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International Series in
Operations Research & Management Science

Josef Kallrath

Business Optimization
Using Mathematical
Programming
An Introduction with Case Studies and
Solutions in Various Algebraic Modeling
Languages
Second Edition
International Series in Operations Research
& Management Science
Founding Editor
Frederick S. Hillier
Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA

Volume 307

Series Editor
Camille C. Price
Department of Computer Science, Stephen F. Austin State University,
Nacogdoches, TX, USA

Associate Editor
Joe Zhu
Foisie Business School, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, USA
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/6161
Josef Kallrath

Business Optimization Using

Mathematical Programming
An Introduction with Case Studies and
Solutions in Various Algebraic Modeling
Languages

Second Edition
Josef Kallrath
Department of Astronomy
University of Florida
Gainesville, FL, USA

ISSN 0884-8289 ISSN 2214-7934 (electronic)

International Series in Operations Research & Management Science
ISBN 978-3-030-73236-3 ISBN 978-3-030-73237-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73237-0

Previously published under the imprint Palgrave

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Dedication (2nd Edition)

To Albert & Diana

Dedication (1st Edition)

To those who increased my1 pleasure in mathematics:

Wilhelm Braun (1970–1975)
Klaus Reusch and Wilhelm Gieselmann (1976–1979)
Gerard de Beuckelaer (1989–1992).

To2 Helen, Alex, Tim, and Jack.

1 Josef Kallrath.
2 John M. Wilson.
Foreword

Mathematical optimization is an inherent paradigm of modern operational research

(OR) for 80 years already. Although many subfields of OR got a kind of disciplinary
independence over this period of time, “searching for the best” is still the main
challenge for OR. Anyway, all sister disciplines of OR still benefit from more
and more efficient methods of optimization developed within OR. Would machine
learning have such a great trajectory without optimization? Would we hear about the
success of deep learning if a proper optimization method would not be available?
The present book reflects a continued interest in mathematical optimization. Its first
edition written 20 years ago provided a faithful picture of optimization methods
and their applications at the turn of the last century. An important progress in the
methodology and applications of optimization, that we were able to observe over
the last two decades, as well as a continuing interest in the first edition of the book,
encouraged its first author to write the current update.
What one can learn from this book? A reader who remembers the first edition
will quickly acknowledge that this edition goes far beyond the previous content. In
particular, it includes new material on stochastic programming and nonlinear mixed
integer optimization. Global optimization gets also a special place for its capacity of
solving non-convex continuous or mixed integer nonlinear problems. The relation
of global optimization to mixed-integer optimization, Lagrange relaxation, and
polylithic modeling (sequence of models for one complex problem) is illustrated
by interesting real-world examples from the academic publishing industry. Some
topics, like phi-function techniques for cutting and packing, are not covered by other
books on optimization known to me. A valuable feature of this book is also examples
coded in popular algebraic modeling languages, and available online.
The book is written in full respect of the link existing between three necessary
components of practical decision-making: “model-algorithm-software.” In this way,
the reader learns how real-world problems can be modeled in mathematical
terms understood by optimization algorithms, and then solved with commercially
available software. This holistic approach to solving complex problems with opti-
mization methods makes this book self-contained. Moreover, because the content of
theory, didactic examples, and real-world case studies are perfectly balanced in the

ix
x Foreword

book, the reader gets a convincing report on the practical relevance of contemporary
mathematical optimization.
As a coordinating editor of the European Journal of Operational Research
(EJOR) since 20 years, I can say that the character of this book is perfectly consistent
with our editorial policy, in the sense that, similarly to EJOR, it underlines the link
between the state-of-the-art methodology of optimization with practice of decision-
making. Thus, I am pleased to congratulate Josef Kallrath on the excellent update of
the first edition, and I am confidently recommending this book to students, teachers,
researchers, and industrial practitioners who wish to learn how to effectively cope
with complex decision problems using mathematical optimization.

Poznań, Poland Roman Słowiński

August 2020
Preface to the 2nd Edition

With the continuing interest in my book, it is a pleasure, approximately 20 years

after the completion of the first edition, to enhance it with some topics which, after
two decades, have gained importance or led to a change in perspective.
This book, as the first edition, introduces business optimization using mathemat-
ical programming (optimization) not only from a practitioner’s point of view but
also from a researcher’s perspective. It covers the entire process of solving a real-
world decision problem by mathematical optimization: structuring and formulating
the problem (free of mathematics) as well as collecting the input data, translating
it into the mathematical language obtaining an optimization model, solving it, and
validating the results. Linear programming case studies exemplify and showcase
the learnings. Building on these concepts, the book examines mixed integer
linear programming problems and presents problem formulations and case studies
for these applications, and extends into the nonlinear optimization world, both
continuous and discrete. Another series of case studies show optimization in practice
employing integer programming, leading to larger practical examples, e.g., from
production or supply chain planning, network planning, or cutting and packing.
Hints are given on how users can control the optimization process and improve
its efficiency. The book concludes with observations on the impact and implications
of optimization in business. New to the second edition, many examples are coded
in the algebraic modeling languages — AMPL, GAMS, FICO(R) Xpress Mosel, and
SAS/OR — and are available online.
The second edition goes beyond linear optimization, i.e., beyond linear pro-
gramming and mixed integer linear programming. Thus, the previous Chap. 11 has
been renamed in Beyond LP and MILP Problems, and now includes fractional
programming and its transformation into linear programming, successive linear
programming as a special solution technique of nonlinear optimization, and opti-
mization under uncertainty (especially stochastic programming). Also in Chap. 11,
for quadratic programming, which is again a special case of nonlinear optimization,

xi
xii Preface to the 2nd Edition

we provide an equivalent formulation based on special ordered sets. Chapter 12

provides an introduction into nonlinear continuous and mixed-integer optimization.
More attention is paid to the field of Global Optimization, as after 2002, strong
commercial software using deterministic global optimization techniques became
available for solving non-convex continuous or mixed integer nonlinear problems.
The techniques used in this type of optimization are closely related to those used
to solve mixed-integer optimization problems and are described in Chap. 12. They
are illustrated with applications from paper and metals industry in Chap. 13. A
further coupling of global optimization and mixed-integer optimization becomes
apparent in the calculation of optimal breakpoint systems in connection with the
modeling of nonlinear terms using SOS2 variables. In Chap. 14, Polylithic Modeling
and Solution Approaches, we demonstrate how to use these SOS2 variables for
obtaining good approximations for solving nonlinear problems. In the context of
mixed-integer linear problems we also consider the topic of Lagrange relaxation for
the improvement of lower bounds. Overall, as this second edition covers also the
nonlinear optimization world, it is somewhat more demanding on the mathematical
side. Therefore, it also contains Appendix C summarizing some of the fundamentals
of linear algebra and calculus.
As cutting and packing is used in many examples throughout this book, and cut-
ting and packing industry significantly contributes to the GDP of several countries,
a full chapter on it has been added. Most of the phi-function technique material
in Chap. 15 has been provided by Prof. Dr. Yuriy Stoyan and Prof. Dr. Tatiana
Romanova.3 This technique is a generic approach beyond and within mathematical
programming, very suitable for solving large-scale real-world cutting and packing
problems in 2D and 3D.
In Tools around Optimization in Chap. 17 we have added a section on algebraic
modeling languages. Later in this chapter we address the importance of visualization
of input data and output results.
Many examples in this book are coded in the algebraic modeling languages
mp-model, GAMS, Mosel, and SAS/OR — online at www.springer.com — and
referenced as MCOL (Model Collection OnLine). This online access granted to
readers of this book replaces the CD-ROM which came with the first edition. For
compatibility with the first edition, we keep the mp-model files as well. In this
second edition, we avoid using or explaining software specific syntax and keep
implementation issues on a generic level.

