CHAPTER -3

ANALOG ELECTRONICS

1. RESISTORS, INDUCTORS AND CAPACITORS IN ELECTRONIC

CIRCUITS

1. Resistors

A resistor is an electrical component, which has been manufactured with a

specified amount of resistance. The resistors can conduct current in both the
directions. Thus the resistors are used mainly for two purposes, namely
controlling the flow of electric current and providing desired amount of voltage
in an electronic circuit.

2. Inductance

It is the property of a coil, which opposes changes in current by means of

energy through storage in the form of magnetic field. It has been observed that a
current carrying conductor or a coil has a magnetic field (or flux) associated
with it. The strength of this magnetic field is directly proportional to the amount
of current in the coil. As long as the current in the coil is constant, the flux is
also constant. Now, if the current through the coil changes (i.e., increases or
decreases), the flux linked with the coil also changes. This change in flux
induces a voltage or emf in the coil. The polarity of induced voltage is such that
it opposes the change in current through the coil.

The magnitude of this voltage is directly proportional to the rate of change of

current i.e.,
Where V = Magnitude of the induced voltage,

dV/dt = Rate of change of current, and

L = Constant of proportionality known as inductance of the coil.

The inductance is a measure of the energy stored in the coil in the form of
magnetic field. The unit of inductance is henry (H). In actual practice, 'henry' is
an extremely large unit. Therefore we use much smaller, units like millihenry
(mH) or microhenry (μH), Such that

1 mH = 10 H and 1μH = 10 H
-3 -6

Sometimes, the inductance of a coil is also referred to as a self-inductance, in

order to distinguish it from mutual inductance. It is important when we have a
number of coils in a circuit and we have a self-inductance as well as the mutual
inductance in the circuit.

3. Inductors (or Coils)

An inductor (or a coil) is an electrical component, which is manufactured with a

specified amount of inductance. The inductors are used in tuning and filter
circuits.

They are used in radio receivers as a built-in antenna coil to pick up radio
signals. They are also used in transformers and coupled circuits to transfer (or
couple) energy from one circuit to another.

In many applications, the inductors are used to minimize alternating currents,

while permitting flow of direct current. In such applications, the inductor is
called a choke. Thus we have chokes for audio-frequency range and radio-
frequency range. These chokes are called audio-frequency chokes (AFC) and
radio-frequency chokes (RFC). The inductors are generally specified with
inductance value and current capacity.

4. Capacitors

A capacitor is an electronic component manufactured with a specified amount

of capacitance. This component has an ability to charge or store energy, which
neither a resistance nor an inductor can do. It opposes any change of voltage in
the circuit in which it is connected.

A capacitor is used in a number of applications, which are highly specialized.

Some of the important applications of a capacitor are in starting motors,
blocking d.c. current, passing a.c. current, filtering unwanted signals, tuning
circuit to a specific frequency, coupling the electronic circuits, bypassing
signals etc.

A capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by a dielectric. The

dielectric is an insulating material in which an electric field can be established
with little or no leakage current. The dielectrics commonly used in actual
practice are air, mica, ceramic, paper, plastic, aluminum, tantalum, etc.

5. Capacitor Specifications

The capacitors are specified with the type of a dielectric, capacitance value,
working voltage, capacitance tolerance and its physical size. Depending upon
the type of dielectric used, the capacitors are speficied as ceramic capacitors,
tantalum capacitor etc. The capacitance of a capacitor is specified in either
microfarads (μF) or picofarads (pF). The capacitors are manufactured with
capacitance values that range from few picofarads to several thousands and
microfarads.

The working voltage (also called voltage rating) of a capacitor is the maximum
voltage at which the capacitor may be operated continuously at a specified
temperature.

INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTOR
The most fundamental unit of matter is an atom. An atom contains a central
portion which is known as nucleus. A number of smaller particles called
electrons move in elliptical path around the nucleus. An electronic device
controls movement of electrons. The study of electronic device requires basic
knowledge of relationship between electrons and other components of an atom.
Movement of electron and bonding forces between atoms leads to knowledge of
the difference between conductors, insulators and semiconductors and to
understand the concept of p-type and n-type semiconductors.

BOHR'S ATOM MODEL

In 1913, Neils Bohr, Danish Physicist gave clear explanation about atomic
structure. According to Bohr atom model:

(i) An atom consists of negatively charged electrons which rotate around

positively charged nucleus.

(ii) The electrons can revolve only in permitted orbit and not in any
intermediate orbit.

(iii) The electrons in each permitted orbit have fixed amount of energy. The
electrons in the outer orbit have more energy than the electron in the inner orbit.

(iv) If an electron is given additional energy by means of heat, light and etc., it
is shifted to the higher orbit. The atom is said to be in a state of excitation. But
this state will not be static, because the electron soon returns back to the original
lower orbit. As it return to the original state, it gives back the acquired energy in
the form of heat, light or other radiations.

Fig. 3.4 shows the structure of silicon atom. It has 14 electrons. Two electrons
revolve in the first inner orbit, eight electrons in the second orbit and 4 electrons
in the third or outer orbit. The first, second, third orbits are also identified as X,
Y, Z orbits respectively. These electrons can revolve only in permitted orbits
and not in any intermediate orbit. Therefore, all radii between r and r or
1 2

between r and r are forbidden.

2 3

ENERGY LEVELS
Each orbit has fixed amount of energy associated with it and the electrons
moving in a particular orbit acquire the energy of that orbit. Hence electrons in
the outer orbit have more energy than electrons in the inner orbit.

Figure 3.5.(b)shows representation of energy level of various orbits. This is

known as energy level diagram. The first orbit r represents the first energy
1

level, the second orbit r indicates the second energy level and so on. The outer
2

orbit of an electron, the greater is its energy and higher is the energy level.

ENERGY BANDS
In case of a single isolated atom, the electrons in any orbit possess definite
energy. However, an atom in a solid is greatly influenced by the closely-placed
neighboring atoms. The result is that the electrons in same orbits have a range
of energies rather than a single energy. This is called as energy band. "The
range of energies possessed by electrons of the same orbit in a solid is known as
energy band."

Figure 3.6 shows the energy levels of a single isolated atom of silicon. Each
energy band consists of large number of very closely spaced discrete energy
levels. The number of such levels in each band is same as the number of atoms
in the solid.

IMPORTANT ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS

As discussed earlier, individual X, Y, Z etc. energy levels of an isolated atom
are converted as energy bands when the atom is in a solid. Though there are a
number of energy bands in solids, the following are of particular importance:
(i) Valence band.

"The energy band which possesses valence electrons is known as valence

band". The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valence
electrons. The energy band possesses the valence electrons is called valence
band. In a normal atom, valence band may be completely or partially filled.

(ii) Conduction band.

"The energy band which possesses free electrons is known as conduction

band". Electron in this band is responsible for conduction. If a substance has
empty conduction band, it means current conduction is not possible in that
substance. Generally, insulators have empty conduction band. If we provide
some energy to the atom, electrons move from valence band to conduction
band.

(iii) Forbidden energy gap.

"There is a energy gap between conduction band and valence band on the
energy level diagram is known as forbidden energy gap." Forbidden energy
gap is a region where no electron can stay as there is no allowed energy state in
this region. The width of the forbidden energy gap is a measure of the bondage
of valence electrons to the atom. If the energy gap is greater, the valence
electrons are more tightly bound to the nucleus. To lift an electron from valence
band to the conduction band (i.e. to make the valence electron free), external
energy through heat, light equal to the forbidden energy gap should be supplied.

INSULATORS, METALS AND SEMICONDUCTORS ON THE

BASIS OF BAND GAP
(i) Insulators:

"Insulators are those substances which do not allow electric current through
them. Examples, Rubber, Wood, Glass etc." The forbidden energy gap is very
large and is greater than 5 eV. In insulators, Valence band is completely filled
and the conduction band is empty. The large electric field is required to lift the
electrons from valence band to conduction band. At room temperature, the
valence electrons of an insulator can not have so much energy to cross over to
the conduction band. Therefore as temperature increases, the resistance of
insulator decreases. Insulator has negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

(ii) Conductors:

"Conductors are substances which allow the flow of electric current through
them. Examples: Copper, Aluminium, Salt solutions etc.," In conductors the
valence band and conduction band overlap each other, as shown in figure 3.8
(b). Because of this overlapping, a small potential difference across a conductor
causes the free electrons to constitute the current. A metal consists of a large
number of free electrons without giving any external energy. Hence a metal
work as a very good conductor.

(iii) Semiconductors:

"Semiconductors are those substances which allow electric charges partially to

flow through them. Examples: Germanium, Silicon etc.," In semiconductors, the
forbidden energy gap is not very wide. It is 0.72 eV for germanium and 3.12 eV
for silicon. In semiconductors, valence band is almost filled and conduction
band is almost empty. A small electric field is required to lift the electrons from
valence band to conduction band.
At low temperature, the valence band is completely filled and conduction band
is completely empty. Hence at low temperature semiconductors act as
insulators. At room temperature, some electrons lifted to conduction band from
valence band. So at room temperature semiconductors are able to conduct some
current.

If the temperature is further increased above room temperature, more valence

electrons cross over to the conduction band. Hence semiconductor have
negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

Why silicon is most widely used in Semiconductor devices?

The valence electrons in germanium are in the fourth shell/orbit while the
valence electrons in silicon are in the third shell/orbit. i.e., closure to nucleus. It
means that the germanium valence electrons are at higher energy level than
those in silicon. So the germanium valence electrons will need smaller amount
of additional energy to escape from the atom. Hence germanium produces more
number of electron hole pairs than silicon. Therefore the leakage current is more
in germanium than silicon. This property makes germanium more unstable at
high temperatures. Therefore silicon is most widely used in semiconductors
than germanium.

SEMICONDUCTOR
● A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties lie in between
those of insulators (glass) and good conductors (copper). Examples are:
germanium, silicon, selenium and carbon etc.

