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THE GLOBAL
CHALLENGE
 THE GLOBAL
CHALLENGE
MANAGING PEOPLE ACROSS BORDERS

FOURTH EDITION

VLADIMIR PUCIK
Visiting Emeritus Professor, Aalto University School of Business,
Helsinki, Finland

INGMAR BJÖRKMAN
Rector, Hanken School of Economics, Finland

PAUL EVANS
The Shell Chaired Professor of Human Resources and Organizational
Development, Emeritus, INSEAD, Fontainebleau, France

GÜNTER K. STAHL
Professor, International Management and Director,
Center for Sustainability Transformation and Responsibility (STaR),
Vienna University of Economics and Business, Austria

Cheltenham, UK • Northampton, MA, USA

© Vladimir Pucik, Ingmar Björkman, Paul Evans and
Günter K. Stahl 2023

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical or photocopying, recording, or
otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher.

Published by
Edward Elgar Publishing Limited
The Lypiatts
15 Lansdown Road
Cheltenham
Glos GL50 2JA
UK

Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc.

William Pratt House
9 Dewey Court
Northampton
Massachusetts 01060
USA

A catalogue record for this book

is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Control Number: 2022950331

This book is available electronically in the

Business subject collection
http://dx.doi.org/10.4337/9781035300723

ISBN 978 1 0353 0071 6 (cased)

ISBN 978 1 0353 0073 0 (paperback)
ISBN 978 1 0353 0072 3 (eBook)

EEP BoX
CO NT EN TS

Preface to the Fourth Editionxviii

Acknowledgementsxx

1 Introduction to The Global Challenge1

Overview2
Defying borders: what’s new? 2
International operations in the pre-industrial era 3
The impact of industrialization 3
Prelude to the modern era 4
Emergence of the modern multinational 4
Deepening of globalization 5
Managing global tensions 7
The transnational model 9
The role of people management in the multinational firm 10
Purpose, strategy and capabilities 12
Purpose and strategy 12
Organizational capabilities 13
Organizational capabilities and people management 17
The people management wheel 18
Setting the guiding principles 19
The importance of alignment 19
Pursuing differentiation 20
Balancing dualities 21
Shared responsibility 23
Designing people management practices 25
Recruitment and selection 25
Performance management 26
Talent review and development 26
Diversity and inclusion 27
Focusing on organizational outcomes 27
Social integration 28
Competitiveness28
Sustainability29
Outline of this book 30
Takeaways31
 vi THE GLOBAL CHALLENGE

2 Becoming locally responsive 37

Overview38
The importance of local responsiveness 38
Why is local responsiveness important? 39
The multidomestic firm 41
Roadblocks in transferring people management practices abroad 42
Appreciating local context 44
Know yourself and others: the cultural perspective 44
Mapping cultural differences: dimensional approaches to
understanding culture 45
Does cultural distance matter? 47
The cultural context of people management theories 48
Should companies adjust people management practices to the
local culture? 49
Know where you are: the institutional perspective 51
Assessing the institutional context 53
Employment relations vary greatly with context 53
Responding to institutional “voids” 55
Convergence or divergence? 56
Learning about (and adjusting to) local context 57
Global trends—and fads 59
Implementing localization 60
Attracting and developing local talent 60
Building local management teams 61
Retaining local talent 62
Localization starts at the head office 63
The limits of responsiveness 64
Local responsiveness does not necessarily mean playing by
local rules 65
Takeaways66

3 Enhancing global integration 71

Overview72
The importance of global integration 72
Benefits of global integration 73
The meganational firm 74
People challenges of global integration 76
Supporting global integration 77
 CONTENTS vii

Personal control 78
Process control 78
Output control 78
Normative control 79
Implementing global control mechanisms 79
Enabling global integration through people practices 80
Global integration through personal control 80
It is not “where” but “who” 80
The evolution of expatriate management 81
What drives international assignments? 82
The expatriation challenge 84
Global integration through process control 84
Maintaining global standards in operations 84
Transplanting complex work processes 85
Global integration through output control 87
Managing tensions in output control 88
Output control 24/7 89
Global integration through normative control 90
Socialization and expatriation 92
The risks of normative control 93
Global standardization of people management 94
The limits of meganational integration 96
Three challenges of global integration 97
The autonomy challenge—allowing more decisions to be taken locally
97
The innovation challenge—encouraging bottom-up initiatives 98
The engagement challenge—safeguarding open dialogue 99
Takeaways99

4 Supporting coordination 106

Overview107
Rethinking the organizational model—becoming more transnational 107
Emerging trends in global competition 108
It all started with a matrix 109
Beyond the matrix—embedding coordination mechanisms 112
Global multidimensional structures 115
Leveraging subsidiary capabilities: the differentiated network 117
Leveraging distributed capabilities: the globally integrated enterprise 118
Becoming customer-centric: the front-back organization 120
viii THE GLOBAL CHALLENGE

Refocusing on global efficiency: a “neo-global” organization 121

Emerging forms of global organizations 122
Lateral steering tools 123
Lateral steering roles 124
Business/area coordinators 124
Global competence managers 125
Global account managers 125
Alliance network managers 126
Lateral steering groups 127
Business coordination teams 128
Functional councils 128
Coordination and leadership roles 129
Beyond command-and-control 130
Aligning responsibility and accountability 131
Developing lateral leadership competencies 132
Matrix everything—except the structure 134
Takeaways135

5 Building social architecture 140

Overview141
What is social architecture? 141
Accumulating social capital 142
What is social capital and why do we care about it? 143
How to build and manage social capital 145
Developing social capital across boundaries 147
Resolving conflict through social capital 148
Managing the darker side of social capital 149
Sharing values and purpose globally 150
Shared values, beliefs, and norms 150
Benefits of a strong culture 151
Corporate versus local unit identification 152
Building shared values 153
The interface of national and organizational cultures 153
Organizational values: historical legacy or engineered outcome? 155
The process of employee socialization 156
Applying tools of people management 158
Challenges in managing organizational culture 159
From core values to capabilities 160
 CONTENTS ix

