Lin 141-1
Lin 141-1
Lin 141-1
Introductory Phonetics
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Ibadan Distance Learning Centre Series
LIN 141
Introductory Phonetics
By
’Demola Lewis, M.A.
Department of Linguistics and African Languages
University of Ibadan
Published by
Distance Learning Centre
University of Ibadan
ii
© Distance Learning Centre
University of Ibadan
Ibadan
ISBN 978-021-318-X
iii
Table of Contents
Vice-Chancellor’s Message … … … … … v
Foreword … … … … … … … vi
Introduction and General Objectives … … … … vii
Lecture One: Defining Phonetics: Articulatory Phonetics 1
Lecture Two: The Chain of Speech: From the Brain to the
Lips … … … … … 5
Lecture Three: Human Organs used in Speech Production 10
Lecture Four: Place of Articulation of Consonants … 19
Lecture Five: Airflow and Speech Production … … 26
Lecture Six: Manner of Articulation of Consonants … 33
Lecture Seven: Recognition and Naming of Consonants on
the IPA Chat … … … … 44
Lecture Eight: The Voice Box … … … … 51
Lecture Nine: Seven Questions of Abercrombie Production 60
Lecture Ten: Articulation of vowels … … … 63
Lecture Eleven: The Names of Different types of Vowels 71
Lecture Twelve: The Nose and Sounds … … … 79
Lecture Thirteen: Aspiration … … … … 86
Lecture Fourteen: Types of Articulation … … … 92
Lecture Fifteen: Diacritics and Pronunciation … … 101
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Vice-Chancellor’s Message
I congratulate you on being part of the historic evolution of our Centre for
External Studies into a Distance Learning Centre. The reinvigorated Centre,
is building on a solid tradition of nearly twenty years of service to the
Nigerian community in providing higher education to those who had hitherto
been unable to benefit from it.
Distance Learning requires an environment in which learners themselves
actively participate in constructing their own knowledge. They need to be
able to access and interpret existing knowledge and in the process, become
autonomous learners.
Consequently, our major goal is to provide full multi media mode of
teaching/learning in which you will use not only print but also video, audio
and electronic learning materials.
To this end, we have run two intensive workshops to produce a fresh
batch of course materials in order to increase substantially the number of texts
available to you. The authors made great efforts to include the latest
information, knowledge and skills in the different disciplines and ensure that
the materials are user-friendly. It is our hope that you will put them to the best
use.
v
Foreword
The University of Ibadan Distance Learning Programme has a vision of
providing lifelong education for Nigerian citizens who for a variety of reasons
have opted for the Distance Learning mode. In this way, it aims at
democratizing education by ensuring access and equity.
The U.I. experience in Distance Learning dates back to 1988 when the
Centre for External Studies was established to cater mainly for upgrading the
knowledge and skills of NCE teachers to a Bachelors degree in Education.
Since then, it has gathered considerable experience in preparing and
producing course materials for its programmes. The recent expansion of the
programme to cover Agriculture and the need to review the existing materials
have necessitated an accelerated process of course materials production. To
this end, one major workshop was held in December 2006 which have
resulted in a substantial increase in the number of course materials. The
writing of the courses by a team of experts and rigorous peer review have
ensured the maintenance of the University’s high standards. The approach is
not only to emphasize cognitive knowledge but also skills and humane values
which are at the core of education, even in an ICT age.
The materials have had the input of experienced editors and illustrators
who have ensured that they are accurate, current and learner friendly. They
are specially written with distance learners in mind, since such people can
often feel isolated from the community of learners. Adequate supplementary
reading materials as well as other information sources are suggested in the
course materials.
The Distance Learning Centre also envisages that regular students of
tertiary institutions in Nigeria who are faced with a dearth of high quality
textbooks will find these books very useful. We are therefore delighted to
present these new titles to both our Distance Learning students and the
University’s regular students. We are confident that the books will be an
invaluable resource to them.
We would like to thank all our authors, reviewers and production staff
for the high quality of work.
Best wishes.
vii
LECTURE ONE
Introduction
I assume that this is your first ever encounter with the subject of phonetics.
You have surely met people who, because they speak so well, have been
tagged “phone”. This lecture will introduce you to phonetics and help you
see the role phonetics play in the broader study of linguistics.
Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. define phonetics;
2. explain the difference between the speech of humans and the
sounds with which animals communicate;
3. state the branches of phonetics; and
4. explain how phonetics is linked to other aspects of linguistics.
Pre-Test
Does a parrot really speak?
CONTENT
Definition
Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds.
We say that phonetics is scientific because it incorporates the
methods and the instruments of empirical science. Scientific methods
include observation, deduction and prescription. The scientific
1
instruments used in phonetics include the equipment that make up a good
phonetics laboratory.
By stating that phonetics studies speech sounds, we want to make
you understand that only human beings communicate with speech. What is
often mistaken for speech in animals is a mere collection of instinctive
signals. In other words, we do not consider whatever sounds animals make
as speech. Even at that, not all human sounds constitute speech. Sneezing,
coughing, snoring and yawning do not usually constitute speech.
Therefore, for the purposes of phonetics, we define speech as human
sounds used for oral communication.
There have been several brilliant but futile attempts to train animals to
speak. A case in point way the effort of some American linguists in the
late 1970s to teach a chimpanzee how to speak. The chimp was named
Nim Chimsky, after the great linguist, Noam Chomsky. Although this
experiment created some sensation, it turned out a colossal failure,
because Nim, being a chimp, lacked the human intelligence necessary for
speech.
Branches of Phonetics
There are three branches of phonetics:
1. Articulatory Phonetics: It focuses on how sounds are produced.
2. Auditory Phonetics: It deals with how we hear sounds and transfer
them to the brain.
3. Acoustic Phonetics: It concerns the study of the physical and
acoustic characteristics of sounds, as well as how sounds are
transmitted through the air.
The focus of this course is articulatory phonetics. In our discussion,
you will learn the three mechanisms by which speech is produced;
namely:
3
Summary
In this lecture, we have discussed articulatory phonetics. In the course of
our discuss, we defined phonetics, and gave the branches of phonetics.
Further, having situated phonetics within the broader scope of
linguistics, we examined the branches of linguistics. Finally, we noted
the centrality of phonetics in linguistics.
Post-Test
1. State why you consider phonetics a scientific study.
2. Why do linguists think that only human beings speak?
3. Explain the focus of the three branches of phonetics.
4. State two reasons why phonetics is necessary for every branch of
linguistics.
References
Egbokhare Francis Introductory Phonetics
Napoli Donna, Jo. (1996). Linguistics. New York: Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
4
LECTURE TWO
Introduction
Perhaps all human activities work in a chain. Like an electric circuit, one
stage of speech connects with the other. Speech comes from the mouth,
but the activity is initiated in the human brain. That is why a child begins
to make coherent speech only after his/her brain is fully developed. Again,
like it is with electricity, if there is disconnection along the line from the
brain to the speech organ, a speech defect arises.
Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. state the sequence involved in the production of speech;
2. draw the chain of speech;
3. state the activity that takes place at every stage of the speech chain;
and
4. identify two defects that could arise from a break in the chain of
speech.
Pre-Test
1. Do we always think before we speak?
2. Explain the activity that takes place at every stage of the speech
chain.
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CONTENT
The Chain of Speech
Study the following diagram below reading:
Fig 1
1
Right-handed people have their speech area in the left hemisphere. The reverse is the
case for left-handed people.
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• Aphasia: Speech loss when the linguistic areas of the brain suffer a
damage resulting a heavy knock on the head in an accident - called
cardio-vascular accident (C.V.A.).
• Slips of the tongue:
One popular example of a slip of tongue is Spoonerism, which is
defined as
(1) A slip of the tongue in which parts of successive words are
interchanged, classic examples make sense in their turn. (Oxford
Concise Dictionary of Linguistics)
(2) The transposition of sounds between words, which gives a new
meaning to the sentence. (The Cambridge Encyclopedia of
Linguistics)
Spoonerism often provokes an unintended comic effect. The name was
got from a British cleric and teacher at Oxford, William Archibald
Spooner (1844-1930), who became famous for making blunders such as:
(a)‘You have hissed all my mystery lectures; in fact, you have tasted the
whole worm’
instead of
‘You have missed all my history lectures; in fact, you have wasted the
whole term’
A test of wits: Can you fabricate two sets of sentences similar to that of
William Spooner?
