance. New tutors may want to have a more experienced tutor sit in and observe a
session to get constructive feedback. New tutors also may want to sit in on tutoring sessions conducted
by people recognized to be "master tutors" so they can actually see and hear what is considered
"intelligent tutoring". Experienced tutors mentoring new tutors can be an extremely effective strategy for
tutor training. Does the learning center have videotapes of what its program considers "intelligent
tutoring?" Are they available for tutors to view at their leisure? Most tutors are evaluated by their tutoring
supervisors at some point. Tutors may find it useful to know in advance the criteria by which they will be
judged and the method(s) that will be used. Will a tutoring session be videotaped for purposes of
evaluation? Will tutees be given a questionnaire in which they rate the tutor's performance and overall
value of their tutoring experience?
Assessing the tutoring session benefits both the tutor and tutee. Tutor learning is
enhanced when tutors evaluate their own effort during the session, their use of active teaching methods
and their preparation for the session (Medway, 1991). Consider the following in evaluating a tutoring
session:
1. Compare the actual outcome of the session with the intended outcome.
2. Assess the quality of your planning.
3. Assess the quality of your monitoring.
4. Judge how effectively you and the student communicated.
5. Evaluate the effectiveness of the tutoring techniques and materials you used.
6. Reflect on the attitudes demonstrated by you and the student during the session.
7. Determine whether or how well you integrated intellectual skill development into your content
instruction.
8. Use feedback to prepare an action plan for future tutoring.
9. Accept responsibility for the outcomes of the session.
10. Ask self-questions such as those that follow.
SELF-QUESTIONS FOR EVALUATING
 How did the student do overall? (general focus)

 What went well? What could have gone better? (specific focus)
 Did I pick up on the student's comprehension failures?
 Did I respond to the student appropriately?
 Did I forget anything important?
 How can I improve the pace of the session?
 Am I allowing enough "wait time" after asking tutees a question?
 What can I do to prevent interrupting them while silently thinking
about an answer?
 Is there anything I could have done that might have made the session more effective?
 What should I remember from this session to improve my tutoring on this topic next time?
Can you explain the principles for planning, monitoring and evaluating tutoring in your own words? If you
can't, how might you get the unclear parts clarified?
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Tutor Anxieties
Although tutoring is usually a very positive experience for both tutors and tutees, problems and worries are
inevitable from time-to-time. Sometimes it helps to remember that regardless of how anxious the tutor is,
the tutee is likely to be even more nervous! After all, the tutee, who needs help, is generally less
competent in the particular subject area of tutoring than the tutor, the help giver. Anticipating possible
difficulties can help prevent some problems from arising and can minimize those that do arise. Chapter 10
addresses strategies to deal with many problems that arise in tutoring.
As with most sets of complex skills, tutoring improves with practice. Master tutors are made, not born.
Tutors are not expected to know everything in the subject they are tutoring. Tutors need to be patient with
themselves while developing competence. It is perfectly normal for tutors to be nervous when starting out.
Common tutoring self-doubts include, "Will my tutees like me? Do I really know enough to help them?
Do I know how to help them effectively? Will they respect me and take me seriously? Will they
cooperate? Will I remember to use what I learned in tutor training? Will they blame me if they don't
succeed? What will I do if the sessions don't go well?" Tutors can counter their fear, guilt and insecurities
about tutoring by recognizing and appreciating small successes and bits of progress that occur through
the tutoring process rather than focusing on the final outcomes.

1. Should tutors openly express to tutees their anxieties and insecurities about tutoring? Why or why not?
2. How can tutors monitor and evaluate their verbal self-expressions ?
3. How can they monitor and evaluate their nonverbal self-expressions?
4. If a tutee fails a test or course, does that mean the tutoring was a failure or waste of time? Why or why
not?
5. What can tutors do to feel more confident and to reduce their anxiety?
Practicing Tutoring Management

This section is intended to help you become aware of whether and if so, to what extent do you think about
these aspects of self-management when tutoring. Once you have self- awareness, you can assume
self-control. You can take steps to develop aspects of planning, monitoring and evaluating your tutoring
which will meet your individual needs.
Self-Management Action Plan
Based on what you have learned about how to effectively manage tutoring and based on your awareness
of your own strengths and weaknesses in planning, monitoring and evaluating your tutoring, develop an
action plan to improve your own self-management.
My Tutoring Self-Management Action Plan
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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name_____________________
Do a graphic organizer summarizing the main points from Intelligent

Management Principles in this text (pages 119-122).
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Chapter 7 Emotions that Promote Intelligent Performance

As you probably know, to be successful, teachers must address more than students' knowledge and
skills when helping students learn. The emotional side of learning is commonly referred to as "affect".
Students need to be emotionally prepared to learn and to use what they have learned . Part of a
teacher's job is to help develop affective characteristics that aid learning. According to multiple
intelligences theory, we all have some degree of self-knowledge or "intrapersonal intelligence", which
includes self-awareness of one's feelings and how they are expressed. To be effective thinkers and
learners students need to be motivated , to have positive attitudes and need to know how to control their
emotional state of mind (Hartman & Sternberg 1993).
"Why Do Intelligent People Fail?"
Sternberg (1986) identifies 20 stumbling blocks to intelligent performance . One stumbling block is lack
of perseverance, or giving up too soon and perseveration, or refusing to stop even when it is obvious
that nothing constructive is occurring. Another obstacle is being motivated by external factors, which
tends to have a short-term effect , as opposed to being motivated by internal factors, which tends to
have a longer term impact.
Mentally picture a student who is motivated to learn. What are the characteristics of that student? How
does that student learn in teaching compared to one who is unmotivated ? How would you define the
concept of motivation in your own words?
MOTIVATION
Motivation has long been recognized as a major emotional factor influencing learning. Motivation is
defined as a set of conditions that initiate, direct and maintain behavior (Eison). For example: Jinean 's
family got a piano, which gave her the desire to start piano lessons (initiate). She especially liked to play
jazz and focused on that (guide). Jinean's love for the piano grew and she kept taking piano lessons
(maintain). According to Biehler & Snowman (1990) internal (intrinsic) motivation is characterized by: 1)
the student tries to get benefits from all academic tasks, regardless of the expected outcomes,
characteristics of the task or the student's emotional state of mind; 2) the learner is relaxed, persistent,
and task involved so as to increase knowledge, comprehension and competence; 3) the student applies
or transfers what is learned; and finally, 4) the learner achieves a sense of independence. In contrast,
external (extrinsic) motivation is characterized by a student emphasizing a desire for rewards such as
grades, praise and/or privileges. Often teachers try to motivate students by giving them easy tasks
where students have a high probability of success. Although this may be a good approach to begin with
when working with very weak and insecure students, teaching should not remain at this level. Recent
research on motivation suggests what students really need is challenging tasks where they have a
moderate probability of success. Students need to learn that making mistakes and failure are important
parts of the learning process (Clifford, 1990).
What motivates you? What increases your motivation? What decreases it? Record aspects of your
own motivation below.
INCREASES MY MOTIVATION DECREASES MY MOTIVATION

TO LEARN TO LEARN
__________ _________ _________ ________ __________ _________ _________

__________ _________ _________ ________ __________ _________ _________ _____
_________ _________ _________ ________ __________ _________ _________ ______
Compare your results with those of others.

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Teachers should help students examine and discuss their persistence on difficult/boring tasks
and consider whether they have expended appropriate time and energy. Teachers should help students
identify and evaluate approaches they use and discuss alternatives as needed or otherwise desirable.
They should discuss the scope of motivation, emphasizing it as a continuous process, because it
initiates, directs, and sustains behavior. It is useful for teachers to question their students, find out "what
makes them tick", and to use this information for enhancing student motivation when needed.
Although there are certain common factors which generally impact many students, like grades and the
desire to earn a decent living, not everyone is motivated by the same influences. As a tutor, you need to
understand and utilize the motivational factors which influence each of your students individually. In
some cases you may want to help a student broaden her/his sources of motivation.
How would you evaluate these various motivational factors? Which should you emphasize developing in
your students? Why? How would you go about developing these sources of motivation?
A few areas of motivation have been of particular concern to teachers. They include motivating students
to use what they learn, motivating students to be responsible for their own educational outcomes,
motivating them to come prepared to teaching sessions, and motivating students to take an active role in
their own learning during teaching.
Motivation Principles (adapted from Jim Eison)
What influences motivation? Learners will withdraw from an activity if it does not meet their needs , if it
does not make particular sense, if it is conducted at a level that is incomprehensible or if it is presented in
a humiliating or insulting way. Tension between an instructor's teaching style and a student's learning
style decreases motivation.
What can a teacher do to increase student motivation? The teacher can help the student recognize the
personal value of the activity, help the student develop a strong sense of confidence that s/he will be able
to master the material, and help the student to anticipate victory in the learning experiences rather than
defeat.
What can the teacher do to enhance the motivational impact of a presentation? The teacher can
present instruction clearly in a simple to understand, easy-to-follow manner, avoid arousing negative
emotions in students and attempt to arouse positive emotions. The teacher should also empathize with
students' reactions and be aware of how the material appears to the student. To do this the teacher must
have a realistic understanding of the learner's needs and point of view and then adapt instruction to the
tutee's level of experience and skill. Teachers should continuously consider where the student is coming
from and inspire enthusiasm by communicating genuine interest in the subject.
What can the teacher do to provide rewards that will increase student motivation? The teacher can
provide (immediate) feedback on work so that long-term retention is enhanced and use realistic,
appropriate praise for work well done or for continued efforts to master material. Don't overdo praise and
make students dependent on it. Praise students selectively - only when you feel they really need outside
support or when they accomplish something truly admirable.
Strategies for Enhancing Student Motivation (adapted from Ames, 1990)
1. Success alone does not eliminate feelings of helplessness. Students need to be able to interpret
success as resulting from the strategies they used. Teachers should help students focus on strategies
rather than outcomes in order for students to attribute successful outcomes to their own actions.
Example: “That was an effective diagram for setting up and solving problem number 3.”
2. Praise has a positive effect on students only if the teacher praises an aspect of performance that is
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relevant to the task (for example do not praise something like handwriting). If praise is used
indiscriminately, it can undermine students' beliefs in their ability.
Example: “It was good to see you proofreading your paper before turning it in.”
3. External rewards can be effective, but they are generally overused and can have a "Hidden Cost" of
encouraging students to become controlled by factors external to them.
Example: “If you manage your time better you'll have a better opportunity to get a part- time job.” “If you
manage your time better you'll have more time to devote to preparing for tests.”
4. Research on internal motivation suggests students should be given choices and a feeling of personal
control over learning. Choices and a sense of control increase interest and involvement in learning.
Example: “What would you prefer to work on today; work on your homework, paper, or prepare for the test
next week?”
5. Telling students that they did not work hard enough may actually decrease their feelings of self-
efficacy. Teachers should let students know that effort is important, but the amount of effort is sometimes
not as important as the type of effort students make. If students spend more time (equated with making
greater efforts) using the same ineffective learning strategies, their increased efforts will not be very
fruitful, and the students will be even more frustrated. Sometimes students can actually work less hard by
using more effective learning strategies. Working smarter can be more important than working harder or
longer. Working smarter improves the payoff from effort.
Examples: “Don't be upset that you didn't get an"A" on that test. What’s most important is that you started
to use the relaxation and test-taking strategies we went over and you did much better than on the last
test.” "Don't work harder, work smarter".
Research suggests that students need to feel that they have some control over their environment and that
they can influence or shape it to increase their ability to learn from instruction. Students need to
understand that their successes and failures are due to their own efforts, which they can control. When
students perceive that they have some control, their performance improves. When students learn to
attribute academic performance to effort rather than ability, even when attribution retraining is done
relatively quickly, it can improve their academic achievement (Maxwell, 1993).
Motivating Students To Be Responsible and Come Prepared
Students are most likely to come prepared if they expect instruction will be interesting, relevant to their
personal needs, something they can succeed at, and believe that the outcomes will meet their
expectations.
Student effort and persistence are affected by: 1. Students must believe they develop their competence
on specific tasks with your assistance; 2. Students must know what is expected of them in the short and
long term and know their own strengths and weaknesses; 3. Students must have personal standards
against which to measure their performance; 4. Students must be able to judge whether their
performance has met their standards; and 5. Students must be able to self direct and correct
("constructive failure") e.g. through analyzing their errors and their own states of mind (intellectual and
emotional aspects).
Teachers can follow five basic steps to help students to do their best.
l. Identify a specific goal.
2. Specify personal benefits of achieving this goal.
3. Review the current status in achieving goal.
4. Specify strategies for reaching the goal.
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5. Identify specific criteria for reaching goal.

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Motivational Progress Chart
A progress chart may be useful for motivating students to come prepared for and participate in teaching.
The chart can focus on an individual student to a teaching group. The teacher can use the symbols below
to record progress on specific, agreed upon objectives.
Sample Symbols
+ means objective was achieved
/ means objective was partially achieved
- means objective was not achieved
The progress chart can specify the specific objective, why it is targeted as an objective,
how the objective will be met
Sample Progress Chart
Specific Learning Objective Why How Date Status

write research paper; 25% of grade journals, books 2/16 -
interesting topic outline, draft
feedback, revise
2/23 /
3/14 /
3/21 /
4/2 +
In addition to assessing their objective status in achieving targeted objectives, students can benefit by
learning to make more subjective, qualitative judgments about their progress. For example, in the chart
above, although objectively the research paper was partially achieved for a few weeks, each week there
could have been significant achievements, such as completing an outline or beginning a draft. Sometimes
it may be more motivating to a student to subdivide higher level objectives, such as writing a research
paper, into a series of lower level objectives, such as preparing an outline, making a first draft, and so
forth. The teacher can chart progress on these lower level objectives to help the student see progress
over shorter periods of time. Students often need steady feelings of making progress to motivate them
to continue working.
Teachers can teach students a variety of strategies, such as those in the list below, to assess their
progress or performance.
1. Reflect on whether and how the task was performed successfully.

2. Observe someone else performing the task successfully.
3. Hear someone comment on the student performing a task successfully.
4. Compare one's performance with someone else
5. Obtain a good grade for task performance.
6. Feel a sense of accomplishment for performing a task.
7. Obtain feedback on task performance.
8. See a connection between specific efforts and their outcomes.
9. Use a personal standard to assess one's own performance.
10. Identify one's own physiological or psychological state - attention, fatigue, stress,
confidence.
Is there anything you don't understand in the section above? If so, how might you clarify the unclear
parts?
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Motivation to Teach
In addition to thinking about your and your students' motivations to learn, it is also important to be aware
of and control your own motivation to teacher, because it sets an important tone in the teaching process.
Enter factors which influence your motivation to teacher in the graphic organizer below.
INCREASES MY MOTIVATION DECREASES MY MOTIVATION

TO Teach TO Teach
___________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ _________
___________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ _________
___________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ _________
Compare your results with those of others.
SEE CHAPTER 8 FOR MAJOR THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
How can you use what you know and have learned about improving your students' motivation to learn to
improve your own motivation to teach?
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name__________________________
A. Identify and define 3 - 5 important attitudes which affect thinking and

learning.
B. Why are they important?
C. How can you develop them? Give practical suggestions.
Attitudes Importance Development Strategies
1.
2.
3.
Following are some important affective factors that affect thinking and learning with suggestions for
developing them in your students.
AFFECTIVE FACTORS AFFECTING THINKING & LEARNING
These factors have important influences on thinking and learning. They apply to people in general, but we will
focus on students and teachers. Each is different from, but related to the others. Make sure you have a clear
understanding of their differences, both in terms of what they are and how they are developed.
SELF-ESTEEM
How people feel about themselves in general.

Example: Lillian feels she is a good, worthwhile person.
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ACADEMIC SELF-CONCEPT
How people feel about their ability in a general subject area. Example: Lillian feels she is a great reader (good
reading self concept) but she is bad in math (poor math self concept).
SELF-EFFICACY
How people feel about their ability to perform a specific task or in a particular situation.
Example: Lillian feels she is good at adding, but that she is bad at solving equations in algebra.
ATTRIBUTIONS
The reasons people give for their successes their successes and failures. The 4 most common attributions
are about: ability, effort, task difficulty and luck. Attributions can be divided into two dimensions: stable-
unstable and internal-external. Stable-unstable refers to how consistent the attributions are over time. That is,
to what extent does the person use the same types of reasons to explain her/his success or failure over and
over again (stable) or does the person give one kind of reason on one occasion and another type of reason
another time (unstable).
Example: Lillian says equations are always too difficult for her (stable) and that some division problems are
easy and some are too difficult for her (unstable).
Internal-external refers to where the person assigns responsibility for her/his successes and failures - inside
the self or outside the self.
Example: Lillian says she didn't do well on her history test because she didn't study enough (internal). Lillian
says she didn't do well on her psychology test because her family interfered with her study time. (external).
Lillian says she got a good grade on her math test because she was lucky (external).
MOTIVATION
A set of conditions in people that initiate, guide and maintain their own behavior.
Example: Lillian's family got a piano, which gave her the desire to start piano lessons (initiate). She especially
liked to play jazz and focused on that (guide). Lillian's love for the piano grew and she kept taking piano
lessons (maintain).
Attitudes That Aid Thinking and Learning

(adapted from Hartman & Barell, 1989)
Teachers must cultivate attitudes which help students acquire knowledge and skills. In addition, discussing
the role of attitudes in thinking, Dewey (1933) acknowledged that training thought is more than a cognitive
affair--knowing how to think effectively does not guarantee one will. Teachers must also cultivate attitudes
which lead students to use the knowledge and skills they have acquired. Although conceptually distinct from
each other, attitudes and intellect work together throughout the educational process.
An attitude is a feeling for or against something which results in a relatively enduring tendency to react
favorably or unfavorably to an idea, person, or situation (Burton, Kimball and Wing, 1960). Attitudes toward
school, self, the world, academic tasks, and testing all can have a direct impact on how students think, learn,
and perform in school. Each is different from, but related to the others. Make sure you have a clear
understanding of their differences, both in terms of what they are and how they are developed.
This section discusses seven attitudes that affect students' thinking and school achievement. It also
recommends strategies teachers can use to develop them.
1. Predispositions. Students enter classes with personal and cultural attitudes toward authority figures,
their role as students, the importance of learning, and the value and usefulness of knowledge and skills. All of
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these are factors that affect students’ willingness to participate in a class, to persevere with academic tasks,
and to take intellectual risks. Predispositions affect students' perceptions of the relationship between
schooling and future needs/goals as well as their willingness to pursue further education ( Bloom 1977,
Bruner, 1966, Carroll, 1963, Nickerson, 1981). A student entering a classroom predisposed to learn from and
use what the teacher presents is likely to have a different learning experience than a student who views
school as a rite of passage or merely a social meeting place. Suggestions for improvement include:
*Discuss short and long-term benefits intended for each topic/task

*Cultivate student self-control over learning and performance (e.g. time management)
*Encourage students to challenge and question authority
*Systematically relate school work to everyday life and future goals
*Model, encourage and reward: persistence, intellectual risk taking, toleration for ambiguity, intrinsic
motivation, and delayed gratification.
* Use positive self talk, or “self-coaching” suggestions below, based on Collins-Eiland (1985), to helping
control their own predispositions.
-Fire Up: Before working on an academic task, say something positive to increase motivation, interest,
involvement, meaning, or appreciation for the task at hand (e.g., “OK, I'm going to learn to write a good report
because someday I hope to publish my work!”)
-Coax: Force yourself to do something you're not looking forward to by saying “I will feel better when I
finish this.”
-Encourage: While working on a task, keep your mood positive and help yourself keep going until you're
finished by saying “This isn't as bad as I thought it would be” or “I'm getting there slowly but surely!”
-Reward: After a task is finished, say something nice to yourself to self-reward a good performance. Try
to find some small success in an overall poor performance (e.g., “I did well on that” or “Well, at least I got part
of it right.”).
.
2. Academic Self-Concepts & Self-Esteem. Students’ views of themselves as learners are largely
determined by their success/failure experiences in school. Bloom (1977) noted that a positive academic self-
concept results from frequent and consistent success experiences in specific subjects which are generalized
to overall success in school. He differentiated this academic self-concept from nonacademic, general self-
concept and concluded a student may be high on one and low on the other. Self-concept affects a student's
choice of tasks, willingness to try, persistence and actual performance (Ames, 1990). Self-concept is
multidimensional. It has one general facet and several specific ones, including academic self-concept. Many
studies indicate there is almost no relationship between verbal and math self-concepts. For example, a
student may feel she is a great reader (good reading self-concept) but is bad in math (poor math self-
concept).
Academic self concept involves a feeling of confidence in one’s ability to achieve, self-reliance, and
recognition of one’s strengths and weaknesses. Self-esteem refers to how people feel about themselves in
general. For example, Susan feels she is a good, worthwhile person. Positive self-esteem provides a
foundation for building on one’s strengths, compensating for one’s weaknesses, and for appreciating the
strengths and opinions of others. With repeated failure experiences, that student develops a widespread, self-
defeating pattern of achievement motivation; avoidance of failure to protect a sense of dignity (Covington,
1985).
For very young children, praising efforts often increases self-confidence in their ability to succeed. However,
for older children, effort and ability are seen as different, so praising effort has a different effect. It may
actually undermine confidence in ability. When self- concept of ability is threatened, students may show
failure-avoidance motivation. Failure- avoidance strategies include not trying, procrastinating, false effort and
even denial of effort. Failure without effort is equated to failure with honor.
What are students' achievement goals ? Mastery-oriented students are interested in learning new things and
in developing their skills and ability. Performance-oriented students worry about how they compare to other
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students and either want to demonstrate that they have ability or want to protect their view of their ability when
they feel threatened. These students tend to focus on their ability instead of how to do the task. They tend to
use strategies which only affect their short term performance. Such strategies include memorizing facts and
reading or studying only what they think will be on a test (Ames, 1990). Emphasize mastery or learning goals
rather than performance goals.
There are many ways that you as a teacher can help improve students' academic self-concepts. Teacher-
centered techniques emphasize the teacher's responsibility whereas student-centered techniques place
greater emphasis on the student's responsibility. Teachers can use both to improve students' academic self-
concepts.
Teacher-centered techniques:
* convey your positive expectations for students' performance
*provide a cushion of frequent and consistent success experiences by 1. starting with the known/simple
and moving gradually to the unknown/complex; and/or 2. helping students break complex problems/tasks
into reachable subgoals.
* listen to students attentively and treat them respectfully
Student-centered techniques:
* encourage students to have positive expectations of their own performance and to not push
themselves too hard or to be too soft. Another student-centered approach is *teach students to direct
their self-criticism to their own correctable actions instead of themselves as people. For example, "I studied
the wrong material" instead of "I'm just not good in math".
*help students learn to recognize their successes and identify their patterns of successes and failures.
*guide students in developing action plans to translate failure experiences into strategies for improving
their performance.
*encourage students to redefine success in terms of exceeding their own past performance instead of
comparing themselves to others
Which of the approaches to improving students' academic self concepts can you see yourself using in a
teaching context? Identify at least two strategies , describe why you selected them and explain how you could
apply them.
1.
2.
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3. Curiosity. Students differ in their sense of wonder and desire to know about the world. Curiosity involves
an interest in and alertness to problems, events, ideas, and individuals. It is best accompanied by a
questioning attitude and a sense of inquisitiveness, through which students can satisfy their thirst for knowing
the what, the why, and the how. Students with a high degree of curiosity are more likely to be interested in,
appreciate, and benefit from the education process than students with little curiosity (Burton, Kimball & Wing,
1960; Nickerson, 1981).
According to Atkinson (1964), students like to be challenged. They find tasks that involves a moderate
probability of success, defined as 50%, most satisfying . This moderate probability of success is also
associated with intrinsic motivation (Lepper and Green, 1978; Csikszentmihalvi 1975, 1978) (cited by Clifford,
1990). As Clifford (1990) points out, teachers should not provide "error free environments; students can learn
a great deal from their mistakes, especially if teachers provide feedback which is prompt, specific and
informational.
Clifford identifies three conditions that theory and research indicate are needed for risk taking to have
successful outcomes: 1. Students must be given choices of materials and activities that have different levels
of difficulty and varied degrees of probable success. 2.Rewards for success must increase
with the difficulty of the task. and 3. There must be an environment that accepts and assists making and
correcting errors.
Suggestions for enhancing students' curiosity
*create a warm, accepting environment where students feel free to take intellectual risks
*have discussions in which students play with their own ideas, build on the ideas of others, examine
dilemmas, and confront conflicting ideas or information.
* model and encourage an interested, skeptical, and inquiring attitude.
*teach students questioning and self questioning strategies
*make students' "brains itch" by posing problems/questions that have no clear , immediate, single answer
(e.g."What would happen if no one ever died?") and by not giving them the answers to selected
problems/questions to encourage student discovery
*encourage creative problem solving instead of conformity to the "right" answer
*make interdisciplinary and cross cultural connections
* assign learning tasks that require doing - not just remembering
.
4. Reflective Style. Students show general tendencies to be reflective or impulsive across time and tasks.
The reflective style is associated with longer thinking time, cautiousness over performance, and fewer errors.
The impulsive style is characterized by shorter thinking time, carelessness in performance, and more errors
(Kagan & Kogan, 1972). Adopting a reflective style can help ensure “precise processing,” which Whimbey
(1984) views as the key to higher-order thinking. Dewey (1933) characterized reflective thought as
intentionally turning ideas over in one’s mind and giving them active, serious, and systematic consideration.
Dewey viewed reflective thinking as an aim of education because it transforms blind, routine, and impulsive
action into intelligent action, which enables inventing, problem solving, and creating enriched meaning. He
characterized reflective thought as intentionally turning ideas over in one's mind, giving them active, serious
consideration.
Suggestion for developing reflectiveness:

*model reflective thinking, patience, thoroughness and carefulness
*ask questions which require reflection (e.g., Why and how do you think the wheel was invented?)
* model and require “wait time” of at least a few seconds to think before raising a hand to answer
selected questions.
*model and encourage thinking aloud (See Chapter 10)
*let students know it's ok to count on their fingers and move their mouths when they read - both are
signs of carefulness
5. Locus of Control, Self Efficacy and Attributions. Students also show generalized tendencies in their
feelings of control over their destiny in general and school performance in particular. This concept is related to
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how students explain their successes and failures (attributions) and to their confidence in their ability to
perform specific tasks (self-efficacy). An internal locus of control is associated with awareness of the
relationship between students' actions and their school outcomes, willingness to take responsibility for
performance, self reliance, and independence in an academic setting. Thus a student with a predominantly
internal locus of control would be likely to attribute exam success or failure to his or her own ability and efforts.
An external locus of control is characterized by a sense of lack of control over the environment, not feeling
responsible for one's performance and attributing success or failure to fate or powerful others. Consequently,
a student with a predominantly external locus of control would be likely to attribute success or failure on an
exam to forces independent of the student.
Research shows that people with an external locus of control are handicapped in "destiny control"
achievement situations. Locus of control has a direct effect on students' attitude toward school. Cultural
factors can affect the degree of control students feel over their own destiny. Minority and women students
generally have less power in our society and may feel less of a sense of personal control as a result. Powerful
other people (white, middle-class men) often do have considerable influence over their destiny. However,
virtually all students can learn to take greater control over their own attitudes and actions, thereby improving
their own academic performance.
Suggestions for developing internal locus of control include modeling an internal locus of control by allowing
students to hear you take and assume responsibility for pleasant as well as unpleasant consequences and
when problems arise, have students analyze them, identify alternative solutions , select, and implement an
approach, and evaluate its effectiveness.
How do students explain their successes and failures? Give some examples from your own experience.
Attributions refer to the reasons people give for their successes and failures. Attributions can be
divided into two dimensions: stable-unstable and internal-external. Stable-unstable refers to how consistent
the attributions are over time (Alderman, 1990). Stable refers to the person using the same types of reasons
to explain success or failure over and over again. Unstable refers to giving one kind of reason on one
occasion and another type of reason another time. For example, Phil says equations are always difficult for
him to solve (stable), but that some division problems are easy and some are difficult (unstable). Internal-
external refers to where the person assigns responsibility for her/his successes and failures - inside the self or
outside the self. For example, Teres says she didn't do well on her history test because she didn't study
enough (internal). Susan says she didn't do well on her psychology test because her family interfered with her
study time (external). Alan says he got a good grade on his first math test because he was lucky and he did
poorly on his second math test because he was jinxed (external).
Students' explanations of their successes and failures have important consequences for future performance
on academic tasks. Research shows there are four common ways students explain their successes and
failures: effort - "I could do it if I really tried" , ability -"I'm just not a good writer", luck - "I guessed right" and
task difficulty- "The test was too hard" (Alderman, 1990, p. 37) . Attributions are related to: 1. expectations
about one’s likelihood of success; 2. judgments about one's ability; 3. emotional reactions of pride,
hopelessness and helplessness and 4. willingness to work hard and self-regulate one's efforts.
Feelings of helplessness are created over a period of time by belief that failure is due to lack of ability.
Students who see a relationship between their own effort and their own success are more likely to use learning
strategies such as: organizing, planning, goal-setting, self-checking and self-instruction. Alderman's "Links to
Success" model is designed to help "at-risk" students develop attributions that will motivate them to succeed.
Her four links to success are:
1. proximal goals, which are short-term rather than long-term, specific rather than general, and hard (but
reachable) rather than easy. e.g. This week I'll manage my time so that I have three extra hours to study.
Teach students to anticipate and overcome obstacles, monitor progress while goals are being pursued, and
evaluate whether they achieved their goals at the end of the specified time. "I'll know whether I accomplished
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this goal by writing down how much time I study and comparing that to how much I studied last week. Possible
obstacles to achieving this goal are... I will overcome these obstacles by... When they don't achieve their
goals, teach students to determine why not, and what they could do differently next time.
2. learning strategies, which students are taught so they can apply effective strategies, such as
summarizing and clarifying, which emphasize meaningful learning and can be used across subjects and
situations, instead of ineffective approaches, such as repeating, which tends to emphasize rote memorization.
3. success experiences, where students evaluate their success in achieving the proximal goals,
and where learning ("How much progress did I make?") rather than performance ("What grade did I get?") is
the goal. and,
4. attributions for success, where students are encouraged to explain their successes in terms of their
personal efforts or abilities. The teacher's role here is to give students feedback on why they succeeded or
failed and help students give the appropriate explanation. Was an answer incorrect, incomplete, was there a
careless mistake? Make sure students understand why an answer is incorrect. Ask questions such as, "What
did you do when you tried to answer that question/solve that problem?
Self efficacy refers to how people feel about their ability to perform a specific task or in a particular situation.
For example, Iris feels she is good at algebra , but that she is not very good in calculus. To help develop
students' feelings of self- efficacy, a teacher should teach students to set short-term, realistic goals, and give
them strategies for making progress in achieving these goals.
6. Open-mindedness. The extent to which students' mental attitudes are open or closed affects how they
process information. Being open-minded is often associated with being free of bias or prejudice which inhibit
consideration of new ideas. Ennis (1987) and others identify open-mindedness as one of the key attitudes
underlying critical thinking. It allows one to more objectively determine whether information should be
accepted or rejected. Perry (1970) suggests it is one of the characteristics of intellectually mature college
students. Rokeach's (1960) formulation of the concept suggests that students who are open-minded are more
likely to see connections between beliefs whereas students who are close-minded tend to treat beliefs as
isolated things. Consequently, open-minded students might be more likely than closed-minded students to
see relationships between concepts across subject areas as well as connections between knowledge and
skills learned in school and nonschool applications.
Suggestions for enhancing openmindedness:

*help students view the world relativistically (in terms of degrees and alternatives) rather than absolutely
(all or none and one right answer or way)
*model and encourage students to withhold judgment until sufficient evidence and reasons exist .
*model and encourage respecting the right of others to have beliefs and values different from one's own.
*have students argue from positions different from their own and show students how to use opposing
viewpoints as tools for critically evaluating lines of reasoning
*help students avoid overgeneralizing the implications of ideas and events
*accept students valid answers and methods even if they are not the ones you or the
book had in mind
*identify relationships between ideas instead of treating them in isolation
*cultivate the habit of differentiating between fact and opinion
7. Achievement Anxiety. Students with primarily facilitative anxiety, which aids test performance, show a
high degree of organization in their thoughts and actions and mediate stressful situations in a flexible way.
Therefore, the anxiety fosters an attitude toward the testing situation which actually helps students achieve a
higher test score. Students with primarily debilitative anxiety, which impedes test performance, show a high
degree of disorganization in their thoughts and actions, respond in a rigid way, become confused, upset, feel
helpless, and sometimes their minds go blank. Consequently, this form of anxiety fosters an attitude toward
the testing situation which makes students achieve a lower test score (Lourie & Schwarzbeck, 1979). Test
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anxiety interferes with test performance by reducing the cognitive capacity available for responding to test
items and cognitive capacity during testing may be enhanced by developing students' study and test taking
skills (Tobias, 1985). Other researchers have found that another variable which may affect cognition during
testing is self talk. Typically low achieving students give themselves negative messages (e.g., "I'll never
finish." "I'm going to fail.") which may affect cognitive capacity as well as contribute to a self-fulfilling
prophesy.
Suggestion for addressing students' anxiety:

*help students learn to differentiate between constructive and destructive instances of anxiety
*teach students to monitor and control their anxiety before, during and after learning/
assessment activities
*demonstrate and encourage use of assorted relaxation techniques
*guide students in engaging in success imagery minutes, days, and weeks before testing
*identify invalid concepts (misconceptions) students have about subject matter concepts and about how to
learn the subject matter. Students' misconceptions about a subject can erode confidence and interfere with
learning. For example, a student might expect a problem to be solved quickly, and give up when it isn't
(Gourgey, 1992a ).
*teach test-taking strategies for objective and essay tests.
*Gourgey suggests that teachers can help students overcome anxiety and foster independent learning
by: 1. Dialogue. The teacher can ask questions and be a good listener to help identify specific problems.
2. Analysis of Errors. Teachers can help students learn from their errors so they realize they can improve their
performance.
3. Response to Affective Needs. Teachers can listen for hidden messages students send and teachers can
convey their positive expectations that students can succeed.
4. Re-education about Learning. Teachers can help students understand that some learning involves
persistence and struggle, so they shouldn't blame themselves for being slow.
How will you remember important ideas?
Relaxation Techniques
There are many strategies teachers can suggest and demonstrate to students to help them relax. First
find out what strategies they already use. Share with them techniques you use to relax. Following are some
established techniques:
1. Deep Breathing. With erect posture, breath in deeply through the nose and hold your breath for a count
of 8-10. Then slowly exhale through the mouth, counting 8-10. Repeat this procedure several times until
relaxation occurs.
2.Muscle Relaxation. a. Tension-Relaxation. Tighten and then relax muscle or set of muscles, like your
shoulders, that normally store considerable tension. Hold the muscles in a tensed state for a few seconds and
then let go. Repeat this sequence with the same muscles a few times and them move on to other muscles. b.
Self-Hypnosis. Sit straight in a chair with arms and legs uncrossed, feet flat on the floor and palms on top of
your thighs. Progressively relax your body, from toes to head, systematically focusing on one part at a time.
Concentrate on tuning into your bodily sensations, allowing your muscles to relax and become more aware of
what it feels like when your muscles are relaxed. Talk to yourself (aloud or silently) telling yourself to loosen
up and lessen the tightness. When the body is relaxed, it is more receptive to positive self talk. Build up your
self-confidence at this point. For example, "I know I can do well on this test!".
3. Creative Visualization. a. Olympic Success. Try what the Olympic athletes do to develop confidence in
their performance. Picture yourself in a tense situation, like taking a test, and visualize yourself looking over
the test, seeing the questions and feeling secure about the answers. Imagine yourself answering the questions
without too much difficulty. Complete the picture by imagining yourself turning in the paper and leaving the
room assured that you did your best. b. Relaxing Place. Where do you feel most at peace? My spot is by the
ocean. Identify a place and use all of your senses to imagine yourself there and how you feel when you are
there. I "watch" the waves with their white caps rolling up the shoreline onto the beach. I hear the waves and
the seagulls. I smell the salty air and feel my fingers and toes in the warm, soft and grainy sand. What is
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your most relaxing place?___________ What details can you picture in your mind?_____________________
___________________ What sounds can you hear?__________________________ What can you touch
and how does it feel?_____________________________________
Student-Generated Questions on Attitudes and Motivation

Academic Self-Concept (View of self as learner, in general & specific subjects)
1. In which subject do you do better and why do you think this is so?
2.Do you think that the way that you perform in school today will affect you in your future student life?
3.Which are your major weakness in class and what do you think you could do to improve them?
4. Do you think your opinions have validity to other students and to the teacher? Could they learn from them?
5. Do you think the teacher should encourage you to participate in class or she or he is the only one supposed
to talk?
6.What do you do when you don't get the results that you were expecting?
7. What do you think you could learn from your mistakes? Do you accept your errors and have willingness to
improve in those areas?
Self-Esteem (View of self worth in general)

1. What do you see yourself doing 6 months from now?
2. How do you feel when you fail at something?
3. How do your feel about yourself (What makes you feel best about yourself?)
4. Are you dependent on others or independent?
5. What do you do to promote your self esteem?
6.What are your reasons for attending school?
7. How does self esteem relate to your success?
Motivation (Desire to begin, continue, and direct behavior)

1. Extrinsic: Who motivates you the most? (not including peers)
2. Extrinsic: What motivates you the most?
3. Intrinsic: What motivates you the most?
4. What activity requires the most motivation?
5. What impedes your motivation the most?
6. In what way has education increased your motivation?
7. Is motivation important to you or not? Explain.
8. Is peer pressure a negative or positive motivation to you?
Attributions (How people explain their successes and failures)

1. What do you consider your successes and failures based on?
2. How do you perform on tests? Is it linked with luck or to your effort?
3. Do you do homework assignments? Why or why not?
4. If failing a class, what would you do to improve the situation?
5. What is the relationship between your success in school and your future career?
6. Given a true or false exam, what would you do?
7. Do you think you work hard enough to be a student?
Achievement Anxiety (Tension that helps or interferes with school performance)

1. How do you prepare for exams?
2. How do you deal with feeling overwhelmed?
3. How do you prepare or organize your material when taking a test?
4. How do you maintain your self confidence?
5. What do you do when you're down?
6. How do you deal with negative feelings before an exam?
7.How do you lift your spirits when you don't do what is expected?
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Reflective Style (Careful, deliberate thinking before performance)

1. In what ways do you use a reflective style when taking exams?
2. How do you apply a reflective style when doing homework?
3. Do you feel a reflective style benefits you? Why or why not?
4. In what specific course would you apply a reflective style? Why?
5. In what other areas would you apply a reflective style besides school?
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6. Have you had experience with teachers who have used a reflective style in the classroom? How did you
benefit from it?
Other Suggestions for Developing Positive Thinking and Learning Attitudes
Attitude General Suggestions for Students
If the student is frustrated: focus on successes not failures

identify alternative approaches
break task into manageable parts
use relaxation techniques
take a break
don't take task too seriously
If the student is confused: monitor comprehension

specify exact cause of confusion
suspend need for total understanding
consider your prior knowledge
decide what to clarify
try figuring it out on your own
clarify: ask open-ended questions "What do you mean?"
generate and test alternatives "Do you mean...?"
look it up in the text or glossary
look back at text already read
select and combine relevant clues
If the student needs to be challenged:

recall prior success on similar task
view task as fun
strive to do your best
persist with task
set realistic expectations
be aware of effective strategies
choose moderately difficult tasks
If the student needs more confidence:

monitor self messages
maintain positive outlook
accept errors as learning experiences
determine what works and why
eliminate ineffective strategies
work from easy to difficult
Self-Regulation of Emotions
This section shows how you can help students have greater control over their attitudes and motivations. Self-
questioning is a key instructional technique for promoting management of one's intellectual processes.
Similarly, self-talk - coping self-statements and self-reinforcers can help students manage their emotional
states in academic situations. The key to controlling an undesirable mental state is first becoming aware of its
existence.
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Awareness can be nurtured through systematic monitoring of one's mental state. Students need to "tune
in" to what they are silently thinking and feeling and use silent self- talk to modify these thoughts and feelings
in a more desirable direction. Coping self- statements can help the learner set the stage for a positive learning
experience and help motivate a student to do his/her best. Self-reinforcers can reward a student for doing
her/his best. Subject-specific examples follow.
Self-Talk Techniques For Developing Attitudes That Foster Thinking
Subject Coping Self-Statements Self-Reinforcers

Reading Reading will help me do Hey, how about that! I
word problems better. got most of the comprehension
questions right.
I didn't do my best on the Alright! I figured out the

last vocabulary test, but I'll
meaning of those words
do better this time. by seeing how they were
used in their sentences.
____________________________________________________________________________
Writing I need to learn how to write well I'm glad I revised
so that I can become a journalist. that essay, I got an "A"!
By taking my time to think

before I write, I'll be able
to give a better answer.
_____________________________________________________________________________
Math Once I master calculus, Well, my extra studying I'll do better in
my engineering paid off. I did much
courses. better on this test.
It's a good thing I caught
those careless mistakes before
turning in my paper.
______________________________________________________________________________ Other
(fill in)
______________________________________________________________________________
Conclusions
In many ways affective and cognitive growth go hand in hand. Developing students' emotionally aids
thinking and learning, while developing students intellectually enhances students' actual personal growth
potential. There is universal recognition that colleges are intended to promote the development of knowledge
and skills because these are usually the explicit goals of instruction. They are also areas of student
accountability as reflected by exams. In contrast, there tends to be little recognition of the educational
importance of attitudes, in part because the interdependence of intellect and emotions is not appreciated.
Teachers should consider adding attitude evaluation to their diagnosis of students’ needs. However,
teachers should not necessarily expect teaching to reveal significant improvement in these attitudes after a
few months of special focus. Attitude development is a long, slow cumulative, developmental process. For
meaningful change to occur, students' emotional needs must be addressed consistently throughout their
educational experience. To do this effectively, teachers should reflect and work on their own awareness of
and feelings toward the attitudes they want to develop in their students. By recognizing and building upon the
intimate link between cognition and affect, teachers can more comprehensively address the short and
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long-term needs of the whole student.
Using your own words, briefly summarize how you might use 4 ideas from this chapter.
Strategies For Developing Attitudes That Promote Thinking
Exercise 1. Try to create your own subject-specific examples of coping self-statements and self-
reinforcers.
Subject Coping Self-Statements Self-Reinforcers

1.
2.
3.
Exercise 2. Apply your prior knowledge and what you learned about attitudes in this chapter to complete
the chart below.
Attitude Coping Self-Statements Self-Reinforcers
Predispositions
Academic Self-
Concepts
Curiosity
Reflective
Style
Attributions
Openmindedness
Facilitative
Anxiety
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NAME__________________________
Make a Reader-based Graphic Organizer of the main ideas on p 131-137 "Attitudes That Aid
Thinking and Learning"
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Chapter 8
Psychological Theories
Family Tree of Major Learning Theories

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MY BELIEFS ABOUT TEACHING
Please mark the items below in terms of your typical teaching practices: V=very important of you, N=not
very important , S=somewhat important, NA=not apply.
I BELIEVE TEACHERS SHOULD
1. Consider students' ages or stages of development when planning teaching __
2. Motivate students to learn so they get external rewards (e.g. grades, praise, higher salary )____
3. Model what they are to learn ________
4. Give lectures on topics to be learned ________
5. Help develop students' positive academic self concepts ________
6. Motivate students to learn based on the intrinsic value of the material________
7. Develop students' thinking, learning, and problem solving skills________
8. Gradually shape complex behaviors in students ________
9. Move from concrete examples/experiences to abstract principles_____
10. Help students make what they learn personally meaningful ________
11. Activate students' prior knowledge about material they are learning________
12. Have students give their own examples of concepts________
13. Help students develop good social skills for interacting with others________
14. Help students connect their efforts in learning to their outcomes________
15. Teach students to explain their successes and failures in ways that increase their chances of
improving their future performance________
16. Have students relate what they are learning to their own experience.________
17 Identify preconceptions and misconceptions that may inhibit learning________
18. Have students discover concepts through their own experiences.________
19. Inform students at the beginning how they should organize the material to be learned.________
20. Present material in different modalities (e.g. verbal, visual, auditory, tactile-kinesthetic)________
21. Have students identify relationships between concepts________
22. Help students organize content as they learn about it________
23. Help students think about how they acquire information.________
24. Help students think about how they remember information________
25. Have students apply what they learn to new situations________
26. Have students memorize ideas, even if they don't understand them________
27. Make sure students have prerequisite knowledge and skills before giving them
complex tasks to perform.________
28. Help students take responsibility for and control over their own learning.________
29. Ensure that students make some of their own choices when learning.________
30. Serve as a role model for students to observe and imitate________
31. Ensure students are actively involved in the learning process________
32. Structure lessons so students work with other students_____
33. Allow students to have more than one opportunity to master material_____
34. Provide students with hints, cues and prompts when needed to help them complete work on their
own instead of giving them answers._____
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Introduction to Behavioral ,Cognitive and Humanistic Theories
The Behaviorist view of learning is rather mechanistic and easier to apply, but limited in its
effectiveness because is does not seem to be appropriate for teaching higher-order thinking skills.
Behaviorists stress methods of changing student behavior. To apply behaviorism, set up a situation
where the student responds appropriately (correctly) and provide some type of reward. When the desired
learning takes place, the student responds correctly whenever the constructed situation occurs.
Behaviorists do not claim to understand (or care) what takes place within the student - the entire focus is
on student behavior.
The Cognitive view of learning seems better adapted to education because it emphasizes
changes in the student and sees behavior as a sometimes observable consequence of those changes. In
cognitive theory behavior is seen as a result of learning, rather than behavior itself is learned. In answer
to the question, "What is learned?" a cognitive theorist would say information or strategies while a
behaviorist would say behavior. (adapted from T. Schuell, 1991) Can you tell which of these two
theoretical frameworks guides this textbook? It is heavily influenced by cognitive theory.
Humanistic theories emphasize the roles of affect, social relations, personal meaningfulness in
learning and development.
BEHAVIORAL THEORIES
The mind is considered a blank slate or "tabula rasa". The environment is the source of learning.
The individual passively responds to cues in the environment. The goals of behaviorists are to transmit
the knowledge and values of the culture and to mold socially desired behaviors, such as giving the right
answer. According to Pressley & McCormack(1995) behaviorists concentrate on directly observable
behavior instead of internal, unobservable explanatory variables (p. 193). A behaviorist studying reading
would focus on activities such as turning pages and finishing books instead of summarizing strategies or
comprehension monitoring (adapted from Pressley & McCormack 1995). Teaching based on behavioral
theories is very teacher-centered; the teacher is viewed as the authority and source of knowledge.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning emphasizes the voluntary response the learner makes to a stimulus in the
environment and is based on Skinner's research and stimulus-response-reward model. The response
examined is directly observable behavior - not a mental response. According to this theory the learner
has some control over the responses that are made, but behaviorists emphasize that behavior is shaped
by environmental consequences of the behavior the rewards and punishment that follow the behavior
(Hamilton & Ghatala, 1994). Rewards increase the likelihood of getting the desired behaviors and are
sometimes referred to as positive reinforcement. Rewards can motivate behavior. For example, a student
may complete all the homework assigned in order to get a sticker or smiley face from the teacher.
Through rewards, students learn to make specific responses to specific situations. Punishment is
intended to weaken the likelihood of getting an undesired behavior. It involves either giving something
negative, such as making the student stay after school, or taking away something positive, like recess.
Generalization, discrimination, and extinction are important operant conditioning principles.
Generalization is when the learner makes the same response to a slightly different, but relatively similar
stimulus in the environment. For example, a student may complete homework assignments in reading as
well as math. Discrimination is when the learner makes a different response to similar but not identical
stimuli in the environment. For example, a student may misbehave when having a substitute teacher, but
behave acceptably with the regular teacher. Extinction is when a response or behavior stops because
the reinforcement or reward has stopped. This principle is used in education when teacher ignores
misbehavior, hoping that getting the teacher's attention is the reward the student is seeking, and when the
student doesn't get that reward, the misbehavior will stop.
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Behavioral techniques of shaping & behavior modification are based on rewarding desired behaviors.
Shaping, also known as successive approximation, involves giving rewards for responses that are
progressively more like the ultimate desired end state. This technique allows a complex behavior to be
broken down into a series of steps which gradually lead to the desired outcome. For example, when toilet
training, the ultimate goal is for the child to use the toilet appropriately and independently. However, this is
too complex to happen all at once, so parents often first reward the child simply for saying it is time to use
the bathroom. Then they only might reward the child when the child goes into the bathroom an announces
s/he has to use the toilet. Next the parents might only reward the child when the child goes into the
bathroom and sits on the toilet, and so forth. How could you use shaping or successive approximation in
the classroom?
Token economies and the Premack principle are other behavioral techniques based on
reinforcement or rewards. In token economies, students accumulate symbols of rewards until they
receive enough to cash them in for a real reward. When I was doing research in the psychiatric clinic at
Ohio State University as an undergraduate, a patient I knew received a token (a plastic chip) each time
she took care of her personal hygiene - taking a shower, brushing her teeth, getting dressed, combing her
hair and so forth. When she had acquired 20 tokens, she would cash them in and get to listen to an album
of classical music, which was her reward. The Premack Principle (Premack, 1965), sometimes is called
"Grandma's Rule", is when the teacher (or parent) observes what the learner likes to do in her/his spare
time, (a preferred response) such as playing games on the computer, and use that preferred activity as a
reward and incentive for making responses that are less preferred, such as cleaning up one's desk. The
teacher would say, "Clean up your desk, then you can play a game on the computer".
Lecturing is a common behavioral teaching strategy of transmitting information to students.