3 The National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Institute of Mechanical Engineering Problems,

Department of Mathematical Modeling and Optimal Design, Kharkiv, Ukraine and Kharkiv
National University of Radioelectronics, Department of Applied Mathematics.
Preface to the 2nd Edition xiii

Reading flow suggestions by target group and sequence of chapters:

flow target group sequence

F1 novice, beginners 1–17
F2 linear optimization 1−10
.
F3 nonlinear optimization 11−15
F4 practical optimization 1, 5, 10, 13−17
F5 advanced readers 10, 11, 13−15

In the first edition, a few larger case studies had been analyzed and solved with
XPRESS-MP, the predecessor of what is now FICO Xpress Mosel and FICO
Xpress Optimization, or Xpress in short. We have kept the text from the
first edition in this second edition and continue referring to this modeling and solver
XPRESS-MP from the 1990s in this context. We proceed similarly for currencies
as well as the hardware or software equipment used. The real-world case studies
from the 1990s remain unchanged. As XPRESS-MP and its modeling language
mp-model use integer indices but not index sets, the first edition and its case
studies are formulated using numerical indices. In this second edition, we leave
the case studies untouched but use index sets in all material added. The formerly
large MILP problems from 20 years ago have become toy examples for commercial
solvers in 2020 — and the spreadsheet software LOTUS-1-2-3 does not seem
to be in use any longer. This should serve as a good warning and advise for the
future. Only ASCII data has a reasonably long lifetime. Everything else strongly
depends on market changes. The lifetime of software seems to be very limited —
and even if the software still exists, backward compatibility is not guaranteed either.
Fortunately, the first edition has been written in LATEX, and is retained, largely, in
the second edition.
Overall, we hope that the reader benefits from this second edition in various
ways: providing a path to efficient modeling, and learning what is relevant nowa-
days, and which problems can be handled efficiently concerning mixed integer
optimization and non-convex nonlinear optimization. If the reader has fun on the
way reading this book, all the better.
Acknowledgment
It is a pleasure to again thank some friends and colleagues who have accompanied
me for many years in my work or private environment and who in various ways
have directly or indirectly contributed to the success of this book. This applies
to everyone who has already been mentioned in the acknowledgment of the first
edition. Between 1997 and 2020, I established close relationships or friendships
with many new collaboration partners. These are, especially, Dr. Franz Nelißen
and Dr. Michael Bussieck (GAMS Software GmbH, Frechen and Braunschweig,
Germany), Prof. Dr. Christoudoulos A. Floudas (Princeton University, Princeton,
xiv Preface to the 2nd Edition

NJ, USA),4 and Prof. Dr. Panos M. Pardalos (Center of Applied Optimization,
University of Florida, Gainesville, FL). The contacts from my leadership of the
GOR working group Praxis der Mathematischen Optimierung have also contributed
indirectly to this expanded second edition.
A special word of thanks is directed to all the (new) project partners during
the last 20 years: I have cherished many of them because of their enthusiasm and
their in-depth knowledge of their application areas — and I have all of them in
good memory. They all had in common that, for improving the benefits of their
company, they wanted to enhance their methods in their applications areas by
thorough mathematical modeling, which often led to mixed integer optimization.
Interacting and communicating with them has been an important element during
the projects and has some influence on this book. From the many German BASF
project partners who have contributed indirectly to this book over several years, I
would like to mention a few: Dr. Wolfram Schmidt and his team with Dr. Markus
Klumpe and Bernd Heisel-Hoffmann, Norbert Vormbrock with a common history
at Bonn University, and Dr. Gerd Fischer with his exciting rail car projects. It has
been a pleasure to work with such people who feel the need to understand and solve
a problem as deeply and as thoroughly as possible. High quality and sustainable
solutions require deep understanding, dedication to detail, and the will to solve a
problem on one’s own initiative. I strongly hope that the project partners mentioned
above will still have sufficient time left for focusing deeply on their projects and that
they can enjoy their work.
For a thorough examination and proofreading of the manuscript as well as
many constructive comments and suggestions that have improved the book, it is a
pleasure to thank Dr. Jens Schulz and Dr. Susanne Heipcke (FICO, Berlin, Germany
and Marseille, France); Jan-Erik Justkowiak (Siegen University, Siegen, Germany);
Dr. Philipp M. Christophel (SAS Institute, Heidelberg, Germany); Dr. Johannes
Schlöder (IWR, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany); Prof. Dr. Iiro Har-
junkoski (Hitachi ABB Power Grids, Mannheim, Germany); Prof. Dr. Eugene
F. Milone (University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada); Prof. Dr. Tapio Westerlund
(Abo University, Finland); Prof. Dr. Ivo Nowak (Hochschule für angewandte
Wissenschaften Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany); Prof. Dr. Alexandra Newman and
Prof. Dr. Tulay Flamand and Phillip Bülow and Louis Kamga and Oluwaseun
Ogunmodede (Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, USA); John Cox (US Air
Force, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, USA); Prof. Dr. David Morton
(Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA); Dr. Joonghyun Ryu (Hanyang
University, Seoul, Korea); Dominik Schweisgut who also wrote a first draft of
Appendix C (Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany); Prof. Eli V. Olinick
(Southern Methodist University in Dallas, TX, USA); Prof. Dr. Ignacio E. Gross-
mann, Can Li, and Prof. Dr. Destenie Nock (Carnegie Mellon University, PA, USA);

4 Unfortunately, for the whole community, Prof. Floudas passed away in August 2016. I lost a

close collaborator and friend, we shared many common ideas and had joint activities since the
early 1990s.
Preface to the 2nd Edition xv

Dr. Michael Bussieck, Frederick Fiand, and Dr. Stefan Vigerske (GAMS Software
GmbH, Braunschweig, Germany); Dr. Anna Schreieck (Neustadt a.d. Weinstraße,
Germany); Prof. Dr. Stefan Helber (Leibniz University Hanover, Hanover, Ger-
many); and Prof. Dr. Siegfried Jetzke (Ostfalia University of Applied Sciences,
Salzgitter, Germany).
I thank Erwin Kalvelagen (www.amsterdamoptimization.com) for his kind
permission to use his GAMS file lagRel.gms in MCOL and parts of his description
on Lagrange relaxation in this book. From Fair Issac Corporation, I received the
permission to use the FICO® Xpress Mosel modeling examples and FICO® Xpress
Insight visualization examples. FICO is a trademark of Fair Isaac Corporation.
Finally, I thank my daughter Diana for producing the cartoon-like illustrations in
this book and proofreading, and Christian Rauscher, the editor in charge at Springer
(Heidelberg), with whom I had been working for many years — and who has
promoted this second edition of the book.

Weisenheim am Berg, Germany Josef Kallrath

September 2020
Preface

This book arose from a realization that modeling using mathematical programming
should be tightly linked with algorithms and their software implementation to solve
optimization problems. Such linkage is necessary for a full appreciation of the meth-
ods used to model problems that will ensure they can be solved successfully. While
there exist textbooks concentrating on the pure mathematics aspects of optimization,
and others which just describe applications without providing sufficient technical
background, we see our book as trying to provide a link between applications and the
mathematics required to solve real-world problems. Few textbooks have integrated
modeling with state-of-the-art commercially available software. Our book will also
incorporate this missing link and will include the software to solve the models
discussed.
Optimization using mathematical programming is an important subject area as
it can determine the dramatic savings available to organizations that could not be
achieved by other means. In this book, examples are cited where organizations are
saving many millions of pounds (sterling) or dollars (US) by using optimization
methods. Mathematical optimization models are part of tools that can help people
in the process of making decisions concerning the use of resources and saving costs.
Mathematical programming also provides a way to solve problems that, because
of their size or other features, would not otherwise be solvable by other methods. In
major cities, e.g., London, mathematical programming models influence the control
of the flow of domestic water through the city as the model is used to determine the
most efficient strategy to move water from source to user as peaks and troughs in the
usage pattern develop. Thus, the results from mathematical programming models
are literally all around many of us.
The need for a source book of material on the subject was recognized while
teaching at Heidelberg University and Loughborough University and while planning
conference sessions on the practical relevance of mixed integer optimization.
Although there is an extensive literature on mathematical programming, the
paucity of instructional materials in the area of efficient modeling and solving real-
world problems is striking. The student, researcher, or industrial practitioner must
read between the lines of material, usually only available in journal articles or

xvii
Another random document with
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 CHAPTER II.
JO-ISTO, MAY.
The Worship of Shus-ty.—Son-in-law invited.