7
muscles, many of them paired. The brain gives instructions to the muscles,
and they begin to move as the brain dictates. You would observe that the
muscles of the mouth are very active during speech, but several other
muscles are also set to work. These include the muscles that power the ribs
and the lungs as well as the muscles of the voice box. Indeed, muscular
activity ensures that the organs move appropriately during speech and that
air flows in the right direction. When muscles move, and air flows in a
coordinated manner, speech sounds are produced. When there is a break in
the speech chain between the brain and the muscles of speech, defects
such as stammering or stuttering could occur.
Summary
In this lecture, we have examined the chain of speech. In the course of
our discussion, we touch on the contributions of the brain, muscular
action, sound waves and their muscular action, sound waves and their
properties to speech production.
Post-Test
1. State the function of motor neurons in the speech chain.
2. Explain two speech defects that arise from a break in the chain of
speech.
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References
Donwa-Ifode, Shirley.(1995). Basic Phonetics by Phonetics. Port
Harcourt: Sunray Publications.
Egbokhare Francis Introductory
Fry, D.B. (1991). Physics of Speech. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
9
LECTURE THREE
Introduction
The parts of the human body used in the production of speech are called
organs of speech. This lecture will discuss each of the organs, indicating
how they affect speech. The roles that organs, such as the tongue and the
lips play in speech are very obvious. However, some other organs, such as
the lungs, whose function in speech is not easily known, will also be
discussed. A near perfect understanding of the organs of speech is
prerequisite to the mastery of articulatory phonetics. Please, pay close
attention to the details.
Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. draw and label the parts of the human body used in speech
production; and
2. state the speech function(s) of each organ.
Pre-Test
1. Identify ten parts of your body used in speech production.
2. Is the mouth primarily for eating or for talking?
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CONTENT
11
supragloattal organs. You are already familiar with most of these organs.
My emphases will be how they function in speech production.
1 Supraglottal Organs
The brain: It is contained within the cranial cavity, and has the seat of
speech in the Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas.
Lips: The upper and the lower lips are fleshy extensions of the
skin, primarily designed to keep the mouth closed while
food is being chewed, it falls in line with mummy’s
instruction not to talk while chewing. Please remember to
specify whether the lip involved in the production of a
sound is the upper lip, the lower lip, or both.
Function: As articulators
Articulators are the speech organs that are actually used to
pronounce certain sounds. When the upper or the lower lip
moves close to each other or to any other organ of speech
during the production of any sound, we say that they are the
articulators for that sound.
Front teeth: An upper and lower pair of incisors, which form the most
anterior part of the roof and floor of the mouth respectively.
The primary function of the front teeth is to tear food into
small and manageable quantities. Please note that we speak
of the upper and the lower front teeth. Front here indicates
that they are in the front of the mouth. Teeth, the plural
12
form of tooth, are used because the two front teeth are
taken together as one organ.
Function: As articulators
Alveolar: Try sliding the tip of your tongue behind the upper front
teeth to the point where the teeth issue from the gum. You
should feel a ridge in the gum. That part of the mouth’s
roof is called the alveolar ridge.
Function: As an articulator
Hard palate: As you move the tip of the tongue backward along the roof
of the mouth, you will feel a bony arch, the hard palate. It
extends almost half way along the length of the mouth.
Function: As an articulator
Palato-alveolar This is the rough border between the alveolar ridge and the
hard palate. You may understand this better if you think of
the Lagos-Ibadan Expressway, which is neither fully in
Lagos nor Ibadan, but in- between.
Function: As an articulator
Velum: The hard palate gives way to a soft part of the roof of the
mouth called the velum or soft palate. Whereas the hard
palate is rigid in its position, the velum can move along the
vertical axis. It is usually raised to block off the nasal
cavity. When it is lowered, the nasal cavity is open, and air
flows in and out of the nose during speech.
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Uvula: The velum dovetails into a hanging extension, the uvula
(belubelu). If you look into your mouth with a mirror, you
will see uvula drooping at the most posterior part of the
mouth (or oral cavity).
Function: As an articulator
The tongue: The tongue is a fleshy and muscular mass, which occupies
the entire floor of the oral cavity. It plays a capital role in
the articulation of speech sounds. Its primary role however
is in the chewing and transportation of food into the
oesophagus. As an aid to the proper description of speech,
it is standard practice to describe the tongue in six parts
(Fig 3).
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• Front: the tongue gets still broader as it extends
backward. In the rest position, the front of the tongue
lies just below the hard palate.
• Center: this part of the tongue, while at rest, lies just
below the junction between the hard palate and the
velum.
• Back or dorsum: it is positioned directly below the
velum when the mouth is at rest.
• Root: the part of the tongue that faces the posterior wall
of the pharynx.
15
Figure 4: The Larynx
The space between the vocal cords is the glottis. The entire larynx is
covered in mucous membrane. The larynx is more prominent in men than
in ladies, especially less so when the lady is fat. The reason is that men
have more pointed thyroid cartilages than women.
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1. Oropharynx: just below the posterior end of
the oral cavity.
2. Nasopharynx: just below the posterior end
of the nasal cavity.
3. Laryngopharynx: just above the larynx.
Muscles
These are stretchable organic tissues that can be tightened or relaxed to
cause movement of speech organs. Some of the principal muscles of
speech include the diaphragm (see fig.2), intercostals muscles (that encase
the lungs and form the chest) and the crico-arytenoid muscle (by which
the cricoid and arytenoids cartilages are attached to each other.
Summary
In this lecture, we have examined the human organs used in speech
production. These organs are grouped. Supra-glottal organs are situated
above the glottis, while sub-glottal organs are below the glottis. The
organs that actually come together to pronounce sounds are called
articulators. The tongue is the most important articulator and it is
divided into six parts. Cavities are the chambers through which air flows
during speech. Muscles contract and relax to move speech organs during
speech. The vocal tract is a tube that is lined by the organs of speech. It
extends from the mouth to the lungs.
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Post-Test
1. Draw and label the organs of speech.
2. What is the difference between a speech articulator and a cavity?
3. State the speech function(s) of the following:
a. Uvular, lower lip, palato-alveolar
b. Lungs
c. Oral and pharyngeal cavities
4. Name the cartilages that form the larynx. Why do you think the
larynx is called the voice box?
References
Donwa-Ifode, Shirley.(1995) Basic Phonetics. Port Harcourt.
Sunray Publications.
Elugbe, Ben. (2000). Oral English for Colleges and Schools.
Ibadan, Nigeria Heinemann Educational Books.
Egbokhare, Francis Introductory Phonetics.
Napoli Donna, Jo. (1996). Linguistics. Oxford, New York: Oxford
University Press.
www.umanitola.ca/faculties/arts/linguistics/russel/1/138/sec1/anato
my/html
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LECTURE FOUR
Introduction
The point where a sound is produced along the vocal tract is called the
place of articulation of the sound. At least two articulators participate in
the production of consonants. During the production of speech sounds,
these articulators either make contact or simply draw close to each other to
form a constriction. The choice of articulators is one of the factors
responsible for the type of sound produced. This lecture is about where
sounds are produced and the specific articulators for particular sounds.
Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. explain the different points along the vocal tract where consonants
are produced;
2. differentiate between the active and passive articulators for specific
sounds;
3. explain how to position your articulators accurately at appropriate
places;
4. state the difference between single and double articulation;
5. explain how to make diagrams of different places of articulation;
and
6. state how to identify normal and displaced articulations.
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Pre-Test
Can you tell which part of the tongue is used to produce the consonants in
(i) tank (ii) church (iii) seat and (iv) quick?
CONTENT
Passive and Active Articulators
Though two articulators move close to each other to produce a sound, one
of the articulator moves relatively more than the other. An active
articulator is that which moves more than its counterpart. The articulator
with less mobility is called a passive articulator.
It is generally held that the articulators that form the roof of the mouth
are less mobile than those articulators found on the floor. Therefore, the
articulators that constitute the roof of the mouth are passive articulators,
while those that form the floor of the mouth are active articulators. The
usual practice is to call a place of articulation by the name of its passive
articulator – there are a few exceptions.
Place of Articulation
If you scroll along the topmost row of the consonant chart (Table 1), you
will observe some captions, the places of articulation. The first sets of
places of articulation (Bilabial to Glottal) are called single articulation; the
second sets (Labial-velar to Dental-palatal) are referred to as double
articulation. Can you guess the reason for these names?
You may recall that when we treated the organs of speech in Lecture
three, I provided several names for parts of the mouth’s roof and floor, as
well as the parts of the tongue. We will now refer to each of those parts as
articulator. If you take a close look at the articulators that form the roof
of the mouth, you will be quick to observe that the places of articulations
on the chart (moving from left to right) are arranged to reflect the
sequence of articulators from front to back, along the roof of the mouth.