● Transistors are only one of the family of semiconductor devices. Generally, a

semiconductor is defined on the basis of electrical conductivity as under:

● "A semiconductor is a substance which has resistivity (10 to 0.5Ωm) in

-4

between conductors and insulators e.g. germanium, silicon, selenium, carbon

etc."

Properties of Semiconductors

(i) The resistivity of a semiconductor is less than an insulator but more than a
conductor.

(ii) Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient of resistance. The

conductivity of the semiconductor is increases with increase in temperature.
This means the resistance of a semiconductor decreases with the increase in
temperature For example, at low temperatures germanium is behaves an
insulator but it becomes a good conductor at high temperatures.

(iii) By adding some amount of impurity atoms (e.g. arsenic, gallium etc.) to a
semiconductor, its current conductivity properties change appreciably.

Bonds in Semiconductors

Semiconductors are made up of individual atoms bonded together in a regular,

periodic structure to form an arrangement whereby each atom is surrounded by
8 electrons. The bonding action of valence electrons is due to the fact that it is
the tendency of each atom to complete its last orbit by acquiring 8 electrons in
it.

In the formation of a co-valent bond, each atom contributes equal number of

valence electrons and the contributed electrons are shared by the atoms engaged
in the formation of the bond.

Figure. 3.10 shows the co-valent bonds over germanium atoms. A germanium
atom has four valence electrons. Each germanium atom to have eight electrons
in the last orbit. To form the co-valent bond, each germanium atom positions
itself between four other germanium atoms as shown in Figure.3.10(a).

Each neighbouring atom shares one valence electron with the central atom. In
this business of sharing, the central atom completes its last orbit by having 8
electrons revolving around the nucleus. In this way, the central atom sets up co-
valent bonds. Figure 3.10(b) shows the bonding diagram. The following points
may be noted regarding the co-valent bonds :

i) Co-valent bonds are formed by sharing of valence electrons.

ii) In the formation of co-valent bond, each valence electron of atom forms
direct bond with the valence electron of adjacent atom. In other words, valence
electrons are associated with particular atoms. For this reason, valence electrons
in a semiconductor are not free.

Commonly Used Semiconductors

Germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si) are Commonly used Semiconductors. The
energy required to break the co-valent bonds of these semiconductors (i.e.
energy required to release an electron from their valence bands) is very small;
being about 0.7 eV for germanium(Ge) and about 1.1 eV for silicon (Si).

(i) Germanium

The atomic number of germanium is 32. Therefore, it has 32 protons and 32

electrons. The first orbit accommodates two electrons. The second orbit
accommodates eight electrons, third orbit accommodates eighteen electrons and
outer or valence orbit accommodates four electrons [See Figure. 3.11 (a)].
It is clear that germanium atom has four valence electrons i.e., it is a tetravalent
element. Figure. 3.11(b) shows how the various germanium atoms are held
through covalent bonds. Since the atoms are arranged in an orderly pattern,
Hence, germanium has crystalline structure.

(ii) Silicon

Silicon is an element in most of the common rocks. In fact, sand is silicon

dioxide. The silicon compounds are chemically reduced to silicon which is
100% pure for use as a semiconductor.

The atomic number of silicon is 14. Therefore, it has 14 protons and 14

electrons. The first orbit accommodates two electrons. The second orbit
accommodates eight electrons, third orbit accommodates four electrons [See
Figure 3.12(a)]. It is clear that silicon atom has four valence electrons i.e. it is a
tetravalent element. Figure 3.12(b) shows how various silicon atoms are held
through co-valent bonds. Similar to germanium, silicon atoms are also arranged
in an orderly manner. Hence, silicon has crystalline structure.
Energy Band Description of Semiconductors

We know that a semiconductor is a substance whose resistivity lies between

conductors and insulators.

There is an energy gap EG between the valence band and nearly empty
conduction band, it is called forbidden energy gap. Figure 3.13(a) and 3.13(b)
shows the energy band diagrams of germanium and silicon respectively. It may
be seen that forbidden energy gap is very small; being 1.12 eV for silicon and
0.72 eV for germanium. If we provide some energy to silicon, electrons will be
lifted from valence band to conduction band.

Hence, at room temperature, a piece of germanium or silicon is neither a good

conductor nor an insulator. Due to this reason, such substances are called
semiconductors.
TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductor may be classified as under:

1. Intrinsic Semiconductors:

A pure form of Semiconductor is known as intrinsic semiconductor. Even at

room temperature some of the valence electrons acquire sufficient energy to
enter the conduction band to form free electrons. When the electric field is
applied, the current conduction takes place by free electrons and holes. A
missing electron in the valence band leaves a vacant space which is known as a
hole. (refer figure 3.14.) Holes also contribute to current. Therefore the total
current inside the semiconductor is sum of currents due to free electrons and
holes.

It may be noted that current in the external wire is fully by electrons. In figure
3.15 holes being positively charged move towards negative terminal of the
supply. As the holes reach the negative terminal Y, electrons enter the
semiconductor near the terminal and combine with the holes.

Simultaneously, the loosely held electrons near the terminal X are attracted
away from their atoms into the positive terminal. This creates new holes near
the positive terminal which inturn float towards the negative terminal due to
thermal agitation.
2. Extrinsic Semiconductor

At room temperature, intrinsic semiconductor has poor conduction. So it is not

useful in electronic devices. Where as an extrinsic semiconductor is an
improved intrinsic semiconductor with a small amount of impurities added by a
process, known as doping, which alters the electrical properties of the
semiconductor and improves its conductivity.

Adding impurities into the semiconductor materials (doping process) can

control their conductivity. It is called impurity or extrinsic semiconductor.

A pentavalent impurity containing five valence electrons then it is called as

donor impurity. A pentavalent impurity is added to the semiconductor, a large
number of free electrons are produced in the semiconductor. Examples of
pentavalent impurities are Arsenic, Phosphorous and Antimony. A trivalent
impurity containing three valence electrons then it is called as acceptor
impurity. A trivalent impurity creates a large number of holes in the
semiconductor crystal. Examples of trivalent impurities are Boron, Aluminium
and Indium.

Depending upon the type of impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors are

classified into two types. They are:
(i) n-type semiconductor (ii) p-type semiconductor

1. n-type Semiconductor

When a small amount of pentavalent impurities such as Arsenic, Phosphorous

or Antimony is added to a intrinsic semiconductor, it is known as n-type
semiconductor. Atomic number for arsenic (As), antimony (Sb) are 33 and 51
respectively.

Pentavalent impurities are called as donor impurities because they donate or

provide free electrons to the semiconductor crystal. In n-type semiconductor,
net concentration of electrons greater than that of holes.

In figure 3.16, an Arsenic impurity (pentavalent impurity) which is surrounded

by germanium atoms. The germanium atom has five valence electrons. Four out
of these five electrons form the covalent bonds with four germanium atoms. The
fifth valence electron of arsenic atom finds no chance of forming covalent bond
and is thus free as shown in figure. 3.16. This electron is loosely bound to its
arsenic atom. A very small amount of energy is required to de-attach this
electron from nucleus of its arsenic atom.

Every arsenic atom donates one electron to the conduction band. Hence the
pentavalent impurities are called as donor impurities. On giving electrons for
conduction, the donor atom becomes positively charged ion because this is held
tightly by covalent bonds in crystal. This unable to move and hence it is called
as positively charged immobile ion. But it cannot take part in conduction
because it is firmly stable in the crystal.
The addition of pentavalent impurity to the semiconductor produces more
number of free electrons in the semiconductor and the conductivity of the N-
type semiconductor increases. As a result of doping, net concentration of
electrons greater than that of holes. Hence, in N-type semiconductor electrons
are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers.

2. p-type Semiconductor

When a small amount of trivalent impurities such as Boron, Aluminium,

gallium or Indium is added to a intrinsic semiconductor, it is known as p-type
semiconductor.

Atomic number for boron, gallium and indium are 5, 31 and 49 respectively.
The addition of trivalent impurity to the semiconductor produces more number
of holes in the semiconductor. Trivalent impurities are known as acceptor
impurities because the holes created can accept the electrons.

Consider a small amount of trivalent impurity like gallium is added to intrinsic

germanium. Since small amount of impurity, it may be assumed that each
impurity is surrounded by germanium atoms. In figure 3.17, Gallium is trivalent
impurity and it has three valence electrons. These three electrons form the
covalent bonds with three neighbouring germanium atom. The fourth
germanium atom cannot make covalent bond with gallium. It is because gallium
does not have fourth valence electron as shown in Figure 3.17. Hence fourth
covalent bond is incomplete.

The fourth bond is incomplete; because there is a shortage of one electron. This
missing electron is called a hole. A vacancy or hole having tendency to
complete the covalent bond from neighbouring atoms. An electron from
neighbouring atoms requires some energy to jump into the vacancy.
Thus, for each gallium atom added, one hole is created. A small amount of
gallium provides large number of holes. The addition of trivalent
impurity(gallium) to the intrinsic semiconductor produced a large number of
holes. Trivalent impurity are called as acceptor impurity. It is because it accepts
free electrons in the place of holes. Each gallium atom donates a hole for
conduction, it becomes negatively charged ion. In p- type semiconductor, net
concentration of holes greater than that of electrons hence, holes are majority
carriers and electrons are minority carriers.

3. Comparison of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

4. Comparison of P-type and N-Type semiconductors

PN JUNCTION
P-type Semiconductor and N-type Semiconductor are chemically combined
with a special fabrication technique to form a PN Junction.
When a germanium or silicon crystal contains donor impurities on one side and
acceptor impurities on another side, a P-N junction is formed.

The PN junction is very important device, because, all other semiconductor

devices contains at least one PN junction.

1. Depletion region formation:

Figure 3.21 shows PN junction with formation of depletion region at the

junction. The P-region contains a holes as majority carriers, electrons as
minority carriers and negatively charged immobile ions (acceptor ions). The N-
region contains electrons as majority carriers, holes as minority carriers and
positively charged immobile ions (donor ions). The sample as a whole is
electrically neutral and hence, P-region and N-regions considered separately.