This month has only a few leading religious observances which

have no sanction in the Shasturs. The worship of Shus-ty, the
watching goddess of the babies, is entirely a female affair. The men
pay very little homage to her although they regard it as sacred and
help the women in its arrangements. It can be easily understood
why this goddess is worshipped, from the fact that the mothers and
would-be mothers take much interest in the worship; the childless
widows take no part in it. Shus-ty means sixth, from the day in
which she is adored. It will be remembered that on the evening of
the sixth day after the birth of a child this goddess is worshipped
with much ceremony; and whenever her general worship comes, it
does so on the sixth day of the full moon. Sometimes her image is
placed in the water, at others in some conspicuous place in the
house. This is quite different from other modes of worship, in regard
to some of its peculiarities. A large quantity of plantain, some
bamboo leaves and banian leaves are particularly needed.
At the house of some venerable matron, who is widely known for
her devotion to the religious ordinances, the women from the
neighborhood congregate, bringing with them their respective
babies, that they may receive the benediction from the officiating
matron. Each woman brings also some raw rice, a certain number of
plantains, and a few stitches of cotton thread, which latter they color
with yellow powder, and put on round the neck or arms of the
children. The fashionable adults do not like to wear this clumsy wet
thread on their arms; the mother, by persuasion or force, touches
their forehead with this consecrated symbol, and wears it round her
own arm for a fortnight, but often she loads her yielding child with
the share of those who have refused. The thing which stands as the
representation of the goddess is a churning-stick made of bamboo,
or sometimes a mill-stone. In some villages there are statues of
Shus-ty made of “wood and stone.” The honored matron scatters
flowers, green leaves, powders, etc., on the image, bathes it with
Ganges water, and offers it food to eat, which it cannot do in any
visible way. At the close she recites a legendary anecdote of Shus-
ty’s kindness to the children committed to her care by consecration,
and her displeasure over those not duly dedicated to her. Of course,
this fills the heart of Hindoo mothers with joy,—that is the thought of
having had their children put under the protection of Shus-ty, whose
blessing will help them to grow in stature and in life![11] On this
occasion, the Hindoos invite their sons-in-law to attend the worship.
It is a general custom, from the highest to the lowest castes, to
entertain their sons-in-law in their houses. It is entirely a matter of
social pleasure in its very nature, but, being attached to the worship
of the goddess, is considered as a religious institution. If a man has
five married daughters he sends letters of invitation to their
husbands. In case of one being absent from home, his portion of the
entertainment, composed of a handsome present of dress and
confectioneries, will be forwarded to his parents. Not only to the
husbands of daughters is such hospitality shown; it extends in
different ways to the husbands of cousins and nieces. When every
family in the town has been crowded with these welcome guests, a
neighbor invites his friends’ sons-in-law. Thus every house wears a
garment of festivity. The music and sports are everywhere. If it be
the first visit to his father-in-law’s house after his marriage, the
young man is taxed very much. He is bound by the custom of the
place to entertain a pleasure party in a feast. As the women do not
meet with men in social gatherings, an extra arrangement is made in
the inner department of the house for their satisfaction. It is worth
while to observe how in these social pleasures and amusements the
Hindoo cannot attain that degree of sociability and love which the
Christians have. After eighteen months’ stay in America, I can
imagine the magnitude of the grand time which this people would
enjoy on occasions like this of the Hindoos. In this country, the
music, dancing, speeches from both sexes contribute much to the
ordinary enjoyments of life, but among the Hindoos the case is quite
different. In their festivities or social pleasures we see a conflict
between the natural affection and artificial regulations. While one
draws toward another with that brotherly love which is implanted in
every breast by nature,—the caste system with its hideous features
stretches forth its hand to keep them asunder. It spreads four seats,
and sets four separate tables for men of four distinct professions. If
a man of high caste carelessly treads upon the place where the low
castes sit at the meal, he will bathe immediately.
 CHAPTER III.
AUSH-ER, JUNE.
The Bath of Jogger-nauth.—The Worship of the River Gunga.
It has been observed in the beginning of this book that the
structure of modern Hindooism is the work of time. The fancy,
ignorance, and interest of men have decorated its different parts
with golden hues which fascinate the senses, and satisfy the minds
of the weak. After the laying down of the corner-stone it has
received abundant supply of forms and new institutions from various
quarters, and consequently grown fast and bulky within a few
hundred years. Although it has grown old it retains a healthy,
youthful vigor, keeps on growing, and will continue to do so until the
“pure and undefiled religion” shall strike like thunderbolts on its
thousand cemented headstones, and reduce its tall form to the very
base which stands on simplicity, truth, and love.
The bath of Jogger-nauth is comparatively a new institution, and
owes its birth to a fictitious legend. There is a great temple of
Jogger-nauth in Orissa on the sea-shore above Madras. The images
of Jogger-nauth, Bollo-ram his brother, and Shoo-vothra, his sister,
are costly, but very awkward, made of a peculiar kind of wood called
Nimbh. All other Hindoo idols are beautifully constructed in male or
female human figures, quite unlike these of Jogger-nauth and his
friends, which look neither like man, woman, horse, nor dog. A great
many of the Hindoos make fun of Bisho-corma (Universal Artist),
who is believed to have built the temple and image of Jogger-nauth.
Here is the remark: “The construction of Jogger-nauth has displayed
the poor taste of Bisho-corma in delicate arts.”
However, the homeliness of the image does not interfere with the
reverence and love which the people have for it. I have heard the
remarks of those who had visited Jogger-nauth, saying: “That when
on our way, which is long, inhospitable, and uncomfortable, I said,
Let not my enemy whose ill I seek after come this way; but standing
before the gate of the temple, I exclaimed, Would that I had the
millions of stars for my eyes, that I could see the ‘moon-like face’ of
the god! O, let the mothers forsake their babies, husbands their
wives, and wives their husbands, and come to feast themselves on
the sacred graces of Jogger-nauth.” It is very natural that they
should say so, for there are two ways which guide us in our decision
in regard to beauty and accomplishment. To some the external
beauty of an object takes the place of an internal accomplishment;
while to others the inward accomplishment, tenderness, and purity
of character stand instead of the outward beauty of the casket.
When we are quite pleased with some charming object, we are apt
to take for granted what is not visible in it. And again, when we see
an object through the glass of love, it stands before our eyes, if not
before the world, with a charm which is rarely visible to others.
There is a fine anecdote illustrative of this. A handsome Bengal
young man was ridiculed by his friends for his love of a homely
woman, whose fine mental and moral culture was unrivalled. The
young man begged them to see her through his loving eyes.
The Hindoos sincerely believe that Jogger-nauth is the great god
of the universe, and is full of mercy, grace, and goodness. Hence
they overlook the outward defects, and are satisfied with what there
is within. An eminent Bengalee gentleman of Calcutta, in one of his
books, says: “What a pity it is that a diamond of inestimable worth
should sparkle on the forehead of an ugly idol of Orissa.” For the
information of those who might not have a chance to see a Jogger-
nauth, I would describe it just as it is, for it is invariably constructed
in the same way everywhere. Its face is circular, and contains an
area which would hold almost its whole body; the place where the
nose grows is as level as a prairie, his eyes resemble pretty much
the Indian snow-shoes in shape, and his arms are mere stumps. I
have said before that Jogger-nauth has great influence over the
Hindoos, even the obstinate caste system prostrates itself down in
his presence. Myriads of men and women visit Orissa annually to
attend to the bath and the car of Jogger-nauth ceremonies, which
follow each other within a month’s interval. The Jogger-nauth, no
matter what it is in substance, is a name of significant meaning, “the
Lord of the Universe.” Jogguth, with various endings, is the common
name of persons in India, thus: Joggo Bundhoo, Friend of the
Universe; Joguth Chunder, which is my name, means the Moon of
the Universe.
Within the enclosure of the temple there is no respect to castes;
and that which destroys caste is freely recognized. In the “aunundho
bazzar,” market of joy, which is within the enclosure of the temple,
the Hindoos of every caste would eat of one dish, and what is more
surprising than that, is to see them walk with rice-curries in their
pocket, and putting some into each other’s mouth as they pass. But
I am sorry to say, that, though brotherhood, the sense of equality,
the disregard to castes, is felt and allowed within the walls which
surround the temple, no sooner do the people come out of the
enclosure than this levelling influence dies an instantaneous death! I
