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GLOBAL DIVERSITIES

Organised Cultural
Encounters
Practices of Transformation
Lise Paulsen Galal
Kirsten Hvenegård-Lassen

mpimmg
 Global Diversities

Series Editors
Steven Vertovec
Department of Socio-Cultural Diversity
Max Planck Institute for the Study of Religious and
Ethnic Diversity
Göttingen, Germany

Peter van der Veer

Department of Religious Diversity
Max Planck Institute for the Study of Religious and
Ethnic Diversity
Göttingen, Germany

Ayelet Shachar
Department of Ethics, Law, and Politics
Max Planck Institute for the Study of Religious and
Ethnic Diversity
Göttingen, Germany
Over the past decade, the concept of ‘diversity’ has gained a leading place
in academic thought, business practice, politics and public policy across
the world. However, local conditions and meanings of ‘diversity’ are
highly dissimilar and changing. For these reasons, deeper and more com-
parative understandings of pertinent concepts, processes and phenomena
are in great demand. This series will examine multiple forms and configu-
rations of diversity, how these have been conceived, imagined, and repre-
sented, how they have been or could be regulated or governed, how
different processes of inter-ethnic or inter-religious encounter unfold,
how conflicts arise and how political solutions are negotiated and prac-
ticed, and what truly convivial societies might actually look like. By com-
paratively examining a range of conditions, processes and cases revealing
the contemporary meanings and dynamics of ‘diversity’, this series will be
a key resource for students and professional social scientists. It will repre-
sent a landmark within a field that has become, and will continue to be,
one of the foremost topics of global concern throughout the twenty-­first
century. Reflecting this multi-disciplinary field, the series will include
works from Anthropology, Political Science, Sociology, Law, Geography
and Religious Studies. While drawing on an international field of schol-
arship, the series will include works by current and former staff members,
by visiting fellows and from events of the Max Planck Institute for the
Study of Religious and Ethnic Diversity. Relevant manuscripts submitted
from outside the Max Planck Institute network will also be considered.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/15009
 Lise Paulsen Galal
Kirsten Hvenegård-Lassen

Organised Cultural
Encounters
Practices of Transformation
Lise Paulsen Galal Kirsten Hvenegård-Lassen
Department of Communication and Arts Department of Communication and Arts
Roskilde University Roskilde University
Roskilde, Denmark Roskilde, Denmark

ISSN 2662-2580     ISSN 2662-2599 (electronic)

Global Diversities
ISBN 978-3-030-42885-3    ISBN 978-3-030-42886-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42886-0

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature
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This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
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illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
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the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
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Cover illustration: © Michael Jones / EyeEm

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Preface

The ideas and perspectives developed in Organised Cultural Encounters:

Practices of Transformation are the result of insights harvested from a col-
laborative research project on organised cultural encounters. The field-
work that forms the basis for the analyses in this book was conducted in
different domains: interfaith dialogue work (fieldwork by Lise Paulsen
Galal); a youth diversity project called the Cultural Encounters
Ambassadors (fieldwork by Helle Bach Riis); training activities related to
diversity management (fieldwork by Kirsten Hvenegård-Lassen); volun-
teer tourism (fieldwork by Lene Bull Christiansen); and a community
dance project (fieldwork by Rasmus Præstmann Hansen).
Besides the two authors, the other project members have contributed
to this book with research data and through discussions during the proj-
ect period. Lene has also been involved in the structuring of the volume
through her participation in the writing of the book proposal. Thanks to
all of them for inspiring and generous collaboration.
Even though the performance incentives of the neoliberal university
are heavily individualised, research in our view is always a dialogical
accomplishment, and in that sense the collaborative nature of our research
project is not unusual. What is perhaps less common is that this book
refers to and analyses fieldnotes and interviews produced by all five
research participants. This means that, in addition to analysing our own
and each other’s material, we—the authors of this book—have also had
v
vi Preface

access not only to the publications of the other participants but also to
their “raw material”. This, of course, implies that we as authors need to
adhere to the same ethical responsibilities towards the research partici-
pants as the fieldworkers have done—both in terms of formal ethics and
ethics in practice (Guillemin & Gillam, 2004).
It also means that it is necessary to consider the ethics associated with
analysing—and writing about—data material not produced by oneself,
which also implies laying some kind of claim to that material. In the
book, we have adopted a politics of citation that aims to acknowledge the
contributions of all the participants in the research project. However, the
analyses and their merits and flaws are our responsibility. Where possible,
we have supported the analysis of our co-researchers’ data by drawing on
their writings on their own case material, but still with our analytical
focus in mind.
It is, however, not a straightforward venture to analyse other people’s
fieldnotes and interviews. Reflecting upon the fieldwork related to his
doctoral research into urban politics and responses to asylum, Jonathan
Darling underlines:

The need to consider more carefully the ways in which fieldwork produces
more than simply “data”, narratives or notes to be analysed and repre-
sented. Fieldwork produces sensibilities and dispositions, it alters individu-
als and may orientate them differently towards others. […] sensitivity to
context is never a final or full accomplishment. Context and positionality
are always shifting beneath our feet as research develops, […]. As such,
fieldwork demands the continual acknowledgement that the accounts we
produce are incomplete reflections of a “here and now” never to be repeated.
(Darling, 2014, p. 211).

This “more than data” can, of course, be partly recorded in fieldnotes.

But the embodied sensations and collective atmospheres that linger in the
memory, and at least partly take you back to a given situation, will not be
evoked in the same way in a co-reader. When Kirsten writes in her field-
notes that she was overwhelmed by an acute sensation of discomfort, Lise
can of course take this into account as something that occurred—but for
her it does not linger as a mood. And when Lise describes how she often
 Preface vii

feels “high” after participating in an interfaith encounter, this sensation

does not emanate from the fieldnotes, and neither does it capture Kirsten
in any straightforward way. During the joint writing process, the authors
have had the opportunity to continually correct each other’s writings in a
different way than the rest of the research group. This will probably also
manifest itself in the book, in that the analyses based on each author’s
own fieldwork come across as richer.