Integrating multiple perspectives with a shared global mindset 162

What is a global mindset? 162
The (individual) competency perspective 163
The (organizational) strategy perspective 163
How to develop a shared global mindset 164
Equal opportunity for all—regardless of passport 165
The role of senior executives 166
Rethinking the globalization paradigm 167
Takeaways168

6 Acquiring talent 174

Overview175
What is talent management? 175
What do we mean by talent management? 176
Developments influencing talent management 177
Managing skill gaps 177
Increased individual mobility 178
Substantial changes in required competencies 179
Talent management balancing acts 180
Should we build or buy? 180
Should we buy or rent? 183
Who is responsible: HR or top management? 185
Managing recruitment 186
Forecasting the talent need 186
Where to find talent? 186
Global employer branding 187
Building a differentiated employee value proposition 188
Reaching out to attract talent 190
Managing selection 192
Competencies: frameworks for selection 193
The performance-based approach 193
The strategy-based approach 194
The values-based approach 195
Adapting competencies across countries 196
Selection methods: principles and use across countries 196
Diversity, talent recruitment and selection 198
Nationality199
Gender200
 x THE GLOBAL CHALLENGE

How to increase selection diversity 200

Onboarding and engaging employees 201
Onboarding new employees 201
Building a foundation for employee engagement 202
Takeaways203

7 Managing performance 209

Overview210
What is global performance management? 210
Why is global performance management important? 211
The global performance management cycle 212
The “upstream” side of performance management 213
The challenge of aligning goals 213
Developing a shared meaning of objectives 214
Fostering collaboration and inclusion 216
Building commitment across borders 217
Tensions in “upstream” performance management 218
Financial versus non-financial targets 218
Short-term versus long-term goals  219
Unit-level versus corporate-level objectives 220
Incremental versus breakthrough initiatives 220
The “downstream” side of performance management 221
Performance appraisal challenges and trends 221
Fitting performance appraisal with local context 224
Providing feedback 226
Linking appraisal to career development 227
Managing low performance 228
Closing the loop: challenges in global compensation 229
Linking pay to performance 230
Rewarding coordination and collaboration 231
Aligning pay structure for long-term success 232
Supporting global coordination 234
Enabling lateral steering 235
Implementing global performance management 236
Who owns global performance management? 237
Creating differentiation 237
Takeaways239
 CONTENTS xi

8 Developing talent 245

Overview246
Leadership in the global context 246
Leadership behaviors across countries 247
Global leadership competencies 248
Leadership transitions 249
Identifying and assessing leadership potential 250
Assessing learning capacity 251
Dilemmas in the global leadership selection and review process 253
When to identify potential? 253
How much transparency? 253
Who should be responsible for identifying talent? 254
How to avoid bias in global talent reviews? 255
How to move beyond identification? 256
The principles guiding global leadership development 256
Challenge is the starting point 257
Cross-boundary mobility as a key tool 257
Learning how to work vertically and horizontally at the same time 259
People risk management 260
Training260
Action learning 261
Coaching and mentoring 261
Feedback262
Hardship experiences 262
Developing potential 263
Blending demand-driven and learning-driven assignments 264
Focusing on A-positions as well as individuals 264
Achieving the right amount of mobility 265
Succession planning or talent pools? 265
Balancing top-down and bottom-up 266
Developing the workforce to cope with new challenges 268
The case for re- and upskilling 268
Corporate approaches to competence development 269
Managing retention 270
Why do people leave and what can be done about it? 271
Takeaways273
 xii THE GLOBAL CHALLENGE

9 Harnessing diversity in teams  278

Overview279
What is special about global teams? 279
The difference between a group and a team 280
Global teams are diverse 280
Global teams are dispersed 281
Foundations for global teamwork 281
Team composition 283
Team mission and goals 284
Roles and responsibilities 285
Processes and procedures 286
Communication286
Managing conflict 289
Making decisions 290
Interpersonal relationships 291
Building and monitoring team cohesion, trust and psychological safety 291
Bridging fault lines 293
Building and supporting global teams 294
Distributed and empowering leadership 294
Preparing the team for turbulence and crisis 295
People management practices supporting global teamwork 296
Performance appraisal, feedback and reward practices in global teams 296
Managing and leveraging diversity in teams 298
Promoting diversity and inclusion 300
The business case for diversity 301
Cracking the glass ceiling 302
Bringing diversity into “diversity” 302
Moving from diversity to inclusion 304
Diversity and inclusion: building the foundations 305
Navigating the tensions of global diversity 306
Takeaways307

10 Steering mobility 314

Overview315
Why mobility matters: the changing global context 316
Changing composition of international staff 317
PCNs, TCNs, HCNs, and other species 318
Women in international assignments 319
 CONTENTS xiii

Managing mobility 320

Selecting expatriates 321
Characteristics of successful expatriates 321
Assessment and selection 322
How to address family and dual-career considerations 322
When the potential expatriate says no 323
Preparing for the assignment 324
What kind of training? 324
Is language competency essential? 324
Preparing the family 325
Adjusting to a different cultural, institutional and work environment 325
Partner and family adjustment matters 326
Balancing multiple allegiances 326
Appraising the performance of international staff 327
What standards and criteria to use? 327
Who should conduct the evaluation? 328
International compensation 328
The evolution of international compensation strategies 328
The balance sheet approach 329
Alternatives to the balance sheet approach 330
Trends and challenges in international compensation 331
Repatriation and re-entry 332
A summary of global mobility best practices 333
Rethinking international mobility 334
The tensions in the mobility cycle 334
Alternatives to traditional international mobility 335
Inpatriation336
Short-term assignments 337
Localized transfers and assignments 338
Self-initiated expatriates 338
“Flex-patriates”339
Expanding the talent pool with biculturals and immigrants 339
Virtual assignments and remote work 341
The future of global mobility: enduring and evolving issues 342
Takeaways344
xiv THE GLOBAL CHALLENGE