For example, the first place of articulation that is represented in the chart
is the BILABIAL (‘bi’ means two, and ‘labial’ means lip in Latin). The
second place is the LABIO-DENTAL (‘labio’ for lips and ‘dental’ for
teeth). Next is the DENTAL Place, and I’m sure you aren’t surprised that
the ALVEOLAR place follows immediately. We are simply moving from
the front to the back along the roof of the mouth.
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Please note: It is not possible to understand the phonetics chart without
being well informed about the active and passive articulators at every
place. You are therefore advised to spend quality time in this section of the
course. Don’t be satisfied with memorizing what constitutes the active and
passive articulator at each place. You should get used to visualizing them
as they appear in the diagrams. You will do well to attempt making each
articulation by yourself. You could even try to produce the sounds whose
symbols are written below each place. Enjoy it!
21
Place Passive Active
22
[, ]
Uvular Uvular Back
[N, ]
Place Passive Active
The illustrations above all occur in one place of articulation. They are
called single articulations. However, it also happens that a single sound
can be produced in two or more places of articulation simultaneously.
Complex articulations such as these are referred to as double, triple or
multiple articulations.
23
while the front and back of the tongue lie under (opposite) the hard palate
and velum respectively.
A normal articulation is said to occur when an active articulator moves
towards the passive articulator just above it. An articulation is displaced if
an active articulator moves away from its usual passive articulator,
towards another passive articulator. Some examples of displaced
articulation include labio-dental, retroflex and lingo-labial articulations.
Labio-dental Retroflex Lingo-labial
Summary
This lecture has discussed place of articulation of consonants. We noted
that each consonant is produced at a particular point along the vocal
tract. The point where the consonant is produced is called the place of
articulation. Two articulators usually come together at every place of
articulation. The articulator that moves more is called the active
articulator. The one that is less mobile is the passive articulator. Passive
articulators are usually those along the roof of the mouths. Active
articulators are those that form the floor of the mouth. When an active
articulator moves from its rest position to another place to form an
articulation, we speak of a displaced articulation.
Post-Test
1. Name five places of consonant articulation and state the active and
passive articulators at each of the places.
2. Provide diagrams for two places of articulation not already
mentioned in (1) above.
3. Give two examples of displaced articulation, explaining why you
consider them so.
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4. Take turns with a classmate to produce sounds in random with
each one guessing the place of articulation for sounds produced by
the other.
References
Donwa-Ifode, Shirley.(1995) Basic Phonetics. Port Harcourt:
Sunray Publications.
Elugbe, Ben. (2000). Oral English for Colleges and Schools.
Ibadan, Nigeria: Heinemann Educational Books.
Egbokhare, Francis Introductory Phonetics.
.Napoli Donna, Jo. (1996). Linguistics. Oxford, New York: Oxford
University Press.
www.chass.utoronto.ca/~danhall/phonetics/sammy.html
25
LECTURE FIVE
Introduction
Sound is produced only when air flows either in or out of the vocal tract.
No matter how vigorously articulators move, no sound can be produced if
air does not flow through the vocal tract. An airstream is a flow of air
current. Speech is very much like the xylophone; sounds are produced
only if air is blown in or sucked out. This lecture will describe the various
parts of the body that act as machines to ensure air flow during speech. I
would like you to take exceptional notice of the arrows in the diagrams
and the sequences of action involved in each mechanism.
Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. explain the components of an airstream mechanism;
2. outline the four airstreams mechanisms that ensure airflow during
speech;
3. make annotated diagrams of airstreams; and
4. name of sounds produced with specific airstreams.
Pre-Test
Can you talk while breathing in? Give reasons for your answer.
26
CONTENT
An airstreams mechanism is a device for moving air in and out of the
vocal tract during the production of speech. It is the machinery that
supplies the energy required for speech.
As I mentioned in the introduction, it might aid your understanding of
airstream mechanisms to consider speech as a wind based musical
instrument. A flute for example will give no sound except air is forced
through its pipe. The situation is much the same in the vocal tract during
the production of speech sounds. The airstream mechanism ensures
airflow. When air is flowing out of the vocal tract, we speak of an
egressive airstream mechanism. Air flowing into the vocal tract is an
ingressive airstream mechanism.
27
Diagram
28
3. Glottalic Ingressive Airstream Mechanism
This mechanism conducts airflow in the opposite direction to that
of the glottalic egressive mechanism. It also operates with the
glottis in close state.
Chamber: The pharyngeal cavity.
Initiator: The larynx moves down with the glottis in close
state. This allows air into the pharyngeal cavity
from the oral cavity (and nasal cavity).
Direction: Ingressive
Sounds: Implosives
29
Intercostals
muscles
Additional Information
a It is possible to operate the velaric egressive and pulmonic
ingressive mechanisms, but these mechanisms have not been
observed in speech. Therefore, the only airstream mechanisms
that are employed in speech are:
i. Velaric ingressive
ii. Glottalic egressive
iii. Glottalic ingressive
iv. Pulmonic egressive
30
Table 1: Summary of Airstream Mechanisms
Mechanism Initiator Chamber Direction Typical
sounds
Velaric Back of tongue Oral cavity Ingressive Clicks
(mouth) Slides along
velum
Glottalic Vertical Pharyngeal Egressive Ejectives
(pharyngeal) movement of the cavity
larynx with Ingressive Implosiv
glottis in closed es
state
Pulmonic Respiratory Lungs Egressive All the
(lung) muscles rest
(All
voice
too)
Summary
In this lecture, we have examined airflow and speech production. In the
course of the lecture, we discussed the components of airstream
mechanism, as well as different airstream mechanisms. On each
occasion, we noted the chamber, the initiator, the direction and sounds.
Post-Test
1 Say the following sentence slowly and try to figure out the
airstream used for each of the sounds:
a) You can’t be serious Gbola!
2 Draw an annotated diagram of the predominant airstream in (1)
above.
3 You have just met Joan, who is a native of South Africa. Which
other airstream do you think she would use, other than the
pulmonic egressive, while speaking her mother tongue? Describe
how the initiation of this airstream works.
31
References
Donwa-Ifode, Shirley.(1995) Basic Phonetics. Port Harcourt:
Sunray Publications.
Elugbe, Ben. (2000). Oral English for Colleges and Schools.
Ibadan, Nigeria: Heinemann Educational Books.
Egbokhare, Francis Introductory Phonetics
Napoli Donna, Jo. (1996). Linguistics. Oxford, New York: Oxford
University Press.
www.unc.edu/course/ling120/lectures/ladefogedch6.html
www.voice-center.com/exam_larynx.html
www.2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/pulmonic.html
www.cspeech.udc.ic/~fred/teaching/oldcourses/phonetics/airstream
32
LECTURE SIX
Introduction
You learnt about the place of articulation in lecture four and about airflow
in lecture five. This lecture will utilise the knowledge gained from the two
previous lectures to describe the way in which air escapes between
articulators during speech. In plain words, the way air escapes between
articulators is the manner of articulation.
Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. explain the different degrees of closeness that articulators should
attain to produce specific sounds;
2. state how long the articulators stay together before air is let
through them;
3. identify the airstreams required for each manner of sound;
4. explain the force and speed that characterise airflow between
articulators; and
5. explain how to tell the manner of articulation of sounds on the
phonetic chart (Table 2 below).
Pre-Test
Group the consonants in the following words by stating weather air is let
out suddenly, gradually, through the nose or with a hissing noise: Pin, Sit,
Yes, Ties, Monkey.
33
CONTENT
There are two basic manners by which sounds are described: Stop and
Non-stop (or approximations). Stops are consonants whose production
involves the blockage of airflow at some point in the vocal tract. Non-
stops are produced without a blockage of the airflow at any point. In other
words, stops are produced when the articulators actually make contact and
air stops flowing for a while. Articulators do not meet or make contact
when non-stops are produced. The production of non-stops could involve
an obstruction of the airflow, but never a total blockage. Can you figure
out stops from non-stops in the Phonetics chart (i.e. table 2)?
Keeping our definition of stops and approximations (i.e. non-stops) in
view, you will observe that on the vertical axis of the IPA consonant chart,
going from top to bottom, the sounds from Nasals to Trills are stops.
Fricatives and Approximants are non-stops. The stops will be our present
focus.