Roskilde, Denmark Lise Paulsen Galal

Roskilde, Denmark  Kirsten Hvenegård-Lassen

References
Darling, J. (2014). Emotions, encounters and expectations: The uncertain ethics
of ‘the field’. Journal of Human Rights Practice, 6(2), 201–212.
Guillemin, M., & Gillam, L. (2004). Ethics, reflexivity, and “ethically impor-
tant moments” in research. Qualitative Inquiry, 10(2), 261–280.
 Acknowledgements

This book would not exist without the willingness of the organisers and
participants at the various organised cultural encounters to allow us to
participate and observe, as well as to conduct both formal and informal
interviews. Huge thanks to all of them.
Research is always a collaborative process, which moves along through
conversations in all kinds of formal and informal settings. We express our
warmest appreciation to all of the numerous people, from near and far,
who have helped our project move on by asking difficult questions, mak-
ing insightful comments, and listening patiently. We have also benefitted
from patience over the last few busy months spent on finishing this book,
when other collaborative research activities and writing projects have not
proceeded quite as smoothly as they might have done.
We thank Karen Risager, Ann Phoenix, and Sverre Raffnsøe, who have
contributed with valuable input at different points during the process of
refining our perspectives and arguments. Thanks to Mette Buchardt, Louise
Tranekjær, Birgitte Schepelern Johansen, Jette Kofoed, and Dorthe Staunæs
who each contributed with comments on one of the chapters during the final
stage of writing, helping us to fine-tune our arguments and perspectives.
Finally, thanks to the Independent Research Fund Denmark, which
funded the research project “The Organised Cultural Encounter”
that ran from September 2013 to December 2017, with funding ID
DFF-1319-00093.
ix
 Contents

1 Introduction: Organised Cultural Encounters  1

2 Tracing the Ideas of Organised Cultural Encounters 27

3 Guided Interactions: Scripting at Work 59

4 Orchestrated Turnarounds: Between Chaos and Order105

5 Walking, Dancing, and Listening: Affect and Encounters149

6 A Risky Business189

Index217

xi
 List of Boxes

Box 3.1 Training Courses for Municipal Integration Workers 65

Box 3.2 The Dialogue Pilot Course 71
Box 3.3 The Cultural Encounters Ambassadors 79
Box 3.4 Organizer Against Discrimination 81
Box 3.5 Global Citizenship Training 93
Box 4.1 Danish–Arab Interfaith Dialogue Programme 112
Box 4.2 Heavenly Days 124
Box 5.1 Community Dance 164
Box 5.2 Faith in Harmony 177

xiii
 1
Introduction:
Organised Cultural Encounters

How do we live with (cultural) difference? Or perhaps: how can we deal

with all the conflicts in our contemporary world that are perceived to be
associated with cultural difference? “We don’t want to, take it away”
seems to be the preeminent political answer of governments, as well as a
prominent trend of “public opinion” across the world, or more specifi-
cally: the geopolitical West of this world. This book is about a particular
genre of intervention—which we call organised cultural encounters—
into encounters with difference. It is a genre that seeks to establish a posi-
tive answer to the first question by working on, or dealing with, the
conflictual breaking points addressed in the second. This genre of inter-
vention can be found across the globe, but in this book we explore how
it plays out in contexts that are either located in Denmark or related to a
Danish organisation. In that limited sense, the book is also about
Denmark.
In Denmark, as elsewhere, over the last 30 years or so cultural differ-
ence has become an increasingly heated political topic, to a large extent
through its association with immigration. In particular, the presence of
newcomers from countries deemed culturally alien and religiously differ-
ent have sparked an almost excessive interest in how to support

© The Author(s) 2020 1

L. P. Galal, K. Hvenegård-Lassen, Organised Cultural Encounters, Global Diversities,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42886-0_1
2 L. P. Galal and K. Hvenegård-Lassen

cohesiveness, integration, co-existence, and so on; in other words, how

can we mould the perceived threat of disorder, disintegration, and con-
flict into its opposite? While this was predominantly formulated in a lan-
guage of inclusion during the last decades of the twentieth century, the
language of exclusion has gradually taken over during the current century.
Policies at both national and local levels have increasingly defined and
addressed problem areas in openly racialised terms. These include immi-
gration and border control, gang crime, religious extremism and terror-
ism, labour-force marginalisation, ethnic and social “ghettos”, Muslim
head coverings (the hijab and the niqab—the latter mostly called the
“burka”), and honour-based violence (cf. Brochmann & Hagelund,
2012; Jensen, Vitus, & Schmidt, 2018; Keskinen, Skaptadóttir, &
Toivanen, 2019; Keskinen, Tuori, Irni, & Mulinari, 2016).
As well as being prioritised areas of government policies, these issues
have also been taken up by civil society activists and associations who
concentrate their efforts—often economically or ideologically supported
by a neoliberal policy focus on civil society—at the interpersonal and
community level as the primary locus of transformation (Martikainen,
2016). Drawing on ideas about social integration and co-existence, some
of these efforts belong to the genre of organised cultural encounters, in
which the problems associated with cultural difference are addressed
through programmes that seek to foster good—or meaningful—encoun-
ters (Valentine, 2008). These programmes rest on particular problem for-
mulations, such as in the following descriptions by two Danish
associations that organise dialogue meetings (a youth and a faith-based
organisation, respectively):

Dialogue is necessary in a modern world characterised by contrast and

change. This is a world where we meet each other, want to cooperate—and
indeed have to do so, across borders, cultures, viewpoints and motivations.
Dialogue can help overcome prejudice and create understanding of other
people’s perspectives. It can show us new ways of perceiving the world. And
it can expand our horizons. Dialogue enables reaching across an abyss of
difference, as long as we see and recognise each other for what we are: dif-
ferent yet all human beings in the same world. (Helde, 2012, p. 10)
 1 Introduction: Organised Cultural Encounters 3

• We cooperate with partners in Scandinavia, Asia, Africa and the

Middle East—and have a long history of gathering people across reli-
gious beliefs and cultural affiliations.
• We practice dialogue to achieve mutual understanding, solve conflicts
or avoid the conflicts from even arise.
• We do dialogue workshops in educational institutions, among civil
society activist and in the religious sphere. We therefore meet people
on many levels—from young people studying theology to high pro-
filed religious leaders in for example the large-scale project Syrian
Leaders. (Dialogue toolbox, n.d.)