When the PN junction is formed, the following actions takes place.

Some of the electrons from N-region (high carrier concentration) diffuse into
the P- region (low carrier concentration). In P- region, they recombine with free
holes.

Similarly some of the holes from P- region (high carrier concentration) diffuse
into the N-region (low carrier concentration). In N-region, they recombine with
free electrons.

The P-region contains more number of holes and N-region contains more
number of electrons, so there is a concentration difference in two regions. Since
this concentration difference, a large concentration gradient is exists across the
junction. Besides this, electrons and holes move at random in all directions
because of thermal energy.

This diffusion process across the junction takes place only for a short time.
After a few recombination of electrons and holes, the electrons in the N-region
are neutralized by holes. Therefore, the positive immobile ions (donor) are left
behind in this small region. Similarly holes in the P-region are neutralised by
electrons. Therefore, the negative immobile ion (acceptor) are left behind in this
small region. These immobile ions are fixed in their positions and they are
electrically charged. Those immobile ions forms the parallel rows or plates of
opposite charges facing each other across the depletion layer. The depletion
region is also called as space charge region.

"When PN junction is formed, there exist a region at the junction which is

depleted of mobile charges called as "depletion region (or) transition region"
(or) space charge region."

2. Barrier Potential:

An electric field exists across the junction due to immobile positive and
negative ions on opposite sides of the junction. This electric field is called as
"barrier potential".
The polarities of barrier potential is depends on types of the immobile ions
present on two sides of the junction. i.e, the positive terminal of barrier potential
on N side and the negative terminal of the barrier potential on P side as shown
in figure 3.22. Barrier potential act as a barrier which oppose the flow of
electrons and holes to cross the junction till the external voltage applied. Barrier
potential is 0.7 volt for silicon and 0.3 volt for germanium.

3. Biasing the PN junction

"When we apply external de supply across the PN junction, this process is

called biasing of PN junction. The applied external de voltage controls the
width of the depletion region."

The PN junction can be biased in two ways.

1. Forward bias

2. Reverse bias
1. Forward bias.

If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to P-side and negative

terminal of the battery is connected to N-side, the junction is said to be forward
biased (refer figure 3.23).
Under forward biased condition, hole are repelled from the positive terminal of
the battery and they are moves towards the junction. Likewise, electrons are
repelled from negative terminal of the battery and they are move towards the
junction. Some holes and electrons enter into the depletion region, it is because,
holes and electrons have acquired energy from voltage source. This reduces the
width of the depletion region.

If applied voltage gradually increased from zero, the barrier potential also gets
reduced gradually. As a result of this diffusion of more majority carriers across
the junction. It causes a large current flows through the junction. This current is
called as "forward current".

2. Reverse bias:

If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to N-side and negative

terminal of the battery is connected to P-side, then the junction is said to be
reverse biased. (refer figure 3.24)

Under reverse bias condition, the holes in the P-region are attracted by the
negative terminal of the battery and the electrons in the N-region are attracted
by the positive terminal of the battery.

Hence majority carriers are flow away from the junction and results in width of
depletion layer will be wider. This increases the barrier potential.

Due to wider barriers potential, majority charge carriers are not able to cross
over the junction. So no current flows due to majority charge carriers. But there
are few thermally generated minority carriers present in both regions. The
increased barrier potential, enhances small of amount of current flow due to
minority carriers. This current is called as "reverse saturation current".

If reverse bias voltage increased further, the kinetic energy of minority carriers
become large enough to knock out electrons from atoms. At this point
"breakdown" of the junction occurs, with sudden rise in reverse current.
"A PN junction is a unilateral device. It offers a low resistance when forward
biased and act as insulator when reverse biased."

4. VI Characteristics of PN junction diode

Forward Characteristics:

A typical VI characteristics of forward biased PN junction diode is shown in

figure 3.25(a). The forward current is increases with applied forward de voltage.
The forward current is very small till the applied voltages reach the barrier
potential (V ). Once the applied voltage is slightly greater than barrier potential,
0

the forward current increases (IF) sharply. This point 'P' is known as knee
voltage (or) cut in voltage. If the forward voltage(VF) increased beyond a
certain specified value, the diode will burn due to overheat.

Reverse Characteristics:

A typical VI Characteristics of reverse biased pn junction diode is shown in

figure 3.25(b). If the reverse voltage (V ) is increased from zero, very small
R

amount of diode current will flow till it reaches breakdown voltage. This current
is called as reverse saturation current I (μA). If a large reverse bias voltage is
0
applied, junction breakdown occurs. Due to this, diode reverse current increases
rapidly. "The applied reverse bias voltage at which break down occurs is called
as breakdown voltage (V )."B

5. Important terms

1. Breakdown voltage:

Under reverse biased condition, very small amount of reverse current (or) diode
current will flow through a PN junction. If increasing the reverse bias voltage, a
point may reach at which the junction breaks down with sudden rise in reverse
current. The applied reverse bias voltage at which breakdown occur with sudden
rise in reverse current is called as breakdown voltage.

2. Knee voltage:

Under forward bias condition, forward current is very small till the applied
voltage reach the barrier potential. The forward voltage, at which the forward
current through the junction starts increasing rapidly is called as knee voltage
(or) cut in voltage.

3. Peak inverse voltage:

It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to the PN junction

without damage to the junction. If the reverse voltage exceeds its peak inverse
voltage (PIV), the junction may get destroyed due to overheat.

4. Maximum power rating:

The maximum value of power, which a diode can dissipate without any damage
to it, is called maximum power rating.

6. Applications of PN junction diode

● Used as rectifiers

● Used as switches

● Used in power supply circuits

● Used in clipper and clamper circuits

ZENER DIODE
In PN Junction diode, when the reverse bias voltage reaches breakdown voltage,
the current through the junction increases and the power dissipated at the
junction will be high. It causes the diode gets damaged. To avoid such a
situation diodes can be designed with adequate power dissipation capabilities to
operate in the breakdown region; such a diode is known as zener diode. Zener is
a reverse biased heavily doped PN junction diode which operates in the
breakdown region. The breakdown voltage of zener diode can be set by
controlling the doping level. If the diode is heavily doped, the depletion region
will be narrow and consquently, breakdown occurs at lower reverse voltage and
further, the breakdown voltage is sharp.

1. V.I. Characteristics of Zener diode:

1. Forward characteristics:

The forward characteristics of zener diode is shown in figure 3.28. Under

forward biased condition, the operation of zener diode is same as that of
ordinary PN diode.

2. Reverse Characteristics:

When we increase the reverse voltage initially a small reverse saturation current
I (μA)will flow. This current flows due to the thermally generated minority
0

carriers. At a certain value of reverse voltage, the reverse saturation current will
increase suddenly and sharply. This indicates breakdown of the junction has
occurred. This breakdown voltage is called as Zener breakdown voltage (or)
Zener voltage (V ). This breakdown voltage depends upon the amount of
Z

doping.
After breakdown has occurred, the voltage across zener diode remains constant
equal to V and reverse Zener current increased. The Zener current after reverse
Z

breakdown must be controlled by connecting resistor R as shown in figure 3.29

to avoid any damage to the device due to excessive heating.
2. Breakdown Mechanism

The following two mechanisms cause junction breakdown due to the increase in
reverse bias voltage.

(i) Zener breakdown

(ii) Avalanche breakdown

1. Zener breakdown

Let us understand the zener breakdown mechanism for zener voltage (V ) less Z

than 5V. If a reverse voltage (5V) is applied to a zener diode, it causes a very
intense electric field (order of 3 × 10 V/cm) to appear across a narrow depletion
5

region.

This intense electric field is strong enough to pull some of valence electrons
into the conduction band by breaking their covalent bonds. These electrons are
now ready for conduction. A large amount of these electrons will constitute the
large reverse current through the zener diode and breakdown is said to have
occurred due to zener effect. The current limiting resistor is connected in series
with zener diode to avoid damage due to excessive heating.

The breakdown voltage depends upon the temperature of PN junction. The

breakdown voltage decreases with increase in the junction temperature.
2. Avalanche breakdown

As reverse voltage applied to the zener diode increases (>8V), the field across
the junction increases correspondingly. An increase in reverse voltage, the
minority carriers tends to accelerate. Hence kinetic energy associated with them
increases. While travelling, these accelerated minority carriers will collide with
immobile ions and create new electron hole pairs. These new carriers again
acquire sufficient energy from the field and collide with other immobile ions or
atoms. Due to this, further electron-hole pairs generated. This process is
cumulative in nature. In short time the generation of avalanche of charge
carriers available for conduction and carrier multiplication process becomes self
sustained. This mechanism of carrier generation is known is "avalanche
multiplication” (or) “avalanche effect". Hence, a large amount of reverse
current flowing through the zener diode and the avalanche breakdown is said to
have occurred.

Applications of Zener diode:

(i) Used as voltage regulator.

(ii) Used as peak clipper in wave shaping.

(iii) Circuits used as fixed reference voltage in transistor biasing circuits.

(iv) Used for protection meter against damage due to accidental application of
over voltage.

3. Comparison of Zener breakdown & avalanche breakdown.

4. Comparison of Zener Diode and P-N Junction Diode
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

1. Introduction:

❖ A Bipolar junction transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device in

which the operation depends on the interaction of majority and minority
carriers. Hence it is named as Bipolar device.
❖ Transistor is an abbreviation of transfer resistor i.e., signal transferred from
low resistance circuit to high resistance circuit.

❖ A transistor consists of a silicon or germanium crystal in which a layer of N-

Type material is sandwiched between two layers of P Type material. It is
referred to an PNP transistor. It is shown in figure 3.30(a). Alternatively, layer
of P-Type material is sandwiched between two layers of N type material. It is
referred to NPN transistor. It is shown in figure 3.30(b).

❖ There are three terminals in the transistor Emitter(E), Base(B), Collector(C).