Students are given extrinsic rewards, such as grades, praise, stickers, and smiley faces. One of the
limitations of using rewards is that students tend to become dependent on extrinsic motivators, which can
undermine intrinsic motivation. Rewards are often useful for getting a student to begin making desired
responses, such as sitting quietly at the desk or completing homework assignments, but should be
gradually phased out to minimize dependence on extrinsic motivators. Using various schedules of
reinforcement can help teachers use rewards effectively. A continuous reward schedule means
rewarding the student each time the desired response is made. Intermittent reinforcement means
rewarding a response occasionally - either based on the passage of time or the number of responses and
can be either fixed or variable. Fixed would involve rewarding after a set amount of time (e.g. once a
week) or after a set number of responses (e.g. every 10 responses). Variable would involve an
inconsistent amount of time (e.g., once a week, then once every 3 days, then once every month) or an
inconsistent number of responses (e.g. after 10 responses, then after 4 responses). Teachers can start
out using continuous rewards, then once the student starts responding, shift to a variable schedule,
gradually reducing the rewards until they are eliminated altogether.
Punishment, as previously mentioned, is designed to decrease the likelihood of getting

undesired behavior. It involves either giving something negative or taking away something positive. An
example of giving something negative is making the student stay after school or yelling at the student.
Research on punishment shows that it often immediately stops the misbehavior. Does that automatically
mean it is a good strategy for changing behavior? Not necessarily. Research suggests that punishment is
often ineffective in changing behavior, despite quickly suppressing it. Mild punishment does not seem to
work very well, and even with severe punishment, the undesired behavior tends to recur when the
punisher isn't around. Students tend to get more clever and sneaky about their misbehavior; they don't
misbehave less often. Additionally, punishment often produces negative side effects that interfere with
learning e.g., it tends to lower students' self esteem. Decades ago, teachers and principals often used to
hit students with a paddle to punish them. Most states now have laws forbidding public school teachers
from hitting students as a form of punishment. One commonly used punishment technique is time out.
Time out, sometimes known as Type 1 Punishment, involves the teacher removing the misbehaving
student from the rest of the class, and putting the person by himself, and not including the student in the
class activity. Sometimes what is intended as punishment turns out to be a reward instead. In time out,
the student is often sent to a corner of the room, away from the other students so there is no possibility for
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support of commraderie. The strategy is based on the assumption that being nearby the other students
and participating in class with them is rewarding, so removing these rewards is a form of punishment.
However, for some disruptive students, time out from regular class activities is an incentive to misbehave
- not a discouragement! What the teacher sees as a punishment is a reward from the student's point of
view. Finally, in order to be effective, punishment must be immediate and relatively severe, which has
ethical and legal implications.
Social Learning : Observational Learning (Imitation) and Social Cognitive Learning
Like operant conditioning, social learning theories are primarily concerned with changing
behavior, however social learning theories differ from operant conditioning in their ideas about how new,
complicated behaviors are learned. Seeing others rewarded or punished for their behaviors is central to
observational learning. Bandura is the primary researcher and theorist associated with social learning
theories, and his theories have become progressively more cognitive (Hamilton & Ghatala, 1994).
Bandura's earlier theory (Bandura and Walters, 1963), Observational Learning is also known as
modeling. A teacher, parent, or other social stimulus, serves as a model, who executes the desired
behavior. The learner observes the model and imitates or copies the behavior observed in the model.
However, while Bandura believes that most learning occurs through observing the behavior of others, he
does not see imitating as the only way people learn from models (Bandura, 1986). Bandura identifies five
processes involved in this type of learning: attending to the model's behavior, identifying with the model,
retaining the model's behavior in long term memory, producing a copy of the model's behavior, and
motivation, wanting to behave like the model. While attention and retention are necessary for acquiring
new behaviors, production and motivation are required for the learner to perform the new behaviors. There
are two types of rewards in observational learning. Direct reinforcement is getting rewarded by someone
for performing the behavior observed in the model e.g. The teacher says to the student: "Good
Thelonious, you raised your hand before talking just like I showed you!", and vicarious reinforcement is
when one person imitates the behavior that someone else is rewarded for, e.g., if I study in a group like
my brother does, maybe I'll get good grades like he does.
Bandura's more recent social cognitive learning theory (1977, 1986) emphasizes the value of
what is learned, setting goals, learner expectations, feelings of self-efficacy, self-regulation and self
reinforcement, when someone performs a behavior to meet internal standards. According to Bandura,
self-efficacy affects motivation. If a person feels competent to perform a specific task in a specific
situation, s/he is more likely to attempt it than if s/he feels incapable of performing the task. This type of
theory is sometimes called an expectancy x value theory because it emphasizes the person's value for the
goal and the expectation of success. Bandura also emphasizes the importance of teacher-efficacy, which,
i.e. a teacher's belief that s/he can help even the most difficult students learn (Woolfolk, 1992).
COGNITIVE THEORIES
Cognitive theorists believe that learning and development occur through the interaction of the
learner (e.g. heredity) and the environment. They focus on the mind's role in learning, meaningfulness of
what is learn, and active involvement in the learning process. Cognitive theories emphasize mental
activities - not just observable behavior. Some of the most important mental activities in learning are:
acquisition, comprehension, retention, and transfer of what is learned. Learning is often viewed in terms of
schemata, which are basic structures or concepts for organizing knowledge. Piaget referred to
assimilation as the incorporation of new information into an existing schema or cognitive structure, and
accommodation as changing the existing schema or creating a new one to fit new information. Thus
assimilation involves the expansion of cognitive structures whereas accommodation involves the
refinement or modification of cognitive structures. Learning involves both assimilation and
accommodation.
According to Schuell ( 1991)cognitive theory has made the following contributions:

1. Learning is an active, constructive, goal-oriented process which involves mental activities including:
metacognition, selection, organization and use of learning strategies.
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2. Higher-level thought processes are always present in learning. All learning is hierarchical in nature
which means there are different levels of thinking (such as cognitive and metacognitive) involved in all
learning tasks.
3. Learning has a cumulative effect and this means that prior knowledge is of great importance when
introducing new material. Organized, structured bodies of information (schemata) that a learner already
has and can use in learning new material determine how the task is interpreted and what the learner
will understand and acquire from working on the task.
4. Learning requires knowledge organization and representation. Domain-specific knowledge plays an

important role in learning. Experts and novices in a content area approach tasks in different ways and
have different underlying knowledge structures.
5. Attention must be given to analyzing learning tasks and performance in terms of the cognitive
processes involved. Rumelhart and Norman (1978) suggest three different kinds of learning:
a. accretion, or encoding (registering) new information in terms of existing schemata ( like Piaget's
concept of assimilation); b. restructuring or creating new schemata; c. tuning or slowly modifying and
refining a schema as a result of using it in different situations. (Both b and c represent forms of Piaget's
concept of accommodation.)
There are at least three major types of cognitive theories: constructivist, information processing
and social interaction.
Constructivist
This theoretical perspective is derived from cognitive developmental theories, such as Piaget
and Bruner, and from Dewey's work. The theories of Piaget and Bruner suggest there are qualitatively
different stages of cognitive development which proceed from physical to concrete to abstract
representations of concepts. This perspective tends to emphasize similarities of people at the same stage
and differences from stage to stage. Children are viewed as thinking differently than adults. Like all
cognitive theories, constructivism emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and
making sense of information. It includes: building one's own view of the world, building concepts,
building relationships between concepts, use own experience and prior knowledge, modalities for
structuring knowledge, spiral curriculum, inquiry, and discovery learning. Details on the constructivist
approach are presented later in this chapter.
Information Processing
The emphasis of this approach is on how the learner processes information. Learning results
from an interaction between the learner, who processes information, and the environment, which provides
information to the learner. According to Mayer (1996), this theoretical perspective views "the mind as an
information processing system, cognition as applying cognitive processes, and learning as the acquisition
of mental representations" (p. 155). Information is processed in stages: the input is encoded, sent to a
sensori-register for 2-3 seconds, then, if rehearsed, to short term memory and then if rehearsed
extensively and/or elaborated, retained in long term memory, and can be recalled when output is
required. Information processing theory focuses on understanding how people acquire, store and retrieve
information and how prior knowledge affects learning. Some of the important contributors to information
processing theory are Sternberg; Miller, Galanter & Pribram; and Gagne. There are limits on how much
can be processed at each stage. Limited capacity was demonstrated by Miller's (1958) classic "Magical
Number 7, + or - 2 ", which suggests we can hold approximately 7 units (range of 5-9) of information in our
working memories. Our limited cognitive capacity suggests that "chunking" of information into units is
important for maximizing memory with minimal strain. There is no limit on our absolute amount of learning,
but knowledge is best acquired gradually. Information processing theory distinguishes between lower
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level cognitive processes and higher level metacognitive processes and knowledge. Cognition includes
attending, encoding, recognizing, comprehending comparing, combining, remembering ( memory stores
and strategies) applying, analyzing, synthesizing. Metacognition includes executive management or
self-regulation processes of planning, monitoring, evaluating, revising and strategic knowledge: what,
when, where & why, and how . Information processing theory also considers the differences between
experts and novices in a subject or domain in terms of their amount and organization of knowledge and
how they process information. There are domain-specific differences in cognition and metacognition. For
example, reading metacognition is not identical to math metacognition. However, metacognitive
processes are similar across subjects or domain-general. Information processing theory also suggests
that information processing is interactive, that is, perception is influenced by our stored information (prior
knowledge), and our stored information is influenced by our perception. (Biehler & Snowman, 1990).
Mayer (1996 p. 157) identified the following contributions and limitations of information
processing theory: The contributions are: 1) it provided an alternative to behaviorism and cognitive
psychology was reborn; 2) it stimulated theory and research through its unified framework, including the
concept of limited information processing capacity; 3) it emphasized the importance of mental
representations, including the structure of knowledge, in learning; 4) it stressed the role of mental
processing in learning, including the role of learning strategies, domain-specific processing differences
and individual differences in cognitive processing and 5) it helped psychology shift from animal to human
learning research, which eventually resulted in seeing learning as an active process. Information
processing theory's initial limitations were: 1) it ignored the role emotional, social and physical factors in
learning; 2) it proposed a rigid model of the architecture of the mind; 3) its research focused on unrealistic
laboratory tasks instead of realistic academic tasks and 4) it viewed mental activity as automatic instead of
effortful and constructive. Sternberg's information processing theory of intelligent performance is
described later in this chapter.
Overview of Piaget’s Theory
Primary sources: Piaget 1937 and 1971& To Understand is to Invent. Pressley & McCormick; 181-193:;
Charles Brainerd Ch. 1-3
Organization: coherence, stability, consistency in cognition
Adaption (Adaptation): Assimilation & Accommodation - Assimilation is the incorporation of new

information into an existing schema or cognitive structure. Accommodation as changing the existing
schema or creating a new one to fit new information. Thus assimilation involves the expansion of cognitive
structures whereas accommodation involves the refinement or modification of cognitive structures.
Learning involves both assimilation and accommodation. They are responsible for changes in cognition.
Jean Piaget’s Stage Theory of Intellectual Development
Characteristics of stage theory:
1 Active Construction: Development of intelligence within and between stages depends upon one’s
interactions with the environment which enable the generation of thoughts and concepts which elaborate
on the existing cognitive structures or schemas.
2. Qualitative Differences. The differences in stages are in the kind or nature of thinking characteristic of
each stage - they aren’t differences in the quantity of information but in how information is processed and
interpreted.
3. Universal: The types and sequence of stages do not depend upon one’s culture but transcend cultures
and are the same for each culture.
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4. Invariant Sequence: The stages must occur in the identified sequence and no stage can be skipped.
This is because each new stage builds upon the achievements of the stage which precedes it.
5. Competence vs. Performance theory. Piaget’s theory focuses on the highest level a person perform at
during the stage. It doesn’t address the person’s typical performance, but the best the person is capable of
doing, whether or not the person typically thinks this way.
6. Age Does NOT =stage. Ages are just approximations in Piaget’s stage theory. They are rough
guidelines only and depend upon the individual person’s maturation and experiences.
7. Stage Mixture. A person usually operates at more than one stage at a time. One may be concrete
operational in one subject and formal operational in another subject. Stage mixture is also called
decalage, and there are two types, horizontal: and vertical. Horizontal (within-stage): not all problems at
the same logical operations are mastered at the same time (e.g. conservation of length before quantity).
Vertical (between-stage): person might be at one stage for some tasks and another stage for different
tasks (e.g. child could be Pre Operational in conservation of quantity but Concrete Operational in
conservation of length; Dave Griffiths - physicists FO in physics but not other subjects.
Stages of Development
1. Sensori-Motor: (roughly birth - 2 years) object concept; physical representation paves way for mental
representation, reflexes, motor activity, curiosity, global, imitation, egocentrism
2. PreOperational: (roughly 2-7 years) symbolic thought, language, but egocentric, missing logical
concepts of identify, reciprocity & negation (reversibility) that enable conservation. Symbols, egocentrism,
language, imagery, centration, concrete, static, irreversible. absolute
3. Concrete Operational (roughly 7-11 years): logical operations if concrete problems, decentration;
conservation, class inclusion- sets & subsets e.g. 5 robins and 4 bluebirds - Understand that there are
more birds than robins. Decentration, dynamic, reversible, identity, relative, reciprocity
4. Formal Operational: (roughly 11-years )abstract thinking, manipulate several dimensions at once,
combinatorial thinking (systematically generate all possible combinations) hypothetical (can think on the
level of possibility), hypothesis testing. Think like a scientist.
How Piaget Explains Cognitive Development: Total of 5 factors (Pressley & McCormick p. 187)
1.Maturation Physiological changes that automatically unfold during development. Piaget viewed
maturation as necessary but not sufficient for development to occur.
3 types of experience
2. Physical World. A person’s interactions with objects and features of the real world, e.g. a child playing in
the sand at the beach develops ideas about how water can change the texture and modifiability of
material.
3. Logico-mathematical. experience (effects of actions on performance) For example, a child learns about
counting as he counts 10 small beads from right to left and discovers that the number remains the same
even if he counts from left to right and that the number stays the same if he substitute large beads for
smaller ones. Or, if a student tries a reading strategy e.g. self questioning about the content, and finds
that it helps him understand what he reads, the student is likely to use the self-questioning strategy again
which will help him further improve his reading.
4. Social Experience - Home & school environments can vary in the amount and types of experiences with
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people (e.g. parents, siblings, teachers, students) they provide, which can affect the speed of movement
from stage to stage and the degree of elaboration within a stage.
5. Equilibration. The attempt to restore cognitive balance (equilibrium) when it is in disequilibrium. When
someone experiences the limitations of their logical operations - and recognizes that their answers don’t
make sense or are discrepant with other answers, there’s a cognitive conflict which causes disequilibrium
which results in equilibration. According to Piaget, equilibration is motivated by the desire to return to a
state of cognitive equilibrium. It occurs through the combined effect of assimilation and accommodation.
Educational Implications:
1. Elaboration Not Acceleration. Piaget’s distaste for American preoccupation with acceleration - trying to
push a child to think on a higher level than the child’s cognitive structures will allow.
2. A. theory of cognitive development: Active learning, Meaningful learning, Sequence of types of

materials by stage, Development of abstract thinking, stimulating environment, social interaction; don’t
correct students’ wrong answers - guide them to discover things they need to consider, stimulate conflict.
Not passive reception learning. Help students construct their own understanding of concepts.
3. Practical Learning Situations. For example, Kamii 1985) teaching math across the curriculum. Connect
math problems to every day life experience.
4. To Understand is to Invent: Emphasizes the need for educators to rethink education rather than just
continuing to teach traditional curricular content and methods. better teacher training, The goal of
education should be the development of critical and creative thinking - not just mastering an identified
body of knowledge.
5. Learning Cycle Model
The learning cycle (Karplus, 1974) model of instruction is based on Piagetian theory and involves a
constructivist approach to teaching. It is intended to help students progress from concrete to abstract
thinking about content (i.e., from concrete to formal operations). A learning cycle comprises three stages:
exploration, concept introduction/development and application.
Stage 1: Exploration
Exploration involves students getting hands-on experience working with the content to be focused on
during the Learning Cycle. The teacher provides students with materials and guides their experience with
them. For example, at the beginning of a unit on learning I hold up in front of the class a list of 13 words
which I ask students to remember, in any order, after looking at the list for one minute. Next students write
all the words they remember. Then students are asked what they wrote and HOW they learned the items
on the list. Students share learning strategies, which generally include: rote memorization, organization
into two major groups, and mental pictures of selected items in relationship to each other. This experience
serves as a basis for learning about organization and representation strategies.
Stage 2: Concept Introduction
Students' experiences from their exploration are used to introduce basic concepts to be learned. In this
example we have a class discussion about organization and representation in learning. For homework
students read a chapter on learning strategies, which includes how to organize and represent information
to improve comprehension, learning and memory and how to teach students these strategies. Students
meet in groups to discuss their experiences with different learning strategies and their effectiveness in
different situations.
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Stage 3: Application
The application phase of the learning cycle "challenges students to generalize the concepts of the lesson
to other situations. They solve new problems by applying what they learned during steps one and two.
Ideally, the teacher will assign tasks or problems that relate to students' everyday lives (Barman, Benz,
Haywood & Houk 1992, p.18-19). In this unit it includes homework assignments in which students apply
what they learned about organization and representation in learning by making graphic organizers of
information in their text, e.g. the main ideas and significant details in the article "Teaching Students to
Summarize".
By the end of this learning cycle unit, students are expected to have learned about how organization and
representation of information to be learned affect acquisition and retention as well as how to use this
knowledge. Their thinking is expected to have progressed from concrete thinking about organization and
representation in learning to being able to deal with this content on a formal, abstract level.
Barman, C., Benz, R. Haywood, J. & Houk, G. (1992). Science and the Learning Cycle. Perspectives in
Education and Deafness. 11(1) 18-21.
6. Intrinsic motivation
7. Stimulate conflict for conceptual change and development
8. Develop formal operational thinking
9. Goal of education = creative and critical thinking.
Criticisms of Piaget: His clinical method, number of subjects, using his own children, case study
approach, lack of parsimony, narrow scope -normal, lack of predictive validity, infants can do more, some
abilities came earlier & some later than Piaget said, not as extremely egocentric speech in preschoolers,
concepts, e.g. Equilibration is hard to operationalize, it does, not explain individual differences, does not
cover whole life span and is too biological
Additional Cognitive Theories
Structure of Knowledge
Activate prior knowledge

Make learning meaningful
Bruner Ausubel
mode economy power advanced organizer

enactive expository
iconic comparative
symbolic
Bruner
Jerome Bruner's theory of the structure of knowledge is that there are three ways to characterize
its structure: the mode, economy and power.
Mode. Bruner identifies three learning modalities or ways of representing information in any domain.
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They correspond to the different ways children perceive reality at different ages. Bruner believes that any
idea or problem can be presented to any learner in a simple enough way that the learner can understand it
in a recognizable form. Bruner believes that material should be presented to students and then
reintroduced to them in progressively more complex ways as they develop and mature. This is the
essence of his spiral curriculum.
1. Enactive: during early childhood (up through preschool) children tend to think about the world in
terms of their actions. Physical activity - movement is used for understanding. This is similar to Piaget's
sensorimotor stage.
2. Iconic : in middle childhood children tend to represent the world in terms of concrete models,
mental images, or pictures. These representations stand for the concepts but do not define them fully.
This is similar to Piaget's concrete operations stage.
3. Symbolic: during late childhood and early adolescence children begin to represent the world in
terms of abstract representations of verbal, mathematical and logical symbols, which more fully define the
concepts they represent. This is similar to Piaget's formal operations stage.
Economy Bruner defines the economy of a representation in terms of the amount of information which
must be held in mind and processed to achieve comprehension. The more items there are, the greater
the number of steps needed to complete information processing, and the less the economy. Economy
varies with the mode in which it is represented, the sequence in which it presented, and the manner in
which it is learned, e.g., "A picture's worth 1,000 words" .
Power Bruner defines power in terms of the generativity of a representation - how much it stimulates the
learner to make connections between matters which might, on the surface, appear to be quite separate.
This is similar to the knowledge acquisition skill of Selective Combination in Sternberg's triarchic theory of
intellectual performance. This skill involves combining into a new whole, relevant ideas which when first
thinking about them, might not seem to have any connection with each other, as in a creative insight.
Bruner's Major Contributions
1. Structure of Knowledge: the three modes of understanding information described above.

These modes are progressively more abstract. Bruner believes student should learn the structure of
subject area knowledge rather than memorize facts about it. This means students should learn a
subject's basic ideas and how they relate to each other.
2. Spiral Curriculum: Bruner believes that even young children can understand an idea, even if it's
only in a simplified way, if it is presented in the child's predominant mode of representing knowledge.
Based on this idea, Bruner argues for introducing concepts to children early in
their schooling in a simple form. Then later the concepts should be reintroduced in a more complex form.
This instructional procedure is known as the spiral curriculum.
3. Discovery Learning: Bruner believes that students should learn by discovering what they need to know
because it's more meaningful than when it's just presented to students. Discovery also
helps students become more independent learners. He suggests teachers should give students
problems (e.g. a provocative question that has no single, clear answer) and help them seek solutions,
either by working independently or in groups. However, Bruner does not believe that students should
discover everything they need to know. Discovery learning is too time consuming for that. In discovery
learning students need sufficient time to make initial responses, evaluate them, decide on followup, then
probe for more information, as appropriate, discuss what is learned, reach conclusions, and share them
with classmates. Sometimes complex problems need to be analyzed and subdivided. Bruner argues that
discovery learning is best for learning: how ideas connect with each other and how what is already
known is related to what's being learned. Bruner's Man: A Course of Study (MACOS) is a social
studies curriculum showing teachers how to use discovery with elementary school students. It is based on
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four techniques: emphasizing contrast, stimulating informed guessing, encouraging participation and
arousing awareness of how students think. (Biehler & Snowman 1990)
Ausubel
David Ausubel's theory of structuring knowledge is based on the concept that meaningful learning
depends upon organizing material in a way that makes material meaningful by connecting it with ideas in
the learner's cognitive structure. According to Ausubel, teachers can promote meaningful learning by
using advanced organizers. Advanced organizers are abstract, general, and inclusive introductory
materials that provide a framework which pre-organizes material to be learned. The framework provides a
stable, general cognitive structure which students can use to subsume (or incorporate) specific
information. They help the learner organize new material and connect new material to one's prior
knowledge, thereby increasing meaningfulness and the likelihood students will learn and retain it.
EXAMPLES OF AUSUBEL'S ADVANCE ORGANIZERS
The advance organizer is presented at the beginning of the lesson before the teacher gives
students information, (e.g., lectures). Then the teacher provides the information, which the
students take in or receive (reception learning) . The organizer makes the information to be
received more meaningful because it shows students in advance how the teacher organizes the
material and knowing concepts in advance helps the student activate relevant prior knowledge.
This is Ausubel's recipe for ''meaningful reception learning".
1. SAMPLE EXPOSITORY ORGANIZER
TODAY'S CLASS WILL COVER:
RECIPROCAL TEACHING
1. WHAT IS IT?
A. TAKING TURNS LEADING A DIALOG ABOUT TEXT.
B.. HIGHER-ORDER READING SKILLS
2 WHY USE IT?