Thus, the “abyss of difference” is a problem that can be overcome through

encounters and dialogue. This genre of intervention that works, in its
broadest definition, through the organisation of face-to-face encounters,
is adopted across a wide variety of social relations that are deemed in need
of support, reparation, or transformation. Occurring across different
social fields, examples include: interfaith activities, cultural exchange pro-
grammes, reconciliation projects, community cohesion initiatives, and
projects associated with the inclusion of immigrants (Christiansen, Galal,
& Hvenegård-Lassen, 2017). Each subscribes to their own definition of
the problem, the purpose, and particular techniques of intervention, but
they all rest on a definition of something “bad” that exists before the
encounter, which is then worked on in the here-and-now of that encoun-
ter, to be effected after the encounter through a desired transformation of
or among the participants. We have adopted the umbrella term “organ-
ised cultural encounters” to cover this broad range of intervention strate-
gies. Considered as social practices, they share features, but they also
differ, and in the research literature they are mostly dealt with through
other classifications.1 We are not arguing that the gathering together of
these intervention practices under the headline “organised cultural
encounters” is more accurate than other classifications. We do argue,
however, that this conceptualisation allows us to approach old or
comparatively well-known phenomena in new ways.
The term “organised cultural encounters” was coined during a
collaborative research project2 involving fieldwork in five contexts in
4 L. P. Galal and K. Hvenegård-Lassen

which encounters between people who are perceived to be culturally dif-

ferent were organised in order to produce “positive” effects. That is:
attempts at creating a transformative space in which what are defined as
the negative outcomes of cultural encounters in everyday life (e.g. preju-
dice, stereotypes, and conflicts) can be overcome and replaced by such
aspects as understanding, communality, and peace. These five studies
which are located in different social domains, all related to Denmark,
form the empirical backbone of the analyses in this book.3
Across these studies and domains, we are curious about the performa-
tivity and practices of organised cultural encounters and their relation to
the wider contexts within which they are played out. Our attention is
directed towards what is (re)produced (e.g. positions, relations, differ-
ence, sameness, affect, knowledge) within these social spaces and how.
This priority implies that we are circumventing the normative question of
how change may best be enacted or how encounters may ideally achieve
this aim. Given that organised cultural encounters are intervention strat-
egies, and thus purposefully orchestrated events, it is not surprising that
they are often studied through evaluative approaches that aim to establish
“best practice” models through measuring the outcome in terms of suc-
cess or failure (for examples, see Agergaard, 2011; Agrawal & Barratt,
2014; Fotel & Andersen, 2003; Kozlovic, 2003; Laurence, 2014). Seen
from our perspective, the problem with these studies is that what actually
happens becomes subsumed under what ought to have happened. This is
a widespread tendency within the field of education, where intercultural
education programmes (some of which could be conceptualised as organ-
ised cultural encounters), as well as research into these, predominantly
work through developmental models (Perry & Southwell, 2011). These
models conceptualise intercultural competence in individual terms, and
research often aims to promote the spread of “best practice” cases. With
respect to the programmes, this means that both aims and practices tend
to become instrumental: a way of securing the current (power) state of
affairs through different means (cf. Schoorman & Bogotch, 2010). David
Coulby argues that

the theorisation of intercultural education […] is not simply a matter of

normative exhortation, of spotting good practice in one area and helping
 1 Introduction: Organised Cultural Encounters 5

to implement it in another. It involves the reconceptualization of what

schools and universities have done in the past and what they are capable of
doing in the present and the future. (Coulby, 2006, p. 246; see also: Dixson
& Rousseau Anderson, 2018).

Organised cultural encounters cannot be analysed through the lens of

everyday practices alone. The fact that the kind of encounters we study
are purposefully organised, or, as we describe in detail in Chap. 3, scripted,
means that, if not determined by their organisers, practices are at least
partly (in)formed by their intervention models. Consequently, we
approach the practices that play out in the time-space of an organised
cultural encounter as entanglements of everyday practices and practices
that are encouraged by their organisers. In this way, we take into account
the orchestrated character of these encounters, at the same time as we
avoid the temptation (and mistake) to explain practices as the direct out-
come of the organisers’ scripts.
Avoiding normativity, in the sense described above, does not mean
that we are uninterested in the transformative potential of encounters. In
our readings, we prioritise critical analyses of how practices, techniques,
scripts, emplacements, and so on are entangled in a field of power rela-
tions, which tends to be more or less comprehensively downplayed
(whether intentionally or not) by organisers, that is, a mode of critique
that, reading with Eve Kosofsky Sedgewick (2003), could be called para-
noid. But we also, in a more affirmative or reparative mode of critique
(ibid.), seek out the moments across our data material when something
new seems to be opened up (intentionally or not), something that is not
seamlessly embedded in the prevailing power relations. Importantly,
however, newness is not in itself good or bad in a normative sense.
In the remaining pages of this introduction, we sketch out an overall
approach to organised cultural encounters that, in its flexibility, has
guided our readings. In very general terms, our approach draws on post-
colonial perspectives and a view of social practice as performative, and is
developed further and in different directions in the ensuing chapters. We
stated above that we are interested in the performativity and practices of
organised cultural encounters and their relation to the wider contexts in
which they are embedded. In the next section, we theorise these wider
6 L. P. Galal and K. Hvenegård-Lassen

contexts in terms of “contact zones”, after which we turn to an initial

sketch of the central concept of encounters and the way that concept can
be related to the contact zone. Informed by the framing through the con-
tact zone and encounters, we have paid particular attention to chaos and
order, and the distribution of risk and safety within the encounters we
have studied. In the following section, we expand upon this analytical
approach. The introduction closes with an overview of the book.