Stops
The single most important feature of stops is that during their production,
the articulators make contact. Note that the articulators do not just come
close to each other, they actually meet. Therefore, stops necessarily
involve an interruption of the airflow, not just an obstruction. Three
features characterize stops:
1. the articulators make contact;
2. the contact is maintained for a while; and
3. there is a sudden release (or plosion) of air
34
Table 2: IPA Consonant Chart (Adapted)
Place
Manner Bilabial Labio- Dental Alveolar Retro- Palato- Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyn- Glottal Labial-Velar Labial- Labial- Dental-
Dental flex Alveolar geal Alveolar Palatal Palatal
Ejective
Implosive
Click
STOPS
Affricate
Short Tap
35
Inter-
mitent Trill
Central
Fricative
Lateral
Central
Approximants
NON-STOPS
Lateral
36
It is common practice to represent the three main characteristics of stops in
a three-phase structure comprising a:
1. shutting phase; the articulators meet;
2. closure phase; they remain together for a while; and
3. release phase; sudden release of air.
The first phase (a) is obligatory, while the second and third phases (b
and c) can be modified. In other words, all stops must fulfil condition one,
but they may or may not fulfil conditions two and three.
Types of Stops
Different types of stops are described on the basis of whether or not they
fulfil the three conditions already stated above.
37
(I) (2) (3)
Shutting Closure Release
The big question here is: If Plosives, Ejectives, Implosives and Clicks are
ideal stops, why do they go by different names?
Answer: They are produced in exactly the same way except that their
airstream mechanisms differ thus:
2 Taps
Taps, like all stops, fulfil the first phase of the structure. The third phase is
also normal but there is a modification in the second phase. The second
phase (i.e. the closure phase) is very brief; just a tap, as the name suggests.
38
(I) (II) (III)
The articulators make contact (I), they are together only briefly
(II), air is released suddenly (III). Notice that phase (II) is brief
relative to that of ideal stops.
3. Trills
Trills are simply taps repeated in quick succession.
(I) (II) (III) (I) (II) (III) (I) (II) (III) (I)
(II) (III)
There are four cycles in the trill structure above. The articulators make
contact only briefly before the go apart, only to make brief contact and go
apart again until the speaker has finished pronouncing the stop.
4. Affricates
Affricates have a gradual release of air in the third phase. Their first and
second phases are normal. They are described as plosives that are released
in a fricative manner (i.e. with a hissing sensation). Pay attention to the
way gradual release is illustrated in the structure of affricates below.
39
(I) (II) (III)
The arrows in the third phase (III) only indicate that air is let out
gradually; they do not suggest that the articulators go apart in that manner.
5. Nasals
When nasals are produced, air is released only through the nose. This can
only happen if the velum is lowered to allow out-going air into the nasal
cavity. The diagram below illustrates a lowered velum.
When nasals are produced, articulators make contact during the first
phase; they remain together during the second phase, and continue in the
contact position all through the third phase (i.e. oral action). Since air is
not let out through the oral cavity, but through the nose, the velum is also
lowered (i.e. velic action). For this reason, it is often said that the
production of nasals is characterized by a transfer from oral action to velic
action. The structure of nasals is drawn in such a way as to illustrate both
oral and nasal actions.
40
6 Non-Stops (Approximations)
The articulators never make contact during the production of sounds of
this category. There are two types of approximate sounds:
a. Fricatives
b. Approximants
(I) (II)
Note that the double parallel lines in phase (II) indicate that the
articulators do not make contact.
41
b. Approximants (Open approximation)
As is the case with fricatives, the articulators of approximants do not make
contact. They are however positioned farther apart than those of fricatives.
Air is let out freely and there is no hissing accompaniment.
(I) (II)
Summary
In this lecture, we have discussed manner of articulation of consonants.
In the course of our discussion, we examined stops and non-stops. We
talked about the features and the different types of stops. In the same
vein, we differentiate between two types of non-stops and their relative
features.
Post-Test
1. Classify the consonants in this statement according to the manner
of their production: Pin, Sit, Yes, Ties, Monkey.
2. The production of nasals involves a transfer from oral action to
velic action. Discuss.
3. Explain with sketches how:
42
a. Plosives differ from clicks.
b. Implosives differ from ejectives.
c. Taps differ from ideal stops.
d. Trills differ from taps.
e. Fricatives differ from stops.
f. Approximants differ from fricatives.
References
Donwa-Ifode, Shirley.(1995) Basic Phonetics. Port Harcourt:
Sunray Publications.
Elugbe, Ben. (2000). Oral English for Colleges and Schools.
Ibadan, Nigeria: Heinemann Educational Books.
Egbokhare, Francis Introductory Phonetics
Ladefoged, Peter. (1993). A Course in Phonetics 3rd Ed. USA
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
Napoli Donna Jo. (1996). Linguistics. Oxford New York: Oxford
University Press.
www.2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA
www.sil.org
43
LECTURE SEVEN
Introduction
The consonant chart is a tabular representation of the complete inventory
of consonants that have been recorded in speech. It is important to note
from the start that the chart should first be understood before it is
memorized. Often, the many symbols on the chart overwhelm students,
and their first reaction is to cram symbols. Such an approach would defeat
the aim of this course.
It might interesting to know that the central reason for the preparation
of the phonetics chart was to help scholars link symbols with the way
sounds are produced. And it is usually advised that one first gets
acquainted with the basics, such as details about the articulators that act at
every place of articulation (Lecture five), and the manner in which the
sounds of every row are produced (Lecture six). If you know those details,
you can then proceed with this lecture. Otherwise, go back to the lectures
referred to. Please always refer to the IPA Consonant chart (Table 2) all
through this lecture.
Objectives
At the end of the lecture, you should be able to:
1. explain the pattern by which consonants are named;
2. give tips on how to recognize phonetic symbols; and
3. help you memorize the consonant chart.
44
Pre-Test
If it was left to you, how would you name the following consonants: [],
[], []?
CONTENT
Naming Consonants
The label of a sound is the name by which it is described. You probably
are trying to figure out how I arrived at the names of consonants in the
preceding section. There is a pattern and that is what this section is all
about.
We all have multiple names, e.g. Tolu Oluwaleke Osayomi. Sounds
also have multiple names. Consonants have the following labeling order:
Diacritics
Diacritics refer to additional signs that are written around a symbol. When
present, diacritics represent features that are added on to sounds. I will
45
illustrate many diacritics in lecture fifteen. If no diacritic accompanies a
symbol, we simply skip the 2nd step and move on to the 3rd.
Place of Articulation
You are already familiar with the place of articulation (discussed in lecture
four). The place of articulation is indicated in the topmost row of the IPA
Consonant chart.
Manner of Articulation
This was discussed in Lecture six. Manner of articulation is indicated in
the second and third leftmost columns of the IPA Consonant chart.
Now, following the steps indicated for naming consonants, we say that:
There are a few tricky situations where it would seem that a symbol has a
diacritic attached but in which the supposed diacritic is actually part of the
symbol. For example, in [k’], which is an ejective sound, the state of the
glottis is neither voiced nor voiceless, and there is no additional diacritic.
It is therefore labelled simply as:
You should be able to label all the consonants on the IPA chart by now.
46
Recognition of Symbols
I will now present certain clues to help you recognize phonetic symbols.
This section can be likened to learning the rules of a game.
Nasal symbols
All nasal sounds are represented with ‘m and n-like’ symbols. Those that
have anything to do with the lips (i.e. bilabial and labio-dental) have m for
their symbol. Nasals at other places of articulation are represented with n
written in one way or another. Here are the patterns. Look into your chart
to confirm each one:
Bilabial: normal m m
Alveolar: A normal n n
Uvular: A capital n N
You will observe that having learned the tricks about these symbols, you
need just a bit of practice to internalise them.
47
Other Sounds
Apart from the tips on the nasal sounds just mentioned above, there are a
few leading assumptions about the symbols of other sounds. They are the
following:
1. Pick a king and a queen for every place of articulation e.g.
Bilabial: p and b, Alveolar: t and d, Velar: k and g etc. Wherever
there is a king, it will be the voiceless plosive (i.e. the symbol to
the left); the queen will be the voiced plosive (i.e. the symbol to
the right).
Now, can you make out the king and queen at every place on your
chart? How many places of articulation have neither a king nor a
queen? Is there any place that has a king but not a queen?
From now on, when any place of articulation is mentioned, you
should immediately recall the symbols for the king and queen at
that place.
2. The diacritic for ejective sounds is an apostrophe placed after the
symbol for the king, such that bilabial, alveolar and palatal
ejectives will be represented with p’, t’ and c’ respectively. Now
look across the consonant chart to see how this rule applies to all
ejectives.
3. The diacritic for implosives is a canopy over the king and the
queen. You will again observe this pattern across the consonant
chart.
4. You would agree that one of the logical consequences of having a
king and a queen is the production of a prince and a princess. We
will call the voiceless central fricative the prince and the voiced
central fricative the princess (i.e. the symbols written to the left
and to the right of the first row of fricatives). Therefore, the prince
and the princess for the labio-dental and alveolar places of
articulation are f and v, s and z respectively. Can you now make
out the prince and princess for every other place of articulation? A
good trick is to first, learn how to recognize the king and the queen
at every place after which you may master symbols for the king
and queen.