A. IMPROVE READING COMPREHENSION
B. SELF-REGULATED READING
3. HOW IS IT DONE?
A. DIRECT INSTRUCTION
B. SCAFFOLDING
2. SAMPLE COMPARATIVE ORGANIZER
LESSON FOR TODAY:
THEORIST CATEGORY BASIC CONCEPTS
(EVERYDAY LIFE EXPERIENCE | TOUCH & MOTION IMAGES, PICTURES TEXT, FORMULAS)
|
PIAGET STAGES | SENSORIMOTOR PREOP CONCRETE OP FORMAL OP
of intellectual development |
|
GARDNER INTELLIGENCES | TACTILE-KINESTHETIC SPATIAL LINGUISTIC
| MATHEMATICAL
BRUNER MODES of | ENACTIVE ICONIC SYMBOLIC
representing knowledge |
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In Search of Understanding: The Case for Constructivist Classrooms
from Jacqueline Grennon Brooks & Martin G. Brooks 1994 Association for Supervision & Curriculum
Development Alexandria VA.
Basic principle: We construct our own understandings of the world we live in.
Basic Processes: We search for tools to help us understand our experiences (p. 4). People make sense
of their world by synthesizing new experiences with their prior understandings. When something doesn't
make sense we either interpret it consistent with our current schema or generate a new set of rules that
better explains our perceptions or experiences.
Fosnot (in press) "Learning is not discovering more, but interpreting through
a different scheme or structure". (p. 5)
"To understand constructivism, educators must focus attention on the learner." (p. 22)
Constructivist teachers help their students construct new understandings. They also encourage
students to find their own problems, in order to promote the development of their abilities to organize and
understand their own, individual worlds. They help students: self-clarify the nature of the problems they
pose, pose questions in ways that enable them to pursue answers to their questions, and interpret results
in connection with other knowledge. How questions are posed affects how deeply they are answered.
They offer educational experiences that explicitly focus on the students' thinking (e.g., a lab that generates
understandings of how to quantify momentum, force, acceleration, and recognize their existence in other
settings (. 38) ((transfer)).
Constructivist educational settings are characterized by:

1.Focusing on large ideas instead of dreary, fact-driven curricula.
2. Helping students follow interests, make connections, reformulate ideas and reach unique conclusions.
3. Conveying the message of the complexity of the world, multiple perspectives, and truth is often a matter
of interpretation.
4. Acknowledging that learning and its assessment are at best messy, elusive, & not easily managed (p.
22)
5. Encouraging both students and teachers to think and explore. (p.30).
p. 26 " Piaget viewed constructivism as a way of explaining how people come to know about their world.
He buttressed this explanation with well-supported documentation of behaviors he witnessed and with
well-supported inferences about the functions of the mind. Piaget (1952) viewed the human mind as a
dynamic set of cognitive structures that help us make sense of what we perceive. These structures grow
in intellectual complexity as we mature and interact with the world we come to know and as we gain
experience Through maturation and experience, the groundwork for new structures is laid. . ...In
Piagetian terms, the temporary cognitive stability resulting from the balance of assimilation and
accommodation is called equilibrium. Piaget suggested that the creation of new cognitive structures
springs from the child's need to reach equilibrium when confronted with internally constructed
contradictions; that is, when perception and reality conflict. The quest for cognitive equilibrium is among
the most controversial of Piaget's notions" (p. 26).
Critics of this explanation of the development of new cognitive structures (the search for cognitive
equilibrium) include: Case 1985, Haroutunian 1983, and Gardner 1991b. According to Bruner (1964)
and Chomsky (1977), factors such as language and prior experience have more to do with the
development of new cognitive structures than seeking equilibrium.
Research on clarification (Hartman, 1980) shows both situations in which students do and do not
search for cognitive equilibrium upon encountering ambiguous references. Use of internal and external
clarification strategies shows an attempt to attain cognitive equilibrium. The "covering" strategy, where
students recognize ambiguity and give both interpretations, and the decision "not to clarify" are both
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designed to avoid equilibrium.
Some guiding principles of Constructivism Brooks & Brooks 1994

1. Pose problems of emerging relevance to students.
2. Structure learning around primary concepts
3. Seek and value students' points of view.
4. Adapt curriculum to address students' suppositions
5. Assess student learning in the context of teaching.
6. Teach for transfer (p.40-41)
7. "Changing one's mind is an invaluable element of the learning process" p. 42-3
Traditional vs. Constructivist Classroom Environments Brooks & Brooks 1994
Traditional Constructivist
Curriculum is presented part to whole, Curriculum is presented whole to part,

emphasizing basic skills emphasizing big concepts
High value for sticking to fixed curriculum High value for pursuing student questions
Activities rely heavily on textbooks and Activities relay heavily on manipulatives

workbooks and primary sources
Students viewed as "blank slates" onto which Students viewed as thinkers with emerging
information is etched by the teacher theories about the world
Teacher generally act didactically, disseminating Teachers generally act interactively,

information to students mediating the environment for students
Teachers seek the correct answer to Teachers seek students' points of view
validate student learning to understand students' present ideas
for use in future lessons
Assessment is viewed as separate from Assessment is interwoven with teaching

teaching and occurs almost entirely and occurs through teacher observations
through testing of students at work and through student
exhibitions and portfolios
Students primarily work alone Students primarily work in groups

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Criticisms of Constructivism
1. It subordinates the curriculum to students' interests. But constructivists believe this criticism misses the
point because posing questions of emerging relevance is a guiding
principle of constructivist pedagogy. Also, student interest/relevance can be stimulated
by the teacher; it does not have to be a pre-existing condition.
2. Constructivist approaches are more time consuming than traditional, lecture type i.e., reception theory
approaches, so less content is covered. But constructivists argue that "less is more"; students are better
able to retain, and apply what they learn from constructivist approaches, so they learn more through them
in the long run. p.39 "...constructivist teachers seek to ask one big question, give students time to think
about it, and lead them to resources to answer it."
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural/Social Interaction/Social Constructivism
Lev Vygotsky is the primary theorist associated with the sociocultural, social interaction or social
constructivist theoretical perspective. . Vygotsky's classic book Mind in Society: The Development of
Higher Level Psychological Processes (1978) broadened his impact in educational psychology, especially
through his concepts of the zone of proximal development and the role of social interactions in our
cognitive development (Pressley & McCormack, 1995). Originally he was just appreciated for his work on
the importance of inner speech in adults' learning and development (1962). Vygotsky's concept of inner
speech, which he argues is different from outer speech, emphasizes the relationship between language
and thought, highlighting the role that words play in the development of ideas. Inner speech is especially
important when doing difficult tasks.
The instructional technique of scaffolding (discussed in chapters 2 and 3) is based on

Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development. The zone of proximal development (ZPD) " is
the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and
the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in
collaboration with more capable peers"... "The zone of proximal development defines those functions that
have not yet matured but are in the process of maturation, functions that will mature tomorrow but are
currently in an embyronic state". (Vygotsky, 1978 p. 86). Through scaffolding teachers and others can
help students perform at higher levels than they could if they were completely on their own, without the
benefit from social interactions with others who are more competent. More competent others help
students by providing them with information and temporary support which can be gradually decreased
as the students' competence increases. The goal of providing scaffolds is for students to become
independent, self-regulated thinkers who are more self sufficient and less teacher dependent. Using a
scaffolding approach in teaching is comparable to the scaffolding of a building which is gradually removed
as its structure becomes better able to support its own weight. Scaffolds are like training wheels on a
bicycle which provide temporary support while the rider learns to maintain balance. Once the bike rider is
secure about maintaining balance, the training wheels can be removed and the rider can self-balance.
Scaffolds can also be compared to crutches, supporting a person who can't walk on his or her own. The
intent is for them to be temporary walking tools, so eventually the person can walk on her or his own
without them. Scaffolding involves providing temporary support (models, cues, prompts, hints, partial
solutions) to students to bridge the gap between what students can do on their own and what they can do
with guidance from others. Teachers use scaffolding as a strategy for shifting instruction from others'
(teacher's) control to student self-regulation. The teacher's role shifts from being a model or an
instructor to being a manager, who coaches, guides, and gives timely, corrective feedback.
HUMANISTIC THEORIES
According to Woolfolk (1992) the humanistic perspective was developed as a reaction against
Freudian psychoanalysis and behaviorism in the 1940's because these theories gave inadequate
explanations of human behavior. Humanistic theorists believe that traditional schooling can actually be
harmful. Humanistic theorists believe teachers should emphasize both affective and cognitive aspects of
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learning. Basic principles of humanistic education are to: give students choices, develop values by using
real life examples as illustrations, and when providing critical feedback, comment on the behavior and
situation rather than the person's personality. Humanistic educational techniques include values
clarification, in which students are encouraged to choose, appreciate, and act on beliefs; role playing
and simulation games, to help students identify with others; and pass/fail grading instead of letter or
number grades, to promote students' positive feelings about themselves and others, which suffer with a
traditional grading system, where grading on a curve promotes competition and causes students who get
low grades to feel inferior. Purkey's Invitational Learning humanistic approach emphasizes the
development of students' positive self perceptions. He believes teachers can encourage students to have
positive self perceptions if they tell students they are responsible, able and valuable.
Rogers' learner-centered approach advocates trusting students to make decisions with teachers
offering them choices in learning activities. Rogers believes teachers should be sincere, trusting, they
should be sensitive to students' needs, value students and empathize with them (Biehler & Snowman,
1990). Reflecting the Feeling and Paraphrasing listening strategies described in Chapter 5 is derived
from this theory. These are forms of active listening which dignify the speakers' ideas and demonstrate
the listener's attention to them.
Gordon's Teacher Effectiveness Training, which emphasizes the importance of a positive

teacher-student relationship includes the No Lose Method of conflict resolution/problem solving and "I
Messages" as other humanistic educational techniques. "I Messages" involve telling a student how you
feel about a problem behavior and how her/his behavior affects you (Gordon, 1974). For example, "I feel
angry when I see you picking on Derek because I'm concerned he's going to get upset and stop coming to
class.” The important point is to focus on your feelings as a teacher instead of focusing on characteristics
of the student. Gordon emphasizes the importance of positive teacher-student relationships for effective
education. For details on these methods see Chapter 9 on the Social Aspects of Teaching. When a
conflict between a teacher and student arises, one of the important considerations, according to Gordon,
is problem ownership which refers to whose problem it is. The conflict situation needs to be analyzed to
determine if the teacher's needs are being frustrated (teacher-owned), or if the student's needs are being
frustrated (student owned), or if both the teacher's and the student's needs are being frustrated, which is
called a shared problem. Teacher-owned and shared problems can both be addressed by using I
Messages. When the situation involves student ownership, the teacher should engage in active listening
and reflecting the feeling. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory of motivation suggests that students'
basic, deficiency needs, such as safety, belongingness and self esteem, must be satisfied before they can
meet their higher level, growth needs, such as the desire to know/understand, appreciation of aesthetics
and self actualization. Although Maslow's hierarchy of needs has considerable popular appeal, and his
pyramid representation of the hierarchy of needs is well known, there isn't much research evidence to
validate this theory. Maslow also believed it is important for teachers and parents to trust children and help
them grow (Biehler & Snowman, 1990).
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MOTIVATION THEORIES
The following charts summarize motivational theories from some of the major theories in
educational psychology: cognitive, humanistic, social learning and operant conditioning.
DESCRIPTION COGNITIVE HUMANISTIC
FOCUSES ON MIND AND INDIVIDUAL SELF, OTHERS & FEELINGS

BELIEFS/THOUGHTS
GOALS OF THEORY SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING & PERSONAL GROWTH &

DEVELOPMENT TO HIGHER SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS.
LEVELS, LEARNING GOAL LEARNING GOAL
(FOCUS ON IMPROVEMENT,
REGARDLESS OF MISTAKES
& HOW JUDGED BY OTHERS)
TYPE OF MOTIVATION INTRINSIC - VALUE INTRINSIC -VALUE LEARNING

LEARNING FOR ITS OWN SAKE,
FOR ITS OWN SAKE, PERSONALIZED,
PERSONALIZED, MEANINGFUL
MEANINGFUL
APPROACH TO MOTIVATION STUDENT-CENTERED STUDENT-CENTERED
HOW TEACHERS CAN ACTIVE INVOLVEMENT, ACTIVE INVOLVEMENT,

DEVELOP MOTIVATION ACCEPT INTERESTS, ACCEPT INTERESTS,
STIMULATE CURIOSITY & STAY OUT OF NATURE'S
CONFLICT, GUIDE LEARNER, WAY, FREEDOM, DISCOVERY
EXPLORATION, DISCOVERY, EXPLORATION, CREATIVITY,
USE PRIOR KNOWLEDGE, COOPERATIVE LEARNING,
NEED TO KNOW, LINKS TO TUNE INTO CHILD'S
SUCCESS, COOPERATIVE INTELLECTUAL, SOCIAL &
LEARNING, CHALLENGE, EMOTIONAL NEEDS,
EXPECTATIONS, TAKE RISKS OVERCOME DEFICIENCIES,
GIVE CHOICES,
PROVIDE SAFE, SUPPORTIVE
CLASSROOM
THEORISTS BRUNER, WHITE, PIAGET, ROGERS, GORDON, PURKEY,

WEINER, AUSUBEL MASLOW
KEY PRINCIPLES OF BRUNER- DISCOVERY MAKES ROGERS -LEARNER-

THEORISTS STUDENTS WANT TO LEARN CENTERED, TEACHER
MORE, WARMTH, ACCEPTANCE, &
WHITE - DESIRE TO BE EMPATHY, AVOID BEING AN
COMPETENT AUTHORITY, LEARNER
PIAGET - STIMULATE CONTROL OWN BEHAVIOR,
DISEQUILIBRIUM, CONFLICT SELF AWARENESS &
WEINER - BELIEFS ABOUT ACCEPTANCE
SUCCESS/FAILURE,
ATTRIBUTIONS , LINK MASLOW - SATISFACTION OF
EFFORTS & STRATEGIES TO BASIC NEEDS E.G. PHYSICAL,
OUTCOMES BELONGINGNESS, SELF
ESTEEM, IS PREREQUISITE
FOR LEARNING, SELF
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ACTUALIZATION
LIMITATIONS TEACHER CAN'T ALWAYS TEACHERS CAN'T KNOW ALL

TAP INTRINSIC MOTIVATION. STUDENTS' NEEDS,
SOMETIMES STUDENTS CAN'T ALWAYS TAP
MUST LEARN BORING INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
THINGS.
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SOCIAL LEARNING MOTIVATION THEORIES
DESCRIPTION OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING SOCIAL-COGNITIVE

LEARNING
FOCUSES ON SOCIAL INFLUENCES IN SOCIAL INFLUENCES IN
ENVIRONMENT, OUTCOMES ENVIRONMENT, EXPECTED
OF BEHAVIOR OUTCOMES OF BEHAVIOR,
INDIVIDUAL BELIEFS
GOALS OF THEORY ACQUIRE SOCIALLY DESIRED SELF REGULATION,

BEHAVIORS, PERFORMANCE LEARNING & PERFORMANCE
GOAL (FOCUS ON HOW YOU GOALS
ARE JUDGED BY OTHERS)
TYPE OF MOTIVATION EXTRINSIC BECOMES EXTRINSIC AND INTRINSIC

INTRINSIC
APPROACH TO MOTIVATION TEACHER-CENTERED TEACHER AND STUDENT

CENTERED
HOW TEACHERS CAN PROVIDING MODELS SET GOALS, EXPECTATIONS,

DEVELOP MOTIVATION STUDENTS OBSERVE and VALUE THE CONSEQUENCES
IMITATE MODELS OF BEHAVIOR
THEORISTS BANDURA &WALTERS 1963 BANDURA 1977, 1986
KEY PRINCIPLES OF IMITATION; OBSERVATION , EXPECTANCY (OUTCOME OF

THEORISTS ENCODING, IMITATION, BEHAVIOR) X VALUE (BELIEF
IDENTIFICATION, ABOUT WORTH): BOTH
VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT NEEDED FOR MOTIVATION
(BEHAVIOR OBSERVED TO BE
REWARDED IN OTHERS) SELF EFFICACY
(INFLUENCED
BY SEEING OTHERS
SUCCEED AND FAIL)
TEACHER EFFICACY
LIMITATIONS GOOD MODELS NOT ALWAYS TEACHER EFFICACY is

AVAILABLE, HARD TO ASSESS AFFECTED BY MANY
EFFECTS OF PARTICULAR FACTORS TEACHERS CAN'T
MODELS CONTROL, INCLUDING THE
CLIMATE OF THE SCHOOL
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OPERANT CONDITIONING BEHAVIORAL MOTIVATION THEORY
DESCRIPTION
FOCUSES ON BEHAVIOR AND ITS OUTCOMES
GOALS OF THEORY MOLD SOCIALLY DESIRABLE BEHAVIOR,

GIVE CORRECT ANSWER
TYPE OF MOTIVATION EXTRINSIC
APPROACH TO MOTIVATION TEACHER-CENTERED
HOW TEACHERS CAN DEVELOP MOTIVATION USE REINFORCEMENT & PUNISHMENT TO

CHANGE BEHAVIOR.
SHAPING - SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION
TOKEN ECONOMY
THEORISTS SKINNER, PREMACK
KEY PRINCIPLES OF THEORY STIMULUS, RESPONSE, REINFORCEMENT

(REWARDS) : STRENGTHENS RESPONSES.
I.E. INCREASES CHANCES OF STUDENT
MAKING THE DESIRED RESPONSE.
POSITIVE - GIVE SOMETHING POSITIVE
NEGATIVE- TAKE AWAY SOMETHING
NEGATIVE
PREMACK PRINCIPLE - FIND OUT WHAT
STUDENTS LIKE TO DO WHEN THEY HAVE
CHOICES AND USE THAT AS A REWARD.
EXTINCTION: STOP REINFORCING BEHAVIOR

AND IT WILL STOP OCCURRING.
PUNISHMENT: WEAKENS RESPONSES. I.E.

DECREASES CHANCES OF STUDENT MAKING
UNDESIRED RESPONSE.
1. GIVE SOMETHING NEGATIVE
2. TAKE AWAY SOMETHING POSITIVE
LIMITATIONS SATIATION: EXCESSIVE USE OF REWARDS

MAKES THEM STOP BEING EFFECTIVE.
SOME TYPES OF REWARDS E.G. EXPECTED
TANGIBLE REWARDS UNDERMINE INTRINSIC
MOTIVATION UNLESS THEY ARE
CONTINGENT UPON ACHIEVING A CERTAIN
LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE OR FINISHING A
TASK. (CAMERON & PIERCE 1994)
PUNISHMENT DOESN'T ELIMINATE
UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOR, IT JUST CHANGES
WHEN IT OCCURS. PUNISHMENT DOESN'T
TEACH STUDENTS HOW THEY SHOULD
BEHAVE. IT HAS EMOTIONAL
CONSEQUENCES THAT INTERFERE WITH
LEARNING.
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QUESTIONS ABOUT LEARNING THEORIES
________________________________
NAME
PREPARE ONE QUESTION FOR EACH OF THE THEORIES LISTED BELOW.

ALL QUESTIONS SHOULD BE WHY OR HOW QUESTIONS.
1, OPERANT CONDITIONING
2. SOCIAL LEARNING
3. BEHAVIORAL
4. COGNITIVE
5. CONSTRUCTIVIST
6. HUMANISTIC
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Introduction to Intelligence
Definition of intelligence: ability or abilities to acquire and use knowledge for solving problems
and adapting the world. Some people believe intelligence is a general ability ("g" factor) ; others,
indeed most people today believe it is more complex than that and it involves many different
abilities.
Early theories of intelligence defined it as: 1) capacity to learn; 2) total knowledge

acquired, 3) ability to adapt successfully to new situations and to the environment in general.
What factors affect intelligence? heredity - sets broad limits; environment e.g..
sociocultural factors: nutrition affects birthweight, nutrition affects the quality of the prenatal
environment, interpersonal interaction, stimulation. The environment allows for learning and the
development of intelligence within the broad limits set by heredity.
What factors do not affect intelligence? sex, race, age after adulthood
What factors affect performance on intelligence tests? familiarity with content e.g. vocabulary;
anxiety; testing context e.g. familiar environment; assessment method e.g. individual (questions
asked and answered orally, given privately) or group test (pencil and paper test requiring reading
and writing, given in group); degree of development of thinking & learning skills; and the
relationship between the tester and the testee e.g. same vs. different ethnicity. (Shapiro, 1973).
What are major approaches to studying intelligence?

Psychometric (e.g. Binet): focus on individual differences between people in their scores on tests.
Cognitive Developmental (e.g. Piaget, Perry): focus on commonalities of people at the same
stage and differences between people at different stages.
Information Processing (e.g. Sternberg): focus on different intellectual processes used in the
problems to be solved on intelligence tests.
Gardner's Multiple Intelligences: focus on the domains in which intelligence is manifested. Based
on converging evidence e.g. neuropsychology, studies of prodigies, idiot savants, brain damaged,
gifted, normal children and adults, experts in different lines of work and individuals from different
cultures.
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The "Bell Curve"
(from R.J. Sternberg, 1995, For Whom the Bell Curve Tolls, Psychological Science)
History
1904 Binet was asked by the Minister of Instruction in Paris to devise a test to distinguish
students who were genuinely mentally retarded from those who just had behavior problems. The
goal was to prevent teachers from just getting rid of difficult students and put them in classes for
the retarded. They wanted to protect children from "callous labeling". The test became known as
the Stanford Binet because Terman, from Stanford, brought it to the USA.
1904 Spearman first published the "g" factor theory - a scientific theory that summarizes
all that is important about human abilities in a single number. He viewed "g" as general ability or
mental energy.
Sternberg notes the irony in how the test was intended and how it has been used over the years.
He says it's the combination of these two events that proved "explosive and lethal". Binet's test
wasn't based on a scientific theory about intelligence. It was just based on psychometric
properties of test items that distinguished between children of different ages. Spearman didn't
have a test. The two events combined suggested that the "g" theory was underlying the test
score.
Another irony Sternberg notes is that Binet believed that intelligence can be developed and raised,
and he even developed "mental orthopedics" for this purpose. Binet believed that intelligence isn't
just inherited, but depends upon the environment as well, to make a substantial contribution.
However others, like Goddard, insisted the test could be used to distinguish between ethnic, racial
and other groups. Lower test scores were interpreted as showing intellectual inferiority. At Ellis
Island IQ tests were use to screen out people seen as undesireables. See Stephen J. Gould for
an extensive treatment of this topic.
Herrnstein and Murray's (1994) The Bell Curve, is a study of the intellectual differences
between ethnic and racial groups. The basic arguments are:
1. Intelligence is important to many facets of life.
2. IQ is an adequate measure of intelligence.
3. IQ is highly inheritable, therefore it passes through genes across generations.
4. There are racial and ethnic group differences in intelligence that matter for society.
5. Many problems in our society today are due to differences in IQ.
6. If we don't deal with these differences we will have even more trouble.
7. Tests can and should be used as gates, letting some people in and keeping other
people out, because they tell us what we need to know about who will be better/worse in
a variety of pursuits.
Vygotsky pointed out that we can't really know someone's underlying capacity; all we can
do is infer it from some form of measurement.
Sternberg's concerns are: (the ultimate test of intelligence -adapt or die!)

1. A talented person with creative intelligence was rejected from graduate school because of low
test scores. (See Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence later in this chapter.)
2. Sternberg's own experience being viewed as "low ability" because of low test scores, which
were a result of his high test anxiety. Since he was perceived as low ability, his teachers had low
expectations for him and he tried to please them by meeting their low expectations.
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3. High test scorers are in powerful positions and value other people with high test scores.
4. Herrnstein & Murray base their whole argument on the edifice of their own, often wrong, interpretation of
statistics.
5. USA is obsessed with test scores.
6. The cultural and societal landscape of the USA is such that the poor grow up with substandard housing,
poor nutrition and high crime and drugs. Survival depends upon the development of adaptive skills, but
not those like IQ. Statistics - graphs, correlations, are predicated on this landscape. If the landscape
were different, so might be the test results.
7. The "heritability correlation" The Bell Curve uses so often is determined by time and place; it's not a
fixed number. The authors even point out that heritability can vary as a function of both the gene pool and
environments. However, they ignore the fact that people have to adapt to their environments and so the
skills developed may differ to best adapt to their different environments.
8. Herrnstein and Murray ignore the large body of research showing limitations of IQ. e.g., that many
successful (and wealthy) people do not have high IQ. There's much more to intelligence than what IQ
measures. Some research shows lower success of very high IQ people.
9. The skills valued in intelligence testing, such as speed on these timed tests, may not be valued in some
cultures. Many important decisions in everyday life, that truly require application of intelligence, are not
made in the few seconds allowed to solve IQ test items. Consequently, we're confounding a person's true
intelligence with how we assess it.
10. What's really important is not intelligence per se, but actualized intelligence. That is - intelligent
performance is more important than intellectual ability. Actualized intelligence requires a person to
recognize one's own strengths and weaknesses, capitalize on the strengths and compensate for or
remediate the weaknesses.
11. No one is really good at everything. A person smart in one environment may be stupid in another. e.g.
if Sternberg were a hunter or a boater navigating by stars at night, he'd have a hard time adapting
because he hasn't developed the required skills to perform intelligently in those environments. As the
environment changes, so does what's adaptive behavior.
12. IQ just measures just one aspect, a small part of our cultural adaptation to the environment.
Race and Intelligence
1. Herrnstein and Murray claim there are racial difference in intelligence. But we really don't know if there
are because we really don't know how to fully measure intelligence with sufficient reliability, validity and
comprehensiveness.
2. There are racial differences in IQ, but we really are not sure why.
3. None of the studies Herrnstein & Murray cite really address the causes of these racial differences. And
none even show racial differences in intelligence when intelligence is more broadly defined.
4. Different socio-cultural and ethnic groups sometimes emphasize different skills. e.g. some Anglos -
academics and some Latinos - social competence. Some people might be smart in an academic
environment, but not in a business environment.
5. Herrnstein & Murray "vastly underestimate the effects of home, community and schooling."...
"In the real world, when we talk about who's smart, we're not just talking about IQ,
nor should we be".(Sternberg, 1994).
Some criticisms of IQ tests:
1. They measure achievement, not intelligence.