 rganised Cultural Encounters:

O
Interventions into the Contact Zone
Borrowing from Mary Louise Pratt (1991, 2008), we conceptualise
organised cultural encounters—as a first step—as interventions into the
contact zone. According to Pratt, contact zones are

social spaces where cultures meet, clash, and grapple with each other, often
in contexts of highly asymmetrical relations of power, such as colonialism,
slavery, or their aftermaths as they are lived out in many parts of the world
today. (Pratt, 1991, p. 34)

Apart from this, Pratt does not offer a strict definition of the contact
zone. There are, however, several aspects of her work that we find illumi-
nating and important to take on board. In her keynote to the Modern
Language Association (MLA), she argues that, among other things, the
term involves a rethinking of models of community as essentially bounded
entities (1991, p. 37), moving instead towards an understanding of com-
munities as relationally constituted through the continual bordering pro-
cesses negotiated between them. Through the notion of the contact zone,
we turn towards spaces as well as temporalities of contact, and the perfor-
mativity of encounters, as a particular form of contact; that is, towards
encounters as productive of social practice and difference. The latter
implies an ontological perspective on encounters: “species of all kinds,
living and not, are consequent on a subject- and object-shaping dance of
encounters”, as Donna Haraway puts it (2008, p. 4).
 1 Introduction: Organised Cultural Encounters 7

Pratt’s approach is not, however, primarily ontological. While her take

may be likened in some respects to the (cybernetic) de-essentialising of
ethnicity and community, of which Frederik Barth (1969) is a strong
proponent, Pratt’s account is historical, since she points towards the
(European) nation state as the model upon which the utopia of an essen-
tially bounded community is built. Thus, contact may be the stuff from
which social and cultural practice and difference emerge in a constitutive
sense, but any actual occurrence of contact takes place within a particular
historical and spatial context, where dominance, and following from this
also meaning, categories, and differences are situated (if not completely
pre-determined) ahead of that contact (Ahmed, 2000).
In Pratt’s work on travel writing, which forms the backdrop for her
coining of the concept of the contact zone, the subjects who meet were,
however, “previously separated by geographical and historical disjunc-
tures” (Pratt, 2008, p. 7). Present-day contact zones are “heirs to” the
histories of contact that precede and condition them. They are spatio-­
temporally located in what Pratt terms the “aftermaths” of “highly asym-
metrical relations of power, such as colonialism, slavery” (1991, p. 34).
Or, perhaps, this is rather how we choose to employ the notion of the
contact zone, since Pratt is more cautious in the quote above: cultures
often meet in situations characterised by asymmetrical power relations,
such as colonialism and slavery—relations that persist today in many parts
of the world. Less cautiously, we argue that colonialism, imperialism, and
slavery are historically formative of global epistemologies related to what
it means to be human and how cultural difference figures in that equa-
tion (cf. Wynter, 2003). There is a strong tendency towards exceptional-
ism in Denmark, when it comes to the Danish implication in these global
histories and epistemologies, but they are nevertheless formative of the
present. Ann Laura Stoler argues that the aftermaths of colonialism are
considerably more complex than either a reliance on rupture or continu-
ity can capture—the rupture narrative “treats colonial history with clear
temporal and spatial demarcations” (2016, p. 25), while the continuity
stance “insists on a more seamless continuation that pervade the present”
(ibid.). Instead, Stoler argues:
8 L. P. Galal and K. Hvenegård-Lassen

Recharting imperial effects seems to demand another sort of labor on

another scale: one that attends to their partial, distorted, and piecemeal
qualities, to uneven and intangible sedimentations that defy easy access in
the face of the comforting contention that there really is no imperial order
of things. (2016, p. 26)

This also means that “the imperial order of things” plays out differently in
different parts of the world. Like Pratt, Stoler points out the messiness of
imperial relations and governance, and the implications this holds for
how we may analyse these and their effects in the present. Following from
these considerations, we explore the trajectory through which mission has
become transformed or translated in terms of dialogue (see Chap. 2).
Because our point of departure is the contemporary field of interfaith
work in Denmark, this mapping will primarily reflect an archive of domi-
nant voices. But it is nevertheless a mapping that takes us back to encoun-
ters within the imperial contact zone between missionaries and
evangelised, colonised subjects. The outcome of these encounters (among
these, the turn to dialogue) cannot be ascribed to a unilateral dominance
of the missionaries, despite the way in which they were steeped in unequal
power relations. Hence, we do not claim that there is an uncomplicated
and direct line between our globally shared past, as it has been shaped by
imperialism, colonialism, and slavery, and the way in which cultural dif-
ference is lived, governed, and conceptualised in the present. Rather, in
adopting the contact zone as a framework, we place our approach solidly
within a postcolonial framework, where the “post” does not imply that
cultural difference—and racialisation—in the present can be sealed off
from the past; a past that lives on in complicated ways.
The productivity of thinking with the contact zone is related to the
way in which it frames encounters in that zone as messy and unequal as
well as relationally constitutive for the subjects who come into contact
with each other. This co-constitution implies that meaning-making takes
place in and on both sides of the relation, even though the archives only
or overwhelmingly represent the order(ing) of the dominant party (the
coloniser). The contact zone, according to Pratt, is the space of imperial
encounters (2008, p. 8), but, as Helen Wilson points out in a recent
article, Pratt does not elaborate upon the relation between the contact
 1 Introduction: Organised Cultural Encounters 9