5. Affricates are represented with diagraphs, which comprise of both
the symbol of the plosive and that of the central fricative at the
specific place of articulation. The symbols are so written to point
48
out the fact that affricates are plosives that have air released in a
fricative manner. The voiceless alveolar affricate will thus be
represent as ts; since t is the symbol for the voiceless alveolar
plosive (the king), and s is that of the voiceless alveolar central
fricative (the prince). In the same vein, the voiced alveolar affricate
will have dz as its symbol, since d is the voiced alveolar plosive
(queen), and z the voiced alveolar central fricative. On a lighter
note, we could consider affricates as pairing dad and son (in the
symbol for the voiceless) and pairing mum and daughter (In the
symbol for the voiced).
6. Taps on the consonant chart, with the exception of the retroflex
tap, are underlined.
7. Retroflex symbols follow the same pattern as alveolar symbols,
save for the retroflex descender (i.e. the retroflex diacritic) that the
former have.
8. Glottal and pharyngeal symbols are pretty much like and .
9. The symbols for doubly articulated sounds are written by merging
symbols of equivalent sounds from the two places involved. For
example, the voiced labial-velar plosive is gb, while the voiced
dental-palatal nasal is n
Once you are well grounded in the tips above, the rest of the chart
only needs getting used to. Don’t rush yourself! You can’t expect to
master the whole chart all at once. Try to memorize symbols piece-meal.
A good way to start is to work at the symbols of one place of articulation
at a time. Remember, it’s just a game. Sometimes, you win; sometimes
you lose! In the long run, you’ll be a grand master. Try playing this game
everywhere: on the bus, at the saloon, between lectures, at the bar etc. You
could make it more interesting by competing with a friend. Have a swell
time!
49
Summary
The central focus of this lecture has been how to recognize and name
consonants on the IPA chart. In the discussion, we noted that consonants
are named by the following order: State of the glottis, Diacritics (if any),
Place of articulation and Manner of articulation. The symbols on the
consonant chart are written to conform to certain patterns, which once
recognized would facilitate memorizing the chart.
Post-Test
Provide names for all the sound in the IPA Consonant chart presented in
table 2.
References
Abercrombie, David. (1967). Elements of General Phonetics.
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Donwa-Ifode, Shirley.(1995). Basic Phonetics. Port Harcourt:
Sunray Publications.
Ladefoged, Peter. (1993). A Course in Phonetics 3rd ed. USA.
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
Napoli Donna, Jo. (1996). Linguistics. Oxford, New York: Oxford
University Press.
O’Grady et al. (1997). Contemporary Linguistics. New York: St.
Martin’s Press, Inc.
50
LECTURE EIGHT
Introduction
The larynx or voice box is known in common parlance as the Adam’s
apple or Eve’s orange. It plays several roles in giving quality to the sounds
of human speech. In the first instance, the shape of the larynx determines
the voice qualities that characterize men women and children. The concern
of this lecture however, is what happens to the vocal cords during speech,
and how this affects the quality of the sounds produced.
Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. describe the structure and basic components of the larynx:
cartilages, vocal cords, glottis, etc;
2. explain the different forms that the vocal cords assume during
speech; and
3. recognise phonetic diacritics for different states of the glottis.
Pre-Test
Why the Adam’s apple is called the voice box?
CONTENT
Here are two definitions of a phonation:
1. the state of the glottis during the production of speech sounds; and
2. the use of the laryngeal system with the help of the pulmonic
regressive airstream, to produce an audible source of acoustic
51
energy, which can then be modified by the articulatory action of
the rest of the vocal apparatus.
There is yet another cartilage, the epiglottis, which acts as a covering for
the larynx. The epiglottis is spoon-shaped and its function is to prevent the
entry of particles of food into the larynx (and the rest of the windpipe or
trachea) during swallowing.
The larynx constitutes the topmost part of the trachea or windpipe, the
tube through which air flows in and out of the lungs. Within the larynx,
there are two vocal cords, also referred to as vocal bands or vocal folds.
The vocal cords are made up of ligaments and elastic tissue. They are
situated within the structure of the larynx, lying across it from front to
back. In front, the vocal cords are fast together, and attached to the thyroid
cartilage; while at the back, they are attached separately to the arytenoid
cartilages. The following is a highly schematized structure of the larynx:
52
Front Rear Sagittal (or side) view Cross section (i.e view from above)
Key
1. Thyroid cartilage 2. Cricoid cartilage 3.Arytenoid cartilage 4.
Vocal cords
The two arytenoid cartilages to which the vocal cords are attached are
mobile. Their movement is brought about by two sets of laryngeal
muscles. Those that cause them to come together are called adductor
muscles; the muscles that set them apart are abductor muscles.
The Glottis
Since the vocal cords are attached to the arytenoid cartilages, adduction of
the cartilages causes them to come together. Conversely, abduction of the
arytenoid cartilages sets the vocal cords apart. The space between the two
abducted vocal cords is called the glottis. When the vocal cords are apart,
the glottis is said to be open; it is closed when the vocal cords are together.
Different types of phonation are based on how close or separated the vocal
cords are.
Adducted vocal cords Abducted vocal cords
53
Types of phonation (i.e. states of the glottis)
Four main states of the glottis exist; namely, voiceless, voice,
breathy/whisper, creaky. Aside from these types of phonation, nil
phonation has also been mentioned.
54
buzzing quality. In the voice state, the vocal cords of men, women and
children make about 120, 220 and 300 vibrations per second respectively.
Voice Test
I already mentioned that the vocal cords vibrate at a fast rate during the
voice state. These vibrations can be felt by placing a finger just below the
chin, while articulating voiced sounds. This is one of the tests for voicing.
The second voice test involves plugging the ears with the fingers, while
producing voiced sounds. If a buzzing sound is perceived, it means that
the vocal cords are vibrating. Try doing this while producing [] and [].
Which of them is voiced?
55
Breathy State
The diacritic for creaky state is a tilde under the relevant sound [ ]
Diagram
57
1. Widely Abducted
This is the normal voiceless state during which the vocal cords are widely
apart and there is a smooth laminar flow of air. There is no audible
turbulence, because the rate of airflow is below the threshold.
2. Closely Adducted
The vocal cords are fully adducted, such that the airflow from the lungs is
completely blocked off. The maintenance of the glottal closure is called a
glottal stop, for which the phonetic symbol [] is used.
Summary
In this lecture, we have focussed on the voice box. Otherwise called the
larynx or Adam’s gushed the larynx is called the voice box largely
because it houses two vocal cords that assume different shapes to affect
the quality of sounds during speech. We refer to these shapes as states
of the glottis. The most common states are the voice and voiceless
states, which occur when the vocal cords make contact and are wide
apart respectively. Several other states involve vocal cord postures
between the voice and the voiceless states.
Post-Test
1. Use diagrams to illustrate the larynx from the following
viewpoints: front, back, side and top.
2. Use diacritics to make the following transcription whisper:
We have had enough of coffee
[ ]
3. Use diacritics to make the voiced sound below voiceless and vice
versa.
I beg your pardon!
[ ]
4. Explain how the breathy state differs from the whisper state.
58
References
Abercrombie, David. 1967. Elements of General Phonetics.
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Donwa-Ifode, Shirley.1995 Basic Phonetics. Port Harcourt: Sunray
Publications.
Elugbe, Ben. 2000. Oral English for Colleges and Schools. Ibadan,
Nigeria Heinemann Educational Books.
Egbokhare Francis Introductory Phonetics
Ladefoged, Peter. 1993. A Course in Phonetics 3rd ed. USA
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
Napoli Donna, Jo. 1996. Linguistics. Oxford, New York: Oxford
University Press.
O’Grady et al. 1997. Contemporary Linguistics. St. New York:
Martin’s Press, Inc.
59
LECTURE NINE
Introduction
In the lectures leading up to this one, I described how consonants are
produced. This lecture is a summary of all that has been taught. To
achieve this, I will use a set of seven questions as compiled by the linguist,
David Abercrombie in 1967.
Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be to:
1. identify the seven fundamental questions; and
2. when the questions as a summary of the contents of the IPA Chat.
Pre-Test
Attempt a summary of Lectures Two to Eight in form of seven questions.
60
If you have followed the preceding lectures with keen interest, you should
answer these questions with ease, and for any consonant on the IPA chart.
Indeed, the seven questions of Abercrombie cover the scope of this course
as it applies to the description of consonants.