2. No credit is given for good reasons behind wrong answers. Credit is given for right answers,
even if they're selected for the wrong reasons. There's too much emphasis on the product (the
answer) and not enough on the process (the reasoning).
3. IQ scores don't tell how much intelligence a person has, they just tell how one person's score
compares to others'.
4. Social and cultural biases aren't taken into account.
5. Labeling students because of a low test scores creates assumptions of inferiority and a self-
fulfilling prophesy cycle of failure.
Issues
What is IQ?: Intelligence Quotient, IQ is defined as mental age (test score) divided by
chronological age x 100. 100 is the average score for white, native born Americans with English
as their native language, with a standard deviation of 15, so 68% of the general population will fall
between scores of 85-115. Only 16% of people with these characteristics will score above 115.
An important consideration in interpreting IQ score is knowing whether the score is based on a
paper and pencil group administered test or whether it is based on an individually administered
performance battery of tests.
Speed: Sternberg argues that speed is overemphasized on intelligence tests. Most important life
tasks requiring intelligence don't involve making very quick decisions. More important than speed
is how time is allocated and how effectively information processing is automatized.
Culture: Sternberg, Gardner and others believe intelligence must be understood within the context
of one's culture. What's intelligent in one culture may not be in another.
What is the History of abuses of IQ?: In 1912 the U.S. Public Health Service hired Goddard to
test immigrants at Ellis Island for "feeblemindedness". Goddard was trained by Terman, a
hereditarian and co-developed of the Stanford-Binet IQ test. "Based on his examination of the
great mass of average immigrants, 83% of Jews, 80% of Hungarians, 79% of Italians and 87% of
Russians were
"feebleminded". Test results were interpreted as showing that black people and immigrants from
eastern and southern Europe were intellectually inferior. Polish people were at the bottom of the
list.
As a result the Immigration Code of 1924 adopted a policy of immigration quotas based on
national origins because a report to the Congressional Committee on Immigration and
Naturalization said that studies of intelligence showed that Americans could not "afford to ignore
the menace of race deteriorization or evident relations of immigrants to nation progress and
welfare". By 1930, 24 states had passed laws to sterilize people who were feebleminded,
criminals and paupers. In the 1930s and 1940s, Hitler justified extermination of Jews because of
their reputed "genetic inferiority". (from Racism, Intelligence and the Working Class).
Language barriers frequently result in misclassifying non or limited standard English

speakers as mentally inferior. In special education this is sometimes referred to as the "6 hour
retardant" because it is only for the 6 hours that students are in school that they are considered
mentally retarded. The rest of the time they are recognized to have normal intelligence.
Misclassification results in labeling students, which tends to produce low teacher expectations
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which leads to a self fulfilling prophesy of low achievement.
Modern Theories of Intelligence: Focus on Multiple Intelligences
Guilford's Structure of Intellect or Faces of Intellect Model was the first to recognize the complexity of
human intelligence and identify multiple intelligences. Guilford (1967, 1988) suggests the three basic
categories of intelligence are 1) mental operations or processes (six types: cognition, convergent thinking,
divergent thinking, evaluation, memory recording & memory retention), 2) contents -or what we think about
(5 types: visual, auditory, word meaning, symbols, behaviors), and 3) products, or the end product of
intelligent thought (6 types: units, classes, relations, systems, transformations & implications). There are
over 180 different combinations of intelligence according to this model (6x5x6). Although this model is
valuable for showing the complexity of intelligence, it is probably too complex to be very useful for a
classroom teacher.
Sternberg's (1985) triarchic theory of intelligence indicate there are three different, but interdependent
types of intelligence: analytical, creative and practical. Analytical intelligence is the type assessed by
traditional IQ tests and is the type emphasized in schools. Sternberg considers creative intelligence more
precious and rare than analytical intelligence. It involves novel approaches to solving problems in one's
experience. Practical intelligence involves knowing how to function effectively in the environment.
Sternberg uses the stories of three students trying to get into graduate school to illustrate the three
different types of intelligence. Alice had high test scores, which showed she was strong in analytical
intelligence as is needed for test taking and school work. She was accepted to graduate school because
of her high test scores. Barbara did not have high test scores, but was a very creative thinker who could
combine different experiences in insightful ways. This creative intelligence was not recognized by the
graduate school admissions process so she was rejected. Celia knew how to "play the game". She had
"street smarts" and was therefore able to manipulate her environment so she got into graduate school
although she didn't have high test scores. Sternberg's research shows that most people are better in one
type of intelligence than the others. He believes that creative intelligence is the most precious and rare of
the three. What is your opinion of your own strengths and weaknesses in these aspects of intelligence?
Analytical Intelligence
There are three major components of analytical intelligence, a metacomponent, which entails
metacognitive processes (e.g. planning) and knowledge (e.g. knowing when to use a particular skill or
strategy), a performance component, which is made up of cognitive skills that perform the work directed
by the metacognitive bosses, and a knowledge acquisition component comprised of three learning -to-
learn skills.
Metacognitive skills represent higher level cognition and they are different from the more basic,
cognitive skills. Cognition is to thinking what metacognition is to thinking about thinking. Metacognitive
skills are thoughts used to manage task performance. Metacognitive skills include those executive level
processes (planning, monitoring, and evaluating) which drive the rest of intelligent behavior. As such,
they are sometimes referred to as the boss skills. The cognitive skills carry out the boss's commands, so
they are the worker skills. Cognitive skills in a particular subject area are the skills used in actually
performing academic tasks. In reading, comprehending is a cognitive skill. Checking up on
comprehension or comprehension monitoring, is a metacognitive skill. In math, doing computations is
cognitive, deciding what computations need to be made is metacognitive.
The planning function of metacognition is crucial when a student looks for or fails to look for the best way
to study a subject, read a textbook, do an assignment, or prepare for a test. Some students are unaware
of this planning function and the tutor provides valuable assistance in dealing with this particular aspect of
the tutee's behavior. A common college student metacognitive problem is time management. Students
are often poor judges of how long it will take to perform an academic task. The result is that inadequate
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time is planned and failure to achieve is directly attributable to this lack of metacognition.
The monitoring and evaluating functions of metacognition help students judge whether they are going in
the right direction and self-correct as needed. Often students have only a vague idea of how well or
poorly they are doing. They are frequently unaware of what they know and what they do not know. Many
students don't self-check to see if they are using the right approach or if they should try a different one.
Successful students learn efficiently by using the feedback they receive from the monitoring and
evaluating to improve their future performance. Many students need help monitoring and evaluating their
performance. Just as students need to develop their metacognition, teachers must also learn to teach
metacognitively so they can be effective managers of the teaching-learning process. Teachers are more
likely to be effective helping students if they plan for a session before it starts monitor student
comprehension and progress as it proceeds, and evaluate the lesson (what worked and why; what did not
work and why not) when it is over. The I DREAM of A model in Chapters 4 and 10 show what these
metacognitive skills are and how to develop them.
Cognitive factors are the intellectual processes through which students acquire, comprehend,
and retain information and skills needed for mastering course material and achieving at an acceptable
level. Sternberg (1985) identifies cognitive processes of encoding (perceiving and storing information),
inferring, applying combining, comparing, justifying, and mapping relationships as cognitive skills basic to
intelligent performance. Applied to reading, these cognitive factors include identifying the main idea and
significant details, making inferences, drawing conclusions and understanding vocabulary. In math they
include doing computations, understanding mathematical concepts (e.g. exponents) and some aspects of
problem solving.
Sternberg also identifies three major knowledge acquisition or learning-to-learn skills. One is
differentiating relevant from irrelevant information, or selectively attending to and recording the material to
be learned. Students often treat everything they study as equally important and thereby overburden
themselves trying to learn unnecessary information. Another learning to learn skill is comparing what one
already knows with what is to be learned. This linking of new with old information performs several vital
functions: 1) by beginning with the old and leading to the new, the student (and teacher) can build from
existing, stable, knowledge to enriched knowledge and understanding ; 2) it helps the student see
familiarity and meaningfulness in apparently new material; and 3) it aids acquiring new information and
helps the learner store new information in a logical and accessible location, thereby making it easier to
remember when it is needed.
The final learning to learn skill is selectively combining relevant and apparently unrelated old and new
information into a new and meaningful whole. The skill requires knowing how to put the pieces together.
This new whole may be greater than the sum of its parts. One strategy teachers can use and teach this
skill is diagramming or drawing a representation e.g. a concept map of the "big picture" of how all the
different things studied in a course fit together to create a systematic body of knowledge. Teachers can
help their students make a "jigsaw puzzle diagram" of the major concepts and their interrelationships. This
could be done both in specific courses, and between students' courses, so that students can see how
what they learned before applies to what they're doing now. This will also show how what is being learned
now will be needed in later courses and in professional situations. Making these connections is likely to
increase students' motivation to learn.
Using these three skills together forms the basis of insight, or the "aha!" experience. This combination
of skills allows readers to figure out the meaning of unfamiliar words in context. In the paragraph below,
(adapted from Sternberg 1986), use the context to figure out the meaning of the word in bold.
There's an exciting, new development in the food world. Livestock breeders have
recently developed a new breed of turkey with a high percentage of good meat and a low
percentage of waste. The best way for ranchers to improve stock is to hire a thremmatologist to
advise in the purchase and mating of different breeds . The key to producing good meat is to
have a higher proportion of white to dark meat.
What do you think thremmatologist means?________________________________________
___________________________________________________
How did you figure out the meaning?
1. From your prior knowledge, did you already have an idea about what any part of the
word meant? If so, what?
2. Which words in the paragraph were relevant for defining this term? Which were
irrelevant?
3. What ideas did you combine to define the word's meaning?
How do numbers one - three correspond to Sternberg's three learning-to-learn skills?
Creative Intelligence
There are two major characteristics of this aspect of intelligence: the ability to deal effectively with
novelty in tasks or situations, and performing mental tasks through automaticity. Overlearning
is another term sometimes used to describe automaticity. It means learning to the degree that the
knowledge or process has been internalized and can be used automatically or unconsciously,
without mental effort. The more that intellectual processes and knowledge are on automatic pilot,
the more mental capacity there is in working memory to deal with novel aspects of a problem, so
the two characteristics are interrelated. Sternberg and Davidson's research on the basis of
scientific insight suggests that there are three types of insight, which correspond to the three
knowledge acquisition (learning-to-learn) skills described above: selecting relevant from irrelevant
information. The creative individual combines disparate experiences in insightful ways. In contrast
to analytical intelligence - how people break down ideas, creative people tend to excel in synthetic
intelligence - how they put ideas together. This part of the theory involves applying the mental
components to one's experience, transferring knowledge and skills to new situations.
Practical Intelligence
Sternberg identified three strategies for successfully negotiating one's environment: adapting to
it, that is, changing one's needs, interests or actions to fit the demands of the environment,
selecting, or choosing a different environment which better suits one's needs, interests or
behaviors, and
shaping, or changing the environment so that it better fits one's needs, interests or actions.
Mental components described in the analytical part of the theory are applied to the environment
and are used to adapt, select and/ or shape. Part of intelligence is knowing the environment well
enough to understand when to adapt, and when not to - but when to select or shape instead. His
research showed that the ability to successfully interact with one's environment is often dependent
upon tacit knowledge, which is knowledge learned from experience rather than being explicitly
taught or even verbalized as being important. Although this kind unspoken expectation isn't
directly taught, it is often essential for thriving in one's environment. For example, in academia,
getting grants is often important for doing research, but in school they don't teach you that it's
important to get grants or how to go about getting them. Sternberg, Okagaki and Jackson (1990)
identify three categories of practical intelligence that are important for school success: managing
yourself (e.g., accepting responsibility, setting goals, knowing how you work best, making mental
pictures and using what you already know), managing tasks (e.g., thinking about what strategies
you are using,
planning a way to prevent problems, getting organized, taking notes, following directions,
managing time, taking tests) and cooperating with others, (e.g., participating in class
discussions, putting yourself in another's place, understanding social networks, figuring out the
rules, and seeing connections between current experience and future goals)
Gardner (1983) developed a Multiple Intelligences theory in his book Frames of Mind, which
has become very influential in education in the 1990's. His research shows that all people have
seven different, relatively independent intelligences, and that most people are better in some
areas than others. Each type of intelligence is associated with specific careers or "end states"
during adulthood. These intelligences are conceptualized as being demonstrated through
activities that are meaningful in person's specific culture. Assessment of these intelligences must
take culture into account, so that people being assessed are familiar with the tasks and materials
. The seven intelligences are:
1. VERBAL/LINGUISTIC: involves written and spoken languages. It includes a sensitivity to
meanings of words, sounds, rhythms, and the different functions of language. Many
linguistic experiences can activate this form of intelligence. Practice and feedback in
reading, writing, speaking, and listening experiences can nurture linguistic intelligence.
This intelligence is associated with end states such as being a journalist or a poet.
2. LOGICAL/MATHEMATICAL: involves sensitivity to and the ability to identify abstract,
logical or numerical patterns and the capacity to deal with long chains of reasoning.
Activities that focus on developing analytical thinking abilities can nurture this intelligence .
It is associated with careers in science and math.
3. VISUAL/SPATIAL: involves abilities to see the visual-spatial world accurately and to
mentally transform one's perceptions. This intelligence can be developed through
experiences with mental images/pictures and graphic organizers. It is associated with
careers in art, architecture and navigation.
4. BODY/KINESTHETIC: involves the abilities to skillfully control physical movement,
objects and knowing the body. It can be enhanced through experiences with exercise
and sports. This type of intelligence is associated with careers in dance and athletics.
5. MUSICAL/RHYTHMICAL: involves the abilities to recognize tonal patterns, rhythms, pitch
timbre, environmental sounds, sensitivity to beats and rhythms. It also includes the
abilities to produce or appreciate these features. It can be improved through practice
observing and analyzing sounds and their effects.
It is associated with careers such as a conductor, pianist or music teacher.
6. INTERPERSONAL: involves sensitivities in social relationships and communications,
such as recognizing peoples' moods or needs and responding appropriately.
Interpersonal intelligence can be nurtured by tuning into non-verbal aspects of
communication and trying to look at situations from another person's point of view. It is
associated with careers such as therapists and salespeople.
7. INTRAPERSONAL: involves the capacities for self-knowledge of one's own feelings,
strengths, weaknesses, and using this information to guide one's own behavior. It can
be developed through reflection and metacognition. This type of intelligence is associated
with the end-state of accurate self-knowledge, but not particular types of careers.
What is your opinion of your own strengths and weaknesses in these aspects of intelligence?
Which of these intelligences do schools tend to emphasize? Which do schools tend to ignore?
Multiple Intelligences Toolbox, D. Lazear (1991) Seven Ways of Teaching
Comparisons and Contrasts: Sternberg's and Gardner's Theories of Intelligence
Similarities
- believe standard I.Q. tests are limited in their ability to assess intelligence
- believe there are several varieties of intelligences
-believe we all have all the different types of intelligences to some degree
-believe that we all tend to be better in one than the others
-emphasize identifying your strengths and weaknesses
- believe the environment is an important factor influencing intelligence
- believe intelligence can be developed through education
-identify self awareness as a form of intelligence (Sternberg's metacomponent and
Gardner's intrapersonal intelligence)
-agree school-related intelligence is not the only important kind of intelligence
-agree an important aspect of intelligent behavior is how practical it is in the real world
-agree that what is considered intelligent behavior is affected by cultural
-consider creativity in relationship to intelligence
-attempt to integrate diverse approaches to looking at intelligence
-do not consider speed in answering questions on a test as an important characteristic of
intelligence
-theories can be used to develop a profile of one's intelligence
Differences
- the number of types of intelligence identified (3 versus 7)
- Sternberg say the intelligences are interdependent whereas Gardner says the intelligences are
independent
-Gardner connects intelligences to specific domains or careers where the intelligences are
manifested (e.g. visual/spatial to sculptor, bodily/kinesthetic to dancer, logical/mathematical
to scientist) whereas Sternberg connects intelligences to general areas of success (e.g
componential to academic excellence, experiential to creativity, and contextual to practical
use)
-Sternberg's theory is based primarily on the psychological research on psychometrics, and
cognition whereas Gardner's theory is based more on converging evidence in
neuropsychological and exceptional children research
-All of Sternberg's ideas about the types intelligence have been accepted by the psychological
community, whereas some of Gardner's types of intelligence have not
-Sternberg identifies specific types and levels of mental processes that characterize intelligent
performance whereas Gardner does not
PERRY'S THEORY OF INTELLECTUAL & ETHICAL DEVELOPMENT
This cognitive developmental theory focuses on the development of intelligence of

(predominantly white, middle class male) college students. The college environment challenges
students and through coming to grips with these challenges students restructure their thinking,
their identity and their lives - how they find personal meaning for their role in the world (King,
1978). Wm. Perry (1970) studied male undergraduates at Harvard and examined how students'
thinking developed during and through their college years. Research has indicated that the kind of
intellectual development Perry addresses is distinct from Piagetian concepts of intellectual
development. It is essentially a post-formal operations stage of development. The theory "traces
evolution in students thinking about the nature of knowledge, truth and values and the meaning of
life and responsibilities (King, 1978, p. 37-38) ."
A Center for the Study of Intellectual Development has a Perry Network, a relatively informal
"support group" for people around the country interested in both research and practice related to
the Perry scheme." (Wm. Moore, 1994). Moore (1994) feels that the Perry scheme attempts to
address a gap, " namely a more fundamental meaning-making perspective that somehow
underlies the skills and thinking processes and strategies typically addressed in critical thinking
approaches".
According to the Perry scheme, as adults thinking progressed through a sequence of nine
positions. There are transitional benchmarks within each position. The scheme begins with
dualism (Positions 1 - 2), which emphasizes the expertise of authority and absolute visions of
right and wrong. Next it moves to the modification of dualism, which raises questions about
authorities regarding uncertainties and different opinions Multiplicity is the chief perspective
developed in Positions 3-4. Students acknowledge that people who have different beliefs aren't
simply wrong. They recognize multiple perspectives on a topic, multiple approaches to solving
problems and multiple answers to some questions. They can't adequately evaluate these multiple
points of view, and are just beginning to separate factual bases from conclusions/opinions drawn
from them. Then comes discovery of relativism, which emphasizes that knowledge is relative
and contextual. The multiple perspectives recognized in the preceding phase are seen as pieces
of a larger integrated, big picture. Analytical thinking enables students to see that points of view
exist within a context. Evaluative thinking develops so they can assess the multiple perspectives.
( Positions 5 -6 ) By Position 6 students recognize they need to use the multiple truths that exist in
a relativistic world to evolve and endorse their own choice. Students may resist making decisions
that involves accepting roles and responsibilities because they see the merits of alternatives.
The final major phase is commitments in relativism ( Positions 7- 9). Students who reach this
level have established their identities, they make active affirmations of themselves and their
responsibilities. Their life style in a pluralistic world is consistent with their own personal
convictions.
Women's Ways of Knowing
As noted above, Perry's research was conducted on white, male undergraduates at Harvard and
published in 1970. To what extent are his findings generalizable to women, minorities and non-
college students? Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger and Tarule (1986), who were influenced by
Perry's research and theory, conducted a similar study with women - white, minority, and both
college and noncollege (urban, rural and suburban). They were concerned with why women
students often reported problems or gaps in their learning and doubted their intellectual
competence. Their results showed that women did not fit neatly into Perry's categories and
therefore developed their own categories to better account for women's intellectual development.
Whereas Perry's categories are seen as stages, each building upon the last, they are not sure
about whether there is a clear, sequential ordering of the ways of knowing they identified. Instead,
their five categories, silence (women view themselves as mindless, voiceless and subject to the
whims of external authority) , received knowledge (women see themselves as able to take in
and reproduce knowledge from external authorities, but not as able to create knowledge on their
own) , subjective knowledge (truth and knowledge are seen as personal, private, and
subjectively known or intuited) , procedural knowledge (women are invested in learning and
applying objective procedures for obtaining and communicating knowledge) and constructed
knowledge (women view all knowledge as contextual, experience themselves as creators of
knowledge, and value both subjective and objective strategies for knowing) are viewed as simply
epistemological categories.
Jean Piaget and Robbie Case: Notes on Recent Views of Cognitive Development
Hamilton and Ghatala 1994 Learning and Instruction Ch. 6 Piaget and NeoPiagetians
Major differences between Piaget and Case: Case's stages are more detailed than Piaget's in
two ways: 1. He focuses on a variety of strategies involved in performing simple tasks e.g. visual
tracking of objects; 2. He tries to explain individual differences in development by looking at both
qualitative (complexity and focus of cognitive strategies) and quantitative (increases in the number
of strategies and automatization) changes in cognitive strategies.
Case has both a structural model and a process model of development. His structural
model focuses on the stages of development and the mechanisms for transitions between stages
(executive control structures: identify problem situations; set specific goals and objectives &
activate procedures or schemes to achieve goals), reflective abstraction: ability to separate out
invariant characteristics from those tied to perceptual and physical experience). His process
model focuses on specific procedures or operations used to manipulate information and the
factors which constrain the manipulation of information (working memory - short term storage
space STSS, operational efficiency, figurative schemes, operative schemes, consolidation or
chunking). Whereas Piaget is strictly a constructivist, Case is both a constructivist and an
information processing theorist.
Case's Stages (ages are given in parentheses)

1. sensori-motor control structures (birth- 1 1/2): mental reality linked to physical reality
2. relational control structures (1 1/2- 5): detect and coordinate relations along one dimension only
3. dimensional control structures (5-11): extract significant dimensions in physical and social
world; able to compare along two dimensions
4. abstract control structures (11-18): acquire abstract thought system enabling use of
proportional reasoning, solving verbal analogies & inferring psychological traits of others.
Piaget vs. Case Differences in views of Stages and Development (p. 233)
1. Domain specificity of stages: Case emphasizes development in relationship to specific content,
such as social versus mathematical information.
2. Mechanism responsible for development from one stage to another. For Piaget, equilibration is
the self-regulatory mechanism; for Case self regulation is the tendency to structure interactions in
terms of problem situations and development of skills to solve these problems.
3. Role of instruction in development: Piaget - it's one of many environmental influences; it doen
not have a critical role. In contrast, to Case instruction has a critical role in development because
it allows practice of schemes and skills which directly influence cognitive development. Instruction
also allows for transmission of important cultural knowledge and skills.
Positions of Piaget and Case on Core Issues (p. 241)

1. How does cognition develop? Case puts relatively more emphasis on environmental versus
organic factors, whereas Piaget puts relatively more emphasis on organic than environmental
factors.
2. What is the source of motivation for development? Both Piaget and Case emphasize intrinsic
motivation rather than extrinsic motivation. For Piaget, motivation is viewed in terms of
Equilibration. Case looks at it in terms of problem solving.
3. How does transfer occur? For Piaget, transfer occurs through a wide variety of experiences at
appropriate level. For Case, transfer occurs through practice & operational efficiency and it
occurs within domains, but not necessarily across them.
HOMEWORK
SUMMARIES OF INTELLIGENCE THEORIES
________________________________________
name
Using your own words, make 3-5 sentence reader-based summaries of the theories
listed below.
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory
Gardner's Multiple Intelligences Theory
Perry's Theory of Cognitive & Ethical Development
Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger and Tarule

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Name(s)____________________________________________________________
Questions Based on Theories of Intelligence
1. What are some of the connections between your experiences in school (elementary, secondary and
college) and the intelligence theories of Sternberg, Gardner, Perry and Belenky et.al.?
Theories of Intelligence
School Experiences Sternberg Gardner Perry Belenky et.al.
Elementary
_____________________________________________________________________
Secondary
_____________________________________________________________________
College
_____________________________________________________________________
2. How could you apply these three theories of intelligences to the following situations?
Theories of Intelligence
Situations Sternberg Gardner Perry Belenky et.al.
arguing with a friend