zone and encounter (2019, p. 5). Wilson argues that the contact zone
houses multiple forms of contact, relations, and communicative practices
(ibid., p. 7). Encounters, then, are one form of contact out of several oth-
ers. This resonates with Pratt’s borrowing of the notion of contact from
linguistics and, more precisely, the notion of contact languages (pidgin,
creole, etc.). While Pratt argues that contact languages are produced
through the creative grappling that occurs within the contact zone, they
are “commonly regarded as chaotic, barbarous and lacking in structure”
(Pratt, 2008, p. 8). Accordingly, the appropriations and negotiations
characteristic of interactions in the contact zone do not correspond to
dominant imaginaries of order, the imaginaries that make their way into
the archive. From this perspective, the contact zone is chaos. Crucial here
is that imaginaries of order, and hence chaos, are not innocent, but rather
tend to be diagnosed from the perspective of the dominant position(s).
Order and chaos are historically constituted and deeply ingrained in the
prevailing power relations. Majorities and minorities are differently posi-
tioned—to minorities, order might be as risky as chaos.
Pratt’s conceptualisation of contact zones does not refer to the kind of
purposefully organised interventions into the contact zone that we call
organised cultural encounters. Pratt does discuss a specific example of an
intervention, however: her teaching of a university course that dealt with
“the Americas and the multiple cultural histories (including European
ones) that have intersected here” (1991, p. 39). In this course, the diverse
students in the classroom all experienced the precarity and historical lega-
cies of both their own and others’ identities and positions. Pratt writes:
“Along with rage, incomprehension, and pain, there were exhilarating
moments of wonder and revelation, mutual understanding, and new wis-
dom—the joys of the contact zone […] No one was excluded, and no
one was safe” (ibid.).

Encounters and Difference

Encounters have become increasingly important as a conceptual device
and an analytical focus for research preoccupied with cultural difference
and diversity (cf. Ahmed, 2000; Amin & Thrift, 2002; Faier & Rofel,
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 The Project Gutenberg eBook of The botanist's
repository for new and rare plants; vol. 05 [of 10]
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
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Title: The botanist's repository for new and rare plants; vol. 05 [of
10]

Author: active 1799-1828 Henry Cranke Andrews

Release date: April 8, 2024 [eBook #73359]

Language: English

Original publication: London: The author, 1797

Credits: Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOTANIST'S

REPOSITORY FOR NEW AND RARE PLANTS; VOL. 05 [OF 10] ***
 INDEX
to the plants contained in vol. v.
ERRATA.
Alphabetical Index to the 1st. 2d. 3d. 4th. and 5th. Volume of
the Botanist’s Repository.

Vol. V.
 of the
Botanist’s Repository
Comprising
Colour’d Engravings

of

New and Rare Plants

ONLY

With Botanical Descriptions &c.

——in——

Latin and English,

after the

Linnæan System.

by

H. Andrews

Botanical Painter Engraver, &c.

 PLATE CCLXXXIX.

P R O T E A C O R D ATA .
Heart-shape-leaved Protea.
CLASS IV. ORDER I.
TETRANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Four Chives. One Pointal.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Corolla 4-fida, seu 4-petala. Antheræ lineares, insertæ petalis infra
apicem. Calyx, proprius, nullus. Semina solitaria.
Blossom four-cleft or four petals. Tips linear, inserted into the petals
below the ends. Cup, proper, none. Seeds solitary.
See Protea formosa, Pl. XVII. Vol. I.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Protea foliis cordatis.

Protea with heart-shaped leaves.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. A Floret before the petals have separated, natural
size.
2. The same, magnified, after the bursting of the petals.
3. The Pointal and Seed-bud, natural size.
The Heart-shape-leaved Protea was introduced to Britain in the year
1792, from the Cape of Good Hope, by Messrs. Lee and Kennedy; at whose
nursery it is now, this present month of March, 1803, in flower for the first
time in this country. The plant is only found on the mountains of that part of
the Cape called Hottentots Holland; the stem, in its native state, laying on
the ground, seldom more than a foot in length, and the flowers proceeding
from it near its base. It is rather delicate, should be kept in a very airy part of
the green-house, and planted in a light loamy soil. It is propagated by
cuttings, made in the month of April, and kept under a common hand-glass,
the pot being plunged in a shady border.
Of this Protea there is a good figure in Thunberg’s Dissertatio de Protea,
Upsal, quarto edition, 1781, Plate 5, fig. 1.
 PLATE CCXC.

A P O N O G E T O N D I S TA C H Y O N .
Broad-leaved Aponogeton.
CLASS XI. ORDER IV.
DODECANDRIA TETRAGYNIA. Twelve Chives. Four Pointals.
GENERIC CHARACTER.
Calyx nullus, nisi squama spathacea externum latus floris cingens,
simplex, sessilis, ovata, obtusa, integra, erecta, glabra, colorata.
Corolla nulla.
Stamina. Filamenta undecim ad novemdecim, superioribus floribus
pauciora, intra spatham et capsulas inserta, subulata, glabra, alba, spatha
multoties breviora. Antheræ erectæ, bifidæ.
Pistilla. Germina plerumque quatuor, raro tria seu quinque. Styli nulli.
Stigmata subulata, incurvata.
Pericarpium. Capsulæ quatuor, rarius tres seu quinque, ovatæ, subulato-
acutæ, exteriore latere gibbæ, interiore planæ, glabræ, unilocularis.
Semina, in quacumque capsula tria, basi capsula affixa, sessilia, obovata,
obtusissima, sub-compressa, glabra.
Empalement none, except a sheathing scale surrounding the outer side of
the flower, simple, sitting close, egg-shaped, obtuse, intire, upright, smooth,
coloured.
Blossom none.
Chives. Threads eleven to nineteen, in the upper flowers fewer, inserted
between the spathe and the capsules, awl-shaped, smooth, white, much
shorter than the spathe. Tips upright, two-cleft.
Pointals. Seed-buds often four, seldom three or five. Shafts none.
Summits awl-shaped, turned inwards.
Seed-vessel. Capsules four, seldom three or five, egg-shaped, pointed,
awl-shaped, unequally swelled on the outside, flat on the inner, smoothed,
one-celled.
 Seeds in each capsule three, fixed to the base of it, sitting close, inversely
egg-shaped, very blunt, rather flattish, smooth.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Aponogeton spica bifida; foliis eliptico-lanceolatis, natantibus; bracteis
integris; floribus polyandris.
Aponogeton with a two-branched spike; leaves eliptically lance-shaped,
floating; floral leaves entire; flowers with many chives.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. A Floret, with its floral leaf, magnified.
2. The Seed-buds and Summits, magnified.
This Genus of Plants in the Catalogue of the Kew Garden, is placed to the
Class Heptandria, and perhaps, with as much propriety as where it now
stands in Thunberg, Schreber, &c. for the number of chives in almost every
floret differs in this, and all the other species, from six to twenty. It is there
said to have been introduced to us in 1788 from the Cape of Good Hope by
Mr. F. Masson. It is found near Cape Town in most of the brooks; is very
sweet scented, and flowers from April till November. As an aquatic it is very
desirable for those who cultivate those plants, the fragrance of the flowers
being nearly equal to our Nymphæa alba, or White Water Lily; and this,
added to the contrasted effect of the deep brown antheræ upon the pure
white floral leaves, which indeed have the appearance of blossoms, give the
whole an indescribable trait of beauty, peculiar to itself. Our figure was
taken from a plant in the Hibbertian collection.
 PLATE CCXCI.