(i) Emitter: It is more heavily doped region than other two regions. The emitter
is always forward biased with respect to base, hence it can supply majority
carriers to the base. In case of PNP transistor, it supplies hole charges to its
junction. In case of NPN transistor, it supplies free electrons with the base.

(ii) Collector: Its main function is to collect the majority charge carriers from
the emitter through base. In most of the transistors, the collector region is made
physically larger than emitter region since it has to dissipate much greater
power.

(iii) Base: It is the middle section of the transistor. It is highly doped region. It
is very thin as compared to either the Emitter or Collector.
2. Working of Transistor

The emitter-base junction of a transistor is forward biased whereas collector-

base junction is reverse biased. If the emitter-base junction is forward biased,
the emitter current will flow to base region from emitter region. It is seen that
this emitter current almost entirely flows in the collector circuit. Hence, the
current present in the collector circuit depends upon the emitter current. If the
emitter current is zero, then collector current is nearly zero [a very little current
(few μA) would flow]. For example, if the emitter current is 0.5mA, then
collector current is also around 0.5mA.

(i) Working of npn transistor.

● Fig. 3.21(a) shows the charge carrier movement in a NPN transistor. Forward
bias is applied to emitter-base junction and reverse bias is applied to collector-
base junction of the npn transistor. Due to the forward bias, the electrons in the
n-type emitter flow towards the base. It constitutes the emitter current I . Since
E

these electrons cross into p-type base, they tend to combine with the holes.

● As the p-type base is lightly doped and very thin, only few holes are present.
Therefore, only few electrons from n-type emitter combine wish holes. It
constitutes base current I . The remaining electrons (more than 95%) cross into
B

the collector region to constitute collector current I . In this way, almost the
C

whole emitter current flows in the collector circuit. From the above discussion it
is concluded that the emitter current is the sum of collector and base currents
i.e.
(ii) Working of pnp transistor.

● Fig. 3.31(b) shows the charge carrier movement in a PNP transistor. The PNP
transistor behaves exactly as same way as an NPN transistor except that the
majority charge carriers are holes. Due to the forward bias, the holes in the p-
type emitter flow towards the base. It constitutes the emitter current I . Since
E

these holes cross into n-type base, they tend to combine with the electrons.

● As the n-type base is lightly doped and very thin, only few electrons are
present. Therefore, only a few holes (less than 5%) from p-type emitter combine
with these electrons. It constitutes base current I . The remaining holes (more
B

than 95%) cross into the collector region to constitute collector current I . In this
C

way, almost the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit. It may be
noted that current conduction within pnp transistor due to flow of holes.
However, in the external connecting wires, the current flow is still by electrons.

Importance of transistor action.

❖ Due to forward bias, the input circuit (i.e. emitter-base junction) has low
resistance Whereas output circuit (i.e. collector-base junction) has high
resistance due to reverse bias.

❖ From the above discussion, the input emitter current almost entirely flows in
the collector circuit. Hence, a transistor transfers the input signal current from a
low- resistance circuit to a high-resistance circuit. This is the key factor for the
amplification characteristics of the transistor.
Current amplification factor (α).

It is the ratio of output current to input current. The ratio of change in collector
current to the change in emitter current at constant collector to base Voltage
VCB is known as current amplification factor.

Types of basic transistor:

There are two types of basic transistor :

1. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

2. Field Effect Transistor (FET).

BJT can be operated in three regions:

(i) Cut-off: In this region, both emitter-base and collector-base junctions are
reverse biased.

(ii) Active: In this region, the emitter-base junction is forward biased and the
collector base junction is reverse biased.

(iii) Saturation: In this region, both emitter-base and collector-base junctions

are forward biased.

TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS
A transistor is a three terminal device (Emitter, Base and Collector). However,
when a transistor is to be connected with a circuit, we require four terminals;
two for the input and two for the output. This problem is overcome by making
one of the terminal of the transistor common to both input and output terminals.

There are three types of configurations for operation of transistor. They are, (i)
Common base

(ii) Common emitter

(iii) Common collector

Each configuration has its own advantages and disadvantages. It is to be noted

that regardless of circuit configuration, the emitter is always forward biased,
while the collector always reverse biased.
1. Common Base Configuration

❖ In common base configuration, input is applied between emitter and base and
output is taken across collector and base. Here, base is common to both input
and output circuits and hence the name common base configuration. In Fig.
3.32(i), a common base npn transistor circuit is shown whereas Fig.3.32(ii)
shows the common base pnp transistor circuit.

❖ In this arrangement, the emitter base junction is forward biased and collector
base junction is reverse biased. The emitter current I flows in the input circuit
E

and the collector current I in the output circuit.

C

❖ A change in the emitter current produces a change in collector current due to

diffusion of electrons or holes across the junctions.

Characteristics of Common Base Configuration

The most important characteristics of common base configuration are input

characteristics and output characteristics.

1. Input characteristics:
● Figure 3.33 Input characteristics of Common Base configuration. ❖ Figure
3.33 shows the input characteristics of a typical transistor in Common Base
configuration. For determination of input characteristics, the collector-base
voltage V is maintained constant and emitter-base voltage V varies to
CB EB

different levels.

For each level of input voltage, the input current I is noted. Then the curve is
E

The emitter plotted between emitter current I and emitter-base voltage V . The
E EB

emitter current is taken along y-axis and emitter-base voltage taken along x-
axis.

(i) The emitter current I increases rapidly with small increase in emitter-base
E

voltage V . It means low dynamic input resistance because input resistance of a

EB

transistor is given as the reciprocal of the slope of its input characteristic.

(ii) The emitter current is does not dependent of collector-base voltage V . leads
CB

to the conclusion that emitter current and collector current are almost
independent of collector voltage.

Input resistance: It is the ratio of change in emitter-base voltage (ΔV ) to the

EB

resulting change in emitter current (ΔI ) at constant collector-base voltage (V )

E CB

i.e. Input resistance.,

Since a very small V is sufficient to produce a large flow of emitter current I ,
EB E

therefore, input resistance is quite small, of the order of a few ohms.

2. Output characteristics:

❖ Figure 3.34 shows the output characteristics of a typical transistor in

Common base arrangement.

❖ For determination of output characteristics, the emitter current is kept

constant. For each fixed level of emitter current I , the output voltage V is
E CB

varied and corresponding I is noted.C

(i) The collector current I varies with V only for very low voltages (below
C CB

1V). The transistor is never operated in this region.

(ii) In active region collector current I is almost equal to I . When the value of
C E

V is increased, the collector current becomes constant as indicated by straight

CB

horizontal lines. It means that now I is independent of V and depends only on

C CB

I . Thus the emitter current flows entirely to the collector terminal. The
E

transistor is always operated in this region. A very large change in collector-

base voltage makes a small change in collector current (I ). It means that output
C

resistance is very high. Now I is independent of V .

C CB

(iii) In cut off region, (emitter and collector junctions both reverse biased) a
small current I flows even when emitter current I =0. This is the collector
C E

leakage current I or I .
CBO CO

(iv) In saturation region (emitter and collector junctions both forward biased),
collector current I flows even when V = 0. Even when the externally applied
C CB

bias voltage is reduced to zero, there is still a barrier potential at the collector
base junction, and it assists in the flow of I . To stop it, the collector base
C

junction has to be forward biased. In the figure 3.34, collector cuurent I is C

reduced to zero when V is increased to negatively.

CB

Output resistance. It is the ratio of change in collector-base voltage (AV ) to

CB

the resulting change in collector current (Δ I ) at constant emitter current i.e.

C

Output resistance,

The output resistance of Common base circuit is very high, of the order of
several tens of kilo-ohms.

Early effect:

● The Early effect is the variation in the width of the base in a bipolar junction
transistor (BJT) due to a variation in the applied collector to base voltage.

● When the V is made to increase, it increases the depletion region across

CB

collector to base junction, with the result that effective width of base decreases.
This is known variation of effective base width by the collector to base voltage
(V ) as early effect (or) base width modulation.
CB

Reach through or punch through:

The collector current I is independent of V over transistor operating range.

C CB

However if V is increased beyond a certain value, I increases rapidly because

CB C

of avalanche effect. This condition is known as Reach through or punch

through. When it occurs large current will flow, possibly destroying the device.

2. Common Emitter Configuration

In the Common Emitter Configuration, input is applied between base and

emitter and output is taken across the collector and emitter terminals. Here,
emitter of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence
the name common emitter configuration. Figure 3.35 shows common emitter
npn transistor circuit and pnp transistor circuit.

In CE configuration, emitter base junction is forward biased and base is made

more positive than emitter by V , collector emitter junction is reverse biased
BB
and collector is made more positive than by V . The value of V must be greater
CC CC

than that of V .
BB

Characteristics of Common Emitter Configuration The circuit used to

determine the input and output characteristics of the common emitter
configuration.

1. Input characteristics: It is the curve drawn between base current I and base-
B

emitter voltage V for a given value of collector-emitter voltage V .

BE CE

To determine of input characteristics, keeping collector-emitter voltage V CE

constant (say at 10 V), note the base current I for different values of V . Then
B BE

observe the readings and plot the reading on the graph, taking I along y-axis
B

and V along x- axis.

BE

The following points may be noted from the input characteristics:

(i) The characteristic quite similar to that of a forward biased diode curve, since
the base-emitter region of transistor is a diode and it is forward biased.

(ii) As compared to CB arrangement, I increases less rapidly with increase in

B

V . Hence, input resistance of a CE configuration is larger than that of CB

BE

configuration.
Input resistance: It is the ratio of change in base-emitter voltage (ΔV ) to the
BE

change in base current (ΔI ) at constant collector-emitter voltage V i.e., Input

B CE

resistance of a transistor is given as the reciprocal of the slope of its input

characteristic.

The value of input resistance for a Common Emitter circuit is of the order of a
few hundred ohms.

2. Output characteristics: It is the curve drawn between collector current I C

and collector-emitter voltage V for a given value of base current I .

CE B

To determine of output characteristics, keeping the base current I some value,

B

observe the collector current I for different values of V . Then plot the readings
C CE

on a graph, taking I along y-axis and V along x-axis.