(pick your own
argument)
__________________________________________________________________
buying a television
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Chapter 9 Social Aspects of Teaching
This chapter focuses on social aspects of teaching, including problems or challenges that may occur.
Social intelligence involves being able to identify and respond to the motivations, moods, desires and
temperaments of other people. All people have this type of intelligence, but to different degrees. For
some people social intelligence is a strength for others it's a weakness (Gardner and Hatch, 1989).
How would you rate your own social intelligence? To what extent does it depend upon the situation you
are in? How would you evaluate your ability to identify your student's motivations, moods and desires?
How would you rate your ability to respond to those feelings?
To increase the chances of having a successful relationship with students, the teacher should convey
the feeling s/he is genuinely interested in the students' success and is not just passing time or collecting
a paycheck. If a teacher is frequently absent or late, even a little bit late, students are likely to feel that
teaching and the students are not very important to the teacher.
According to Sternberg's (1985) triarchic theory, people who effectively interact with and negotiate their
environments, often referred to as "street smarts", have practical intelligence. This often requires
tacit knowledge - knowledge of things that are important to know and know how to do, but that aren't
explicitly taught and must be figured out by oneself. Sternberg identifies three strategies people use to
intelligently interact with the environment. Part of intelligence is knowing which of these strategies to
use in any particular situation. Consider the problem of a teacher having trouble making progress during
a class and communicating effectively because of a noisy environment. One strategy is adapting to the
environment, or changing one's own behavior to adjust to the demands of a situation. For example, the
teacher may adapt by speaking louder and asking students to strain to listen. Adapting is not always the
best approach. Sometimes selecting a new environment is a better way of meeting one's own needs
and interests. For example, a teacher may choose to move the students to a room in the library for
quiet. Another way of responding to the environment is shaping it, that is changing the environment so
that it better meets ones' own needs. For example, the teacher may close a window to shut out the
sounds of emergency vehicles passing by the classroom. When dealing with social problems that arise
in teaching is wise to consider and evaluate strategies based on these three general types of
approaches within the context of the specific situation.
How would you apply and decide between these approaches where in a teaching group of three
students there are two students who compete with each other for attention from the teacher? Should
the teacher change her or his expectations about balanced group interactions and harmony and just put
up with the competition (adapt)? How could the teacher apply a "selecting" approach? How could the
teacher shape the situation? What do you think would be the best thing to do, and why? Discuss your
ideas with others.
Common Teaching Problems

How might you handle the following situations with a student who:
comes unprepared to teaching hates the subject or teaching
is too angry or upset to work is in a power struggle with the teacher
is ready to give up sees the teacher as a friend and not a teacher
is disruptive thinks that the teacher's job is to fix the student's work
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Make notes about how you might handle each situation and discuss them with others. The rest of this
chapter suggests strategies for addressing these and other problems that arise in teaching.
Building Good Relationships in Teaching
Adopting a proactive approach to try to prevent problems to begin with is better than having to
react to them later on. Communication can affect the teacher-student relationship. Students cannot
develop trust and confidence in a tutor who does not listen actively and carefully. Students cannot
understand what teachers are trying to teach them if a tutor does not speak clearly, using an appropriate
tone and at an appropriate pace. One social aspect of teaching is considering who does the most
speaking and who does the most listening. It is tempting for a teacher to do a significant amount of
speaking, because the student often expects to obtain the information and skills from the teacher from
watching and listening. Teachers often expect to provide this knowledge from speaking.
The best pattern is actually the opposite! Teachers should always keep in mind that the ultimate
goal of teaching is for the student to be able to function effectively without the teacher. By encouraging
the student to do most of the speaking, the student works more with the targeted teaching objectives or
content. Students learn from the teacher's feedback about how to approach and think about the material
and how not to approach think about and learn it. By listening to how a student works with the material, a
tutor can guide the student to work with it more effectively. Tutor as listener and student as speaker also
forces the student to think through ideas and gain independence and confidence with the material to be
learned. Students can feel overpowered by a tutor's expertise when a tutor does too much talking.
Teachers need to be aware and in control of their own emotions and social interactions. However,
sometimes even if you as a teacher do all the "right things", the teaching process breaks down and there
are conflicts or problems in the relationship. Teaching can be a delicate relationship because it blends
both professional and personal involvements. Teachers should remember that there is a natural
imbalance built into the teaching situation; the teacher is the stronger, more expert person, the student is
the weaker, less expert person. Teachers must be sensitive to student's feelings and protect the student's
self esteem. Insulting and humiliating students – even for the noble purpose of trying to motivate them to
change – is unacceptable. Praising students for making genuine progress can help students recognize
their accomplishments and encourage them to continue trying.
The following useful suggestions for promoting good social relations in tutoring contexts are identified by
Pope (1976): They have implications for teaching beyond tutoring contexts.
1. Choose your words carefully. Speak clearly, simply, and respectfully. Do not "talk down" to
students.
2. Clearly express your expectations and rules. Let students know you expect them to do
their own work, they should be on time. They should call you or the learning center if they know
they're going to be absent. They should be able to show you that they at least tried to do the
work before seeking your help.
3. Don't promise what you can't deliver. Sometimes students expect teachers to teach them
vast amounts of material in very limited amounts of time. No one can make up for a whole
semester's work in a week. Be realistic about what can be accomplished in teaching and what
the student must do on his/her own.
4. Focus on your goal; don't criticize irrelevancies. If your goal is to improve a student's ability to
organize ideas in an essay, then do not focus your attention on his/her posture and every spelling and
punctuation error.
5. Maintain confidentiality. There is some information that you obtain from and about a student in
teaching that should be kept private and confidential. It is not appropriate to discuss privileged information
about your students, except with your teaching supervisor.
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6. Teach at the student's level. Evaluate your students' knowledge and skills in the areas you are
working on, and adjust your instruction as appropriate for each student. If you teach at too low a level,
students become bored and frustrated. If you teach at too high a level, students become confused and
anxious.
7. Expect all your students to succeed. When teachers expect their students to learn, the students
generally learn more than when teachers do not expect their students to learn. Teacher expectations tend
to be "self-fulfilling prophesies".
8. Recognize students' progress and success. Explicitly comment when students have demonstrated
learning. Your comments can help students "own" their progress and motivate them to continue working.
9. BE PATIENT. Not everyone learns at the same pace. Rushing students can inhibit their
thinking and make them feel inadequate. It also gives the wrong message about the value of silent time
for reflective thinking instead of impulsive answering. Nonverbal signs of impatience can quietly
communicate as loud as words!
Cultural Dynamics "We must strive for inclusiveness not sameness"(Harris 1994, p. 124).
.
Many schools are increasingly multicultural. Ethnic diversity creates rich opportunities for
personal and social development. It also brings challenges for teachers working with students from
different cultural backgrounds with different values and customs.
Consider this example. Suppose you were teaching Sarana, who never looked directly at you
when communicating and who never asked any questions. How would you interpret this behavior
pattern? What might appear as a problem of shyness or lack of interest to you might actually be a
signal of respect for you. Some cultural backgrounds teach that it is disrespectful for a student to
have eye contact with a teacher and that it is disrespectful for a student to ask questions of a teacher,
even if they do not understand something important. Students from some cultures are accustomed
to passively listening, watching, and writing during instruction and are very uncomfortable when asked
to speak - even to answer a relatively simple question.
How should teachers handle such situations? Should you adapt to the student's needs and
disregard eye contact and questioning? Should teachers and students be selected on the basis of
cultural background so there is less conflict in values and expectations? Should teachers shape
students' behavior and attitudes so that they fit in with how the teachers want to teach? Discuss
these issues with other teachers. A key aspect of intelligent teaching is deciding on the best way to
respond to different situations that arise in the teaching environment - deciding when to adapt, when
to select and when to shape. There is no one right way to react in all such situations.
Teaching students from a variety of cultural backgrounds made Hebert (1994) aware of
issues related to minority students assimilation in education and problems of the dominant culture
imposing its values and standards on students from minority cultures. He discovered that multicultural
students have to learn the culture as well as the curriculum. Many students must learn the language
too. One of Hebert's most important insights was about the impoverished perspectives and cultural
blinders imposed by monocultural backgrounds and expectations. Monocultural students see their own
culture as dominant and their assumptions and biases are reflected in their personal and social
relationships as well as in societal institutions. He sees this experience creating rigidity and tunnel vision,
which leads to a significant disadvantage when contrasted with students with multicultural backgrounds,
who have a broader, richer and more relativistic perspective. "When a person understands that there are
many ways of looking at things, that other ideas exist, he or she is better able to deal with new situations
and is better able to learn"(p. 127).
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In some cases gender issues might arise. Males from some cultures might be uncomfortable
being tutored by a female. This situation can create "academic culture shock" that can affect student's
learning. How should a situation like this be handled? Should such male students be encouraged to
adapt to the situation since they are likely to encounter other female instructors in their future educational
experiences? Here the tutor's shaping of the teaching setting requires the student to adapt. Should the
tutor adapt to the student's preference, so that the student shapes the teaching environment? Should
such students be allowed to select a male tutor instead? Should the teaching environment be shaped so
that such students get tutored in groups of male and female students? What are the advantages and
disadvantages of each of these approaches? What other solutions to this problem can you think of?
Pick either the age or gender issue to focus on. Develop one strategy for a solution involving
adapting to the environment, another for a solution based on shaping the environment and a third strategy
based on selecting the environment. Record your strategies and their advantages and disadvantages in
the chart below and discuss them with others.
Advantages Disadvantages
Adapt
_______________________________________________________________
Select
_______________________________________________________________
Shape
_______________________________________________________________
What are some ways that teachers can build positive relationships with students from backgrounds
different from their own? What are some ways teachers can build positive relationships with students of
the opposite sex or a different age group?
Teaching English as a Second Language Students

What are some special considerations for teaching ESL students? ESL students are probably
more diverse than any other "group" of students. Although there are many individual differences in
students needs, there are some aspects of teaching ESL students that can be generalized beyond
the huge array of individual difference. Harris (1993) points out that along with different linguistic
backgrounds, ESL student have a variety of other concerns teachers need to address, such as
cultural presuppositions. Teachers also should be aware of different cultural assumptions and
expectations about time, showing up late, and keeping appointments. It's very important for
teachers to avoid making judgments about their students' attitudes and behaviors.
ESL teachers need effective listening skills and need to be able to listen past the accents and
grammatical mistakes to the heart of students' messages. Teachers should be especially sensitive to the
possibility of cultural and linguistic misunderstandings. Often visual aids and acting ideas out can provide
clarification. Some cultures prefer more indirect approaches to communicating ideas and consider the
more direct (Western) approaches rude and offensive.
Cochran & Slaughter's (1992) guidelines for teaching language minority students described "ESL-
friendly lesson plans" as 1) trying to introduce content and texts that are relevant to your students'
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interests; 2) considering the possibility of covering less material, but doing it more thoroughly. This would
enable more student interaction and participation. Teachers should model mutual respect and not be
judgmental about ESL students' ability to speak or write English or about their cultures. Many ESL
students feel very shy about speaking and writing in a language they are just learning. It's important to be
very patient and supportive. Encourage students to repeat and clarify. It's important for teachers to know
if students are literate in their native language. If necessary, refer students to bilingual teachers or
counselors.
What might be some implications of these ideas for teaching? Discuss them with others.
In a tutor training program ESL teachers identified the following goals:

1.Help students improve reading, writing, grammar and speech.
2. Help build students' self confidence and a sense of community.
3.Fill in gaps that may occur in regular classes, such as an opportunity to ask
questions.
4.Provide students with regular interaction with someone proficient in English
and get sustained help from that person.
5. Provide students with the opportunity to share their work and respond to each
other's work.
What specific strategies might teachers use to achieve each of these goals?
Social Skills
The list below summarizes some social skills that are important ingredients of a successful teaching
relationship. Which are your strengths? Which are your weaknesses? Give your own examples of
strategies for at least three social skills that might improve your teaching. For example, you could show
supportiveness and caring by saying, "Let's both work hard to make sure you do better next time."
Social Skill My Strategy
 show awareness of students' feelings _____________________________

 be openminded and nonjudgmental _____________________________
 use sense of humor _____________________________
 show enthusiasm _____________________________
 have mutual respect _____________________________
 maintain confidentiality _____________________________
 communicate positive expectations _____________________________
 anticipate and counteract defensiveness _____________________________
 avoid interrupting students _____________________________
 don't brag or show superior attitude _____________________________
 develop feelings of belonging _____________________________
 recognize/appreciate individual differences _____________________________
TROUBLESHOOTING Potential Social Problems & Solutions
Teaching, like all forms of instruction, has its ups and downs. Teachers can help prevent problems from
occurring and solve problems that arise by anticipating them and having a repertoire of strategies to
address them. It seems natural to hold students responsible for problems that arise, however it helps for
teachers to reflect on their own behavior and attitudes to see if they are inadvertently contributing to
problems. Often social problems are two-sided (McKeachie, 1994). The problems and solutions
described below can help make teachers aware of some of the types of problems that may occur and let
teachers know they are not alone in experiencing such problems. They can also stimulate teachers'
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thinking about possible troubleshooting approaches. Many of the problems and solutions discussed below
are based on work of Arkin and Shollar (1983), McKeachie (1994) , and Rose (1976).
Within each of the problem topics below are some characteristics, specific examples and some
corresponding solutions. While reading them, think about other examples and solutions from your own
knowledge or experience.
Passivity. Some students react to teachers' questions with no response or very brief and superficial
answers , lack of attention, or boredom. These students may initiate few questions and resist extended
discussions with teachers. Students are often used to passivity in a learning situation and may need to
really stretch to become more active learners. Some students come from schools or cultures where
passive learning is the norm. Teachers should make it clear from the first class that they expect students
to actively participate in the sessions and contribute to their own learning. If students understand why
their active participation is expected and what the value of active learning is, they are more likely to
accept it. To try to build a relationship and mobilize the student teachers can empathize and say
something like. "I used to have a hard time being an active learner too" or "It can be pretty boring in that
class, I remember!"
Often passivity is due to embarrassment. Students are afraid to express their ideas because they don't
want to be wrong or appear stupid. In this case it's important for teachers to help students understand
that everyone makes mistakes, and that mistakes are sometimes great learning opportunities, especially
in teaching when there is no penalty for being wrong. Teachers can help students recognize that teaching
is a "safe" environment for errors! Sometimes passivity is due to shyness. Getting to know the student
better often helps in this case. Involving a student through building on an area of special knowledge or
interest can help break the ice. When the student does contribute, smile or otherwise help the student
feel good about participating in class.
Expecting work to be fixed is one of the most common problems in teaching. Frequently students believe
it's the teacher's responsibility to correct students' errors or do the work for the student instead of guide
the student in fixing it. Teachers often feel it is their job to fix student's mistakes. This expectation is a
result of misconceptions of what good teaching is all about and what the teacher's role should be. During
the first day of class teacher should make it clear that it is NOT the teacher's job to fix the student's
mistakes. In fact, a teacher who does make corrections for the student may be doing a poor job of
teaching. The teacher's job is to help students become effective, independent learners who do not need to
have a teacher around to self-correct and learn. Teachers should help students develop the habit of taking
responsibility for and control over their own errors. Teaching requires leadership skills and personal
strength so that students do not manipulate teachers into doing more than they should.
Hopelessness. Some students show little ability to handle frustration. They get discouraged, feel
immobilized and freezing up or block. They make statements like, "It's beyond me", "I'll never get it",
"I'm stuck", "I just don't know what to do, "I don't know what the teacher wants", "I studied for the test
and I got a "D", or "I'm not sure where we're going". To address this problem, teachers can
determine what the tutee does know and discuss that. Using students prior knowledge shows them
there is some foundation to build from. Teachers can build from tutee's existing knowledge in simple
steps, moving progressively toward more complex material. Teachers can offer continual support
and reinforce success consistently. Teachers can also help by giving order and structure to the
teaching session and to student's notes and papers. They can give students strategies for helping
them feel greater control over their own destiny and see that their outcomes are due to their own
correctable actions.
Resistance. Sometimes students in teaching don't really want to be there. Students' resistance to
being to being tutored can be seen in variations of sullenness, hostility, passivity, or boredom. It may
also appear as a defensive posture toward class, the work, the tutor or as easily triggered anger. To
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approach this problem, teachers should allow students to ventilate and listen actively and
respectfully. It often helps if teachers spend the first (and maybe second) session building a
relationship with the students, getting to know them as people. Teachers should be practical, yet
understanding, e.g. "Look, I know this class is a bore, but you need it to graduate -let's make the best
of it". Teachers can establish credibility by indicating past success in similar situations and by
assuring students that their complaints about the professor/class are confidential. When a student is
angry, teachers can disarm anger by focusing attention and conversation on the fact that the student
is angry and ignoring the content. "Reflecting the feeling", in Chapter 5, is an effective strategy for
disarming anger. Teachers should maintain eye contact and use a calm, moderate tone of voice.
Once the student has settled down teaching can begin again.
Distraction Students may be distracted if they keep talking about personal problems instead of doing
academic work. Sometimes this is due to real problems that are interfering with academic
performance. Sometimes this is a resistance technique to avoid dealing with difficult or boring
material. Teachers should try to determine the underlying cause of the distraction by questioning the
student and actively listening to the responses. Showing empathy and allowing students to ventilate
sometimes helps. Consider whether the distraction may be a cover for boredom, because the
material is at too low of a level to capture interest, or whether it may be a cover for feeling ignorant
because the material is too difficult. At some point the teacher needs to regain control over teaching
so the distractions don't completely prevent learning.
Miracle Seeking It is not uncommon for students to have inappropriately high expectations about
what teachers should do and what teaching can accomplish. Teachers can be perceived as miracle
workers who can teach them everything they need to know in a relatively short period of time. Some
students who seek miracles from teachers evade responsibility for their own work or do not
concentrate on specific tasks. Sometimes these students try to blaming the tutor for bad grades or
not getting work done on time. Teachers should not accept the blame or feel guilty. It's important for
both teachers and students to have realistic expectations of what can and cannot be accomplished in
teaching. Teachers can downplay your role and expertise, for example by making comments like,
"We've only been working together for a short time". "You need to do most of the work on your own."
"I've just been working with this material longer than you have". When working with miracle seeking
students it's important for teachers to keep refocusing on the specific tasks, involving students
actively in the learning process, and explaining the importance of responsibility for one's own
learning.
Evasion Some students cleverly avoid doing their own work and accepting responsibility for it by
manipulating the tutor. Such students may use strategies such as glibness, "Bull Shitting", or
flattering the teacher as manipulations. To address this problem a teacher can downplay your role
and focus the student on specific tasks. Teachers should involve students in their own work
continuously. If
the evasion continues, try the "Broken Record" technique. Keep returning to the point you are trying to
make when the student continually tries to avoid the subject. As in the case of distraction, consider
whether the cause may be boredom, because the material is at too low of a level, or whether it may be
because the material is too difficult.
Dislike of Subject Occasionally students are critical of teachers and subject areas. Rather than denying
or defending against the negative comments the student is making, it is usually more constructive to let
the student ventilate and express all of his/her feelings and criticisms. Using a neutral tone of voice, ask
the student to tell you specifically what it is that s/he does not like. Let the student know that you are
genuinely interested finding out what is bothering him/her and you sincerely want to do what you can to
improve her/his attitude. Get a complete list of complaints, summarize them to make sure you have and
understand them all, thank the student for this feedback, and invite future contributions of this nature.
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Lack of Preparation. A common complaint of teachers is that their students do not come prepared for
class. They forget to bring their papers, books or assignment sheets. They claim that they didn't have
time to get the work done. Sometimes students have legitimate reasons for being unprepared and
sometimes they're just making excuses. What might be some legitimate reasons for students coming
unprepared for class? Have you ever gone to a class unprepared? What were your reasons? Were they
legitimate or excuses? Being unprepared is a problem when it is persistent. One technique for
encouraging students to come prepared is to raise specific questions at the end of one class that you
agree will be used to start the next class. If class begins with informal quizzes, students may be more
inclined to come prepared.
Additional Solution Strategies for Problems in Teaching
"I Messages"
If you are disturbed with something one of your students is doing, send "I Messages" telling the
student how you feel about it and how her/his behavior affects you (Gordon, 1974). For example, "I get
upset when I see you arguing with your group members because I'm afraid you're not going to have time
to complete your assignment". Why send I Messages? Because they avoid negative evaluations of
students, protect the teacher-student relationship, and are more likely to result in the student being
receptive to dealing with the problem. "I Messages" are effective strategies when confrontation is called
for. They allow you to express your feelings in an assertive, nonjudgemental and straightforward way
(Woolfolk, 1993). There are generally three parts of I Messages: Describe the behavior that is causing
the problem, the consequences of that behavior, and your feelings. For example, "I get upset when you
come late to class because it disrupts the lesson." I Messages are preferable to “You Messages”, like
"You should be here on time for class" because they make students feel less defensive; nobody really
likes being told what to do. I Messages convey your feelings - they are not to give someone orders.
"Reflecting the feeling"
Reflecting the feeling is a listening skill that conveys understanding and empathy to the speaker.
Reflection of feeling involves "holding up a mirror" to the speaker so the speaker can become more aware
of how his or her emotional reactions are affecting the learning process. Often, by acknowledging a
student's feelings through reflecting them back, a teacher can refocus on the academic content targeted
for the class (Moore & Poppino, 1983). Examples can be found in Chapter 5 on communication.
"No Lose Method”
The "No Lose Method" attempts to create "win-win" outcomes to problems (Gordon, 1974) . Teachers
should try to identify the "real problem" and use a problem solving model to write down
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steps for trying to solve the problem. The problem solving process should ensure that no one loses face.
The No Lose Method has the following six steps: 1. Define the problem: Determine what each person
wants and specify the behaviors involved. Analytical, reflective listening, where the teacher periodically
paraphrases what the students say, can help clarify the problem. 2. Generate many possible solutions:
Brainstorm possible solutions. Remember that brainstorming means generate but do not evaluate ideas.
3 . Evaluate solutions: Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each solution . 4. Make a decision .
Rank order the top three and explain why the first one is the best. No solution can be selected unless
everyone agrees to it. If none is acceptable, brainstorm again. 5. Plan to implement the solution: Specify
what will be needed, assign responsibilities and establish timelines. 6. Evaluate the solution's success:
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Judge how well the solution is working and whether changes are needed.
Barrows (1988) recommends a metacognitive approach to handling social problems that arise in
tutoring. He suggests that the first important step is to get the student or group to recognize that a problem
exists. Although Barrows argues it is better if students bring up the concern, the tutor cannot afford to
have the situation deteriorate waiting for this to occur. The tutor may make a statement like, "Why aren't
you taking a more active role in your own learning?", or "We don't seem to be making very much
progress" or "You don't seem to be taking a very active role". Once there is awareness of a problem, it is
possible to take steps to control the problem.
How might you adapt or use the suggested approaches to handling difficult teaching situations for your
needs?
Research suggests there will be fewer behavior problems if students are actively involved in the
lessons and there will be fewer management problems. Be prepared to deal with unexpected problems.
When problems arise, use your hunches and trust your instincts. Address specific discipline problem
discretely and confidentially. Maintain a soft voice and cool head throughout a conflict or disruption. Draw
up a social contract with the student to develop guidelines for future behavior. Renegotiate the social
contract as needed. Model desired behaviors. Monitor the student's behavior to give specific feedback.
Encourage and praise students when they do well. As the old saying goes, "Catch them being good".
Classroom Management
Kay Burke (1992) What to do with the kid who...Developing Cooperation, Self Discipline, and
Responsibility in the Classroom.; Skylight Publishing Co. Illinois
Jim Bellanca's Foreword to the book:

6 Criteria set by teacher focus groups for the research (N>300 teachers and staff developers
studied material in this book, tried it out in classes, provided feedback) underlying the ideas in this book:
No quick fixes or magic recipes, no more expert theories, no more wishful thinking, Use a practical
problem-solving approach that uses common sense, motivate students to take responsibility for their own
behavior, encourage students to care for each other. This approach is holistic, embeds cooperation,
responsibility, caring, and respect throughout the curriculum. Avoid turning students into "reward junkies"
- don't rely on rewards.
Introduction
Reduce discipline problems by allowing students "to participate in decisions regarding their
education and...assess their own progress". (p. xvii) The class management strategies suggested in this
book enable teachers to "respect their students' dignity, ...maintain their own pride and control, and...build
a caring and interactive atmosphere." (p. xvii). Violence against the self indicates feelings of helplessness
and isolation. (p. xxii) Students whose needs are not being met
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will "act out" to get attention, power, revenge, or whatever else they need to feel satisfied. Punitive
discipline tactics will not "bring them around".
(p, xxiii) The goal of classroom management according to Curwin & Mendler (1988) is to move
from the "Obedience Model", where students behave when the teacher is present out of fear of being
punished, to the "Responsibility Model" where students behave because they have internalized
appropriate behavior because they know it is the right thing to do. The Obedience Model is system of
strict rules & punishments." In the short term, obedience offers teachers relief, a sense of power and
control, and an oasis from the constant bombardment of defiance. In the long run, however, obedience
leads to student immaturity, a lack of responsibility, an inability to think clearly and critically, and a feeling
of helplessness that is manifested by withdrawal, aggressiveness, or power struggles" (Curwin & Mendler
1988, p. 23). According to Kohn (1991) punishment only teaches students what NOT to do; it doesn't
indicate what a student is supposed to do. Students focus all their energies on not getting caught- how to
get away with misbehavior rather than developing an internal locus of control and responsibility. Student
behavior based on the Responsibility Model involves internalizing appropriate behavior because students
know it is the right think to do. The responsibility model helps students more in the long run. It involves:
informing students of standards of acceptable behavior, making sure students understand the rules,
guidelines and consequences of violating them, respecting the student's dignity, and handling discipline
problems privately.
Creating a Classroom Atmosphere that Fosters Learning (p. xxiii Burke, 1992)
1. Establish a signal to get students' attention before starting to talk.