have often asked of my Hindoo friends, that if it pleases Jogger-
nauth to see love and equality cherished in us for one another, why
cannot we do that wherever we live,—at our homes in Bengal as
well as in his temple in Orissa? Wherever be our bodies, we are
before his presence; the walls cannot hide us from his sight. If he is
God Almighty, his eyes will easily penetrate the massive walls to
watch his children without.
The bath of Jogger-nauth, as a public religious institution, was
unknown to them of olden times. The following circumstance gave
rise to it. Jogger-nauth, in disguise of a boy, had come to bathe in
the sacred river Ganges. He chose Mahesh, a place fourteen miles
above Calcutta, for his appearance. Taking some refreshment at the
store of a confectioner named Kalli Shunker, he gave him a golden
ornament in exchange, and in a minute disappeared from the store.
As a testimony to his divine presence there, a large Nimbh tree bore
blossoms of Champaka. The people were surprised beyond measure
to see such a miracle wrought on the tree, but none could conceive
of the agency which thus manifested its power. The priest of Jogger-
nauth not finding the ornament in the person of the god, began to
search the temple, bedroom of the idol, etc., for it. Careful inquiry
was made in the temple; some junior officers were suspected as
having stolen the “sacred property.” In the night the chief Panda,
votary, saw Jogger-nauth in a dream, and heard him speak as
follows: “I had been to bathe in the Gunga yesterday, where at the
store of Kalli Shunker, I exchanged my ornament for my lunch; that
the fact might be a memorial to the succeeding generations.” The
story affirms that they found the ornament in possession of the
confectioner, which circumstance, together with the Champakas on
the Nimbh, proved the affair to the satisfaction of all. Hence is the
origin of the institution of “Stau Jatra.” From the fact of the god’s
appearance in Mahesh, although there were hundreds of places on
the Ganges, it received great renown as the chosen, favorite place of
Jogger-nauth. A wealthy Bengalee gentleman of Calcutta has built a
temple and a car on the spot with the outlay of an immense sum of
money. The bathing is performed on a high altar made of brick, in
the midst of a wide field, which groans under the feet of myriads on
this occasion. It is the next exciting scene to that of Orissa, but it
excels the other in its licentious shows and amusements.
The next general worship is that of Gunga. Very few images are
made of this goddess. They offer the sacrifices on the bank of the
river. Every Hindoo family sends offerings of flowers, incense,
eatable things, and clothes to her. Its water is believed to have a
greater degree of purifying influences on this day than on any other,
so that almost every one who can possibly avail himself of this
opportunity, bathes in the river. I have seen several men wash their
dogs, cats, and birds on this day. It is also believed that the
venomous serpents lay their eggs to-day, and if it should rain, the
amount of poison would be less dangerous! “Monsha,” the goddess
of the serpents, is worshipped, as her favor is regarded as the only
sure protection against poisonous creatures.
There are several noble rivers in India, and why should the
Hindoos regard Gunga as sacred so much so that the intrinsic
sanctity of its water can redeem men from their sins, however dark
they are? A prayer offered universally by the Hindoos to this noble
river, reads thus: “Ready Redeemer of all iniquities, Destroyer of all
distress, Giver of happiness and salvation, O Mother Gunga, thou art
our only way.” Why they hold it sacred above other rivers in
Hindostan, is a question of importance which ought to be answered.
As the legendary origin of the sacred river of the Hindoos is known
only to them, I would venture, having the true knowledge of the
same, to describe it, and thereby solve the mystery to those
unacquainted with Hindoo mythologies. But earnest as I am to
communicate it to my friends, I find a great difficulty in my way. It is
a long channel of a story, with tributaries coming into it from various
directions. I hardly know where to take it up, and where to leave it,
and at the same time to convey the true, distinct knowledge of the
origin of the sanctity of Gunga to a Christian reader. I shall not,
however, fear the absurdity of the story, as I do not believe it myself,
nor ask the reader to regard it as true. Odd as this may sound to
any one, it shows him the Oriental method of treating truth, in rich,
glowing allegories; the truth is hidden in their bosom. The river
Gunga is another representation of the goddess Doorgă, the
daughter of the Hymaloy mountain, and the wife of Shiba the
Hindoo god. Look at the truth, figuratively expressed! Rivers issuing
from the mountains are their sons and daughters, no doubt, as the
Hindoos name them, and hence the Gunga is the daughter of
Hymaloy. Let us hear the whole story. After the marriage of Shiba
with Parboti (mountaineer) or Giriza (mountain-born), the daughter
of Hymaloy, the god went to reside in Koylas, a romantic chain of
the same mountain. The Hindoo poets call this place finer than any
in heaven, which I doubt not that it is, otherwise the god would not
have made it his favorite abode. The soil is golden, the trees bend
under the weight of delicious fruits, while others smile with bright,
fragrant flowers; the breeze is balmy, and the birds handsome,
merry, and singing. On a certain day, Doorga was sitting on a golden
throne with Shiba, when there appeared a crowd of male and female
figures, some with hands broken, others with legs badly bruised, and
the rest had their faces turned backwards; in short, all of them were
disfigured, maimed, and hurt in the extreme. Shiba smiled at them,
at which his wife asked him: “Lord, who are these that stand before
us? Their unhappy fate enlists my sympathy; my hands and heart
are ready to serve them.” Thus, the god replied: “If it would please
thee, goddess! to hear from me the names and the circumstances of
this injured group before thee, lend thy ears then to the sad story.
These are six male and thirty-six female tunes. The children of the
earth had attempted to sing them, and not being able to manage
harmoniously, have left them a quarter or half-finished; even those
who have finished the song, could not preserve the harmony; for a
song and a tune are two different things. Therefore, thou seest one
is with broken wrist, the second is without nose, the third has his
limbs broken, etc.” The goddess wanted to know if there was any
way of making them whole again. Shiba assured her that there was,
and that in his own power too; “that these poor suffering Tunes had
in vain sought redress from the renowned singers on the earth, and
finding that human power could not confer upon them the adequate
help, are now before me; I will make them whole.” Accordingly
invitations were sent round the heavens to the gods, and a large
audience of the celestial beings was held at the pleroma of Shiba. A
Sage invented a musical instrument for the occasion, which was
called Tăn poorā, or Tune-perfecter.
I need not say anything about the singing of the god, which
satisfied the whole gathering. Now Krishto being naturally mild,
delicate, and pleasure-seeking, was so much moved at the music
that he perspired. The astonished gods held a counsel, and
commissioned Bromha to receive the perspiration that was dropping
from his feet in his pitcher “Comoondul,” and to preserve the sacred
relic in his possession. So he did. With a heart overflowing with joy
the Creator held his Comoondul under the feet of Krishto, for he
knew that out of them issued the life and immortality for the Hindoo
sinners. They called the water (perspiration of Krishto), Gunga. Here
is the brief account of the birth of the Sacred River of the Hindoos,
showing from what a sacred source it is derived, how and under
what circumstances, etc. I will now turn to the fact which brought it
into the world from the house of Bromha; which advent is looked
upon by the Hindoos with as much joyous enthusiasm as that with
which a Christian looks upon Christmas. For there is this point of
resemblance between the mission of Christ and that of Krishto:
Christ washes the sin of the world, however dark it is, with his
blood; while, on the other hand, the perspiration of Krishto redeems
the Hindoos from their sins, washes away the impurities that stain
their lives, and brings immortality to the dead and lost. Indeed, to a
Hindoo a drop of water of Gunga is itself a Life and Light, and the
only way to enter into the everlasting joys in the Goluck of Krishto.
Christ saw Satan fall from the sky; his advent took out the sting of
Death, so we hear the stories of Jom (Death) complaining of the
emptiness of his womb or cell. Frequently we read the account of
the quarrel between the angels of Krishto and Jom touching the fate
of a man who, spending his whole life in sin and unbelief, had
thrown himself into the water of the Ganges in his last moments.
The services of Ganges are more beneficent to the Hindoo than the
blood of Christ to the Christian. We are taught to believe in Christ,—
his holy mission,—his fullness of knowledge and sanctification; but it
is quite a different case with a Hindoo. Even if he did not believe in
the sanctifying influence of his religious nature, and the redeeming
power of the Gunga, he goes to heaven, provided his body or ashes
are thrown into its sacred water. Hence the bank of the Gunga has
been a Cross to the Hindoo; it has been the best place for them in
which to die that they may live again. Thousands—young and old,
male and female, pious and sinful—are brought hither to breathe
their last, to throw off corruption and ascend the Goluck of Krishto.
To a Hindoo death in or near to his Sacred River is a Gain. The true
end of his being is accomplished if he succeeds in dropping in and
dying near the Ganges, or Gunga.