11 Facilitating change  350

Overview351
Implementing strategy through people 351
Building acceptance: is there a “burning platform”? 352
Evolutionary change: building acceptance through fair process 353
The Five E’s framework 355
Engagement355
Exploration358
Explanation359
Expectations360
Evaluation360
Radical change: leading transformation 361
Six lessons in managing radical change 363
1 Develop a clear strategic aspiration 363
2 Communicate the aspiration in credible ways 364
3 Find qualified replacements for key people 364
4 Restructure to reflect the new strategic goals 366
5 Align performance metrics with the new strategy 366
6 Develop a new pipeline of leaders with competencies
that match the aspirations 366
The role of the HR function in supporting strategic change 367
HR as change partner 367
HR contributions to the change process 368
Creating dissatisfaction with the status quo 368
Promoting change champions 369
Helping managers communicate directly with employees 370
Designing processes to build commitment fast through dialogues 370
Vision building/agenda setting 370
Helping employees to cope with emotional needs at different
stages of the change process 370
Attention to succession management 370
Ensuring consistency between words and action 371
The dangers of fixating on change 371
Enhancing agility 372
Developing strategic sensitivity 372
Building leadership unity and collective commitment 373
Encouraging flexible talent deployment 374
 CONTENTS xv

Autonomous teams and organizational agility 375

Riding the cycle of change: toward an ambidextrous organization 377
Takeaways378

12 Sharing and creating knowledge 383

Overview384
Managing and creating knowledge in the global firm 384
Perspectives on sharing knowledge 385
Challenges of knowledge sharing 386
Provider willingness: the “hoarding-of-expertise” challenge 387
Provider ability: the “foreigner” challenge 388
Receiver willingness: the “not-invented-here” syndrome 388
Receiver ability: absorptive capacity challenge 389
People management tools supporting knowledge sharing 390
Coordination tools for knowledge sharing 390
Building a supporting social architecture 391
Aligning talent attraction with knowledge sharing strategies  392
Reinforcing sharing through performance management 393
Talent development and retention 394
Promoting knowledge sharing in diverse teams 395
Leveraging mobility 396
Enhancing global knowledge creation 397
Transferring knowledge creation capabilities 397
Tapping into external networks 398
Globalizing knowledge-creation capabilities 400
People management for global R&D 401
Partnering for knowledge creation 403
The strategic logic of knowledge alliances 403
People practices in knowledge partnerships 406
Nurturing global innovation 408
Designing global organizations built to innovate 409
Managing the tensions of global innovation 409
Promoting differentiation and standardization 410
Providing focus and encouraging chance 410
Building a culture of experimentation and of stretch performance goals 411
Learning locally and acting globally 411
Takeaways412
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 In respect of the formation of rocks as precipitates from a state of
vapor we have scarcely any illustrations excepting in volcanic regions.
Rocky materials with which we are generally acquainted are practically
non-volatile at the highest temperature which can be secured on the
earth’s surface, but it is possible that in the interior of the earth the
temperature may be so high as to maintain many substances in a state
of vapor.
They may, in this case, become disassociated so that the compounds
or elements exist distinctly in a vaporous condition. Such a vapor
transported to regions of diminished temperature would first of all on
cooling permit a union of the chemical elements forming new
compounds less volatile, which, of course, would be at once
precipitated.
The rocks and minerals formed in this way which are of some
agricultural importance may be classified as follows:
Oxids, carbonates, silicates, sulfur, sulfids, sulfates, phosphates,
chlorids, and hydrocarbon compounds, the most important from an
agricultural point of view being the phosphates.
The second group of rocks, namely those formed as sedimentary
deposits, differ from those just described in that they are comprised
mainly of fragmental materials derived from the breaking down of pre-
existing rocks. The formation of fragmental rocks includes, therefore,
the same processes as are active in the formation of arable soil. They
are deposited from water, and are as a rule distinctly stratified.
Through the action of pressure and the heat thereby generated, or
simply through the chemical action of percolating solutions, such rocks
pass over into the crystalline sedimentary forms known as
metamorphic. All metamorphic rocks, however, are not of a
sedimentary origin. For instance, by pressure, heat, and the chemical
changes thereby induced, granite may be changed into gneiss and the
latter would then be a metamorphic rock.
This group of sedimentary rocks and of sedimentary material, either
unchanged or metamorphosed, is of vast extent and includes materials
of widely varying chemical and mineralogical nature. They form by far
the greater portion of the present surface of the earth, even the
mountain ranges being composed mainly of this sedimentary material.
Indeed, in the whole of this country there is only a comparatively very
small extent of igneous or irruptive rocks. They are of great importance
from a purely scientific, as well as agricultural standpoint, since they
contain the fossil records of past geologic ages. From them it is possible
to study the variations in climate, the meteorological conditions in
circumstances and periods far remote, and thus form some idea of the
process by which the crust of the earth has been modified by natural
forces from its original form to the present time.
The sedimentary rocks may be divided, with sufficient accuracy for
our purposes, into two great classes: First, rocks formed by mechanical
agencies and mainly of inorganic materials. These are subdivided again
as follows:
(a) The arenaceous group.
(b) The argillaceous group.
(c) The volcanic group.
The second class of sedimentary rocks is formed largely, or in part at
least, by mechanical agencies, but is comprised chiefly of the débris of
plant and animal life. It may be subdivided as follows:
(a) The siliceous group, such as infusorial earth.
(b) The calcareous group, fossiliferous formations, limestone, etc.
(c) The carbonaceous group, such as peat, lignite, coals, etc. The
different classes of rock described above are distinguished by special
qualities represented largely by the name. The first division, the
arenaceous group, is composed mainly of the siliceous or coarsely
granular materials derived from the disintegration of older crystalline
rocks, which have been rearranged in beds of varying thickness through
the mechanical agency of water. They are, in short, consolidated or
unconsolidated beds of sand and gravel. In composition and texture
they vary almost indefinitely. Many of them having suffered little
during the process of disintegration and transportation are composed
essentially of the same materials as the rocks from which they were
derived.
The sandstones, which are the type of these rocks, vary greatly in
structure as well as in composition, in some the grains being rounded
while in others they are sharply angular.
The microscopic structure of sandstone is shown in figure 7.[24]
The material by which the individual grains of a sandstone are bound
together is usually the material of some of the other classes. The
calcareous, ferruginous, and siliceous cements being the chief ones.
This cementing substance is deposited among the granules forming the
sandstone by percolating water.
 The colors of sandstone are dependent usually upon iron oxids.
Especially is this true of the red, brown, and yellow colors. In some of
the light grey varieties, the color is that of the minerals comprising the
stone. Some of the darker colored sandstones contain organic matter.