2. Appeal to different learning modalities by giving oral and written instructions.
3. Clearly state directions, requirements and time limits.
4. Review methods of evaluation.
5. Monitor students' work and behavior.
6. Model the types of behaviors and attitudes expected of students.
7. Address specific discipline problem discretely and confidentially.
8. Offer students choices in assignments or methods of completing work.
9. Give specific feedback and encouragement.
10. Maintain soft voice and cool head throughout a conflict or disruption.
p. 8 Provide students with structure and boundaries. All students should be involved in discussing and
should have input into classroom procedures. "The most effective way to handle discipline problems is to
prevent them. The proactive teacher anticipates potential management problems and establishes a
positive classroom environment where students feel secure because they know what is expected of them.
" Research suggests there will be fewer behavior problems if students are actively involved in the
lessons and there will be fewer management problems for teachers who use instructional time effectively.
Glasser's Control Theory and Research shows: (p. xxvi Burke 1992)
For schools to have good discipline, classes must contain fewer frustrated
students and teachers.
Behavior reflects people's best way of controlling themselves to meet their needs.
All people need to belong, gain power, be free and have fun.
People always choose to do what is the most satisfying to them at the time.
School must be meaningful and make sense to students.
Teachers should not rely on punishing students to make them behave.
Fifty percent of students are not getting their needs met in school.
Students will act out to get attention, power, revenge, or anything else to feel satisfied if their
needs their needs aren't being met.
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(p. 9 Burke) Evertson & Harris, 1991. Classroom

Procedures: Defined as ways of getting things
done. ; function is to routinize tasks for time
saving, predictability and continuity. Their
recommended four steps:
1. Explain: a. give concrete definition of
procedures; b. provide the reason or rationale; c.
demonstrate the procedure; d. present the task
step by step; e. explain and demonstrate cues.
2. Rehearse the procedure
3. Provide feedback to individuals and the
class
4. Re-teach procedures as necessary.
(Evertson & Harris, 1991 p. 2)
The teacher must decide which procedures are

negotiable & which aren't.
p. 9 "The breakdown in classroom management

doesn't usually start with a bang-it starts with a
whimper!". Consistency is the key. If a rule or
procedures is necessary - enforce it. If it isn't
working, discuss and change it.
From Evertson & Harris 1991 p. 2

Guidelines for classroom rules.
1.Consistent with school rules.
2. Understandable
3. Doable (students able to comply)
4. Management
5. Always applicable (consistent)
6. Stated positively
7.Stated behaviorally
8. Consistent with teacher's own philosophy
Kounin’s (1970) research on effective classroom managers shows teachers should:

* Achieve withitness by communicating awareness of student behavior. (Showing student you
"have eyes in the back of your head").
* Effectively overlap or do more than one thing at a time.
* Demonstrate smoothness and momentum moving in and out of activities. Avoid slow downs -
delays that waste time between activities
“ Beware of the Ripple Effect -the contagious spreading of attitudes or behaviors through
social learning: observation and imitation.
Address Disruptive Behaviors Immediately To prevent management problems from escalating,

teachers should address disruptive behaviors immediately and confidentially. If the teacher and student
are not alone, the teacher should ask to speak with the student privately in the corner of the room, in the
hall, or after class. Ask the student to explain what s/he thinks the problem is. Paraphrase and verify your
interpretation to make sure you understand what the student is expressing. ( Burke 1992, p. 35)
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1. Ask to speak with the student privately in the hall, after class or after school.
2. Ask the student to explain what s/he thinks the problem is.
3. Send "I Messages" telling the student how her/his behavior affects you. For
example, "I feel upset when I see you sleeping in class".
4.Try to identify the "real problem". Use a problem solving model to write down steps for trying to solve
the problem.
5. Draw up a social contract with the student to develop guidelines for future behavior.
6. Monitor the student's behavior to give specific feedback.
7. Encourage and praise students when they do well. "Catch them being good",
8. Renegotiate the social contract as needed.
9. Prepare a modified case study to document chronic misbehaviors and to get outside help if needed.
(10. Use behavior checklists to record the frequency of targeted behaviors).
Class Management - Penalties for Students (Woolfolk, 1993, p. 409)
Consequences:
Should be decided upon as soon as rules and procedures have been formulated and should be
directly communicated to students. It's too later to decide on consequences after the rule has been
broken or procedure not followed.
Seven Categories of Penalties for Students
1. Expression of disappointment
"I Message" may make students stop & think about their behavior if they like and respect the teacher.
2. Loss of Privileges
Students lose free time. e.g. If homework is not complete, make student do it during free period or
recess.
3. Exclusion from the Group
4. Written reflections on the problem
In student journals, essays - write what they did and how it affected others; or write apology letters, or ask
student to write objective account of incident. Make these available to administrators and/or parents as
evidence of student's behavior.
5. Detentions
After school, free period or at lunch. Main purpose - to talk about what happened; in high school often
used as punishment.
6. Visit to principal's office
To be used sparingly.
7. Contact parents
If problems persist. Purpose is to get parent's support for helping the student - not to blame parents.
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Guidelines for Imposing Penalties ( Woolfolk p. 417)
1. Delay the discussion of the situation until you and the students involved are calmer and more objective.
2. Impose penalties privately,
3. After imposing a penalty, reestablish a positive relationship with the student immediately.
4. Set up a graded list of penalties that will fit many occasions e.g.
For not turning in homework:

1. get reminder
2. get warning
3. hand homework in before end of school day
4. stay after school to finish work
5.participate in teacher-student-parent conference to develop an action plan
Additional problems include not taking teaching seriously, flirting, drug or alcohol use,
consistent lateness or absence and personality conflicts. These problems may be student-based or
teacher-based. How might you handle these problems? What other problems might occur?
Burke's "Dirty Dozen" of Teacher Behaviors that Can Erode the Classroom Climate
(quoted from Kay Burke's (1992) What To Do With The Kid Who... Developing Cooperation, Self-
Discipline and Responsibility in the Classroom, Skylight Publishing Co. Palatine, IL
"1. Sarcasm Students' feelings can be hurt by sarcastic put-downs thinly disguised as "humor".
2. Negative Tone Students can "read between the lines" and sense a sarcastic, negative, or
of Voice condescending tone of voice.
3. Negative Body Clenched fists, a set jaw, a quizzical look, or standing over a student in a
Language threatening manner can speak more loudly than any words.
4. Inconsistency Nothing escapes the students' attention. They will be the first to realize the
teacher is not enforcing the rules consistently.
5. Favoritism "Brown-nosing" is an art and any student in any class can point out the
"teacher's pet" who gets special treatment. There are no secrets in a class!
6. Put-Downs Sometimes teachers are not aware they are embarrassing a student with
subtle put-downs, but if teachers expect students to encourage rather than put down, they
need to model positive behavior.
7. Outbursts Teacher are sometimes provoked by students and the "lose it". These teacher
outbursts set a bad example for the students, create negative climate, and
could, and could lead to more serious problems.
8. Public Reprimands No one wants to be corrected or humiliated in front of his peers.

One way to make an enemy out of a student is to make him or her lose
face in front of other students.
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9. Unfairness Taking away promised privileges or rewards; scheduling a surprise test;

"nitpicking" while grading homework or tests; or assigning punitive home-
work could be construed by students as being "unfair".
10. Apathy Students want teachers to listen to them, show them they are important,
and empathize with them. If teachers convey the attitude that teaching is
just a job and students are just aggravations that must be dealt with, students
will respond accordingly.
11. Inflexibility Some students may need extra help or special treatment in order to succeed.
A teacher should be flexible enough to "bend the rules" or adjust the standards
to meet students' individual needs.
12. Lack of Humor Teachers who cannot laugh at themselves usually have problems motivating
students to learn, and usually have boring classes." (p. 32)
Problems in Tutoring Groups
Research on group tutoring has identified five categories of problems and suggestions for solving them
(MacDonald 1993).
1. Tutor and Tutee Roles and Group Cohesion is a problem when there is a conflict among students being
tutored in how to participate effectively in the tutoring group. When students have personal or role
conflicts, the group tends to have less time to focus on academics than when students' group roles
complement each other. A hostile group member, who attacks other members of a tutoring group, can
interfere with accomplishing academic objectives. Based on his research, MacDonald suggests that if the
tutor helps the group articulate a common task and clarify roles, it is more likely the group members work
well together and accomplish reasonable tasks .
2. Identifying Students' Needs can be a problem when each person in the group has different needs.
Students' different needs can make it hard for a group to feel unified. Research indicates groups tend to
split into two distinct camps. Teachers can use this knowledge to anticipate such a possibility of a
division in advance, and be prepared to split the group in two and rotate between them.
3. Workable Plan and Time Line can be a problem because of students' conflicting needs or because
students have unreasonable expectations about what the teaching group can accomplish. MacDonald
concludes it is the tutor's responsibility to devise a reasonable plan and make sure everyone understands
it. It is also important to develop alternative methods of solving problems.
4. Jumpstarting refers to the problem of getting the group moving; either getting it off the ground to begin
with or redirecting it after it has drifted away. Research suggests teachers need a "bag of tricks" to keep
groups on track and to refocus them when needed.
5. Floor Management is a problem when students compete to speak and resist listening and learning
from each other. MacDonald suggests that tutors can restore balance to the group
by asking less talkative members questions, calling on them, assigning specific tasks or roles to each
group member and emphasizing the importance of effective listening and sharing
the floor.
Trouble Shooting Techniques for Group Tutoring

Based on his research on group tutoring MacDonald (1993) identified six strategies for tutors to use in
their management of groups.
1. Promote student-student interaction or independent work.
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2. Deal with distractions immediately, but in a nice way. Tutors can use the
task as a justification.
3. Tutors should only intrude into the group's functioning as needed to keep it
on track.
4. Recognize or praise students when they work effectively in a group.
5. Whenever possible, the tutor should back away from being the resource
and encourage the students to use each other as resources.
6. Tutors can try to prevent management problems by careful scheduling of group sessions,
planning tasks for the next session, and by reporting problems to the supervisor as necessary.
To what extent and how can teachers use these management strategies?
_________________________________________________________________...
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Peer mediation is a popular way of helping students resolve conflicts. Teachers or other students could
be the peer mediators. Peer mediators do not impose solutions; rather, they help the "disputants" work
out their own solution to the conflict. Mediators work alone or often in pairs. In peer mediation programs,
a cadre of students are trained to help their schoolmates resolve disputes. Peer mediators do not impose
solution; rather, the help the "disputants" work out their own solution to the conflict. Mediators work alone
or, often in pairs." According to Virgil Petersen, peer-mediated agreements work between 80-89% of the
time and are more successful than principal-imposed solutions. The greater success is because
disputants own the solution since they hammered it out themselves. (O'Neil,1993)
Peer mediation is similar to the No Lose Method, but adds two important features.
Disputants pledge to live up to the solution selected, sometimes the solution is put in writing and the
disputants sign it. The mediator checks with the disputants to see if they are sticking to the agreement.
Peer mediation is appropriate for some, but not all student conflicts. It is NOT intended for conflicts
involving weapons, drugs, violence, illegal activity or blatant injustice. These need to be handled by the
administration. A basic principle of peer mediation is that if the disputants agree on a solution, everyone
must respect it, even if they do not consider it the best possible solution. Teachers can use behavior
checklists to record the frequency of targeted behaviors.
The following are the basic steps in peer mediation:

1. The disputants and mediators come together, which can happen in many ways:
2. Disputants agree to participate in the process.
3. The mediator lays down the ground rules.
4. Each disputant tells her/his side of the story and expresses her/his feelings, speaking
only to the mediator.
5. The mediator paraphrases, summarizes and asks clarifying questions.
6. The mediator tries to help disputants see the conflict as a problem they must solve
together instead of a competitive situation.
7. The disputants brainstorm ways to resolve the conflict.
8. The disputants agree on the best solution.
9. Disputants pledge to live up to the solution selected, sometimes putting the solution in
writing and having the disputants sign it.
10. The mediator checks with the disputants to see if they are sticking to the agreement.
To select peer mediators students are generally surveyed by the school to identify students who
other students trust and will feel comfortable talking to. Some mediators are selected by the school so

there is a balance of gender and ethnicity. Once selected, mediators need to be trained in a variety of
skills. It is recommended that mediators receive 15-20 hours of advanced training with followup every two
weeks. (p. 5) Skills include: Communication: listening, paraphrasing, clarifying, summarizing and asking
neutral questions; detecting underlying causes of conflicts - differing perceptions or assumptions; how to
diffuse anger and develop empathy between disputants; and self control to keep the mediation process
confidential.
Structuring Student Participation in Groups
Sometimes in groups there are students who dominate the discussion and others who do not participate
much or at all. If you are having trouble getting all students in a teaching group to take an active part, then
it may be useful to assign each group member a specific role to fulfill. "Reciprocal teaching" and other
cooperative learning roles described in this book can help teachers systematically achieve active and
balanced involvement in groupwork. These models are presented to stimulate your thinking about different
ways of helping students take an active role in their own learning. Experiment with these and your own
and/or others' ideas. Cooperative learning has been demonstrated to be an effective way of developing
students' social skills and improving intergroup relations. Assigning specific roles is a good way of
dealing with students who try to dominate group discussions. Assign the student who monopolizes the
discussion to be the observer to help increase sensitivity to the issue of balanced participation
(McKeachie, 1994).
Group processing after a group has finished a task helps the group to function more effectively in the
future. It involves the group reflecting on how well it worked in specific areas.
Summary & Application

Using your own words, briefly summarize the most useful ideas from this chapter and how you may apply
them.

name__________________________
From the ideas presented above and your own experience select two problems to focus on in this
exercise. Select problems that you consider the most common, most important or most difficult to deal
with. Think about each problem, its possible causes, and possible solution strategies. Then write down
your ideas and compare them to others'. Share your ideas with someone else so you can receive and
provide feedback. Discuss the situations and the factors underlying them, and evaluate the advantages
and disadvantages of alternative approaches for improving these social problem situations.
TROUBLESHOOTING Social Problems in Teaching
Briefly write about specific problems, causes and solutions
1.
2.
Do you have any new ideas after discussion? If so, use another color pen to make additions and
changes in what you wrote above.

Chapter 10 Questioning and Thinking Aloud



This chapter focuses on teaching strategies intended to help students perform more intelligently on their
academic tasks. Included is material on self questioning, different types and levels of questioning,
instructional techniques that use questioning and thinking aloud. Some techniques for using questioning
as a learning strategy involve students questioning each other as a cooperative learning activity.
Reciprocal teaching, which includes questioning as one of four reading strategies, was discussed in
Chapter 2. This approach can be used in many different subjects. A related approach, reciprocal
questioning, is discussed in Chapter 10.
This book emphasizes teaching to develop students' intellectual abilities such as thinking, representing
information, and remembering. The purpose is to help students learn more effectively, aid their long term
memory of material learned, and their ability to use what they have learned. Part of effective learning is
the meaningfulness of what is learned. The techniques in this chapter are intended to help make learning
more meaningful to students. Meaningfulness requires thought, and sometimes students resist thinking
because it can be hard work! Many students are accustomed to remembering material even if they don't
understand it. The techniques in this chapter are intended to prevent that kind of memorization without
understanding. Sometimes students try to manipulate teachers into letting them learn "the easy way" so
they can produce correct answers even if they don't understand them. Be prepared to resist this type of
pressure.
Additionally, the teaching techniques in this chapter promote students' active involvement in and
responsibility for their own learning. Teachers should resist the temptation to teach "the easy way", by
simply telling students the material they need to know. "Spoonfeeding" is only efficient in the short run,
like the famous old Chinese proverb about being given a fish rather than being taught to fish. Research
suggests that applying the instructional techniques in this chapter should help students become more
active, independent learners.
Questioning
Why is questioning one of the most effective teaching techniques? Think about and record all of the types
and functions you can think of regarding the use of questions in teaching. Think about questioning very
broadly, both from the point of view of you asking your students questions and your students asking you
questions.
Functions of Questions
Teacher's Questions
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Students' Questions
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Tutors at CCNY identified question functions that include: checking understanding, clarifying assignments,
making students talk, diagnosing students' problems, helping students understand their own weaknesses,
narrowing a topic, obtaining information, making students think, helping students organize their thoughts,
increasing students' interest, generating alternate approaches, putting events into larger perspectives and
summarizing.
Questions are powerful teaching, thinking and learning tools that have a broad range of potential
applications. Research on instruction shows that most of it consists of information transmission.
Students' minds are treated as glasses to be filled with the vintage wisdom of authority. Very little
questioning occurs, and when it does, most of it requires relatively low level responses. There is evidence
that when teachers ask a majority of low level questions (e.g. What is the name of....?, How would you
describe...?. student achievement does not reach as high levels as it does when students are asked
mostly higher level questions (e.g. What do you think is the most important...?,How would you
approach...? (Redfield and Rousseau 1981)
When during the teaching process are learners' questions most effective in promoting comprehension?
Research suggests that when teachers answer adult students' questions while they are in the process of
using the knowledge they have acquired, the questions aid understanding more than when tutors answer
questions while students are acquiring the knowledge. Clarification of confusing content is more likely to
occur while students are applying their knowledge (Fishbein, Eckart, Lauver, Van Leeuwen & Langmeyer,
1990).
Leading Discussions
Discussing assignments, concepts, skills, attitudes, and strategies is a common occurrence in teaching.
McKeachie (1994) discusses several types of questions that can be used to skillfully stimulate and guide
discussions. Although it is better for most discussions to have a problem solving type of orientation,
periodically it is necessary to ask factual questions to check students' background knowledge. For
example, What is the definition of the "cold war?" Interpretation and application questions can help
improve students understanding of the material they are learning. For example, What do you think were
the causes of the "cold war"? These types of questions are more effective for stimulating discussions that
factual questions. Problem questions are those that emerge from problems to be solved or particular
cases and help students solve problem. For example, What might be a good way to approach that
problem? Connective, comparative and causal questions are good for helping students see relationships
in material or concepts. For example, How is this problem similar to the last one? Evaluative questions
require judgment. For example, Why do you think this way of organizing your paper is better that the way
the paper is organized now? Critical questions can help students learn to challenge assumptions and
conclusions and think for themselves. For example, Do you think the author presented enough convincing
evidence to support her conclusion? Which of these types of questions do you tend to ask most often?
In addition to improving their own questioning skills, tutors can help their student learn to ask better
questions. Students will develop and use questioning better if they follow guidelines for using them. As is
true of all information, having only declarative knowledge which indicates what question to ask is not
nearly as useful as also having procedural information on how to ask such questions and contextual
information cuing students on when and why to ask various questions.
What: Evoke information from students rather than telling information to students. Ask questions, elicit
answers, and encourage students to think out loud.
When: Asking questions is an excellent way to determine what students know and/or understand. Once
the knowledge base is determined, more questions can be used to work toward progressively more
knowledge/understanding or toward solving a problem.
Why: Learners, especially adult learners, learn best when they are actively engaged with the material and

when material to be learned is built upon their own knowledge and experience. Starting from what
students know provides the basis for building a more solid foundation. Eliciting helps the tutor provoke
students into thinking their way toward understanding. It also enables the tutor to test students' knowledge
without first reciting a great deal of material. It enables students to become more self-directed learners.
How: Ask questions. Turn students' questions around. Refuse to give out information; if possible draw it
out instead. Emphasize intermediate and high level questions because they promote more thorough
understanding than low level questions. Listen more than you speak. Listen to students
answers/thoughts to determine what the student does and doesn't know or understand.
Students will make better progress through a questioning approach than by a lecture or telling approach.
The table below lists some examples of eliciting information by questioning and compares them to
examples of teaching the information by telling.
Eliciting (DO) Telling (DON'T)
What are the most important ideas The most important ideas in
in that section of the text? that section of the text are..
What could you infer about the This report implies that his abnormal
causes of his abnormal behavior? behavior was caused by...
How would you interpret the In the second Paragraph "controlled

meaning of "controlled experiment?". experiment" means . . .
What were the most long-lasting The most long-lasting effects

effects of the French Revolution? of the French Revolution were.. . .
What are two approaches you Two approaches you could use
could use to solve this problem? to solve this problem are...
Which tense should you use in In this paragraph you should use
this paragraph? Why? the future tense because . . .
How would you produce a constant To produce a constant level of level of

acceleration in a problem acceleration, mass must be decreased in
involving mass and force? direct proportion to the force.
A major tension that exists between tutors and students is caused by the difference between their ways of
organizing knowledge. The tutor should attempt to teach the organization of the material, but the student
often resists the tutor because the student believes that the separate pieces of information are the aim of
instruction. One approach for introducing students to the idea of forming their own knowledge structures
(organizations) is the technique of teaching students to use questioning techniques. In the beginning, the
tutor needs to ask the questions, but the long-term objective is to teach the student the skills of
self-questioning. Self-questioning has been demonstrated to be an effective instructional technique
because it requires: (1) active processing, (2) metacognition (thinking about one's own thinking), and (3)
the recall of prior knowledge (Wong, 1985). See the I DREAM of A model later in this chapter for sample
self questions.
Question Types and Levels
One of the difficulties teachers (and tutors too) have with using questioning techniques is the fact that
most experts use these techniques so naturally that they come to believe that everybody uses them.
Another difficulty is the lack of recognition that some types of questions are better than others. For

example, open-ended questions are usually better than closed questions and higher level questions are
often better than lower level questions.
Bloom's (1958) taxonomy of cognitive objectives is often used by teachers to formulate different
types and levels of questions. He identified 6 types: knowledge (demonstrate ability to identify facts),
comprehension (demonstrate understanding), application (show how to use an idea or skill), analysis
(break a problem or concept into parts), synthesis (combine parts into a whole) and evaluation (make a
judgement). Bloom's taxonomy forms a hierarchy, so as you move from low to high level, each of the
lower levels is assumed to be required for the next higher level. Consequently, knowledge is required for
answering comprehension questions, and knowledge and comprehension are both required for answering
application questions. Research shows that most teacher questioning occurs at the low end of the
taxonomy; knowledge and comprehension questions. When teachers primarily ask low level questions,
student achievement does not match the levels reached when instructors ask mostly higher level
questions. This is because higher-order questions help students: 1). think abstractly; 2). experience and
resolve discrepancies, thereby promoting reorganization and development of thought: 3). manipulate
information acquired; and 4). think about material more deeply and thoroughly. The quality of questions
used can be improved by emphasizing information requiring higher-order thinking skills
Sigel etal's 1980 taxonomy of low, intermediate and higher level questions
The following table provides useful information about the three levels of questions and gives types
of questions within each level and specific examples.
Question Levels, Types, Examples
Question Sample Words or Examples

Level Directions
Low label What's the author's name? What is
describe the topic of your paper? What is an
define attributes asymptote? What is a recessive trait?
demonstrate What is the law of chemical
equilibrium?
Intermediate sequence What type of novel is this? Which

classify point in your paper does that example
enumerate illustrate? In what order will you
synthesize perform those operations? How is the
reproduce compare heart like a pump?
contrast
High evaluate How do you think the story will end?
verify conclude What do you usually include in an
transform opening paragraph? How can you make
generalize sure you don't have any spelling
predict mistakes? How do you usually prepare
propose for a multiple choice test? How else
alternatives could you solve this problem? What
resolve conflict conclusions can you draw about the
infer affect or best strategy to use for this type of
cause problem?
plan

name____________________________
Give your own examples of low, intermediate and higher level questions you might ask
in teaching. Write three examples of each, making sure you identify the type of question in addition to the
level.
Low
Intermediate
High

Open versus Closed Questions
One method for achieving better questions is for tutors to ask open-ended questions. Examples of
open-ended questions are:
How do you go about taking notes in the art history class?
What's your plan for getting ready for the mid-term?"
Why did you use that equation to solve the problem?
Examples of less effective, closed questions are:
Do you take notes in the art history class?
Are you getting ready for the midterm?
Did you use the right equation to solve the problem?
How are these types of questions different from each other? Why are open-ended questions considered
more effective than closed questions? Record your thoughts in the space below.
______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Open-ended questions require students to think more deeply about and elaborate on the information,
whereas closed questions can be answered with short, even one word, responses.
Open-ended questions, which often start with "how, what, or why", are frequently used to start
conversations and find out how students study (Moore and Poppino 1983, p. 21).
Teachers can use questioning techniques in numerous ways, including: asking students questions,
answering students' questions, having students predict test questions, students asking and answering
each other's questions, tutor modeling good questions for students, teaching students to self question,
and using questions to help students analyze, organize, connect and apply material they have learned.
Give your own examples of open and closed questions. Share them with someone else
to get feedback.
Open-ended
Closed
.
Prior Knowledge
Students usually come to teaching with more knowledge and skills in the area in which they are seeking
assistance than teachers or students realize. The knowledge and skills students bring to teaching are
critical building blocks for teaching. These building blocks are the key to making the material to be
learned meaningful. When instruction emphasizes meaningful learning, students are more likely to
understand and retain what they learn. Throughout this book you will find questions, activities and icons
designed to activate your prior knowledge of topics covered. These are intended to help make what you
are learning from this book more meaningful.
One of the first things to do when teaching is to assess the quantity and quality of the student's
background information in the area targeted for teaching. If you assume students have minimal prior
knowledge, and give them a lecture covering important content, you run the likely risk of losing those
students by boring them with what they already know as well as valuable instructional time. Why
questions, which require students to elaborate on ideas, have been demonstrated to be effective both

when students do have prior knowledge about a topic and when students do not have prior knowledge.
When students do not have substantial prior knowledge, why questions help focus students' attention on
the information to be learned. When students do have prior knowledge, why questions help students
connect the new material to their existing knowledge (Woloshyn, V., Pressely, M., & Schneider, W. 1992).
A key feature that separates children from adults as learners is that adult learners have a greater need to
have their prior knowledge and experience validated. Sometimes prior knowledge reflects a correct
understanding of concepts and sometimes it contains misconceptions. Some misconceptions are
caused by limited past experience and some are due to misinterpretations of previous experience. One
common misconception low-achieving students have is that "it always comes easy" to students who do
well. They don't realize academic success is often borne out of struggle (Gourgey, 1992a). So
misconceptions can occur both with ideas about how students learn as well as with what ideas they learn.
Misconceptions can form the basis of strongly held beliefs that are resistant to conventional instruction.
By identifying students' prior knowledge you can help the student learn to use the correct ideas as building
blocks and to eliminate the incorrect ideas that interfere with learning. Research shows that the best way
to overcome misconceptions is to provide students with experiences that make students confront them
and have them discover for themselves why these ideas are not valid (McDermott, 1991).
Another reason for eliciting students' prior knowledge before teaching new material is that if the existing
information is activated during learning, then it will be easier for students to remember the new materials
because it will be stored with the prior knowledge. Otherwise students tend to treat new material in
isolation, not connecting it with what they already know. Learning new material and storing it with prior
knowledge makes the new material easier to understand, remember and use.
The 6PQ Method of Discovery Learning described below offers a reasonable way for finding out what
students already know about a subject and, at the same time, credits them for that prior knowledge. The
6PQ method below systematically uses students' prior knowledge
as a stepping stone for discovery.
6PQ Method of Discovery Learning

The 6PQ Method is a six-step question process which was developed in a tutoring context at Oregon's
Chemeketa Community College. It is a questioning procedure for guiding student thinking while avoiding
telling or lecturing. The goal of guiding the student if for him/her to arrive at the answer rather than be
given the answer. Each of the questions can be described by a word beginning with the letter P. As the
student responds to each question, the tutor may often improve the process by paraphrasing any
response when that seems desirable.
1. Preface. Establish rapport and determine the topic.