The following is an universally-believed account of the advent of

the Sacred River of the Hindoos into the world. The Book containing
it is read and expounded by the learned and eloquent priests to the
listening crowds. The children read it in their school-books, and the
Hindoo monks sing it from place to place. There was an illustrious
family called Shoòjo Bungshoor, the Offspring of the Sun, and which
has been made immortal by Balmica in his celebrated poem
Ramayona, as being the tribe which Rama, the great god, chose,
and of which he became a member. In this family there lived a king
of the name of Saugor, renowned in and esteemed by his time. To
use the Hindoo phrase, he was a terror to the tyrants and a friend to
the peaceable, help to the needy and the delight of the age he lived
in. It was customary with the ancient Hindoo kings to do “Ausho’
med,” a religious ceremony, to extend his power, peace, help, love,
etc., all over the world. When a king has succeeded in this, has
brought every country on the surface of the globe under his power
and protection, the throne of Indra will be his reward. The throne of
Indra had been aspired to by several kings, but none of them ever
reached the prize, the reason being that he used to interfere with
their plans, frustrate their precaution, and cause them to desist from
the undertaking forever. The leading features of this ceremony of
Ausho’ med, and the ways in which it used to be conducted, are
these: A horse, bearing on his forehead the inscription, “Let him who
denies the power of the master catch the horse,” was sent round the
country to the dominions of kings and nobles, accompanied,
however, with armed soldiers. The horse was sent about the land for
the purpose of demanding submission from the world. In some
places he travelled unmolested, and securing submission for his lord;
and wherever the people did stop him, it was understood that they
hated the yoke of dependence. The soldiers would immediately
inquire distinctly the real motive of the man who stopped the horse,
whether it was curiosity or a mistake or a purpose that actuated
him. If it were a mistake, or fancy, they would pardon him, and
recover the horse and unfurl the banner of their king on the spot. If
otherwise they would resort to war. This Saugor, the celebrated king,
forwarded his “sixty thousand” sons in a triumphal expedition, into
all the countries known at his time.[12] They visited the uttermost
parts of the world, ascended the mountains, crossed the rivers,
proclaimed the power of the name of their illustrious father, and
brought almost all the world into subjection. Arriving at a place near
the sea, the princes congratulated each other on their success; and
finding no place where to direct their steps, resolved to return home
to their longing father, who, on their successful return, would
perform the ceremony. Elated with joy at the success of their
mission, they all sat down on the sea-shore to review their past
adventures, while the majestic waves of the sea rolled before them,
defying their power, and with thundering voice declared the power of
Him who alone can tell them, “Thus far shall you come and no
farther.” The cool, balmy breezes from the neighboring forests blew
upon them; their joyous spirits felt the weariness of the flesh, and
one after another the veteran princes wore the garment of sleep;
while the horse, incapable of musing upon the glorious career he
had gone through and the victories he had won, bent his eyes upon
the green, shaggy ground before him. The place was so remote from
the populous country, that while it was mid-day there reigned a
death-like silence; no “hurries and bustles,” no sound of mechanics’
hammer were heard there, save that the distant sea thundered now
and then. The only inhabitant of the place was a Saint Copeel, who,
retiring from the active, pleasure-seeking community, had selected
this romantic spot for his hermitage, to spend his life in prayer and
fasting.
Now Indra, the king of the sky, who had been watching the
progress of these princes with an anxious eye, left his airy throne,
descended upon the earth in the form of a man, and stood on the
very spot where the children of Saugor unconsciously lay. “They
have,” he said to himself, “obtained victory almost over the whole
world, and enlisted all the crowned heads as their subjects; there is
no one under the sun to catch their horse or to obstruct their
triumphal course. If they return to their father to crown him with the
world’s victory, to place the vanquished sovereigns as stools under
his feet, Krishto would offer him the supremacy of the sky. I too,
hitherto the lord of the gods, should become his subject. It is not
too late yet. Let me seek a Brahmun’s wrath to turn the course of
the princes. Krishto’s will be done,” he said, and in a moment he
held the rein of the triumphal horse. He led him to the cottage of
Copeel, tied him by his side, and ascended the cloud for his palace,
and from thence looked down at the result.
Now the tired sun seeks his home beyond the western seas, the
singing tenants of the air bound towards their leafy homes, the wild
beasts in yon forests return to their lairs, while others leave their
dens; and the canopy of darkness is spread over the creation. It was
then that the sons of Saugor rose from their grassy bed. “Early in
the morning,” they say, “we guide our steps towards home—the
blessed spot on the earth! The greetings of our friends, the tender
arms of our parents will receive us. The Ausho med will be
celebrated in the presence of the astonished world; the vanquished
kings will be invited, the Brahmuns worshipped, the poor
entertained, the music, dance, and feast will be observed, and the
earth will wear a garment of mirth!” Early in the morning they
arrange their things to start for their home. “Bring the horse,” one
says, “where is he?” Some go after the horse, but do not find him.
He has gone to the forest they think, and a party go in search of the
beast. In vain they roamed through the woods! The horse could not
be found. After a day’s toil, they come near the cottage of Copeel,
and, to their utter surprise find the object of their search, tied near
the altar of the Saint. The venerable saint presented a curious sight
to the princes. He had a piece of “tiger’s skin” for his raiment, his
hair flowing down his shoulders in graceful curls, eyes closed, hands
folded. They took him for a horse-thief. Still as the rule of the
ceremony would not permit them to recover the horse without the
consent of the supposed thief, they called on him to answer for his
conduct. But, alas! there was no sensibility in him. His heart and soul
have bade farewell to the world’s pleasures, and been fixed upon the
throne of Krishto. He did not know what was going on around him.
The princes grew tired of waiting for the answer from Copeel, and
began to speak to him in the following way: “Friend, if you are really
afraid of us, and feel sorry for what you have done, say so; we shall
choose mercy and not sacrifice. We have sworn before the gods to
protect the horse, and, wherever he is caught, not to recover him in
secret. What object have you in bringing the horse here? Is it
poverty, pride, or fancy that actuated you to hold the triumphal
horse of Saugor? Return our horse to us, and we will pardon you,
and give you other horses if you wish for them; or if you dare to be
our rival, tell us distinctly, that we may take the necessary course.”
The entreaties, persuasions, reasonings, threatenings, effected
nothing. It seemed as if they spoke to a senseless statue. Failing in
their efforts to adjust the matter satisfactorily to both parties, and
knowing it would be shameful to carry away the horse, one of them
kicked the innocent Brahmun. The insulting touch of the foot to his
sacred person broke the spiritual dream of Copeel; he felt this
intrusion in the extreme; thought some evil spirits were trying to
endanger his life; he looked upon the sons of Saugor in wrath, and
they were instantly burnt to ashes.[13] The account of this disaster
reached the anxious king, who came himself to the spot to soothe
the injured Brahmun with prayer and worship, and thereby to beg of
him the salvation of his sons.[14]
The Saint Copeel took pity upon the king, and said that the only
way to redeem the souls of his sixty thousand sons was the blessing
of Gunga, then in possession of Bromho. Saugor returned to his own
palace, and soon after joined his sons in the upper world.
Now the gods assembled in heaven to consider what was to be
done towards the sons of Saugor or his family. As there was no male