The following table describes some consonants by answering the
seven questions. Pay close attention as this should help you figure out how
to do same for other sounds.
p k’z
upper hard
alveolar
What is the passive articulator? front teeth upper lip palate velum
ridge
61
Summary
In this lecture, we have examined the seven questions of Abercrombie
describe consonants adequately. They enquire about the airflow, place
of articulation, state of the glottis, posture of the velum and manner of
articulation.
Post-Test
Describe all the sounds of the IPA chart by answering Abercrombie’s
seven questions.
References
Abercrombie, David. (1967). Elements of General Phonetics.
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Donwa-Ifode, Shirley.(1995) Basic Phonetics. Port Harcourt:
Sunray Publications.
Elugbe, Ben. (2000). Oral English for Colleges and Schools.
Ibadan, Nigeria Heinemann Educational Books.
Egbokhare Francis Introductory Phonetics
Ladefoged, Peter. (1993). A Course in Phonetics 3rd ed. USA
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
Napoli Donna, Jo. (1996). Linguistics. Oxford, New York: Oxford
University Press.
O’Grady et al. (1997). Contemporary Linguistics. St. New York:
Martin’s Press, Inc.
62
LECTURE TEN
Articulation of Vowels
Introduction
We could attempt a definition by stating that vowels are sounds produced
with little or no obstruction in the vocal tract. Sorry! That still will not be
accurate because we saw not too long ago that approximants have this
very feature. Can we then define vowels simply as the peak (i.e. the most
prominent part) of a syllable, or as the obligatory part of a syllable (i.e.
nucleus)? No, Sir! As we shall observe shortly, there is no certified
definition of a syllable. Besides, it is established that syllabic nasals and
consonants like the alveolar lateral approximant [] often act as syllable
nuclei. To avoid getting spawn in a web of controversy at this level, we
shall be contented with an elaborate description of how vowels are
produced.
Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. illustrate four heights by which vowels are described;
2. identify front, central and back vowels;
3. tell whether a vowel is round or unrounded;
4. provide the characteristics of cardinal vowels; and
5. make out the differences between primary and secondary cardinal
vowels.
63
Pre-Test
In articulatory terms, how would you differentiate vowels from
consonants?
Description of vowels
1. Vowels are produced with double articulation involving the tongue
and the roof of the mouth at one place, and the two lips at the other
place.
2. The vocoid or vowel space is the area within the oral cavity about
which the tongue forms a hump during the production of vowels. It
is situated between the palato-alveolar and velar places of
articulation. It is indicated by the tilted ovoid within the oral
cavity. Outside the oral cavity, the tilted ovoid is represented as a
trapezoid to allow for easier understanding of the vowel space.
64
a. They are arbitrarily selected. This implies that the vowels
described are not particular to any language. They are selected
to illustrate how vowels behave.
b. Auditorily equidistant. As much as possible, the cardinal
vowels that are described are at equal distances from one
another within the vowel space.
c. Exact in quality. The continuous nature of the vowel space
makes it impossible for a single vowel to be produced in the
same way twice. Cardinal vowels are, however, described with
exact qualities all the time because they serve only as examples
of vowels.
d. Peripheral (i.e. the primary cardinal vowels). All the primary
cardinal vowels are produced around the edges of the vowel
space. None of them is right in the middle of the space.
5. Daniel Jones further specifies two types of cardinal vowels:
primary and secondary. Primary cardinal vowels will be described
presently.
1. Tongue height
During the production of vowels, the tongue usually forms a hunch, which
rises to a particular level within the vowel space. Four equidistant points
on the vowel space are used as different tongue heights for the production
of cardinal vowels:
a. Close vowels are produced at the highest point of the vowel space.
That is the point at which any further rise will produce a fricative.
b. Half close vowels are produced at the next point of the vowel
space, below the highest point.
c. Half open vowels are produced even lower than the half close
ones.
65
d. Open vowels are those produced at the lowest point of the vowel
space.
Illustration
66
1) Close front 2) Half close front 3) Half open front 4) Open front
5) Close central 6) Half close central 7) Half open central 8) Open
central
9) Close back 10) Half close back 11) Half open back 12) Open back
Lip rounding
If the upper and the lower lips together form a circle during the production
of a vowel, we speak of a rounded vowel; otherwise, the lips are spread in
the case of unrounded vowels.
half-close
half-open
open
67
Since the lip-rounding position of secondary vowels is the reverse of the
primary, it follows that vowels 9 to 13 (the counterparts of 1 to 5 in the
primary chart) are rounded, while 14 to 16 (counterparts of 6 to 8) are
unrounded.
The lip-rounding position of central vowels is such that those with odd
numbers are unrounded (17, 19, 21), while those with even numbers are
rounded (18, 20, 22).
half-close
half-open
open
68
Combined Chart of Primary and Secondary Cardinal Vowels
Front Central Back
close
half-close
half-open
open
Summary
In this lecture, we have focused on the articulation of vowels. We noted
that vowels are double articulations involving the tongue and the lips.
The production of vowels can best be understood with the primary and
secondary cardinal vowels described by Daniel Jones. During the
production of cardinal vowels, the tongue can form a hump at four
levels: close, half close, half open and open. The tongue may also be in
the front, central or back position. The upper and lower lips could also
be in the rounded or unrounded positions. Secondary cardinal vowels
have the reverse lip rounding situation of the primary cardinal vowels.
Post-Test
1 Provide a definition for vowels in your own words.
2 Mention four heights of the tongue by which cardinal vowels are
described.
3 Use diagrams to illustrate rounded and unrounded lips.
4 How do primary cardinal vowels differ from their secondary
counterparts?
5 How many vowels are there in the word boy? State the height,
horizontal position and lip rounding situation of each vowel.
69
References
Abercrombie, David. (1967). Elements of General Phonetics. ,
Edinburg: Edinburgh University Press.
Donwa-Ifode, Shirley.(1995) Basic Phonetics. Port Harcourt:
Sunray Publications.
Elugbe, Ben. (2000). Oral English for Colleges and Schools.
Ibadan, Nigeria: Heinemann Educational Books.
Egbokhare Francis Introductory Phonetics
Ladefoged, Peter. (1993). A Course in Phonetics 3rd Ed. USA
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
Napoli Donna Jo. (1996). Linguistics. Oxford, New York: Oxford
University Press.
O’Grady et al. (1997). Contemporary Linguistics. New York: St.
Martin’s Press, Inc.
www.faculty.washington.edu/dillon/phon resources/vowels.html
70
LECTURE ELEVEN
Introduction
Like consonants, vowels are named in accordance with their mode of
production. We give vowels names so that scholars around the world can
work with standard nomenclature such as the IPA. There is a laid down
procedure, which we must be conversant with.
Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. recognise vowel symbols;
2. learn how to name vowels based on where they occur within the
vowel space;
3. get acquainted with the IPA Vowel Chart; and
4. differentiate the Daniel Jones’ Primary and Secondary Cardinal
Charts from the IPA Vowel Chart.
Pre-Test
Having followed Lecture Ten keenly, you should provide your own
criteria for naming vowels.
CONTENT
Vowels are named by the following criteria:
1. Diacritics (if any)
2. Tongue height
71
3. Horizontal position of tongue
4. Lip rounding
Note here that the order of the parameters should be followed strictly. It
may happen that the vowel to be named does not have a diacritic. In such
cases, we skip the diacritics and move on to the next parameter.
The following vowels are named using all four parameters in appropriate
order:
Chart Positions
:
[ a ]
1. Diacritics (if any) [ ] represents nasalization
72
1. Diacritics (if any) [ : ] represents long duration
The vowels in the next pair are named with just three criteria because
there is no diacritic around their symbols.
Chart Positions
[i]
73
Name: [i] Close front unrounded vowel
[]
74
Rising Diphthong
Falling Diphthong
75
In addition, the IPA chart also has symbols at levels other than the
specified four tongue heights. This buttresses the point made earlier that
the vowel space is a continuum in which vowels can be produced at any
point.
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IPA Vowel Chart
Front Central Back
close
close-mid
open-mid
open
You could get confused about the names of the vowels with heights
between the four recognized levels of tongue height. Get round this by
using terms like raised open, lowered, close-mid, raised, open-mid, etc.
For instance [] could be called a raised open front unrounded vowel.
Summary
In this lecture, we have discussed the names and the different types of
vowels. We noted that vowels are named strictly in the order of the
following: diacritics, tongue height, horizontal position of the tongue,
lip rounding. When there is no diacritic, only the latter three parameters
are used. Monophthongs are vowels of unchanging quality. Diphthongs
change quality once during their production; triphthongs change quality
twice and so on. The IPA vowel chart has the symbols of the most
commonly used vowels in the world’s languages.