Examples: Hi, how have you been? How can I help you today? What do you need to
know about...? Which course is this for? Who's your professor?
2. Pace. Determine what the student already knows. Elicit relevant prior knowledge and
experience.
Examples: What all do you know about...? What do you already know about writing a
persuasive essay? Have you ever been persuaded by something you read? What can you
tell me about that experience? Since you did the first part of this problem right, what all can
you tell me about factoring polynomials? What do you already know about mitosis?
3. Probe. Investigate the limits of the student's knowledge by seeking more detailed information.
Examples: How do you know that? Why do you think the author chose that particular
setting for the crisis? What are the goals of a persuasive essay? What do you mean by
"evidence", when you say you " need evidence to back up your argument" ? How could you
change that paragraph to make it more persuasive? What type of problem this? What else
can you tell me about quadratic equations? Those are the right names of the phases of
mitosis; now, in what order do they occur? What happens during telophase? What does it
look like?
4. Prod. Have the student make an educated guess what the answer could be.

Examples: Ask, "What do you think the answer might be? If you had to guess, what
would you say? What might be the author's reason for choosing that setting? What do you
estimate the answer to be? What do you feel may happen during telophase?
5. Prompt. Give the student a hint. You can provide simple examples of the answer in the form
of a question, solve a simpler version of the same problem, or give part of an answer and
have the student provide the rest.
Examples: Do you remember what you did on the last problem? It starts with the letter
...., Telophase has something to do with the new nuclei.
6. Process. Have the student apply the content/skill. Help the student to see other applications
for the information or to help make connections to larger issues.
Examples: How could you use the skills of persuasion in your everyday life - with your
family, friends, and at work? How does your understanding of mitosis help you learn
about meiosis?
At the end of a 6PQ sequence it is helpful to have the student summarize what was learned. This will
greatly improve the student's understanding and retention of the information. It will also help the tutor
assess what was learned. It becomes more valuable to the tutor with each use. It does not have to be
used in its complete form at all times. The only steps that should always occur are: 1 (preface) , 2 (pace),
and 6 (process). As with all procedures, intelligent teaching requires wise use and adaptation where
needed. Initial uses of the 6PQ method should attempt to follow the procedure closely, but, with
experience, the tutor finds ways of adapting the process to each new situation. Avoid the temptation to
give hints too early in the questioning process. The 6PQ method has been used successfully in many
teaching situations and subjects.
Is there anything you don't understand in the section above? Will you clarify it? How?
The tutor should paraphrase frequently, but not continuously. At the end of questioning, ask the
student to summarize what was learned. See the dialogue below for an example.28

T=tutor S=student
1. PREFACE
T) Hi Celeste! I'm happy we get to work together again.
S) Me too Alicia! I need your help. I'm stuck on one of our homework problems.
T) So you want me to help you with a specific problem? (PARAPHRASE)
S) Yeah, I figured out some of it, but now I'm stuck.
T) What problem are you working on?
S) A factoring problem, #4: Factor (6x3 + 12x2 + 6x).
T) So you only need help solving part of the problem? (PARAPHRASE)
S) Yeah. Do you know how to do it?
T) Yes. I'm pretty good at factoring.
2. PACE
T) What do you know about this problem so far?
S) I think this is called a polynomial.
T) Yes, that's right.
S) And I know I have to pull out what the parts have in common. So first I pulled out a six from each
part. That left me with 6(x3 + 2x2 + x). Is that right?
T) That's good so far, what else do you know?
S) Next I saw that all parts have an "x" so I pulled that out.
T) What did that leave you with?
S) I got: 6x(x2 +2x + 1) Am I O.K. so far?
T) Yeah, you're doing fine. What comes next?
S) I don't know. This is where I get stuck.
T) OK. So you know you can factor out 6x from the polynomial, but that's where you run into trouble, is
that right?
S) Yes.
3. PROBE
T) Can you tell me more about the trinomial you have left, (x2 +2x + 1)?
S) I remember something about two sets of parentheses, but I can't remember what numbers to put in
them.
T)Do you know the name for the trinomial?
S) What do you mean by a name?
T) There's a specific equation the trinomial is associated with.
S) Is that the quadratic equation?
T) That's right. What else can you tell me?
S) Nothing. Nothing at all.
T) OK so you know that you arrange numbers in two sets of parentheses and that somehow this is
connected with the quadratic equation, but that's it. (PARAPHRASE)
S) Yes.
T) How are the parentheses set up?
S) They are next to each other.
T) And what does that mean?
S) That you multiply what's inside each of the parentheses. Oh! So I can put an "x" inside each
parenthesis and multiply them to get x2. Is that right?
T) Yes, good! When you multiply the "x"s in the parentheses it results in the first term of the quadratic
equation.
S) I guess I knew more than I thought!
4. PROD T) OK now look at the problem again and make an educated guess about how to fill in the rest
of the quantities.
S) Hum... I'm getting a little clearer about it. I've got to put the numbers and "x"s into the parentheses so
that when they are multiplied together I get the trinomial (x2 +2x + 1). But I don't know what to do to get
it - what else to put where.

5.PROMPT
T) I'll give you a little hint. Remember what function you used to get the x2 from the "x"s in the
parentheses?
S) I multiplied.
T) Right, so what function will you use to get the 2x + 1?
S) I guess I have to multiply to get the last term, oh yeah, and then I add to get the one in the middle! I
have to find numbers that when multiplied you get one and when added you get 2x. So what would that
be? Let's see....One times one equals one, and one plus one equals two. That must be it! Is it?
T) Sounds like you got it! So what does it all look like?
S) It must be 6x(x + 1)(x + 1)
T) Great, that's it! But can you take it one step more? Isn't there a simpler way of representing the
information in the two sets of parentheses?
S) Oh, I see,(x + 1)(x + 1) can be changed to (x + 1)2. So that means it ends up as 6x(x + 1)2. Is that it?
T) Alright, now you got it!
6. PROCESS
T) How can you use what you learned to solve other problems?
S) Well I was stuck on homework problems # 7, 24 and 30, because I think they are similar problems
that I got stuck on the same general way.
T) Yes they're similar. So you think that you can solve problems 7, 24 and 30 now based on what you
have learned? (PARAPHRASE)
S) I think so. Thanks for the help!
T) Will you summarize what you learned before you try those other problems?
SUMMARY
s) I started with the problem: Factor (6x3 + 12x2 + 6x). I saw that I could pull out the 6 as a common
factor, and that I could also pull out the x, but then I got stuck. Now I know to arrange the numbers in
parentheses side by side so when they're multiplied they give me the end terms in the trinomial and when
added they give me the middle term.
In this method, telling or showing how to solve the problem is only used as a last resort. Through
6PQ students learn that they know more than they think they do, which helps build their confidence and
willingness to persist.

Fill out the brief "Question Self-Analysis". This questionnaire is designed to stimulate your thinking about
your prior knowledge and experience with familiar components of the 6PQ model.
Questioning Self Analysis
I. Self-Analysis Yes No Sometimes Not Sure

1. (Preface) I establish rapport with students and
identify teaching objectives at the beginning of
each lesson. Y N S N
2. (Pace) I ask about and build from what the

students already know. Y N S N
3. (Probe)
A. I test the limits of students'

knowledge and understanding. Y N S N
B. I guide students' thinking and

learning through questioning. Y N S N
C. Most of the time I ask intermediate

or high level questions. Y N S N
4. (Prod) I encourage students to make an

educated guess when they say they don't
know something. Y N S N
5. (Prompt) I give students hints about the

right answer or right thing to do only after
I have tried all the strategies listed above. Y N S N
6. (Process) I have students apply what they

have learned to new situations. Y N S N
7. (Summarize) At the end of a lesson I ask

students to summarize what they learned. Y N S N
8. (Paraphrase) I restate students' comment

in my own words to verify that I have
understood what they said. Y N S N
Guided Questioning
Questioning helps students elaborate on information they are learning by enabling them to add
details, explain relationships, clarify ideas, make inferences, visualize information and connect
what they are learning with their prior knowledge and experience. It also aids comprehension and
long term memory of material to be learned. Students can be guided to generate their own
questions, which research shows aid learning more than teacher-generated questions. Guided
questioning is an approach to teach students to ask and answer their own questions about lesson
content. It revolves around giving students generic question stems to use as prompts. Examples
include: What do you think causes....? Why is ....important? How does...tie in with what we

learned before? By providing these question stems the teacher can control the quality of student-
generated questions. This approach to developing students questioning skills can be done
individually, as guided self-questioning, or in groups, as guided peer questioning. In guided self-
questioning , students formulate and then write answers to their own questions. In guided peer
questioning, students formulate their own questions and then take turns answering each other's
questions in a small group using a reciprocal questioning procedure. This questioning technique
helps students think critically about material they are learning and further extends high-level
thinking. Research indicates that while both self and peer questioning improve performance
when compared to discussion and review techniques, peer questioning is even more effective
than self-questioning (King, 1992). See Chapters 5, 7 and 14 for more information on student-
self questioning and Chapters 4 and 13 for more on reciprocal educational procedures.
Thinking Aloud and Pair Problem Solving
Another method that can be used successfully in most teaching relationships is for one person to attack a
situation and talk constantly about the thoughts that are going through his/her mind as the work
progresses. The thinker-talker can be either the teacher or the student. Teachers can teach the student
how to think aloud by must first modeling the process.
Pair Problem Solving
Whimbey and Lochhead (1982) describe this technique as a thinker and listener pairs working on
problems and rotating roles. Pair problem solving has become a popular way of helping students think
about their own problem solving. Students take turns serving as thinkers (problem solvers), who
externalize their thought processes by thinking aloud while analytical listeners track and guide the problem
solving process as needed. It is a higher-level thinking (metacognitive), self monitoring strategy that gives
students feedback on what is understood and what is still unclear . It helps students identify what parts of
a problem they understand and where they get stuck. This method makes problems more engaging,
teaches communication skills and fosters cooperation. It encourages skills of reflecting on beginning and
later thoughts. Pair problem solving facilitates self checking and evaluating. It encourages the formation
of study and support groups, and exposes teachers and students to various solution approaches. 30 By
listening to the student's own thoughts, he/she gains awareness and control over problem solving.
Externalizing thoughts enables them to be seen from a fresh perspective.
WHAT is Think Aloud? One person will say out loud all the steps and all the mental work done when
performing an academic task (e.g. solve a problem, answering a question, conducting an experiment,
reading through lecture/textbook notes etc. )
There are at least three different ways to use the Think Aloud process.
1. When the thinker-talker is the subject matter expert, the process allows the expert to model their
own thinking for students. This modeling shows how to think about the material (knowledge, skills,
procedures etc.). It lets students hear what goes on in an expert's head when a text is read, a homework
assignment is attacked, study for a test is planned, an essay is written, an error is found, or a problem is
solved. It also should include statements from the expert that externalize her/his feelings so that students
can learn how to self-regulate their own emotions.
2. When a student is the thinker-talker the process is valuable even when the student is alone. The
student becomes more aware of what goes on in his/her head when doing an academic task and
frequently this provides real insight into improving performance. Students will not, however, learn this
process just by having it suggested. The teacher can model the Think Aloud process as a learner and
provide an opportunity for hearing what is going on in the mind of the learner.
3. There is real value to using the Think Aloud process with two students -- one serves as the

THINKER while the other serves as the analytical LISTENER. This approach is known as "pair problem
solving" and has been demonstrated to be an effective approach for helping students learn (Whimbey &
Lochhead, 1982). The thinker verbalizes out loud ALL the thoughts that arise in the process of
completing an academic task. The listener actively attends to what the thinker says, examines the
accuracy, points out errors, and keeps the thinker talking aloud. Together, the students can discover
errors, misconceptions, disorganizations, and other impediments to academic performance. The teacher
needs to observe each pair, monitor progress, and provide feedback on the process.
WHEN should the Think Aloud process be applied?

When, for diagnostic purposes, it is important to hear what the student thinks, knows, studies etc.
When the teacher wants to demonstrate to the student what and how to think about
academic content/strategies.
When the teacher wants to help guide the student in learning what and how to think about
academic material/tasks.
When the teacher wants to see what and how the student thinks for assessment purposes,
When the teacher wants the student to become more thorough, precise and systematic when
doing academic tasks.
When the teacher wants the student to become more aware of and more in control of his/her own
knowledge, skills and attitudes.
WHY should Think Aloud be used?

It helps prevent passivity and rote learning.
It helps students communicate to the teacher what they know and how they approach
academic tasks. This helps the teacher identify/diagnose misunderstood/misused
concepts, rules, facts, important omissions and inadequate/incomplete knowledge,
approaches, or skills.
It helps students think more precisely, carefully, and systematically.
It helps students examine their own knowledge, skills and attitudes.
By hearing themselves think, they become more aware of their strengths and weaknesses.
Through combining this self-awareness with feedback from the listener, students can check up on
their own performance and make appropriate changes as needed.
It helps achieve the ultimate goal of students being their own thinkers and listeners.
It increases students' control over themselves as learners and can improve their
academic (and nonacademic) performance.
How to do the Think Aloud process
How to Think Aloud: Problem Solver's Task
1.Translate your thoughts (ideas, images etc.) into words and recite them aloud.
2. Verbalize aloud all the steps you go through when solving problems. Don't censor. No thought or step is
too small, easy, obvious or unimportant to verbalize.
3. Verbalize all the thinking you do before you start to solve the problem (e.g. what you are going to do,
when, why, and how). Even second-guessing yourself is important to verbalize aloud, e.g. "I think I should
use that long, complicated formula we were using a couple weeks ago. What was it called, the quadratic
equation?. No, maybe not. Maybe I'm supposed to use the formula we did in class yesterday".
4. Verbalize all thoughts during problem solving e.g. "OK, I'm almost through with this division problem.
Now that I have my answer, all I have to do is multiply to check and see if my answer is right."
Verbalize ALL the thinking done before, during, and after work. The verbalization must include plans of
what to do, when certain steps are taken, why steps are used (not used), and how to proceed with each
thought. Even "second guessing" is important to verbalize aloud. For example, a good thinker may say:
What's the best way to solve this problem? I think I should use that long,
complicated formula we were talking about a couple of weeks ago. No,
maybe not. Maybe I'm supposed to use that new one we covered in

class today.
Consider discussing alternative approaches after the student has completed the task,.
Increase the difficulty of think aloud tasks you assign gradually.
How to Listen Analytically: Listener's Task 32 (Whimbey & Lochhead, 1982)
1. Think along with the problem solver. Follow every step and make sure you understand every step. If
not, ask a question. Have the problem solver identify and define important terms, variables, rules,
procedures etc. Make sure the problem solver vocalizes all the steps and does all the work. If the
problem solver skips over a step without thinking aloud, ask her/him to explain the missing thought.
2. Do NOT work on the problem independently. Listen to and work along with the problem solver.
3. Never let the problem solver get ahead of you. Whenever necessary, ask the problem solver to wait so
you can check a procedure, computation etc. and catch up. If the problem solver is working too fast, slow
her/him down so you can follow carefully, analytically, and accurately.
4. Check the problem solver at every step. Don't wait for the answer. Check everything - each
computation, diagram, procedure etc. In the back of your mind, constantly ask yourself,
"Is that right? Did I check that? To promote precise thinking, have the thinker
carefully define important terms, variables.
5. If you find an error, avoid correcting it. Point it out and try to get the problem solver to self correct. If
he/she gets stuck, ask questions to guide thinking in the right direction. If necessary, give suggestions,
hints or partial answers. Give the answer as a last resort. Let the problem solver know that you are not
trying to be difficult, you are trying to help him/her become an independent problem solver. If no amount of
suggestion helps the thinker and you must give information or demonstrate a procedure, assign a similar
task as followup and require the thinker to do it aloud. Let students know that by doing these things, you're
not being picky or critical, you're helping them become more self-directed learners and develop
important academic knowledge, skills and attitudes.
To make sure listeners really do their job, periodically teachers should ask listeners to summarize
the steps the problem solvers used . The following activities were suggested by Larcombe to help student
pairs in elementary grades or remedial high school students learn to externalize their mathematical
thought
processes: 1. Students take turns describing the rules they use. 2. Students describe to each other how
the parts fit together when doing a construction task. 3. Working with concrete objects at first, students
can describe operations used when calculating. and 4. One student must guess an object, mathematical
representation or graphic based on another student's description.
Limitations of the Think Aloud Method
The following factors may cause some students problems in terms of using this technique.
Belief that rote learning (memorization without understanding) is OK.
Lack of familiarity with the academic content.
Inadequate skills for executing the academic task.
Inadequate knowledge and skills of either or both the thinker and listener.
Need for more practice in using the technique.
Cultural background of student. (Thoughts are too private to reveal aloud).
We think and listen faster than we speak.
How would you paraphrase three of the main ideas above in your own words?

I DREAM of A
I DREAM of A is a technique for developing mathematical problem solving skills that

synthesizes thinking aloud and questioning. It is a math-specific adaptation of Bransford's IDEAL
problem solver 34. Each capitalized letter stands for a component of the problem solving process, so the
acronym represents a systematic approach to guide problem solving. These components involve
metacognitive skills for planning, monitoring and evaluating the problem solving process. The first four
letters are all planning steps, which may be performed in different sequences. Problem solving often
begins with "D" diagramming the problem, which sets the stage for "I", identifying the problem. The I
DREAM of A approach is not a rigid, cookbook, rote formula. It should be personally adapted by the
problem solver to fit the needs of each problem solving situation. The teacher can serve as an expert
model, demonstrating how to use I DREAM of A by thinking aloud and self questioning while solving
problems. Then two students work together, as in the pair-problem solving method described above.
One student is the questioner, who guides the problem solving process by questioning the other
student and by having the problem solver think aloud periodically while problem solving . The problem
solver answers questions and thinks aloud, as prompted by the questioner. Questions are asked for
each of seven components " I DREAM" and "A". Although most questions focus on knowledge and
strategies needed to solve a problem, the questioner occasionally asks about the problem solver's
feelings to establish and maintain a positive attitude. The questioner decides what questions to ask,
when to ask the problem solver to think aloud, and when to ask about the problem solver's attitudes.
An illustration of the model follows.
I Identify What is given/to be found? How could you state the

problem in your own words? What do you know about this type of
problem? Does anything seem confusing? What information is relevant?
What isn't? How do you feel about your ability to solve this problem?
D Diagram How would you sketch or draw a picture of that problem?

What symbols or notation should be in your diagram? Are you sure you
have all the important parts? Are you sure they are in accurate
relationship to each other? How does your diagram help you identify and
define the problem?
R Recall Have you solved problems like this before? How? Do

you have an example of how to solve this type of problem in your text or
notes? What definitions, rules, concepts, procedures, equations...might
you need to solve this problem? Why? When would you use them? Is
there anything you should review? Are there any mistakes you tend to
make on these problems?
E Explore Think out loud about how you might solve this problem.

What approaches could you use? Are there any general strategies, like
working backwards or trying extreme values, that might be useful? Which
is best? Why? What would you estimate the answer to be? What
difficulties might arise while solving the problem? How could you break the
problem into parts? What would you do first, second,...?
A Apply What is your plan for solving this problem? Think out
loud as you apply your problem solving plan.
M Monitor How are you doing so far? Is your approach leading you
where you need to go? How can you tell? Should you try another
approach? How have you been checking to make sure you haven't
forgotten anything and haven't made any careless mistakes? Are you
keeping a positive outlook? Does everything make sense?
A Assess Are you sure you have answered the problem

completely?
Looking back at the problem statement, does you
answer make sense? How can you verify you answer? What did you
learn from solving this problem that could help you in the future?
In a pair learning situation or cooperative learning context

students take turns performing roles of questioner and problem solver. To
become independent problem solvers, students can learn to ask
themselves such questions when working on their own and internalize the
components of the problem solving process. The sample questions are
presented to stimulate thinking about appropriate types of questions to
ask. Each situation will require somewhat different questions. Research
shows that student-generated self questions are more effective than
teacher imposed questions. Teacher imposed questions are good
building blocks or scaffolds which temporarily guide students through
problem solving until students can: independently self question, maintain
a positive attitude, and guide their own problem solving.

Summary
Make your own list of DO's and DON'TS for teaching based on ideas from this
chapter.
DO
DON'T
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Human Learning and Instruction

Book · January 1997

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*This was a textbook I wrote for students in my

Chapter 2 Reading and Remembering 17

Chapter 3 Scaffolding and Cooperative Learning 37

Chapter 4 Higher Level Thinking Strategies 66

Chapter 5 Communication Skills 87

Chapter 6 Tutoring Intelligently 102

Goals of Tutoring 102

Chapter 7 Emotions that Promote Intelligent Performance 125

Chapter 8 Theories 145

Family Tree 145

Chapter 9 Social Aspects of Teaching 181

Building Good Relationships in Teaching 182

Chapter 10 Questioning and Thinking Aloud 198

Question Types and Levels 202

Hartman and Sternberg (1993) A Broad BACEIS* of Improving Thinking

* BACEIS acronym: B = Behavior A = Affect (Emotions) C = Cognition

Keisha's Cognitive System Keisha's Affective System

Cognition Affective Self Regulation

Critical Creative Learning Attitudes

Teacher Characteristics Family Background

Content (text) Cultural Forces

Class Environment SocioEconomic Status

Rich Instruction Model

2. Lesson Plan Core

A. Why?: Immediate Purpose and Long Term Benefits

B. What Should I Build On? Students' Prior Knowledge/Experience

C. How? Instructional Techniques & Modalities

This page shows a teacher-developed science lesson based on this model.

Sample RIM Lesson*

2. Lesson Plan Core

*adapted from D. McNamara (1986)

Rich instruction model lesson: Sample Elaborated RIM Lesson Plan

3. Metacognition during this activity:

2). WHY should I apply the theories of Bruner & Ausubel?

3). HOW will I apply their theories?

2. use Ausubel's Advanced Organizers.

II. Lesson Plan Core

1. Assign Groups and Roles

Good practice in higher education:

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Reflections and Applications

Assessment of My Own Performance

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Reflections and Applications

Assessment of My Own Performance

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Reflections and Applications

Assessment of My Own Performance

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Reflections and Applications

Assessment of My Own Performance

Name____________________Course Section____ Journal # 5 Date Written___ Date

Reflections and Applications

Assessment of My Own Performance

Chapter 2 Reading & Remembering

Reading Your Textbook

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