child in it to help its growth, the first and the last fell before the
wrath of the Brahmun. This Bongsho (Stock) is to be preserved, or
Rama will not come out of it for the redemption of the world.
Accordingly a Monie (saint) was sent to this family of widows to
bless and console them in their sorrows. At the presence of the
Monie at the door, one widow came forward to receive him, and fell
down on the ground to kiss his sacred feet. “Be thou the mother of a
child, daughter!” were the words of blessing that fell from the lips of
the Brahmun. The embarrassed woman rose from the ground, and
with tears in her eyes addressed him as follows: “Lord, thy daughter
is a widow; how then should she be a mother? It has pleased
Krishto to extinguish the family of Saugor, so at once the sixty
thousand sons perished in the wrath of Copeel! Thou knowest all
this,—the magnitude of the sad story, holy father!” “Be comforted,
daughter, lament not,” the Brahmun said; “the sons of Saugor will be
redeemed and his family be continued, for Rama has chosen it for
his incarnation. My words that have fallen upon thee must be
fulfilled. It is the will of the gods that thou shalt bring forth a son for
the redemption of the family. He will find favor in the sight of Gunga,
who, leaving the house of Bromho, shall come into the world first to
wash away the iniquities of the sons of Saugor, and then of the
world in general.” In due time the widow queen, at the visitation of
the blessing of the saint, gave birth to a son, which circumstance
brought universal joy to the world. The Brahmuns came to bless the
babe, and called him by the name of Vogiroth. The child, owing to
the peculiar circumstances of his birth, had no bones in his body;
was a mere lump of flesh, could not walk or move about without
making awkward gestures.[15] As he was busy one day in arranging
his playthings, a Monie called him Oshto Bunko. (He was very
awkward in his person, and crooked; so they called him by the
name, “eight curves,” his body being in so many places broken
perhaps.) The prince, although only four years old or more, had
been trained by his mother to salute the Brahmuns reverently, and
to pay them the due homage. Seeing the Brahmun coming before
him, he left his playthings in order to salute him, but, being without
bones in his body, his movements enraged the object of his worship.
The Brahmun thought the boy was making fun of him, by imitating
his ungraceful gestures; and thus interpreting the child’s innocent
deeds, cursed him. “Proud prince, darest thou mock my awkward
person, which Krishto has given me? In despising my person thou
dost despise my maker. Let it be according to thy will; if pride has
led thee to mock at me, be thou awkward like me; and if owing to
some defect in thy own person thou didst make the irreverent
gestures, be thou whole, and henceforth live a handsome child.” To
the joy of the child and his relatives, the “cursing of the Brahmun
begat blessing,” at that very moment he stood before the saint with
a well-proportioned, stout, and handsome person!
At the age of five he was put under the tuition and guidance of a
celebrated sage. Besides the mental and physical training, the sage
took particular care to develop the spiritual nature of his pupil, to set
his infant step in the path of truth, to inspire his simple heart with
the love for the gods. His relations did not bring the knowledge of
the great calamity that had befallen the family to the child’s notice.
Every precaution was taken to keep from his knowledge even the
word father. One day, as he was playing with the young children in
the neighborhood, he heard them ask each other’s father’s name.
The turn came to him, and a boy asked him what his father’s name
was. A difficult question to answer, for he had never heard the name
of father in his house, and never seen a man who was so related to
him, except the teacher and other Brahmuns, who often came to
console the widows with their kind words. “Friends,” he said, “ask
the names of my mother, aunts, teacher, &c., and I will tell you; I do
not know who my father is. In our house we have no such relative.”
The children burst into laughter, to the mortification of Vogiroth, and
began to express their surprise in their childish way. The fatherless
prince left his gay comrades for his mother, who he hoped would
adjust the matter, and teach him to answer the questions of the
children in future. The joke of the boys had pained him so much that
his blooming face seemed pale. Embarrassment threw a thick veil on
his forehead, and it looked like the moon in eclipse. His hasty steps
trod the chamber floor, and drew the anxious household around him.
“Mother!” burst forth the insulted child, “I was very much pained by
unkind words of the boys, one of which I did not fully comprehend,
so I came to you to have it explained. Strange words, mother, they
uttered, which I alone among them was unacquainted with. ‘Father’!
what does it mean? The boys asked me the name of my father,
which I could not tell; where is my father, and what is his name,
mother?” The troubled queen heard the sad recital with sighs; and,
as the child seemed determined to know all about the mysterious
term father, she could not keep the fact in secret any longer.
“Krishto’s will be done,” she said; and reviewing all the
circumstances that characterized the child’s birth, unfolded the sad
fate of the family to the eager ears of Vogiroth,—how the sixty
thousand sons of Saugor were consumed to ashes by the Brahmun
whom they had insulted, &c. Every word that fell from the lips of the
queen penetrated the soul of the child, and filled his heart with deep
longing about the redemption of his ancestors. “Mother, is there any
power in the world that can redeem them from their cursed death?”
“There is none, child! The insulted Brahmun has kindly told us that
the sacred water of Gunga would wash their sins, if that could be
brought into the world.” “Where is the abode of Gunga, mother, and
who is she that washeth away the sins of men?” Trusting to Gunga,
as the result of these inquiries, the queen informed the child of the
name and attributes of the goddess. The child seemed to be
satisfied with these explanations. Calmness passed upon his stormy
soul, but it was for a short time only. He felt anxious to know how
the blessings of Gunga could be obtained; he believed it was his
duty, as the offspring of Saugor, to serve the spiritual good of his
family, and thereby blot out the stain which it had brought upon
itself by insulting the Brahmun. But he was too young for the
undertaking; a mere child of five, strong and manly as his will
appeared to be. At the usual hour of the day, his tutor, the Brahmun
sage, came to the palace, and the child took his seat at his feet. He
could not recite his lesson with the usual facility; he looked sober,
and that was enough to apprise the tutor of the sad state of his
pupil’s mind. Affectionately drawing him close to his breast, he asked
him to tell him what ailed him, and was surprised at the recital. The
child begged him to favor him and help him in the undertaking, as
he had fully determined to obtain the mercy of Gunga, to redeem
the children of Saugor, even if it would cost his life. He further
desired the sage, in that simplicity and inexperience that are peculiar
to his age, to inform him of the place of Gunga,—how he could
arrive there, how long it would take, and how much it would cost,
what kind of a person Gunga was, etc. The venerable sage
attempted in vain to dissuade him from the enterprise, saying it was
hardly possible for an ordinary man to have an interview with the
great goddess in this world of sin; that the sages have spent their
lives in prayer and fasting, away from home and kindred, amidst the
wilderness and its ferocious inhabitants, without any material
success; that the heavenly hosts—the gods—desire to see the
goddess, but cannot. The child heard all these with much solicitude;
and, instead of reflecting upon the discouraging aspect of the case
set before him by his teacher, asked him one more question. It was,
by what address he should call upon the Gunga,—what relation she
bore to him? “She is the Mother of the universe,” the sage replied,
“and whoever wants to come unto her, will find that address
appropriate and sacred.” The child overflows with joy on hearing that
the goddess is his mother; the dark prospect before him vanishes
away, and he sees the path easy and sunny. “What,” said he, “shall I
fear to go to my mother? The sweet name! It will melt the heart of