Fig. 7.

Microscopic Structure of Sandstone.

The rocks of the argillaceous group are composed essentially of a

hydrous silicate of alumina, which is the basis of common clay, and
varying amounts of free silica, oxids of iron and manganese, carbonates
of lime and magnesia, and small quantities of organic matter. They may
have originated in situ from the decomposition of feldspars or as
deposits of fine mud or silt at the bottom of large bodies of water. The
older formations of these rocks are known as shales, argillites, and
slates and the fissile structure which enables this to be split into thin
sheets is probably due to the conditions under which they have been
formed and not to any properties of the clays themselves.
One of the purest forms of this rock is kaolin, which is almost a pure
hydrous silicate of alumina formed from the decomposition of
feldspathic rocks from which the alkalies, iron oxids and other soluble
constituents have been removed by water.
Under the volcanic group are included the materials ejected from
volcanic vents in a more or less finely comminuted condition and which
through the drifting power of atmospheric currents may be scattered
over many miles of territory. Various names are applied to such
products, names dependent in large part upon their state of
subdivision. Volcanic dust and sand, or ashes, includes the finer dust-
like or sand-like materials, and lapilli, or rapilli the coarser. The general
name tuff includes the more or less compacted and stratified beds of
this material, while trass, peperino, and pozzuolano are local varietal
names given to similar materials occurring in European volcanic
regions.
The second division, namely sedimentary rocks composed of the
débris of plant and animal life includes many forms of great
agricultural importance.
The first subdivision of this group is the infusorial or diatomaceous
earth. It forms a fine white or yellowish pulverulent rock composed
mainly of minute shells, or tests of diatoms, and is often so soft and
pliable as to crumble readily between the thumb and fingers. According
to Whitney the beds are of comparatively limited extent and for this
reason are of little agricultural value, although the weathering of this
diatomaceous material gives rise to a light yellow clay forming very
fertile agricultural lands.
The second subdivision of this group includes the rocks of a
calcareous nature derived from animal life; that is to say, what are
properly called limestones. They vary in color, structure, and texture
almost indefinitely, and include all possible grades of materials from
those which can be used only as a flux, or for lime burning, through
ordinary building materials to the finest marbles. These rocks are
world-wide in their distribution and limited to no one particular
geologic horizon, but are found in stratified beds among rocks of all
ages from the most ancient to the most recent.
Owing to the fact that their chief constituent, carbonate of lime, is
soluble in ordinary meteoric waters, the rocks have undergone
extensive decomposition, their lime being removed, while their less
soluble constituents or impurities remain to form soil. A single ton of
residual soil represents not infrequently a loss of 100 tons of original
rock matter. As this mass of lime carbonate is removed by solution the
residual soil settles, and as the limestone rocks are more soluble than
the adjacent rock formations limestone formations usually form valley
lands with ridges on either side. Caves are frequently found in such
formations. Furthermore, as the lime is almost all in the form of the
easily soluble lime carbonate it can be very completely removed and the
fertile “limestone soils” are often very deficient in lime and respond
readily to an application of burnt lime, which, not infrequently, is
quarried from the same field. From an agricultural standpoint this
group is of very great interest and importance.
The third subdivision of this group, namely, that of vegetable origin,
includes peat, lignite, coals, etc. Rocks of this group are made up of
more or less fragmental remains of plants. In many of them, as the
peats and lignites, the traces of plant structure are still apparent. In
others, as the anthracite coals, these structures have been wholly
obliterated by metamorphisms.
Plants when decomposing on the surface of the ground give off their
carbon to the atmosphere in the shape of carbon dioxid gas leaving only
the strictly inorganic or mineral matter behind. When, however, they
are protected from the oxidizing influence of the air, by water or by
other plant growth, decomposition is greatly retarded, and a large
portion of the carbonaceous and volatile matters is retained, and by this
means together with pressure from the overlying mass, the material
becomes slowly converted into coal. When this process goes on near the
surface of the earth, and without much pressure, peat or muck is the
product.
The fourth subdivision of this group, the phosphatic, forms a class of
rocks limited in extent but of the greatest economic importance. Guano,
coprolites, and phosphatic rocks (the phosphorites) come under this
head.
34. Aeolian Rocks.—This class of rocks is of less importance than
the others, either geologically or agriculturally. It is formed from
materials drifted by the winds and this material has various degrees of
compactness. Usually the components of these drifts form rocks or
deposits of a friable texture and of a fragmental nature. The very
extensive deposits of loess in China, forming their most fertile lands,
are admitted now to have been formed in this way, but it is now
generally admitted that similar deposits in this country are of
subaqueous origin.
Chief among these rocks, are the volcanic ashes which are often
carried to a long distance by the wind before they are deposited and
consolidated into rock masses. Many loose soils may be carried to great
distances by the wind, the deposits forming new aggregates. This is
particularly the case in arid regions.
 35. Metamorphic Rocks.—This class of rocks includes all
sedimentary or eruptive rocks, which, after their deposition and
agglomeration, have been changed in their nature through the action of
heat, pressure, or by chemical means. Sometimes these changes are so
complete that no indication of the character of the original rocks
remains. At other times the changes may be found in all the stages of
progress, so that they can be traced from the original fragmental or
irruptive to the completely metamorphosed deposit. This is especially
true of rocks containing large quantities of lime. In those containing
silica, the changes are less readily traced.

Fig. 8.

Microstructure of Crystalline
Limestone.

(West Rutland, Vermont.)