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Post-Test
1 Give the names of the following vowels:
[:], [], [], [], []
2 Show with illustrations, the differences between rising and falling
diphthongs. Also illustrate a triphthong.
3 In what ways is the IPA vowel chart at variance with the Daniel
Jones’ chart of vowels?
References
Abercrombie David. (1967). Elements of General Phonetics.
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Donwa-Ifode, Shirley.(1995) Basic Phonetics. Port Harcourt:
Sunray Publications.
Elugbe, Ben. (2000). Oral English for Colleges and Schools.
Ibadan, Nigeria: Heinemann Educational Books.
Egbokhare Francis Introductory Phonetics
Ladefoged, Peter. (1993). A Course in Phonetics 3rd ed. USA.
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
Napoli Donna, Jo. (1996). Linguistics. Oxford, New York: Oxford
University Press.
O’Grady et al. (1997). Contemporary Linguistics. New York: St.
Martin’s Press, Inc.
Roach, Peter (1991). English Phonetics and Phonology.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
www.faculty.washington.edu/dillon/phon resources/vowel.html
78
LECTURE TWELVE
Introduction
Few people think of the nose in connection with speech. Yet, we easily
can tell that someone with whom we are conversing has a cold. There are
people with a reputation for speaking only through the nose. Others find it
difficult to let speech out of the nasal cavity. This lecture will tackle
sounds that are nasals and those are nasalized.
Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1 explain what happens when sounds are let out through the nose;
2 tell the difference between nasal and nasalized sounds; and
3 enumerate and describe different types of nasalization.
Pre-Test
Are there vowels that are let out through the nose, or is such a release
restricted to consonants?
CONTENT
I mentioned in Lecture Three that the velum functions as a facilitator of
airflow through the nasal cavity. This happens when the velum adopts
either of two positions when sounds are released; it may be raised or
lowered. A raised velum blocks off the nasal cavity, such that the sound is
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released only through the mouth. A lowered velum allows air out through
the nasal cavity.
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Vocal Tract position for [m] Structure
Oral
Velic
Observe that:
Apart from the contact made by the articulators, the velum is lowered
to facilitate nasal release (or plosion)
b) Nasalised Sounds
When a sound is released through both the mouth and the nose, it is
nasalised. Therefore, a nasalised sound is one that is released partly
through the oral cavity, and partly through the nasal cavity (because
the velum is lowered). Nasalised sounds differ from nasals because the
articulators do not remain together during the release phase, thus air flows
out of the oral cavity as well as the nasal cavity.
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c) Pre-nasalization
A sound is pre-nasalized if the sound from which it gets the nasal quality
occurs before it. For example, the [t] in burnt is prenasalized because an
[n] occurs just before it. [n] and [t] are homorganic (i.e. both are produced
with the same articulators). Since both sounds are alveolar sounds, the
manner of one affects the other.
With respect to the velum, pre-nasalised sounds are the exact opposite of
nasally released sounds. The diacritic for pre-nasalisation is either of [n,
m, , , , ] placed before the sound that is pre-nasalised. Thus [nt] is a
voiceless pre-nasalised alveolar plosive.
Illustration
Velic
Oral
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Converging arrows in the velic section indicate that the velum is just being
raised as the sound is released through the oral cavity.
d) Postnasalisation
A sound is postnasalised if the sound from which it derives its nasal
quality occurs after it. For example, the [k] in acknowledgement is
postnasalised, because [] occurs just after it. The structure for
postnasalised sounds is exactly the same as the general structure for
nasalisation that is given above.
Diacritic: Postnasalisation is represented with a superscript nasal, i.e. [, ,
, , , ]. Thus [k] is a voiceless postnasalised velar plosive.
e) Supranasalisation
Environment: When a stop occurs between two homorganic nasals, it is
supranasalised. For example, the [t] at the end of the first word in meant
nothing is supranasalised.
Oral
Velic
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Diverging arrows indicate that the velum is lowered both at the beginning
and the end of the articulation.
Summary
In this lecture, we have discussed the nose and sounds specifically; we
stated that sounds are let out through the nose only if the velum is
lowered. Nasals are let out only through the nose. Nasalized sounds
have both oral and nasal release. It may happen that an adjacent nasal
causes the sound that it precedes or follows to be partially nasalized. If
the nasal proceeds, the sound is pre-nasalized; if the nasal occurs after,
the sound is post-nasalized. Supra-nasalized sounds have nasals both
preceding and following them.
Post-Test
1. Provide two examples each of pre- nasalization and post-
nasalization in any two Nigerian languages.
2. Use an annotated diagram to illustrate a lowered velum.
3. Nasals are sounds that are nasalized. Discuss.
References
Abercrombie David. (1967). Elements of General Phonetics.
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Donwa-Ifode, Shirley.(1995) Basic Phonetics. Port Harcourt:
Sunray Publications.
Elugbe, Ben. (2000). Oral English for Colleges and Schools.
Ibadan, Nigeria: Heinemann Educational Books.
Egbokhare, Francis Introductory Phonetics
Ladefoged, Peter. (1993). A Course in Phonetics 3rd Ed. USA:
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
Napoli Donna, Jo. (1996). Linguistics. Oxford, New York: Oxford
University Press.
O’Connor, J.D. (2000). Better English Pronunciation. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
84
O’Grady et al. (1997). Contemporary Linguistics. New York: St.
Martin’s Press, Inc.
Roach, Peter (1991). English Phonetics and Phonology.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
85
LECTURE THIRTEEN
Aspiration
Introduction
There are many fine details that accompany the production of sounds.
Aspiration is one of them. It involves a puff of air that accompanies
sounds – voiceless stops in particular - usually when they are produced in
the word initial position. Aspiration adds no meaning to speech in many of
the world’s languages, yet in precious few languages, it affects the
meaning of words.
Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. explain what aspiration is all about; and
2. discuss the free scholarly perspectives on aspiration.
Pre-Test
Why do you think sounds are let out with more force of air when one
speaks while panting than when one speaks normally?
CONTENT
Definitions
1. Egbokhare (1994) defines aspiration as a vigorous puff of air that
accompanies the release of a stop.
2. A [h] riding on a sound.
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Diacritic
The diacritic used for aspiration is a superscript h, [h].
Scholarly Perspectives
1 The traditional view
This view holds that:
a. Aspiration is a puff of air or breath, which accompanies the
production of a stop.
b. The degree of aspiration is in direct proportion to the level of
compression achieved during the closure phase of the stop.
It simply means that only stops can be aspirated, and that aspiration results
from the sudden outburst of air just as stop articulations go apart.
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3. the state of the glottis. Is it vibrating or voiceless?
We will use the structure below to observe these three levels for a
voiceless aspirated stop (say [ph], a voiceless aspirated bilabial plosive).
1) Articulators
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The topmost structure above is the typical stop structure. You will recall
that it is in three phases. In phase (I), the articulators make contact; in
phase (II), they remain together for a while; in Phase (III), there is a
sudden release.
Broken vertical line A represents the time the stop is released. That point
is of utmost importance. Stops are voiced or voiceless depending on the
state of the glottis at the point of release (i.e. Line A). If at this point, the
vocal cords are vibrating, a voiced stop will be produced. On the other
hand, if the vocal cords are not vibrating at the point of release, the stop
will be voiceless.
Broken line B represents the point where voicing commences for the
production of the sound that follows the stop. You may have noticed that
the vocal cords come close to each other at the point of line B. The reason
for this is that vocal cords can vibrate only when they are close.
▪ The period between line A and line B is called the Voice Onset
Time (VOT). It is the period between the release of a stop and the
beginning of voicing for another sound. This is where we get to the
centre of our present analysis. Here, aspiration is seen as:
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The voiceless period between the release of a voiceless stop and
the beginning of voicing for an adjacent sound.
At this point, we must note that voiced stops do not have VOT, for the
simple reason that the vocal cords are together through all three phases of
the stop and are already vibrating at the time of release.
Summary
In this lecture, we have discussed aspiration. We stated that the puff of
air that accompanies the production of some voiceless stops is called
aspiration. It has been described as an [] riding on a sound. Thus, the
diacritic for aspiration is a superscript, [] attached to the symbol of the
aspirated sound. Aspiration has been described differently by three
schools of scholars. The traditional school considers aspiration to be
caused by air compressed behind articulators during the closure phase of
stops. School two explains aspiration in relation to the time it takes the
vocal cords to come together after the release of a voiceless stop. School
three opines that the degree of aspiration is directly proportional to how
apart the vocal cords are when a stop is released.
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Post-Test
1 In your view, what is the difference between an aspirated stop and
one that is not aspirated?