C CE
The following points may be observed from the characteristics:

(i) In active region, the collector current I increases slowly with collector-
C

emitter voltage (V ) for V between 0 and 1V only. Beyond this limit, collector
CE CE

current becomes almost flat (or) constant and independent of collector-emitter

voltage (V ). The value of V upto which collector current I changes with
CE CE C

collector- emitter voltage (V ) is called the knee voltage (V ). The transistors

CE knee

are always operated in the region above knee voltage.

(ii) Above the knee voltage (active region), I is almost flat (or) constant. In
C

active region, for small values of base current (I ) the effect of collector voltage
B

on collector current I is small but large values of I this effect is increases.

C B

(iii) For low values of V , the transistor is said to be operated in saturation

CE

region and in this region base current I does not make change in I .
B C

(iv) For higher values of V , avalanche breakdown occurs in collector to base

CE

junction and as a result of this avalanche breakdown, collector current increases

rapidly-and transistor gets damaged.

(v) In cut-off region, small amount of I flows even if the base current I =0.
C B

This is called reverse leakage current(I ). CEO

(vi) For any value of V beyond the knee voltage, the collector current I is
CE C

approximately equal to β × I . Where β is DC current gain.

B

Output resistance. It is the ratio of change in collector-emitter voltage (ΔV ) to CE

the change in collector current (ΔI ) at constant I i.e. C B

The output characteristics of CE configuration have some slope while CB

configuration has horizontal characteristics. It indicates, the output resistance of
a CE circuit is less than that of CB circuit. The value output resistance is of the
order of 50 ΚΩ.

Transistor parameters:

The slope of CE characteristics gives rise to four transistor parameters which

are commonly known as common emitter hybrid parameters (or) h parameters.

i) Input impedance (h ̧): ie

It is defined as the ratio of the change in base voltage to change in base current
with constant collector voltage V . CE

ii) Output admittance (h ):

oe

It is defined as the ratio of change in collector current to corresponding change

in collector voltage with constant base current I . B

iii) Forward current gain (h ): fe

It is defined as a ratio of change in collector current to corresponding change in

base current with constant collector voltage V . CE

iv) Reverse voltage gain (h ): re

It is defined as the ratio of change in base voltage and corresponding change in

collector voltage with constant base current I . hence
B

3. Common Collector configuration

In this CC Configuration, the input is applied between base and collector while
output is taken across emitter and collector. Collector is common to both input
and output circuits.

The operation of the circuit is same as CE Configuration except the load

resistance placed in emitter circuit.
Input Characteristics:

For input characteristics, V kept constant and base current I is recorded for
CE B

different values of collector to base voltage V .

CB

Output characteristics:

The output characteristics are plotted between emitter current and collector to
emitter voltage V .
CE
Applications:

The common collector circuit has very high input resistance (about 750 kΩ)and
very low output resistance (about 25Ω). So the voltage gain provided by this
circuit is always less than unity. Therefore, this circuit arrangement is seldom
used for amplification. Because of high input resistance and low output
resistance, this circuit is primarily used for impedance matching i.e. for driving
a low impedance load from a high impedance source. This configuration is also
called as emitter follower

Current Gain or Current Amplification factor in CC Configuration

In CC configuration, the ratio of change in emitter current to the change in base

current is called as current gain or current amplification factor. It is denoted by
letter γ (Gamma).

Mathematically,

Relation between current gain γ and α:

We know that
Therefore, γ = β + 1
Current gain in CC configuration is very high comparable to the current gain in
CE configuration.

Calculation of Collector Current

We know that I = αI + I
C E CBO

COMPARISON OF CB, CE AND CC CONFIGURATION

Current Amplification Factor

In a transistor amplifier with AC input signal, the ratio of change in output

current to the change in input current is known as current amplification factor.

In CB configuration,

In CE configuration,

In CC configuration,
From equation (6) it is clear that as a approaches unity, β approaches infinity.
The CE configuration is used for almost all transistor applications because of its
current gain β is high.

TRANSISTOR BIASING
The main function of transistor is to do amplification. The weak signal is
applied to the base of the transistor and amplified output is obtained from the
collector circuit. The main requirement during amplification process is that only
the magnitude of the signal should increase and signal shape should not get
change. This increase in magnitude of the signal without any change in original
signal shape is called as faithful amplification.

To achieve this, input circuit (i.e. base-emitter junction) of the transistor

remains forward biased and output circuit (i.e. collector base junction) always
remains reverse biased during all parts of the signal. It is called as transistor
biasing.

Need for biasing:

The primary purpose of transistor biasing is to keep the base-emitter junction

properly forward biased and collector-base junction properly reverse biased
during the application of signal. It can be achieved with a bias battery or
associating a circuit with a transistor. The circuit which provides transistor
biasing is known as biasing circuit. The transistor biasing is very essential for
the proper operation of transistor in linear region or active region.

1. Transistor Biasing - Operating region

Applying external voltage of correct polarity and magnitude to the two junction.
of the transistor is called Biasing

Based on the external voltage polarity, the transistor will be operated in three
different regions.

That is

(i) Active region

(ii) Cutoff region and

(iii) Saturation region

FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS

● The FET is a three terminal semiconductor device in which the current flow
through the conduction region is controlled by an electric field.
● FET is also known as Voltage controlled device, since the flow of current in
the output side is controlled by Input voltage

● The operation of the FET depends on the majority carrier alone. So it is called
Unipolar device.

Advantages of FET:-

● Thermally more stable.

● It is immune to radiation.

● No offset voltage occurs.

● Due to its high input impedance, it is preferred for amplifiers.

● Less space is required and less noisy.

Classification of FET:-

FET is classified into two types.

(i) Junction field effect transistor (JFET)

(ii) Metal oxide semiconductor Field effect semiconductor(MOSFET)

JFET
The junction field-effect transistor is the simplest type of field-effect transistor.
It is a three-terminal semiconductor device which can be used as a voltage-
controlled resistance or as an electronically-controlled switch by controlling the
flow of current by input voltage.

Based on the majority carrier, JFET is further classified into

(i) N channel JFET – electron is the majority carriers

(ii) P channel JFET - holes is the majority carriers

Construction of JFET:-

● JFET consists of a p-type (or) N-type silicon channel.

If the channel of the JFET is formed by P type silicon channel then it is known
as p type JFET.

If the channel of the JFET is formed by N type silicon channel then it is known
as N type JFET.

● It has three terminals - Source, Drain and Gate.

Source:-

It is the terminal through which the majority carrier enters the channel.

Drain:-

It is the terminal through which the majority carrier leaves the channel.

Gate:-
This is a heavily doped, internally connected two sided region which is formed
by diffusion process on both side of either p-type (or) n-type channel.

Channel:-

It is the N type (or) P- type semiconductor region between the two gates regions
through which the majority carrier moves from source to drain constitute drain
current.

P Channel JFET:-

In the P channel JFET, a p type bar of semiconductor material is taken. On the

opposite faces of middle region, heavily doped n type region is diffused. Ohmic
contacts are placed on the both end of the opposite faces to gates. One ohime
contact is called source and other is drain

N-Channel JFET:-

In the N-Channel JFET, a n type bar of semiconductor material is taken. On the

opposite faces of middle region, heavily doped p-type region is diffused. Ohmic
contacts are placed on both opposite end faces to gates. One ohmie contact is
called source and other is drain.

2. Operation of JFET:-

Consider the N-Channel JFET in which V is applied between Gate and Source
GG

which is reverse biased and V is applied between source and drain where
DD

positive is applied at drain and negative is applied at source.

The operation of JFET depends on three conditions.

(i) V applied and V = 0

GS DS

When the reverse bias is applied between Gate and Source the depletion region
is formed due to the diffusion of electron in p type and holes in n-type region. If
no V is applied this depletion region extends symmetrically, due to this
DD

Conductivity I is zero.
D
(ii) V applied and V = 0
DS GS

When V =0 and the voltage is applied between drain and source. The electron
GS

will flow from drain to source and constitute the current known as I .
D

The current magnitude depends upon the following factors.

1) Number of majority carriers (electron in N type) available in the channel (ñ)

2) Length of the channel (L)

3) Cross sectional area of channel (n)

4) Applied voltage magnitude (V ) DS

There will be a resistance offered by drain and source which is represented as r d

and r .
s

The voltage drop across V >>V .

rd rs
(iii) V & V applied
DS GS

When voltage is applied between drain and source, electron flows from source
to drain constitutes Drain current I . When the voltage which is applied between
D

Gate and Source increases, the depletion region formed will reduces the current
I . When the V is further increases, the two depletion regions touch each other.
D GG

It is called pinch off region.

Thus by increasing V the current I reduces to zero.

GG D

Hence by means of voltage V , we can control the flow of electron (Current) I

GG D

in the output therefore JFET is known as voltage controlled device.

3. Characteristics of JFET

JFET shows two important characteristics.

(i) Transfer characteristic

This characteristic is used to relate the V and I . The graph is drawn between
GS D

V and I by increasing the value of V keeping suitable V value.

GS D GG DD
Initially the value of I is maximum it is given as I . When the value of V is
D DD GS

increased, the value of I decrease and reaches zero at the voltage known as
D

pinch off voltage V (or) V

P GS(off)

(ii) Drain Characteristic

This characteristic shows the relationship between Drain current (I ) and Drain
D

to source voltage (V ). DS

● When V is increases, I increases the rate of increases in I till point A is in

DS D D

linear manner. This region of curve is known as ohmie region. The resistance

is related to gate to source voltage (V ) in linear manner.

GS
● At point A, I is maximum it is given as I . When V is further increased the
D DSS DS

value of I remains unchanged and maintains saturated state due to increases in

D

V.
P

● After point B, the drain current I increases rapidly. This is due to breakdown
D

in gate to source junction due to avalanche effect. This region is known as

breakdown region and voltage at this point is known as breakdown voltage.