the goddess, even if it were made of rock. I do not know the way;
but faith will surely offer its service and be my guide; the Kanon
wilderness is infested with savage beasts; my love will charm them;
there are other obstacles indeed; my firmness will surmount them
all.” Emboldened by such thoughts, and being determined to reach
the prize, he revealed his cherished plan to the trusting heart of his
mother.
After a long discussion, which, of course, took place on the
occasion, she being assured by a “divine voice” of the child’s
successful mission, gave her reluctant consent. A Hindoo poet
describes the parting scene to the following effect. The little pilgrim
stood before the weeping household to bid them farewell. The
queen, conscious of the happy success that will crown her son, and
unable to resist the influence of her affection toward him, could
neither bid him stay nor go. It required an effort to utter either.
“Great Goddess Doorga,” she prayed, “thy handmaid commits her
babe—her only child—to thy protection. Let thy all-seeing eyes
watch his steps, thy loving-kindness minister unto his wants. Mother
Earth! whose name is Patience, do not take any offence which the
infancy of my child is liable to offer unto thee! Lofty, wide-spreading
trees! you whose branches form canopies over the earth and
obstruct the sun’s rays, shield my little one under your shade,—when
he is tired, let him rest under your branches,—when hungry, feed
him with your fruits, and when in danger, inform me of it by nodding
your heads that reach the sky. Wild beasts! be ye friendly to him. Do
not prick his tender feet, ye thorns; and ye stones, do not hurt them
by any means. Day, when you bid farewell to the world, commit my
child to the hand of your successor; and Night, when you retire, put
him into the hands of Day; and finally, do you both, good Day and
Night, return him safe to the anxious arms of his mother.” The
legend proceeds on with the young pilgrim, who bids good-by to his
dear mother and other relatives, and starts on his journey into the
wilderness.[16] The Hindoo poets paint the early part of this child’s
life in the desert with amusing colors. Wandering a few days among
the wild trees, with no word save “Mother Gunga” in his mouth, he
thinks the time has already come for an interview with the goddess;
he encounters a wild beast, and taking it for the messenger of
Gunga, addresses it in the following way: “Did you come from my
Mother Gunga, to bring me hope and consolation? Glad I am to
know that my prayers and tears have reached her gracious throne,
and met with success. Tell me, noble friend, what message have you
for me, the little pilgrim,” etc. Year after year rolled away, leaving
young Vogiroth at his altar in the wilderness. The goddess, although
she was all the time walking with and watching him invisibly, did not
bid his troubled heart be still. Now she sends her angels to tempt
him, and try his faith and adherence to the undertaking, who now
frown upon him with their hideous appearances, then urge him to go
back to his home, alleging the undertaking was too difficult for him;
sometimes they promise the world’s supremacy,—the pleasures of
the Kirnoras,—provided he will give up his cherished plans, etc. But
he heeded little their temptations, and aiming at the mark, made his
way through trials and temptations with manly fortitude.
At last pity awakes in Gunga’s breast. She comes to bless the
child, stands before him, puts her divine hands upon his head, seats
him on her lap, and assures him of her protection forever. When the
boy begged her to come into the world and redeem the children of
Saugor, the goddess at first declined, but at the unceasing prayer
and earnest entreaties of the child she consented to come. Now who
should receive the sacred stream, as it flows down from the Pitcher
of Brahma, was a difficult question, for it was feared the earth would
be torn to pieces by the force of the sacred stream. Shiba, at the
solicitation of the young saint, volunteered to receive Gunga on his
head, when it should fall from the pitcher of the Creator; but the
goddess, proud of her own strength, feared he would not be able to
sustain its fury. He read the secrets of her heart, bent his head to
receive the stream, and detained it for some time within his curls,
thereby giving the goddess some idea of his astonishing power. It is
to be observed here, that the sacred water, as it issued from the
possession of Brahma, divided itself into three drops, or equal
portions,—the one ascended to heaven in the name of Monda Kenū,
the second descended to the region under the earth in the name of
Vōgōbuthy, and the third, Wlluk-non’dā, remained on the earth,—
thus at once sanctifying three different spheres. Now as, if the
stream should run, it surely would wash away cities, towns, and
whatever happened to be on its way, it was thought prudent to open
channels in the earth, in desolate places, that it might course
through them. Human power was too inadequate for the purpose.
Oyrabut, the mighty elephant of Indra (King of heaven), was called
upon, and by means of his teeth he dug a grand canal on the earth.
The legend says, that as the compensation of his labor he
demanded the hand of the goddess, and she in wrath rushed upon
him, breaking his bones to pieces.
As the stream glided along, it happened to sweep away the Kasa
of a Monie.[17] The Brahmun drank the whole stream, and drained
the canal of its last drop. Vogiroth fell at his feet, told him the sad
story of his undertaking, and begged him to return Gunga to him;
because, without her water, his family would find no salvation.
The venerable Brahmun complied with the prayer of the child,
but knew not how to bring the sacred stream out of his stomach, as
it would be irreverent and wicked to let it issue through either of the
Nobo-dār, nine openings of the body.
Considering the matter seriously, he at last tore the skin of his
Janoo, knee, and the river flowed out of the opening. Hence,
another name of Gunga is Jarnovy. She inquired of the child how far
there was yet to go, and where the ashes of his ancestors were
deposited. He could not answer at all, so she became hundred-
headed, and went in different directions in search of the ashes of the
children of Saugor. Thus do the Hindoos account for so many
mouths of the Ganges that meet the sea.
Such is the legend of Gunga, the sacred river of the Hindoos. It is
universally believed to be a true account of the goddess. The place
where the river meets the sea, particularly near the Saugor Island, is
regarded as a sacred spot, and is visited by the Hindoos once a year,
in the month of Maugh, or January. Here the assembled myriads
bathe in and worship the Gunga. It being more than an ordinary
bath, and performed in such a sacred spot as the Sungh-um—the
confluence of Gunga with the sea—it is deemed by very many
necessary to avail themselves of the opportunity, and make the best
possible use of the occasion. Before plunging the body into water,
the man stands near the Brahmun priest, and confesses to God
whatever sin he has committed and can possibly remember.
This is the Hindoo mode of Repentance.
We are told of a real conservative priest of Eastern Bengal, who
would have his people confess audibly and distinctly the iniquities
they had committed, specifying them by their name, nature, and
circumstance, and thus making the matter worse, after all.
But now the confession is made and heard by the individual
sinners themselves; no ears of the priest or bystanders hear
anything. It is believed that the goddess, who heareth in secret,
shall forgive and reward them openly.
In conclusion, it would not be out of place, I think, to speak, in
this connection, of the reverence the Hindoos pay to their Sacred
River. The long arms of caste cannot reach a victim if he happens to
be on its water. In sailing as well as in row-boats, which crowd on
the Ganges, the members of all castes sit side by side, talk to each
other, smoke their hookas, and take their luncheon; but these things
could not be done in a vehicle on land. A Brahmun would eat his
luncheon on a boat having a low-caste man,—a shoemaker, perhaps,
—only a few feet from him, because the holiness of the river takes
away, in some degree, the difference that exists between the two
castes.[18] They sprinkle its water upon everything almost, for
purifying purposes. Those who bathe in ponds drop a few drops of
Gunga water on their heads. A Hindoo who would speak lies, or bear
false witness against his brother, with a hard heart, if urged to do it