2 Make an annotated illustration of aspiration as a voicing lag.
3 Explain what Voice Onset Time (VOT) means.
4 Why do some scholars say that only voiceless sounds can be
aspirated
5 Provide aspirated and unaspirated symbols for the following
sounds:
a. Voiceless palatal plosive
b. Voiceless alveolar central fricative
c. Voiceless velar plosive
References
Donwa-Ifode, Shirley (1995) Basic Phonetics. Port Harcourt:
Sunray Publications.
Ladefoged, Peter. (1993). A Course in Phonetics USA 3rd ed.
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
Napoli Donna, Jo. (1996). Linguistics. Oxford, New York: Oxford
University Press.
www.pho.ox.ac.uk/~jcoleman/PHONOLOGY1.html
91
LECTURE FOURTEEN
Types of Articulation
Introduction
Whereas people in the third-world make all the efforts to speak English,
French, Spanish and German with the fluency of a native speaker few
Europeans bother about proficiency in non-European languages. Try
asking a Brit to say Ngbati ngbati and you’ll get my point. Some sounds
are nearly used universally because they are easy to produce, others are
more difficult to articulate, and more restricted in use. This is the basis of
the following discussion.
Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1 tell the difference amongst simple, compound and complex
articulations;
2 differentiate double articulation from secondary articulation;
3 differentiate double articulation from affricate articulation;
4 explain what is meant by assimilation; and
5 draw illustrations and explain different types of secondary
articulations.
Pre-Test
Make two lists, one for five sounds you consider easy to pronouns, the
other for five sounds difficult to produce.
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CONTENT
Types of Articulation
Three are main types of articulation:
1. simple Articulation;
2. compound Articulation; and
3. complex Articulation
1 Simple Articulation
This involves articulators coming together only at one place of
articulation, e.g. [p], [b], [t], [d].
2 Compound Articulation
This involves two or more simultaneous constrictions at two or more
different places of articulation. Compound articulation can occur in two
ways:
a. Double articulation
b. Secondary articulation
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velar plosive is [kp]. Observe your phonetic chart to see how this merger
has come about. I’am certain you can now tell me the four articulators
responsible for the production of other doubly articulated sounds. Try
doing so right now.
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Therefore, when considering secondary articulation, we speak of a
primary (or main) stricture at one place, and a secondary (or minor)
stricture at another place. For this reason, secondary articulation is often
defined as: A superimposition of a secondary place of articulation on a
primary place.
Actually, secondary articulation occurs as a consequence of the
phonological process of assimilation. Assimilation is a phenomenon
whereby a sound takes on some features of an adjacent sound. A Yoruba
way of saying this is: ti ewe ba pe lara ose, a di ose: close association of
two things makes them inseparable after sometime.
Five types of secondary articulation are predominant in speech. They
get their names from the place of secondary constriction. We will describe
them presently:
(a) Labialisation
Superimposition of round lips on sounds ordinarily produced with
spread lips. The lips are usually protruded when a round articulation is
made.
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Note: Labial sounds can be labialised.
(b) Palatalisation
Superimposition of the raised front of the tongue on another place of
articulation. You will recall that the front of the tongue is the active
articulator for the palatal place of articulation. Thus, a sound is
palatalized when the tongue the front of is raised secondarily.
Diagram
(c) Velarisation
Superimposition of the raised tongue back on another place of
articulation. This is also referred to as [ u ] colouring. You, of course,
know that the active articulator for the velar place is the back of the
tongue, so you should not be surprised at the name velarisation.
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Diacritic: Velarisation is represented with either a tilde across a
symbol [ ], or a superscript gamma sign, , []. Thus [t] is a
voiceless velarised alveolar plosive.
(d) Pharyngealisation
Superimposition of retracted tongue root on another place of
articulation. Again, the root of the tongue is the active articulator for
the pharyngeal place of articulation, hence the name
pharyngealisation.
97
Environment: A sound is likely to be pharyngealised if it is located
close to a pharyngeal sound.
98
Diagram
(e) Glottalisation
Superimposition of closing glottis on another place of articulation.
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Note: Glottal sounds cannot be glottalised.
3 Complex Articulation
A complex articulation is one that involves two or more simultaneous
compound articulations. For example, [gbw], voiced labialised labial-
velar plosive is a complex articulation. It is a combination of double and
secondary articulation. Can you attempt the diagram for the sound? That’s
the spirit!
Summary
In this lecture, we have focused on the main types of articulation, which
are simple articulation, compound articulation and complex articulation.
The first one involves articulators coming together only at one place oof
articulation; the second one involves two or more simultaneous
constrictions at two or more different places of articulation; and the
third one involves two or more simultaneous compound articulations.
Post-Test
1 Do you consider affricates simple articulations?
2 Define simple, compound and complex articulations in your own
words, and provide two examples of each.
3 Explain how double articulations differ from secondary
articulations.
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4 Use illustrations to demonstrate palatisation and velarisation.
5 Provide diacritics for and state the phonological environments for
labialization and glottalisation.
References
Donwa-Ifode, Shirley.(1995) Basic Phonetics. Port Harcourt:
Sunray Publications.
Ladefoged, Peter. 91993). A Course in Phonetics 3rd ed. USA
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
Napoli Donna, Jo. (1996). Linguistics. Oxford, New York: Oxford
University Press.
101
LECTURE FIFTEEN
Introduction
This lecture will first showcase diacritics. Thereafter, it will take a
practical turn to test what has been learnt throughout the course in
pronunciation and transcription exercises.
Objectives
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. recognize most of the diacritics used in transcribing languages; and
2. read text in phonetic transcription.
Pre-Test
Can you make out the differences in the phonetic transcription of each of
the words course, cause and curse?
CONTENT
Diacritics
Diacritics are marks placed before, after, above, or under a symbol to
indicate additional features. Diacritics are used to indicate features, such
as stress, secondary articulation, nasalisation etc. The diacritics below
have been classified on the basis of location with respect to phonetic
symbols. Diagrammatic illustrations are provided where necessary.
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Superscript diacritics
[ n] Post nasalisation
w
[ ] Labialisation
j y
[ ] or [ ] Palatalisation
[ ] Velarisation
[ ] Pharyngealisation
[ ] No audible release
[ h] Aspiration
[ ] Nasalisation
[ ] Tie bar indicating double articulation
[ ] Raised: used when vowels are produced at positions higher than their
regular place within the vowel space.
[ ] Lowered: used when vowels are produced at positions lower than
their regular place within the vowel space.
[ ] Murmur state of the glottis
[ ] Creaky state of the glottis
Pronunciation
It is pretty easy to articulate consonants relative to vowels especially,
when speaking languages, such as Igbo, English, French and German; the
computer in which ATR, diphthongs, secondary-cardinal-like vowels, and
104
fronted vowels occur respectively. Such fine details are better resolved in
a practical class as you would do in LIN 243. For the present, I’ll just
provide exercises to help you apply knowledge gained in this course.
For all you’ve learnt in this course to make any practical sense, you
should regularly pay attention to transcriptions in dictionaries. It often
happens that we only look up word meaning and usage in dictionaries. In
addition, you should always try to figure out appropriate pronunciation as
indicated in the accompanying phonetic transcription.
Now, pay attention to pronunciation differences in the following pair
of English words:
cease seize
peace piece
bed bird
bead bid
ask axe
which witch
board bud
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burn born
cut cot
Being able to decipher the sentences above indicates that you have learnt
some phonetics in this course. Getting beyond this level is by sheer dint of
hard work. You should have handy a dictionary of whatever language you
wish to improve in diction. Make sure that the transcriptions in your
dictionary are done with IPA symbols. It is a tedious exercise to look up
the pronunciation of almost every word you come by. But I assure you that
by doing precisely that, your spoken language will improve in leaps and
bounds. Get talking right!
Summary
In this lecture, we have discusses diacritics. In the course of the lecture,
we defined the subject of study and also examined different diacritics
and their placements. Finally, we briefly examined pronunciation as
well as gave a short lest on transcription.
Post-Test
Attempt transcribing the summary of this lecture:
1. without a dictionary
106
2. with a dictionary.
3. Compare both transcriptions and learn from your mistakes.
References
Donwa-Ifode, Shirley. (1995). Basic Phonetics. Port Harcourt:
Sunray Publications.
Elugbe, Ben. (2000). Oral English for Colleges and Schools.
Ibadan, Nigeria: Heinemann Educational Books.
O’Connor, J.D. (2000). Better English Pronunciation. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Roach Peter, 91991). English Phonetics and Phonology.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
www.ling.uq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/transcription/ipa/ipa-
diacritic.html
www.pho.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/ipa-unicode.htm
107