Characteristics parameters of JFET

The four important factors of the JFET is

(i) Transconductance (or) mutual conductance (gm):-

It is the ratio of a small change in Drain current I to the small change in gate to
D

source voltage, keeping V constant. Its unit is mho

DS

(ii) Drain Resistance (r ):-

d

It is the ratio of a small change in drain to source voltage to the small change in
drain current, keeping V constant. Its unit is ohms.
GS

(iii) Drain Conductance (gd):-

It is the ratio of a small change in Drain current to drain to source voltage,

keeping V constant
GS

(iv) Amplification Factor (m):-

It is the ratio of a small change in drain to source voltage to the small change in
gate to source voltage, keeping I constant
D

Application of JFET:

(i) Since JFET is voltage controlled device, it is used as a voltage variable

resistor in voltage control circuits, operation amplifiers etc.

(ii) JFET can be used as an amplifier element in buffer amplifier, Rf amplifier

tuner circuit, operational amplifier etc.

(iii) Due to its Voltage Variable Resistor function. It is used in an Automatic

Gain Control Circuits.

It is used as a mixer and oscillator in various frequency driven circuits.

METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR FET:

MOSFET is a three terminal semiconductor device. It is also known as
Insulated Gate FET (IGFET) in which there is no pn junction structure, but
instead the gate is insulated from the channel by oxide layer of SiO hence the
2

name Insulated Gate FET. The electric field applied cross an insulated gate
controls the majority carrier in the channel.

Categories of MOSFET:-

There are two types of MOSFET

(a) Depletion MOSFET

(i) N channel D- MOSFET (ii) P channel D -MOSFET

(b) Enhancement MOSFET

(i) N channel E- MOSFET (ii) P channel E -MOSFET

1. Depletion MOSFET

Construction:-

In this N channel MOSFET, two heavily doped regions (Drain and source) of n
type is diffused on the p type substrate. This diffused N type region is joined by
the channel of n type. A thin layer of SiO layer is grown over the surface of the
2

substrate and a thin layer of metal aluminum is placed over the SiO2 layer. This
makes the gate which is connected to metal is insulated from channel hence the
name IGFET.

Operation:- The operation of the depletion mosfet is based on two modes.

Depletion mode:-

● If Vps is applied, the electron from the source will moves towards the drain
through the channel constitutes the current I .D

● If V is made negative, the induced negative charge will accumulate on the

GS

Sio , attract the positive charge on the channel. This hole will deplete the mobile
2

electron in channel.

● hence increasing V will reduce Current I .

GS D

Enhancement mode:-
If V is made positive, the induced positive charge will accumulate on the SiO
GS 2

attract the negative charge on the channel. This electron helps to increase the
current I .
D

Characteristics:- MOSFET exhibit two characteristics:

Transfer characteristics:

The graph drawn between I and V is known as transfer characteristics. The

D GS

value of I will be Ipss though the Gate voltage V is not applied, the increase
DSS gs

in V will constitute Current I .

ds D

If V is positive, the value of I will increase from I .

GS D DSS

If V is negative, the value of I will decrease from I and will reach zero.
GS D DSS
Drain characteristics:-

● The graph drawn between I and V is known as drain characteristics.

D DS

● The value of I increases with V , keeping increases in V (positively). This is

D DS GS

known as enhancement mode.

● The value of I decreases with V , keeping decreases in V (negatively) this is

D DS GS

known as Depletion mode.

2. Enhancement MOSFET:-
In the n channel Enhancement MOSFET, two heavily doped N- type layers
(Source and Drain) is diffused on the p type substrate but there is no channel
between the n type layer as in the case of depletion MOSFET. One n+ region is
connected to Drain and other to the source. A thin layer of SiO is deposited on
2

the surface of the structure. An aluminium metal is placed over the SiO layer
2

which forms the gate.

Operation:-

● The operation of the enhancement MOSFET is based on enhancement mode

only

● When V is applied positively, the negative charge will be accumulated near

GS

the SiO layer.

2
● This negative charge due to the attraction of +ve charge in the Sio layer will
2

accumulate and form a layer known as induced inversion layer of negative

carrier.

● When V is applied, the conductivity increases constitute current I .

DS D

Characteristics:

Enhancement MOSFET exhibit two characteristics.

Transfer characteristic:

The graph drawn between I and V is known a transfer characteristic. The

D GS

characteristics curve is obtained in the positive region only. When V is GS

increased I increases with V .

D GS

Drain characteristics:-

The graph drawn between I and V is known as drain characteristics with

D DS

increases in the value of V , I increases keeping increases in the value if V .

DS D GS
Application of MOSFET:

(1) MOSFET is commonly preferred for implementing Logic gate. Hence it is

widely used in switch, microprocessor, memory element etc.

(ii) It is used as a discrete device in switch mode power supplies (SMPS),

driven circuit etc.

(iii) In the frequency driven circuit, it is used as a mixer and oscillator.

(iv) It is used as a chopper amplifier and stabilization circuit in op-amp.

(v) It functions as a switched capacitor circuits in time processing system.

SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)

SCR is one of the oldest type of solid state power device. It was invented in
1957 by the Generate Electric Research Laboratories. SCRs have the highest
power handling capacity of all the power semiconductor devices. They have a
four layer construction with three user accessible terminals SCR is a latching
type device that can be turned on by the control terminal (gate) but once turned
on the gate loses control on it (i.e. it cannot be turned by the gate)

Important Features of SCR

(i) It is a latching type device.

(ii) It can handle a very large power.

(iii) It is a current controlled device, because the gate current controls SCR.
(iv) It acts as an open or closed switch.

(v) It can handle thousands of amperes of current.

1. Basic Structure of SCR

The basic structure of SCR has been shown in figure 3.55(b). It is a four layer
pnpn device, with three terminals brought out for the user, namely Anode,
Cathode and Gate. The gate terminal is the control terminal that can turn on the
device whenever required. The symbol of SCR has been shown in figure
3.55(a). It is essentially the symbol of a rectifying diode with a third control
terminal, the gate added to it. The direction of forward anode current, voltage
across the thyristor and direction of conventional gate current have been shown
in figure.3.55(a)

Number of Junctions

As observed from figure 3.55(b), there are three junctions J , J and J . In order to
1 2 3

turn on SCR, the anode must be at a higher positive potential than cathode. This
means that SCR must be forward biased.

Current Directions

The directions of the anode and gate current in figure 3.55(a) are conventional
directions. It clearly indicates that SCR is a unidirectional device and that the
gate current can be only positive. The gate current can flow only in one
direction i.e. into the gate terminal.
2. I-V Characteristics

The I-V characteristics of SCR is a graph of anode current I on y-axis and

A

anode to cathode voltage plotted on the x-axis as shown in figure 3.56. The I-V
Characteristics can be split into two parts namely the forward characteristics
and reverse characteristics. The characteristics in the reverse direction (anode to
cathode voltage negative) is similar to a reverse biased diode. For small reverse
voltage, a small reverse leakage current flows until the avalanche breakdown
takes place at reverse break over voltage V .
BR

As soon as the reverse breakdown takes place due to avalanche breakdown, a

large current flows through SCR whereas the voltage across the device remains
constant. It is dangerous to operate SCR in the reverse breakdown state because
it may get damaged due to overheating.

The region from 0 volts upto V Volts in which the SCR is reverse biased and
BR

non-conducting is called as reverse blocking state.

1. Forward characteristics

under:

The forward characteristics may be divided into three regions of operation as

(i) Forward blocking state

(ii) Transition state

(iii) The Low Voltage High Current Mode or the ON state

(i) Forward blocking state :

This is the high voltage low current mode of operation in which SCR is in the
OFF state. The current through it is Forward Leakage Current. This current
flows due to thermally generated minority carriers.

(ii) Transition state:

SCR remains in the blocking state as long as the forward anode to cathode
voltagage is less than the break over voltage. As soon as V becomes greater
AK

than the break over value, the anode current I increases sharply to a high value
A

and the voltage across SCR reduces sharply to a low value (on state voltage).
The switching of SCR from off state to on state and viceversa takes place in a
short time. This change over state is called as transition state. As this is an
unstable state, it is shown by dotted line in figure.

(iii) The Low Voltage High Current Mode or the ON state

The voltage across SCR is low in this state. In the on state a high power SCR
can conduct average currents as large as 2000 amp with on state voltage drop of
a few volts.

2. Unstable state

These two stable starts or modes are connected together by an unstable mode
(called as the transition mode) of proportion that appears as a negative
resistance on the I-V characteristics. (dotted line in figure 3.56)

The important voltage and current terms in the I-V characteristics may be listed
as under :

(i) The forward breakover voltage (V ) BO

This is the maximum forward voltage that can be applied between anode and
cathode, without initiating forward conduction. This voltage is defined for a
zero gate current. In short, this is the maximum forward voltage across SCR in
its off state.

(ii) The forward leakage current

This is the small current flowing in the forward direction in the off state of the
device. This current is generated due to the minority current carriers and
therefore is dependent on the operating temperature.

(iii) The holding current (I )

H

It represents the minimum current that can flow through SCR and still hold it in
the on state. The accompanying voltage is termed as holding voltage V . If the
H

forward anode current is reduced below holding current, SCR will be turned off.
The holding current is defined for zero gate current (I = 0)
G

(iv) ON state voltage

It may be noted that the voltage across SCR in its on state is very low as
compared to the off state voltage. It will be proved later on that the on state
voltage is equal to drop across one junction (i.e. the order of 1 to 1.5 volts)

(v) Latching current (I )

L

It is minimum anode current that must flow through SCR to latch it into the on
state. The latching current is higher than the holding current. The latching
current is important when SCR is being turned on.

3. Working Operation of SCR

Working operation of SCR can be explained under two different operating

conditions. These two operating conditions are as under :

1. Working Operation Without Gate Current

Let us consider figure 3.57(a). The gate terminal of SCR is left open so that I = G

0. SCR is forward, biased by applying a positive voltage to anode with respect

to cathode. Out of the three junctions, the junctions J and J are forward biased
1 3

and junction J is reverse biased. Therefore, current does not flow through the
2

SCR. As the anode to cathode voltage is increased, the voltage across junction J 2

increases. At a certain voltage, this junction will breakdown and SCR will start
conducting. This voltage is called as forward breakover voltage.