SENECIO PSEUDO-CHINA.
China-root Groundsel.
CLASS XIX. ORDER II.
SYNGENESIA POLYGAMIA SUPERFLUA. Tips united. Superfluous
Pointals.
GENERIC CHARACTER.
Calyx. Communis calyculatus, conicus, truncatus; squamis subulatis,
plurimis, in cylindrum superne contractum, parallelis, contiguis, æqualibus,
paucioribus basin imbricatim tegentibus, apicibus emortuis.
Corolla. Composita, calyce altior; Corullulæ hermaphroditæ tubulosæ,
numerosæ in disco; Femineæ ligulatæ in radio (si quæ adsint).
Propria hermaphroditi infundibuliformis; limbo reflexo, quinquefido.
Femineis (si quæ) oblonga, obsolete tridentata.
Stamina. Hermaphroditis; filamenta quinque, capillaria, minima. Anthera
cylindracea, tubulosa.
Pistillum utrisque; germen ovatum. Stylus filiformis, longitudine
staminum. Stigmata duo, oblonga, revoluta.
Pericarpium nullum. Calyx conico-connivens.
Semina hermaphroditis solitaria, ovata. Pappus crinitus, longus. Femineis
similima hermaphroditis.
Receptaculum nudum, planum.
Empalement. Common, double, conical, appearing cut off; scales awl-
shaped, numerous, contracted above into a cylinder, parallel, contiguous,
equal, the base tiled by a few scales, dead at the ends.
Blossom. Compound, taller than the cup; Hermaphrodite florets tubular,
numerous in the disk; Female florets (if there are any) tongue-shaped in the
circumference.
Hermaphrodite florets funnel shaped, border reflexed, five-cleft.
Female florets (if any) oblong, obscurely three-toothed.
 Chives. Of the hermaphrodite florets; five threads, hair-like, very small.
Tips forming a tubular cylinder.
Pointal in either; Seed-bud egg-shaped. Shaft thread-shaped, the length
of the chives. Summits two, oblong, rolled back.
Seed-vessel none. Empalement closing into a cone.
Seeds of hermaphrodite florets solitary, egg-shaped. Feather hairy, long.
Females like the hermaphrodites.
Receptacle naked, flat.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Senecio foliis sinuatis, integris, discoloribus; corollis purpureis; radice
tuberosa.
Groundsel with obtusely indented leaves entire and two-coloured;
blossoms purple; root tuberous.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. The Cup.
2. A Female floret, of the ray or circumference.
3. A Pointal of the female floret magnified.
4. An Hermaphrodite floret of the disk or centre.
5. The Chives and Pointal of an Hermaphrodite floret, magnified.
The roots of this plant were received at the same time with the double
Camellias, China Roses, &c. from China, by the late J. Slater, Esq. of
Laytonstone, Essex; we have, nevertheless, good reason to believe it was
known formerly in our gardens; but has been certainly lost, for many years,
to us. It is said to have been cultivated by James Sherrard, M. D. in 1732, as
copied from Dellinens’s Hortus Elthamensis, into the Kew Catalogue. Miller
speaks of it as flowering freely, and perfecting its seeds; whereas, in the
Hort. Kew. they omit its time of flowering, which, had it ever flowered there,
would certainly have been noted. Our drawing was taken in the month of
July last year, 1802, from a plant in the Hibbertian Collection, the first and
only time we have ever seen it flower in England. It is propagated by the
roots, which are large and fleshy; the plant is herbaceous, and should have
but little water during the winter months, as the roots are very subject to rot;
they are imported from India as a drug, under the name of China-root. Must
be kept in the hot-house, and planted in rich earth.
 PLATE CCXCII.

G E R A N I U M U N D U L AT U M .
Waved-flowered Geranium.
CLASS XVI. ORDER IV.
MONADELPHIA DECANDRIA. Threads united. Ten Chives.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Monogyna. Stigmata quinque. Fructus rostratus, penta-coccus.
One Pointal. Five Summits. Fruit furnished with long awns, five dry
berries.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Geranium foliis lanceolatis ciliatis, sub-integris; petalis sub-æqualibus,
sub-linearibus, undulatis; floribus umbellatis, pentandris; radice tuberosa.
Geranium with lance-shaped flowers, fringed nearly intire; petals almost
equal, nearly linear, waved; flowers grow in umbels, five fertile chives; root
tuberous.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. The Empalement cut open, to shew its tubular structure.
2. The Chives and Pointal, natural size.
3. The Chives, magnified and cut open.
4. The Pointal and Seed bud, magnified.
This tuberous rooted Geranium, from the Cape of Good Hope, has some
affinity with the G. spathulatum, as to the shape of the leaves; but the whole
habit of the plant is so totally different, that we could not, with any degree of
propriety, consider it as a variety of that species. Our figure was taken from a
plant in the Hibbertian collection, to which it was introduced in the year
1800, by Mr. Niven. It flowers in June, and may be propagated by the root.
The treatment is the same as that required for the rest, of this division, of the
Genus.
 PLATE CCXCIII.