The metamorphic rocks may be divided into two subclasses, namely,

stratified or bedded, and foliated or schistose.
The rocks of the first class are represented by the crystalline
limestones and dolomites. The microstructure of a crystalline limestone
is shown in Fig. 8.[25] When lime and magnesia occur together in
combination with carbon dioxid, the substance is known as dolomite.
The chemical nature of these rocks and their soil-forming properties
are the same as those of the ordinary, non-metamorphosed limestones
and dolomites to which reference has already been made. The subject
need not, therefore, be further dwelt upon here.

Fig. 9.

Microstructure of Gneiss.

(West Andover, Massachusetts.)

At a a are shown plagioclase crystals

broken and rounded by the sheering force
producing the foliation.

The second variety of metamorphic rocks is represented by the

gneisses and crystalline schists. Gneiss has essentially the same
composition as granite and can frequently hardly be distinguished from
it, except by a microscopic study of its sections, and even thus it is
sometimes difficult to determine. Frequently a number of new minerals
is formed in the metamorphic changes. The microstructure of a gneiss
is shown in Fig. 9.[26] The schists include an extremely variable class of
rocks, of which quartz is the prevailing constituent, and which, as a
rule, are deficient in potash and other important ingredients.
 36. Rocks Formed Through Igneous Agencies, or Eruptive
Rocks.—This group includes all those rocks, which, having been at
some time in a state of igneous fusion, have been solidified into their
present form by a process of cooling. It may be stated, as a general
principle, that the greater the pressure under which a rock solidifies
and the slower and more gradual the cooling the more perfect will be
found the crystalline structure. Hence, it follows that the older and
more deep-seated rocks which are forced up in the form of dikes,
bosses, or intrusive sheets, into the overlying masses, and which have
become exposed only through erosion and removal of the overlying
rocks, are the more highly crystalline.
The eruptive rocks are divided into two main groups, viz.:
(a) Intrusive or plutonic rocks, and
(b) Effusive or volcanic rocks.
Among the more important of the first division of the plutonic form,
from an agricultural point of view, are the granites. The essential
constituents of granite are quartz, potash feldspar, and plagioclase. One
or more minerals of the mica, amphibole or pyroxene groups are also
commonly present, and in microscopic proportions apatite and
particles of magnetic iron. The more valuable constituents, from an
agricultural standpoint, are the minerals potash feldspar, and apatite,
which furnish by their decomposition the essential potash and
phosphoric acid.
In addition to the granites, which have already been mentioned, the
group includes the syenites, the nepheline syenites, the diorites, the
gabbros, the diabases, the theralites, the peridotites, and the
pyroxenites.
The second group, the effusive or volcanic rocks, includes those
igneous rocks, which, like the first group, have been forced up through
the overlying rocks, but which were brought to the surface, flowing out
as lavas. These, therefore, represent, in many cases, only the upper or
surface portions of the first group, differing from them structurally,
because they have cooled under little pressure more rapidly, and hence
are not so distinctly crystalline. These comprise the following groups:

(a) Quartz porphyries. (b) Liparites. (c) Quartz-free porphyries.

(d) Trachytes. (e) Phonolites. (f) Porphyrites. (g) Andesites. (h)
Melaphyrs and augite porphyrites. (i) Basalts. (j) Tephrites and
 Basanites. (k) Picrite porphyrites. (l) Limburgites and augitites.
(m) Leucite rocks. (n) Nepheline rocks. (o) Melilite rocks.
It is, in most cases, impossible to state which of the above classes is of
most importance from an agricultural standpoint, since, in the process
of soil formation, both chemical and physical processes are involved,
whereby the character of the resultant soil is so modified as to but
remotely resemble its parent rock. In most soils, the prevailing
constituent is but the least soluble one of the rock mass from which it
was derived. Thus a limestone soil may contain upwards of ninety per
cent of silica and alumina, while the original limestone itself may not
have carried more than one or two per cent of these substances. Of
course, if a rock mass contains none of the constituents essential to
plant growth, its resultant soil must by itself alone be quite barren. It
does not absolutely follow, however, that those rocks containing the
highest percentages of valuable constituents will yield the most fertile
soils, since much depends on the manner in which they have been
formed, the amount of leaching, etc., they may have undergone.
Nevertheless, the study of the composition of the rocks in their relation
to soils, is an extremely interesting and by no means unimportant one.
A comparative table of rock compositions is here given. It will be
observed that there is a considerable range of variation even among
rocks of the same class, a fact due to the varying abundance of their
mineral constituents. The figures given are not those of actual analyses
on any one particular rock, but are selected from a number of
comparatively typical cases; and, it is thought, fairly well represent the
composition of the class of rocks indicated.
 Composition of Rocks.—The Figures Indicate Parts per Hundred.
Fe₂O₃.
SiO₂. Al₂O₃. MgO. CaO. Na₂O. K₂O. P₂O₅.
FeO.
Granite
Quartz 63– 0.3– 0.05–
10–15 2–3 1–2 2–3 4–5
poryhyries} 78 0.5 0.15
Liparite

Syenite
Orthoclase 55–
12–16 5–7 2–6 3–5 2–6 4–7 trace.
porphyries} 73
Trachyte

Nepheline
54– 0.4–
syenites} 16–22 4–6 2–4 3–7 4–6 0.15
56 0.88
Phonolites

Diorites
52– 0.1–
Porphyrites} 16–20 7–10 5–7 5–7 2–4 1–2
65 0.3
Andesites

Gabbros
48– 0.5– 0.1–
Norites} 12–20 8–15 2–7 6–10 2–4
55 2 0.33
Melaphyrs

Theralites
43–
Tephrites} 15–23 9–18 1–6 6–10 5–7 2–4 trace.
47
Basanites

Peridotites
Picrite 23–
1–10 10–15 15–45 1–4 0–4 trace. 0.0
porphyrites} 43
Limburgites