Operation With Gate Current

Let us consider figure 3.57(b). It illustrates that SCR is forward biased as before
and the gate cathode junction also is forward biased using an external power
source. The gate current I states flowing which can be adjusted by the
G

resistance R . As explained earlier, the value of gate current decides breakover

G

voltage of SCR. As I increases, breakover voltage will decrease i.e., SCR will
G

turn on at lower voltage.

Reverse Blocking Capacity

In the reverse blocking state, anode is biased negative with respect to cathode.
Therefore, the junctions J and J in figure 3.58(a) are reverse biased and
1 3

junction J is forward biased. Out of the two reverse biased junction J and J , the
2 1 3

lower junction J has a low breakdown voltage due to the heavy doping on both
3

sides of it. Hence, the reverse blocking capacity depends entirely on junction J . 1
Therefore blocking capacity of junction J is usually decided by the length of n −
1

(n ) region.
1

Forward Blocking Capacity of SCR

In the forward blocking state, the thyristor has to block a forward voltage
because anode is biased positive with respect to cathode. Therefore, the
junctions J and J are forward biased, and junction J is reverse biased. The
1 3 2

junction J has to block the entire anode to cathode voltage. In order to achieve
2

this, the n - 1 layer (n ) in figure 3.58(b) is lightly doped and made wide enough.
1

The depletion region of the reverse biased J junction appears in this layer (n
2 1

layer). Thus, this region decides the forward blocking voltage.

Drawbacks of SCR

(i) It can conduct only in one direction. Hence, it can control power only during
one half cycle of ac.

(ii) It can turn on accidently due to high dv/dt of the source voltage.

(iii) It is not easy to turn off the conducting SCR. We have to use special
circuits called commutation circuits to turn off SCR.

(iv) SCR can not be used at high frequencies. The maximum frequency of its
operation is 400 Hz.

(v) Gate current can not be negative.

Advantages of SCR

(i) It can handle large voltages, currents and power.

(ii) The voltage drop across conducting SCR is small. This will reduce the
power dissipation in the SCR.

(iii) Easy to turn on.

(iv) Triggering circuits are simple.

(v) It can be protected with the help of a fuse.

(vi) We can control the power delivered to the load.

Applications of SCR

(i) Controlled rectifiers.

(ii) DC to AC converters or choppers

(iii) DC to AC converters or inverters

(iv) As static switch

(v) Battery charger

(vi) Speed control of DC and AC motors

(vii) Lamp dimmers

(viii) AC voltage stabilizers.

IGBT
The IGBT or Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor is the combination of BJT
and MOSFET. Its name also implies the fusion between them. "Insulated Gate"
refers to the input part of MOSFET having very high input impedance. It does
not draw any input current rather it operates on the voltage at its gate terminal.
"Bipolar” refers to the output part of the BJT having bipolar nature where the
current flow is due to both types of charge carriers. It allows it to handle very
large currents and voltages using small voltage signals. This hybrid combination
makes the IGBT a voltage-controlled device.
It is a four-layer PNPN device having three PN junctions. It has three terminals
Gate (G), Collector(C) and Emitter (E). The terminal's name also implies being
taken from both transistors. Gate terminal as it is the input part, taken from
MOSFET while the collector and emitter as they are the output, taken from the
BJT.

1. Construction of IGBT

IGBT is made of four layers of semiconductor to form a PNPN structure. The

collector (C) electrode is attached to P layer while the emitter (E) is attached
between the P and N layers. A P+ substrate is used for the construction of
IGBT. An N- layer is placed on top of it to form PN junction J1. Two P regions
are fabricated on top of N- layer to form PN junction J2. The P region is
designed in such a way to leave a path in the middle for the gate (G) electrode.
N+ regions are diffused over the P region as shown in the figure.
The emitter and gate are metal electrodes. The emitter is directly attached to the
N+ region while the gate is insulated using a silicon dioxide layer. The base P+
layer inject holes into N- layer that is why it is called injector layer. While the
N- layer is called the drift region. Its thickness is proportional to voltage
blocking capacity. The P layer above is known as the body of IGBT.

The N- layer is designed to have a path for current flow between the emitter and
collector through the junction using the channel that is created under the
influence of the voltage at the gate electrode.

Equivalent Structure of IGBT

As we know that IGBT is the combination of input of MOSFET and output of

BJT, it has an equivalent structure to N-channel MOSFET and a PNP BJT in
Darlington configuration. The resistance of the drift region can also be
incorporated.
If we look at the structure of the IGBT above, there is more than one path for
the current to flow. The current path is directed from collector to emitter. The
first path is “collector, P+ substrate, N-, P, emitter". This path is already
mentioned using the PNP transistor in an equivalent structure. The 2 path is
nd

"collector, P+ substrate, N, P, N+, emitter". To include this path, another NPN

transistor must be included in the structure as shown in the figure below.
2. Working of IGBT

The two terminals of IGBT collector (C) and emitter (E) are used for the
conduction of current while the gate (G) is used for controlling the IGBT. Its
working is based on the biasing between Gate-Emitter terminals and Collector-
Emitter terminals.

The collector-emitter is connected to Vcc such that the collector is kept at a

positive voltage than the emitter. The junction J becomes forward biased and J
1 2

becomes reverse biased. At this point, there is no voltage at the gate. Due to
reverse J , the IGBT remains switched off and no current will flow between
2

collector and emitter.

Applying a gate voltage V positive than the emitter, negative charges will
G

accumulate right beneath the SiO layer due to capacitance. Increasing the V
2 G

increases the number of charges which eventually form a layer when the V G

exceeds the threshold voltage, in the upper P-region. This layer form N-channel
that shorts N- drift region and N+ region.

The electrons from the emitter flow from N+ region into N- drift region. While
the holes from the collector are injected from the P+ region into the N- drift
region. Due to the excess of both electrons and holes in the drift region, its
conductivity increase and starts the conduction of current. Hence the IGBT
switches ON.
3. Types of IGBT

There are two types of IGBT based on the inclusion of N+ buffer layer. The
inclusion of this extra layer divides them into symmetrical and asymmetrical
IGBT.

Punch through IGBT

The Punch through IGBT includes N+ buffer layer due to which it is also
known as an asymmetrical IGBT. They have asymmetric voltage blocking
capabilities i.e. their forward and reverse breakdown voltages are different.
Their reverse breakdown voltage is less than its forward breakdown voltage. It
has faster switching speed.

Punch through IGBTs is unidirectional and cannot handle reverse voltages.

Therefore, they are used in DC circuits such as inverters and chopper circuits.

Non Punch through IGBT

They are also known as symmetrical IGBT due to the absence of extra N+
buffer layer. The symmetry in structure provides symmetrical breakdown
voltage characterístics i.e. the forward and reverse breakdown voltages are
equal. Due to this reason, they are used in AC circuits.

4. V-I Characteristics of IGBT

Unlike BJT, IGBT is a voltage-controlled device that requires only a small
voltage at its gate to control the collector current. However, the gate-emitter
voltage V needs to be greater than the threshold voltage.
GE

Transfer characteristics of the IGBT show the relation of input voltage V to GE

output. collector current I . When the V is 0v, there is no I and the device
C GE C

remains switched off.

When the V is slightly increased but remains below threshold voltage V , the
GE GET

device remains switched off but there is a leakage current. When the V GE

exceeds the threshold limit, the I starts to increase and the device switches ON.
C

Since it is a unidirectional device, the current only flows in one direction.

The given graph shows the relation between the collector current I and
collector- emitter voltage V at different levels of V .
CE GE

At V < V the IGBT is in cutoff mode and the I = 0 at any V .

GE GET C CE

At V > V , the IGBT goes into active mode, where the I increases with an
GE GET C

increase in V . Furthermore, for each V , where V <V < V , the I is

CE CE GE1 GE2 GE3 C

different.

The reverse voltage should not exceed the reverse breakdown limit. So does the
forward voltage. If they exceed their respective breakdown limit, uncontrolled
current starts passing through it.
Advantages & Disadvantages of IGBT

Advantages

IGBT as a whole has the advantages of both BJT and MOSFET.

• It has higher voltage and current handling capabilities.

• It has a very high input impedance.

• It can switch very high currents using very low voltage.

• It is voltage-controlled i.e. it has no input current and low input losses.

• The gate drive circuitry is simple and cheap.

• It can be easily switched ON by applying positive voltage and OFF by

applying zero or slightly negative voltage.

• It has very low ON-state resistance

• It has a high current density, enabling it to have a smaller chip size.

• It has a higher power gain than both BJT and MOSFET.

• It has a higher switching speed than BJT.

Disadvantages

• It has a lower switching speed than MOSFET.

• It is unidirectional it cannot conduct in reverse.

• It cannot block higher reverse voltage.

• It is costlier than BJT and MOSFET.

• It has latching problems due to the PNPN structure resembling thyristor.

Applications of IGBT

IGBTs have numerous applications used in AC as well as DC circuits. Here are

some of the important applications of IGBT

• It is used in SMPS (Switched Mode Power Supply) to supply power to

sensitive medical equipment and computers.

• It is used in UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) system.

• It is used in AC and DC motor drives offering speed control.

• It is used in chopper and inverters.

• It is used in solar inverters.

RECTIFIERS

1. Introduction

A diode has unidirectional property that it conducts only in forward bias and it
is cut-off in reverse bias.

Few applications of Diode

❖ Diode is used in rectifiers which are used in dc power supplies.

❖ Diode is used in wave shapping circuit.

❖ Zener diodes are used in voltage regulator.

2. Power Supply

Most of the electronic equipments require dc voltage. This dc voltage obtained

with the help of battery. Today all electronic equipments contain a circuit called
power supply to change ac signal to dc. The block diagram of power supply is
shown in figure 3.67.