LACHNÆA PURPUREA.
Purple-flowered Lachnæa.
CLASS VIII. ORDER I.
OCTANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Eight Chives. One Pointal.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Calyx nullus. Corolla quadrifida; limbo inæquali. Semen unum, sub-
baccatum.
Cup none. Blossom four-cleft; border unequal. One seed, like a berry.
See Lachnæa Eriocephala, Pl. CIV. Vol. II.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Lachnæa capitulis solitariis; corollis glabris, purpureis; foliis trigonis,
obtusis, quadrifariam imbricatis.
Lachnæa with solitary heads of flowers; blossoms smooth, purple; leaves
three-sided, obtuse, tiled in four-rows.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. One of the floral Leaves, which surround the head of flowers at the
base.
2. A Flower complete.
3. A Blossom cut open, the lower part cut off, to shew the insertion of
the Chives at the mouth.
4. The Pointal, natural size.
5. The same magnified.
This most singular genus of plants, in external appearance so resembling
passerina, yet so perfectly distinct in the parts of fructification, is certainly
amongst the handsomest of the natural order in which it ranks. The long
slender chives which extend nearly to the length of the border of the
blossom, independent of the singular retrofraction of one of its segments,
give it a character, we think, decidedly sufficient on which to have formed
the Genus. This is the third species known; it was introduced to the
Hibbertian collection, in 1800, by Mr. Niven, from the Cape of Good Hope.
It is a very delicate plant, subject to be destroyed by damps, flowers in July,
and may be increased by cuttings. It thrives best in a mixture of light sand
and loam.
Thunberg, in his Prod. Plant. Cap. has referred the whole genus to
Passerina.
 PLATE CCXCIV.

PROTEA CANDICANS.
Hoary-leaved Protea.
CLASS IV. ORDER I.
TETRANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Four Chives. One Pointal.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Corolla 4-fida, seu 4-petala. Antheræ lineares, insertæ petalis infra
apicem. Calyx proprius, nullus. Semina solitaria.
Blossom 4-cleft, or 4 petals. Tips linear, inserted into the petals below the
point. Cup, proper, none. Seeds solitary.
See Protea formosa, Pl. XVII. Vol. I.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Protea foliis apicibus tridentatis, eliptico-lanceolatis, obliquis,

candidissimis; capitulis terminalibus; calyx imbricatus, squamis acutis;
corollis luteis.
Protea with leaves three-toothed at the ends, eliptically-lance-shaped,
oblique and very hoary; heads of flowers terminal; cup tiled, scales pointed,
blossoms yellow.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. A Floret, the petals separated, natural size.
2. One of the Petals magnified.
3. The Pointal, and Seed-bud, natural size, the Summit detached,
magnified.
4. The Empalement, natural size.
Our present plant is one of the rarest Proteas at this time in England; as, we
believe, there has never been but one importation of the seeds from the
Cape, and no one species of this numerous genus is with more difficulty
propagated by cuttings. Its lower leaves are apt to suffer much from damps
in winter; in consequence, the stem becomes bare till near the top; the plant
grows about three feet high, and flowers in August, or September. Our figure
was taken from the Hibbertian collection, where it flowered, in 1802, for the
first time in Britain. We owe its introduction to Messrs. Lee and Kennedy,
Hammersmith, about the year 1790. We have our doubts of this plant being
the P. tomentosa of Thunberg; for although he, in his description of that
species, comes nigh many of the characters of P. candicans, yet his
determining the leaves to be linear, and downy, and our having drawings,
taken from two other species, approaching this in habit, yet nigher affined to
P. tomentosa, we have retained his specific title for one of them, the other yet
unnamed; which will both be given in due course.
 PLATE CCXCV.

PA S S I F L O R A A U R A N T I A .
Norfolk Island Passion-Flower.
CLASS XX. ORDER IV.
GYNANDRIA PENTANDRIA. Chives on the Pointal. Five Chives.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Trigyna. Calyx 5-phyllus. Petala 5. Nectarium corona. Bacca
pedicellata.
Three styles. Cup 5-leaved. Petals 5. Honey-cup forming a crown. Berry
standing on a foot-stalk.
See Pl. CCVII. Passiflora maliformis. Vol. IV.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Passiflora foliis trilobis, lobis oblongis obtusis, medio longiore; petiolis
biglandulosis; nectario cylindraceo, denticulato; corolla aurantia.
Passion-Flower with three-lobed leaves; lobes oblong, obtuse, the middle
one the longest; foot-stalks with two glands; honey-cup cylindrical and
toothletted; blossom orange-coloured.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. Exhibits the half of a flower as cut perpendicularly through the
middle, with the whole of the Pointal and Chives in their place.
This species of Passion Flower, from Norfolk Island, was introduced to
Britain in the year 1792, and was first raised, from seeds, at the
Hammersmith Nursery. It is a greenhouse plant, loving heat and drought,
thrives in a light sandy soil, and is readily increased by cuttings; which
should be placed in the heat of the bark-bed in the hothouse, or cucumber
hot-bed, in the month of April.
In the young state of the plant, the leaves are less harsh, appear rather
scolloped than lobed, and much resemble in shape those of the Maiden-hair
Fern, or Adiantum Capillus-veneris; whence the trivial name, adiantifolia,
which it bears in most collections. But, as there can be no doubt of our
present plant being that designed by Forster, in his Prod. flor. insul. austral.
No. 326; of Cavanilles in his Dissertationes classis Monadelphiæ, Diss. 10.
p. 457; and as lastly quoted by Willdenow, in his new Sp. Plant. Tom. 3, Part
1, p. 620; we have, without hesitation, adopted the specific title it there
bears. As an addition to the very few handsome climbing plants fit to
decorate the trellis-work of our modern greenhouses, or conservatories, this
plant must be considered as a great acquisition; as the growth is rapid, the
foliage of a fine green, and the flowering abundant.
Our figure was taken from a plant in the conservatory of the Hibbertian
collection, Clapham common.
 PLATE CCXCVI.