Pyroxenites} 50– 20–

0.5–4 4–10 8–15
Augitites 55 25

Leucite 48–
15–20 7–10 1–2 5–10 3–5 5–7 0.5–2
rocks 50

Nepheline 40–
8–20 10–20 1–13 4–10 4–8 1–3 0.2
rocks 45
37. Origin of Soils.—The soils in which crops grow and which form
the subject of the analytical processes to be hereinafter described have
been formed under the combined influences of rock decay and plant
and organic growth. The mineral matters of soils have had their origin
in the decay of rocks, while the humic and other organic constituents
have been derived from living bodies. It is not the object of this treatise
to discuss in detail the processes of soil formation, but only to give such
general outlines as may bear particularly on the proper conceptions of
the principles of soil investigation.
38. The Decay of Rocks.—The origin and composition of rocks are
fully set forth in works on geology and mineralogy. Only a brief
summary of those points of interest to agriculture has been given in the
preceding pages. The soil analyst should be acquainted with these
principles, but for practical purposes he has only to understand the
chief factors active in securing the decay of rocks and in preparing the
débris for plant growth.
The following outline is based on the generally accepted theories
respecting the formation of soils.[7]
The forces ordinarily concerned in the decay of rocks are:

1. Changes of temperature, including the ordinary daily and

monthly changes, and the conditions of freezing and thawing.
2. Moving water or ice.
3. Chemical action of water and air.
4. Influence of vegetable and animal life:

(a) Shades the rock or soil surface.

(b) Penetrates the rock or soil material with its roots,
thus admitting air.
(c) Solvent action of roots.
(d) Chemical action of decaying organic matter.

5. Earth worms.
6. Bacteria.
39. The Action of Freezing and Thawing.—In those parts of a
rock stratum exposed near the surface of the earth the processes of
freezing and thawing have perhaps had considerable influence in rock
decay. The expansive force of freezing water is well known. Ice occupies
a larger volume than the water from which it was formed. The force
with which this expansion takes place is almost irresistible. The
phenomenon of bursted water pipes which have been exposed to a
freezing temperature is not an uncommon one. While the increase in
volume is not large, yet it is entirely sufficient to produce serious
results. The way in which freezing affects exposed rock is easily
understood. The effect is unnoticeable if the rock be dry. If, on the other
hand, it be saturated with water, the disintegrating effect of a freeze
must be of considerable magnitude. This effect becomes more
pronounced if the intervals of freezing and thawing be of short
duration. The whole affected portion of the rock may thus become
thoroughly decayed. But even in the most favorable conditions this
form of disintegration must be confined to a thin superficial area. Even
in very cold climates the frost only penetrates a few feet below the
surface, and therefore the action of ice cannot in any way be connected
with those changes at great depths, to which attention has already been
called. Nevertheless, certain building stones seem very sensitive to this
sort of weathering, and the crumbling of the stone in the Houses of
Parliament is due chiefly to this cause.
On the whole it appears that the action of ice in producing rock decay
has been somewhat overrated, although its power must not by any
means be denied. But on the other hand a freeze extending over a long
time tends to preserve the rocks, and it therefore appears that the entire
absence of frost would promote the process of rock decay.
At best it must be admitted that frost has affected the earth’s crust
only to an insignificant depth, but its influence in modifying the arable
part of the soil is of the utmost importance to agriculture.
40. The Action of Glaciers.—The action of ice in soil formation is
not confined alone to the processes just described. At a period not very
remote geologically, a great part of our Northern States was covered
with a vast field of moving ice. These seas of ice crept down upon us
from more northern latitudes and swept before them every vestige of
animal and vegetable life. In their movement they leveled and
destroyed the crests of hills and filled the valleys with the débris. They
crushed and comminuted the strata of rocks which opposed their flow
and carried huge boulders of granite hundreds of miles from their
homes. On melting they left vast moraines of rocks and pebbles which
will mark for all time the termini of these empires of ice. When the ice
of these vast glaciers finally melted the surface which they had leveled
presented the appearance of an extended plain. No estimate can be
made of the enormous quantities of rock material which were ground to
finest powder by these glaciers. This rock powder forms to-day no
inconsiderable part of those fertile soils which are composed of glacial
drift. The rich materials of these soils probably bear a more intimate
relation to the rocks from which they were formed than of any other
kinds of soil in the world. The rocks were literally ground into a fine
powder, and this powder was intimately mixed with the soils which had
already been formed in situ. The melting ice also left exposed to
disintegrating forces large surfaces of unprotected rocks in which decay
would go on much more rapidly than when covered with the débris
which protected them before the advent of the ice. The area of glacial
action extended over nearly all of New England and over the whole area
of the northern tier of States. It extended southward almost to the Ohio
river, and in some places crossed it. The effect of the ice age in
producing and modifying our soil must never be forgotten in a study of
soil genesis. It is not a part of our purpose here to study the causes
which produced the age of ice. Even a brief reference to some of the
more probable ones might be entirely out of place. Before the glacial