(i) Transformer. The transformer step up or step down the ac supply according
to the requirement of de to the circuit. Transformer provides isolation.

(ii) Rectifier. The function the rectifier is to convert the ac voltage into dc
voltage.
(iii) Filter: The dc output of the rectifier may contain ripples. These ripples are
removed with the help of filters.

(iv) Regulator: In the absence of regulator in the circuit, the dc output will
change if either input voltage or load changes. Therefore the function of the
regulator is to provide constant de voltage or regulate dc voltage irrespective of
the change in input voltage.

Rectifiers: The process of converting ac voltage to pulsating de voltage is

known as rectification. A device which converts ac voltage to pulsating dc
voltage is called as rectifier.

Types of Rectifiers:

(i) Half-wave rectifiers.

(ii) Full-wave rectifiers.

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

In half wave rectifier, diode conducts only during positive half cycle of input ac
supply. The negative half cycle of ac supply are eliminated from the output.
This rectifier circuit consists of resistive load and transformer for step down the
input voltage.

During positive half cycle of the ac input supply, diode D conducts. The current
I flows through load resistor R . During negative half cycle of the ac input
L L

supply, diode D reverse biased. It does not conduct. No current flows through
load resistor R . The result is that output voltage consist of positive half cycles
L

of input ac voltage while negative half cycles are suppressed. It may be seen
that output across load resistor R is pulsating d.c.
L

1. Average DC Load Current (I DC)

The average (or) dc value of alternating current is obtained by integration. For

finding out the average value of an alternating signal we have to determine the
area under the curve over one complete cycle.(i.e) from 0 to 2л and then
dividing it by the base (i.e) 2.

Mathematically current waveform can be expressed as,

Where R - Winding resistance

s
R - Diode resistance
f

R - Load resistance
L

2. Average DC Load Voltage (E or V )

DC DC

It is the product of average D.C. load current and the load resistance R L
Substitute equation (3) in (2)

3. Mean Square Value of Load Current (I )

RMS
RMS value of the set of values is square root of the arithmetic mean of the
squares of the original values (or square of the function that defines the
continuous waveform.)
4. DC Power Output (P ) DC

The dc power output can be determined as,

5. AC Power Input (P ) AC

The power input taken from the secondary of transformer is the power supplied
to three resistances namely load resistance R the diode resistance R and
L f

winding resistance R . S

The ac power is given as,

P =I
AC
2
RMS (R + R + R )
L f s

6. Rectifier Efficiency (η)

The rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of output dc power to input ac
power.

7. Ripple Factor (γ)

Mathematically, ripple factor is defined as the ratio of R.M.S value of the ac

component to the dc component in the output.

I = RMS value of ac component present in output

ac

I = DC component present in output

dc

I = RMS value of total output current

RMS
The ripple factor for half wave rectifier is very high which indicates that the half
wave rectifier circuit is a poor converter of ac to dc.

The ripple factor is minimized using filter circuits along with the rectifiers.

8. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)

The TUF is defined as the ratio of dc power delivered to the load to the ac
power rating of the transformer.
We know that.

Substitute (11) in (10),

Since from equation (4)

9. Voltage Regulation
When we are neglecting 'R ' value voltage regulation = R /R since R << R
S f L S f
Less the value of voltage regulation, better is the performance of rectifier
circuit.

10. Peak Inverse Voltage

The peak inverse is the voltage across the diode in the reverse direction. When
the diode is reverse bias the current across the diode is zero. Hence maximum
value of reverse voltage which occurs at the peak of the input cycle when the
diode is reverse biased.

Peak inverse voltage of half wave rectifier is

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

Figure (3.70) shows centre tapped full wave rectifier. In full wave rectifier, the
rectifying element conducts in both positive and negative cycles of the input
signal.

Due to centre tapping, the impedance of the two halves of windings are equal.
Hence, the voltages in two halves are 180° out of phase.

During positive half cycle of input, the D is conducts and D is in off state. The
1 2

current flows through the load resistor R While negative half cycle of input, D
L 2

conducts and D is in off state. The current flows through the load resistor R .
1 L
1. Average DC Load Current (I ) DC

Consider one cycle of load current I from 0 to 2л to obtain the average value
L

which is dc value of load current.

2. Average (or) DC load voltage (V ) DC

The dc voltage is,

3. RMS Load Current (I ) RMS

The RMS value of current can be obtained as follows,

4. DC Power Output (P )DC

DC power output written as,

5. AC Power input (P ) AC

AC power input written as,

6. Rectifier Efficiency (η)

This is the maximum theoretical efficiency of full wave rectifier. (i.e.)

efficiency of full wave rectifier is twice times of half wave rectifier efficiency.
7. Ripple Factor

As derived earlier in case of half wave rectifier the ripple factor is given by a
general expression,

8. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)

In full wave rectifier, the secondary current flows through each half separately
in every half cycle, while the primary of transformer carries current
continuously.

Hence TUF is calculated for primary and secondary windings separately and
then the average TUF is determined.

For secondary,

We know that a full wave rectifier consists of two half wave rectifiers.
Therefore, TUF for primary = 2 × TUF of HWR

(TUF) = 2 × 0.287 = 0.574

P

9. Voltage Regulation

For full wave circuit,

10. Peak inverse Voltage of Full Wave Rectifier.

Peak inverse voltage of full wave rectifier is twice the value of Half wave
rectifier,

Circuit diagram for peak inverse voltage:

Disadvantage of Full wave Rectifier

Design and maintenance of center tapped transformer is difficult.

BRIDGE RECTIFIER
The bridge rectifier circuits are mainly used as,

• A power rectifier circuit for converting ac power to dc power.

• A rectifying system in rectifier type ac meters, such as ac voltmeter in which

the ac voltage under measurement is first converted into dc and measured with
conventional meter.

• In this system, the rectifying elements are either copper oxide or selenium
type.
Positive half cycle current flow:

During positive half cycle of ac input, the diodes D and D will be reverse
1 4

biased, while D and D forward biased. The two diodes D and D conduct and
2 3 2 3

the current flows through R as shown in Figure 3.74.

L

Negative half cycle current flow:

During negative half cycle of ac input, the diodes D and D will be reverse
2 3

biased, while D and D forward biased. The two diodes D and D conduct and
1 4 1 4

the current flows through R as shown in Figure 3.75.

L
It is seen that in both cycles of ac, the load current is flowing in the same
direction. Hence, we get a full wave rectified output. The waveforms of load
current and voltage remain exactly.

Expressions For Various Parameters

The bridge rectifier circuit, being basically a full wave rectifier circuit
characteristics of bridge rectifier is as same as FWR.

The relation between the maximum value of load current (I ) and I . I

m DC RMS remains
same as derived earlier for the full wave rectifier circuit.

In each half cycle two diodes conduct simultaneously. Hence maximum value
of load current is,

So the only modification is that instead of R which is forward resistance of each

f

diode, the term 2R appears in the denominator.

f

The remaining expressions are identical to those derived for two diode full wave
rectifier and reproduced for the convenience of the reader.
The transformer utilization factor is, TUF = 0.812

The reverse voltage appearing across the reverse biased diodes is 2V but two
m

diodes are sharing it.

Hence PIV rating of the diode is V and not 2V as in case of full wave rectifier.
m m

COMPARISON OF HWR, FWR & BRIDGE RECTIFIER

INVERTERS
An inverter is a device that change dc power into ac power (just the opposite of
converters). The inversion process can be achieved with the help of transistors,
SCRs and tunnel diodes etc. For low and medium outputs, transistorized
inverters are suitable but for high power outputs. SCR inverters are essential.
For very low voltage and high current requirements, tunnet diode invertors are
used.

For inverter applications, transistors have definite advantages over SCRS

regarding the switching speed, simplicity of control circuitry, high efficiency
and greater reliability. It is mainly due to this fact that SCR inverters require
complicated circuitry for triggering and commutation.

The basic working principle of an inverter may be explained with the help of
circuit shown in fig. 3.77. It is called voltage-driven inverter because a dc
voltage source is connected through semiconductor switches directly to the
primary of a transformer.

In fig. 3.77 S and S are switching devices (transistors or SCRs) which open and
1 2

close alternately at regular intervals of time. The two switching devices are
generally driven by an astable multi-vibrator operating at the desired frequency.

When S is closed, the entire dc source voltage V is applied across points A and
1

B of the transformer primary. S remains closed for a certain period of time after
1

which it is cut off and S closes.

1

It also remains closed for the same period of time during which the source
voltage V is impressed across points B and C of the primary. S then opens out
2

and S closes. In this way, an alternating voltage is applied across the primary
1

which induces an ac voltage in the secondary.

Since de supply voltage is connected directly across the primary, the output
waveform of the secondary voltage is a square wave Fig. 3.78 irrespective of
the type of load and load power factor.

However, the waveforms of both the primary and secondary currents depend on
the type of load whether resistive, inductive or capacitive.

1. Single-phase Inverter

Fig. 3.79 shows a single-phase inverter with a load resistor using 4 SCRS
working in pairs. The triggering and commutating circuitry of the SCRS has not
been shown in the figure. The two thyristors SCR and SCR are triggered
1 4

simultaneously so that load current passes through R from left to right. Exactly
L

when these two SCRs are switched off by commutating circuitry, thyristors
SCR and SCR are R from right to left. Hence, an ac voltage is developed
2 3 L

across the load whose waveform is as shown in fig. 3.79

2. Push-Pull Inverter

Fig. 3.80 shows an inverter which employees two SCRS and one transformer.
These two SCRs are triggered into conduction alternately for the same period of
time. As a result, current through the primary becomes alternating which
induces an ac voltages across the secondary and hence the load. The secondary
ac voltage has a square waveform. The capacitor C is connected across the
anodes of the two SCRS and provides commutation i.e., switching off of the
SCRS. The capacitor charges to double the supply voltage as a result of
transformer action between the two halves of the primary winding. This large
voltage is sufficient to reverse-bias the SCRs and drive the holding current
below its rated value.