LACHENALIA ROSEA.
Rose-coloured Lachenalia.
CLASS VI. ORDER I.
HEXANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Six Chives. One Pointal.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Corolla 6-partita, infera; petalis tribus interioribus longioribus. Stamina
erecta. Capsula subovata, trialata. Semina globosa.
Blossom 6-divided, beneath; the three inner petals the longest. Chives
erect. Capsule nearly egg-shaped, three-winged. Seeds globular.
See Lachenalia pendula, Pl. XLI. Vol. I.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Lachenalia foliis binis, lanceolato-linearibus, obtusis; petalis interioribus
longioribus; scapo lævi filiforme; corollis roseis.
Lachenalia with two leaves between, lance and linear-shaped, obtuse; the
inner petals the longest; flower-stem smooth and thread-shaped; blossoms
rose-coloured.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. A Blossom cut open, shewn from the inside, the Chives in their place.
2. The same, shewn from the outside.
3. The Seed-bud and Pointal, natural size.
This plant we believe to be perfectly new to Britain, and in no other
collection, at present, than that of G. Hibbert, Esq. Clapham; where the
drawing of our figure was taken in May, 1802; and to which it had been
added, the preceding year, by Mr. Niven, from the Cape of Good Hope.
It is a tender bulb, and rather impatient of moisture; increases by the bulb;
should not be removed from its pot but to give it fresh earth, and is fond of a
light, loamy soil. It is without scent.
 PLATE CCXCVII.

N Y M P H Æ A O D O R ATA .
Sweet-scented Water-Lily.
CLASS XIII. ORDER I.
POLIANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Many Chives. One Pointal.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Calyx 4, 5, seu 6-phyllus. Corolla polypetala. Bacca multi-locularis,
truncata.
Cup 4, 5, or 6-leaved. Blossom many petals. Berry many-celled,
appearing cut off at top.
See Nymphæa cærulea, Pl. CXCVII. Vol. III.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Nymphæa foliis subrotundis, integris emarginatis, lobis divaricatis,
obtusissimis, margine parum incurvatis; calyce tetraphyllo; flore albo.
Water Lily with almost round leaves, entire, and notched at the end; lobes
straddling, very obtuse, and turned up slightly at the edge; cup four-leaved;
flower white.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. A Chive.
2. The Seed-bud and Summits.
3. The Seed-bud cut transversely.
This species of Water-Lily we should consider rather as a variety, than as a
distinct species; it has every character of our common white Water-Lily,
except the size and hardiness; it has the same powerful fragrance, but will
not stand the severity of our winters. It is a native of Carolina and Virginia,
North America; was introduced to us in the year 1786, by William Hamilton,
Esq. of Philadelphia, and flowers during the summer months, if kept in the
hot-house. Requires the same treatment as the blue species from the Cape of
Good Hope. May be increased from the seed, or from the root. Our drawing
was taken from a plant in the Clapham collection.
 PLATE CCXCVIII.

A N T H E R I C U M C O S TAT U M .
Ribbed-leaved Anthericum.
CLASS VI. ORDER I.
HEXANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Six Chives. One Pointal.
GENERIC CHARACTER.
Calyx, nullus.
Corolla. Petala sex, oblonga, obtusa, patentissima.
Stamina. Filamenta sex, subulata, erecta. Antheræ parvæ, incumbentes,
quadrisulcæ.
Pistillum. Germen obsolete trigonum. Stylus simplex, longitudine
staminum. Stigma obtusum, trigonum.
Pericarpium. Capsula ovata, glabra, trisulca, trilocularis, trivalvis.
Semina numerosa, angulata.
Empalement. none.
Blossom. Six petals, oblong, blunt, spreading very much.
Chives. Six threads, awl-shaped, upright. Tips small, laying on the
threads, four-furrowed.
Pointal. Seed-bud bluntly three-sided. Shaft simple, the length of the
chives. Summit blunt, and three-cornered.
Seed-vessel. Capsule egg-shaped, smooth, three-furrowed, three-valved.
Seeds numerous, angulated.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Anthericum foliis hirsutis, planis, costatis, lineari-ensiformibus, supra
medium reflexis; scapo simplici, glabro; floribus albis; radice bulboso.
Anthericum with hairy, flat, leaves, ribbed, linearly sword-shaped, turned
back from the middle; flower-stem simple, smooth; flowers white, root
bulbous.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
 1. The Chives and Pointal, magnified.
2. The Seed-bud, Shaft, and Summit, magnified.
3. The half of the Seed-bud cut transversely, magnified.
It is much to be lamented that we, as yet, have not discovered a mode of
treatment by which many of the species or Albuca, Ornithogalum,
Anthericum, &c. from the Cape, might be induced to flower with us, after
the first year from their importation; since many of them never produce more
than a few leaves afterwards; and this plant, we fear, is amongst the number.
It makes a very handsome and sweet bunch of flowers, which have
considerable duration, not less than a month from first expansion. We can
say little as to the propagation and culture; as it has not as yet increased, nor
has it produced any flowers since our drawing was made, in August 1801.
We think it is only in the Hibbertian Collection, to which it was introduced
by Mr. Niven, in 1800, from the Cape of Good Hope.