period it is certain that a tropical climate extended almost, if not quite,
to the North Pole. The fossil remains of tropical plants and animals
which have been found in high northern latitudes are abundant proofs
of this fact.
In the opinion of Sterry Hunt,[27] rock decay has taken place largely in
preglacial and pretertiary times. The decay of crystalline rocks is a
process of great antiquity. It is also a universal phenomenon. The fact
that the rocks of the southern part of this country seem to be covered
with a deeper débris than those further north is probably due to the
mechanical translation of the eroded particles towards the south. The
decay and softening of the material were processes necessarily
preceding the erosion by aqueous and glacial action.
It is possible that a climate may have existed in the earlier geologic
ages more favorable to the decay of rocks than that of the present time.
41. Progress of Decay as Affected by Latitude.—Extensive
investigations carried on along the Atlantic side of the country show
wide differences in the rate of decay in the same kind of rocks in
different latitudes. In general, the progress of decay is more marked
toward the south. The same fact is observed in the great interior valleys
of the country; at least, everywhere except in the arid and semi-arid
regions. Wherever there is a deficiency of water the processes of decay
have been arrested. Where the rock strata have been displaced from a
horizontal position the progress of decay has been more rapid. This is
easily understood. The percolation of water is more easy as the
displacement approaches a vertical position.
A most remarkable example of this is seen in the rocks of North
Carolina.[28] A kind of rock known as trap is found in layers called dikes
in the Newark system of rocks in that State. These dikes have been so
completely displaced from the horizontal position they at first occupied
as to have an almost vertical dip. The edges thus exposed vary from a
few feet to nearly 100 feet in thickness. The trap rock in those localities
is composed almost exclusively of the mineral dolerite, which is so hard
and elastic in a fresh state as to ring like a piece of metal when struck
with a hammer. In building a railroad through this region these dikes
were in some places uncovered to a depth of forty feet and more. At this
depth they were found completely decomposed and with no indications
of having reached the lower limit of disintegration. The original hard
bluish dolerite has been transformed into a yellowish clay-like mass
that can be molded in the fingers and cut like putty. Similar geologic
formations in New Jersey and further North do not exhibit anything
like so great a degree of decomposition, thus illustrating in a marked
degree the fact that freezing weather for a part of the year is a
protection against rock decay. The ice of winter at least protects the
rocks from surface infiltration, although it can not stop the
subterranean solution which must go on continuously.
Other things being equal, therefore, it appears that as the region of
winter frost is passed the decay of the rocks has been more rapid than
in the North, because the chief disintegrating forces act more
constantly.
42. The Solvent Action of Water.—The water of springs and
wells is not pure. It contains in solution mineral matters and often a
trace of organic matter. The organic matter comes from contact with
vegetable matter and other organic materials near the surface of the
earth. The mineral matter is derived from the solvent action of the
water and its contents on the soil and rocks.
The expressions “hard” and “soft” applied to water indicate that it has
much or little mineral matter in suspension, as the case may be. When
surface and spring waters are collected into streams and rivers they still
contain in solution the greater part of the mineral matters which they at
first carried.
 When well or spring waters have more than forty grains of mineral
matter per gallon they are not suitable for drinking waters. Mineral
waters, so called, are those which carry large quantities of mineral
matter, or which contain certain comparatively rare mineral substances
which are valued for their medicinal effects.
The analysis of spring, well, or river waters will always give some
indication of the character of the rocks over which they have passed.[29]
The vast quantities of mineral matters carried into oceans and seas are
gradually deposited as the water is evaporated. If, however, these
matters be very soluble, such as common salt, sulfate of magnesia, etc.,
they become concentrated, as is seen with common salt in sea waters.
In small bodies of waters, such as inland seas, which have no outlet,
this concentration may proceed to a much greater extent than in the
ocean. As an instance of this, it may be noted that the waters of the
Dead Sea and Great Salt Lake are impregnated to a far greater degree
with soluble salts than the water of the ocean. The solvent action of
water on rocks is greatly increased by the traces of organic or carbonic
acids which it may contain. When surface water comes in contact with
vegetable matter it may become partially charged with the organic acids
which the growing vegetable may contain or decaying vegetable matter
produce. Such acids coming in contact with limestone under pressure
will set free carbon dioxid. Water charged with carbon dioxid acts
vigorously on limestone and other mineral aggregates. If such solutions
penetrate deeply below the surface of the earth their activity as solvents
may be greatly increased by the higher temperature to which they are
subjected. Hence, all these forces combine to disintegrate the rocks,
and through such agencies vast deposits of original and secondary rocks
have been completely decomposed.
The gradual passing of the firm rock into an arable soil is beautifully
shown in Fig. 10, a print from a negative taken by Mr. Geo. P. Merrill,
near Washington, D. C.
 Figure 10.