with a cup of Ganges water in his hand, would keep his conscience
clear, for he will not dare to speak lies then!
In courts of justice the witnesses had to touch the holy water in
giving their depositions; now they are simply reminded of its
presence. If any one should speak truth, calling the Gunga for his
witness, it is regarded sinful. It often happens that when a rich man
is robbed of his gold or silver, and the police recovers it, he is
required to claim it by oath, that is, by touching the water of the
Ganges, but he would not. The very idea of swearing or taking oath
in the presence of an adorable object is abominable to him; he
would rather go away poor and suffering than retain or acquire
money that way. In order that it might be regarded most solemnly,
the Hindoos believe that when a man swears falsely in the name of a
holy person or thing, not only he is condemned, but also “fourteen
ancestors” suffer for it. There are, however, thousands who do not
observe all these rules. I speak of the rules themselves.
 CHAPTER IV.
SHRA-BUN, JULY.
The Roth Jatra, or the Car of Jogger-nauth.
Foreigners in general, misled by the reports of missionaries, have
some incorrect ideas of the worship of Jogger-nauth by the Hindoos.
They say that the Hindoos throw themselves under the wheels of his
car, as a voluntary sacrifice, and are crushed to death. I do not
agree with them in this assertion, although I have no sympathy with
any of the forms of worship of my countrymen. The “Car of Jogger-
nauth,” as foreigners call it, is worshipped and drawn for a different
purpose. The ceremony connected with it has its origin in the
following legendary incident, which, to me appears a historical one.
Krishno, an incarnation of Bishno, was the only child of Joshoda and
Nuntho of Gocool,—the modern Agra. Kong-sho, the tyrant king of
Mothoora, made a great Jogeo,—a religious festival, and invited the
sovereigns and people of various countries to attend it. Nuntho, the
father of Krishno, being the king of Gocool, was respectfully invited
to appear at the court of Kong-sho, with his son, whose chivalry was
then the popular object of admiration. As a token of especial honor,
Occroor, a sage widely known for his eminent piety, was
commissioned by Kong-sho to bring the young prince of Gocool to
the festival. He accordingly went with a Roth or car for that purpose.
Krishno went with the sage, and did not return to his parents again.
Now to commemorate his departure from his native land, the “Car of
Jogger-nauth” has been instituted, which is worshipped and drawn
as follows.
 THE CAR OF JOGGURNAUTH,
WITH SKETCHES OF SOME OF THE ARTICLES
WORSHIPPED BY THE HINDOO GIRLS. DRAWN
BY MR. GANGOOLY.
The cars are constructed of different sizes, but the shape is
always the same. They are of the form of a pyramid; square at the
base, and become pointed at the top. Some are of stupendous size,
being fifty feet high, more or less, and beautiful wooden statuary
and paintings adorn them from top to bottom. A car has five, nine,
or thirteen cupolas, the highest, or main one, is the seat of the idols.
As it is drawn, the bells ring and silken flags wave on the cupolas.
There are four cars in my village, and I will speak of them. The first
was dedicated by a rich landholder, the second by the high-priest of
the priests, the third by a dairyman, and the fourth by a rich
Brahmun widow, who settled in our village a few years ago. Her car
is said to be one of the handsomest, with nearly fifty statues, and a
large silver chuc-cross, the throne and ornaments of the idol are of
gold.
In the morning of the day in which the car is drawn thousands of
people are entertained at the dinner, by the owner. In the afternoon
the procession is formed before the car in the following manner. Men
walk in rows with flags in their hands; the bands with hundreds of
drums, flutes, cymbals, etc.,—the Krith-on, or a band of singers who
sing the praises of Krishno alone. The car in motion, drawn by
hundreds, makes a tremendous noise, and grinds everything to
powder that comes under its solid wheels. It is everywhere believed
in Christian countries that the Hindoo devotees throw themselves
under the Car of Jogger-nauth in order to be crushed to death. But
that is not a true statement of the case. Self-torture is practised,
sacrifices are offered, and in many cases even suicide is committed,
to satisfy some Hindoo deities, but nothing of this nature is allowable
before Jogger-nauth. He does not take delight in cruel, bloody
shows. His love for his creatures is so great that no animal food is
offered to him. His worshippers, a peculiar sect of the Hindoos,
called Boish-tule, do not kill or eat fish, nor look on pictures
representing scenes of battle, murder, or assassination. The loss of
lives under the Car of Jogger-nauth is owing to the carelessness of
the people. It is believed by them that he who pulls the ropes
attached to the car will be carried away after his death, to the
heaven of Krishno by his Pooshpo Roth,—flowery car. Elated by the
false promise of heaven, an immense crowd comes forward to give
at least three pulls of the sacred car, and some among them
accidentally falling down are trodden by the feet of men or crushed
by the wheels of the car. I have seen four stout men go to heaven
that way, being ground to pieces by the car of the rich widow
mentioned above. Of course, while a Hindoo, I believed like the
others, but do not remember of ever drawing the car at all. Being a
Brahmun, and widely known as a sincere lover of the idols, I used to
sit on the top of the car, fan the idols, receive the shower of flower-
garlands from the crowd and throw them again at the men, women,
and children below as a benediction. Such was my devotion and
affection to the images, that while almost everybody deserted the
car on account of a heavy shower, I alone sat by and took care of
the idols, believing they would reward me abundantly hereafter! No
worship of the Hindoos is free from some act of immorality or vice.
The Brahmuns, especially the young ones, from the high seats on
the car, find out, with keen eyes, and lustful hearts, some handsome
females in the crowded street, or in the house-top, and hit them
severely with the bananas.
There is no Scriptural reference to the place where the car shall
stop. It is sometimes carried to the distance of a mile and is left
there for seven days, during which time the idols are worshipped in
some temple or house built or hired for the purpose. On the eighth
day the car is drawn back to its former place, where it remains
motionless until the next year. They make large eyes for the car with
paint, that it may look at all and be careful not to crush any cruelly.
After the death of four men under the car in my village it was found
that the painter had not drawn the eyes on the top of the car!!!
 CHAPTER V.
VAUTHRO, AUGUST.
The Birthday of Krishno.—Fasting and Worship on the Occasion.—
Rejoicing of Nuntho; the Worship of Monsha,—a Goddess whose
Messengers are Serpents, Adders, Toads, etc.
The Hindoo mythology relates the birth of Krishno as having
taken place in this month, on the “eighth day after the full moon.”
He was born to redeem the world, which was then trembling under
the feet of a tyrant. His parents were in a humble prison at the time
of his advent. In the presence of the heavenly babe the fetters that
bound the prisoners were broken asunder, the cell began to dazzle,
joy and sorrow overwhelmed the unhappy parents. “A heavenly
voice” whispered to the father to fly with the child to Gocool, across
the river Jomuna, which was immediately done. The tyrant who
sought to destroy the child felt mortified, seeing his precaution
frustrated, and sent some messengers to kill all the infants in the
neighboring places.
The Hindoos hold this day sacred, and spend it in fasting and
worship. They abstain entirely from food and drink for more than
thirty hours, at the end of which Krishno’s image is worshipped, and
the story of his birth is read to the hungry worshippers. In
connection with the birth of Krishno comes Nunth-sobe,—the
rejoicing of Nuntho, the king, in whose palace the infant Krishno was
left in the shade of night.
On this occasion the Hindoos anoint themselves with all sorts of
perfumatory oil, attar of rose, etc., and spend three days in grand
festivities, music, and dancing.
On the thirtieth of this month is the worship of Mōnshā, which,
on account of a singular feast that accompanies it, is quite different
from others of the same sort. The name of this feast is Ur-run-thun.
Cooking is strictly forbidden on this day; no fire is to be put in the