View on the Broad Branch of Rock Creek, Washington, D. C.

The fresh but badly decomposed granitic rock is shown passing upward into
material more and more decomposed until it becomes sufficiently pulverulent
and soluble to support plant life. The roots showing in the upper part of the
picture formerly penetrated the decomposed rock, but have been exposed
through quarrying operations. Photograph by George P. Merrill, 1891.

43. Action Of Vegetable Life.—The preliminary condition to

vegetation is the formation of soil, but once started, vegetation aids
greatly in the decomposition of rocks. Some forms of vegetation, as the
lichens, have apparently the faculty of growing on the bare surface of
rocks, but the higher order requires at least a little soil. The vegetation
acts by shading the surface and thus rendering the action of water more
effective, by mechanically separating the rock particles by means of its
penetrating roots and by the positive solvent action of the root juices.
The rootlets of plants in contact with limestone or marble dissolve large
portions of these substances, and while their action on more refractory
rocks is slower, it must be of considerable importance. The organic
matter introduced into the soil by vegetation also promotes decay still
further both directly and by the formation of acids of the humic series.
This matter also furnishes a considerable portion of carbon dioxid
which is carried by the water to assist in its solvent action.
44. Action of Earth-Worms.—Of animal organisms those most
active in the formation of soil are earth-worms. The work of earth-
worms has been exhaustively studied by Darwin.[30] The worms not only
modify the soil by bringing to the surface portions of the subsoil, but
also influence its physical state by making it more porous and
pulverulent. According to Darwin the intestinal content of worms has
an acid reaction, and this has an effect on those portions of the soil
passing through their alimentary canal. The acids, which are formed in
the upper part of the digestive canal are neutralized by the carbonate of
lime secreted by the calciferous glands of the worms thus neutralizing
the free acid and changing the reaction to alkaline in the lower part of
the canal. There is a fair presumption that the acids of the worm are of
a humic nature.
The worms further modify the composition of the soil by drawing
leaves and other organic matter into their holes, and leaving therein a
portion of such matter which is gradually converted into humus.
Stockbridge[31] gives a striking illustration of this process due to an
experiment by von Hensen. Darwin estimates that about eleven tons of
organic matter per acre are annually added to the soil in regions where
worms abound. A considerable portion of the ammonia in the soil at
any given time may also be due to the action of worms, as much as 0.18
per cent of this substance having been found in their excrement. It is
probable that nearly the whole of the vegetable matter in the soil passes
sooner or later through the alimentary canals of these ceaseless soil
builders, and is converted into the form of humus.
45. Action of Bacteria.—The intimate relations which have been
found to subsist between certain minute organisms and the chemical
reactions which take place in the soil is a sufficient excuse for noting the
effect of other similar organisms in the formation of soils.
 In addition to the usual forces active in decomposing rocks Müntz[32]
has described the effects of a nitrifying bacillus contributing to the
same purpose.
According to him the bare rock usually furnishes a purely mineral
environment where organisms cannot be developed unless they are able
to draw their nourishment directly from the air. Some nitrifying
organisms belong to this class. It has been shown that these bodies can
be developed by absorbing from the ambient atmosphere carbonate of
ammonia and vapors of alcohol, the presence of which has been
determined in the air. According to the observations of Winogradsky,
they assimilate even the carbon of the carbon dioxid just as vegetables
do which contain chlorophyl. Thus even in the denuded rocks of high
mountains the conditions for the development of all these inferior
organisms exist. In examining the particles produced by attrition, it is
easily established that they are uniformly covered by a layer of organic
matter evidently formed by microscopic vegetations. Thus we see, in
the very first products of attrition, appearing upon the rocky particles
the characteristic element of vegetable soil, viz., humus, the proportion
of which increases rapidly with the products of disaggregation collected
at the foot of declivities until finally they become covered with
chlorophyliferous plants.
In a similar manner the presence of nitrifying organisms has been
noted upon rocky particles received in sterilized tubes, and cultivated in
an appropriate environment where they soon produce nitrification. The
naked rocks of the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Auvergnes and the Vosges,
comprise mineralogical types of the most varied nature, viz., granite,
porphyry, gneiss, micaschist volcanic rocks and limestones and all these
have shown themselves to be covered with the nitrifying ferment. It is
known that below a certain temperature these organisms are not active;
their action upon the rock is, therefore, limited to the summer period.
During the cold season their life is suspended but they do not perish,
inasmuch as they have been found living and ready to resume all their
activity after an indefinite sleep on the ice of the glaciers where the
temperature is never elevated above zero.
The nitrifying ferment is exercised on a much larger scale in the
normal conditions of the lower levels where the rock is covered with
earth. This activity is not limited to the mass of rock but is continued
upon the fragments of the most diverse size scattered through the soil
and it gradually reduces them to a state of fine particles. It is therefore a
phenomenon of the widest extension.
 The action of these micro-organisms according to Müntz is not
confined to the surface but extends to the most interior particles of the
rocky mass. Where, however, there is nothing of a nitrogenous nature,
to nitrify such an organism must live in a state of suspended animation.
When the extreme minuteness of these phenomena is considered
there may be a tendency to despise their importance, but their
continuity and their generality in the opinion of Müntz place them
among the geologic causes to which the crust of the earth owes a part of
its actual physiognomy and which particularly have contributed to the
formation of the deposits of the comminuted elements constituting
arable soil.
The general action of nitrifying organisms in the soil, the nature of
these bodies, and the method of isolating and identifying them will be
fully discussed in another part of this work.
46. Action of the Air.—The air itself takes an active part in rock
decay. Wherever rocks are exposed to decay, there air is found or, at
least, the active principle of air, viz., oxygen. The air not only penetrates
to a great depth in the earth, but is also carried to much greater depths
by water which always holds a greater or less quantity of air in solution.
The oxygen of the air is thus brought into intimate contact with the
disintegrating materials and in a condition to assist wherever possible
in the decomposing processes.
The oxygen acts vigorously on the lower oxids of iron, converting
them into peroxids, and thus tends to produce decay.
There are other constituents of rocks which oxygen affects injuriously
and thus helps to their final breaking up. It is true that, as a rule, the
constituents of rocks are already oxidized to nearly as high a degree as
possible, and on these constituents of course the air would have no
effect. But on others, especially when helped by water with the other
substances it carries in solution, the air may greatly help in the work of
destruction.
In a general view, the action of the air in soil formation may be
regarded as of secondary importance, and to depend chiefly on the
oxidation of the lower to the higher basic forms. These processes, while
they seem of little value, have, nevertheless, been of considerable
importance in the production of that residue of rock disintegration
which constitutes the soil.
47. Classification of Soils According to Deposition.—In
regard to their deposition soils are divided into five classes:
 1. Those which are formed from the decomposition of crystalline or
sedimentary rocks or of unconsolidated sedimentary material in situ.
2. Those which have been moved by water from the place of their
original formation and deposited by subsidence (bottom lands, alluvial
soils, lacustrine deposits, etc.).
3. Those which have been deposited as débris from moving masses of
ice (glacial drift).
4. Soils formed from volcanic ashes or from materials moved by the
wind and deposited in low places or in hills or ridges.
5. Those formed chiefly from the decay of vegetable matter, (tule,
peat, muck).
48. Qualities of Soils.—In respect of quality, soils have been
arbitrarily divided into many kinds. Some of the more important of
these divisions are as follows:
1. Sand. Soils consisting almost exclusively of sand.
2. Sandy Loams. Soils containing some humus and clay but an excess
of sand.
3. Loams. Soils inclining neither to sand nor clay and containing
some considerable portions of vegetable mold, being very pulverulent
and easily broken up into loose and porous masses.
4. Clays. Stiff soils in which the silicate of alumina and other fine
mineral particles are present in large quantity.
5. Marls. Deposits containing an unusual proportion of carbonate of
lime, with often some potash or phosphoric acid resulting from the
remains of sea-animals and plants.
6. Alkaline. Soils containing carbonate and sulfate of soda, or an
excess of these alkaline and other soluble mineral substances.
7. Adobe. A fine grained porous earth of peculiar properties
hereinafter described.
8. Vegetable. Soils containing much vegetable débris in an advanced
state of decomposition. When such matter predominates or exists in
large proportion in a soil the term tule, peat or muck is applied to it.
With the exception of numbers six, seven and eight these types of soil
are so well-known as to require no further description for analytical
purposes. The alkaline, adobe and vegetable soils on the contrary
demand further study.
 49. Alkaline Soils.—The importance of a more extended notice of
this class of soils for analytical purposes is emphasized by their large
extent in the United States.
Chiefly through the researches of Hilgard attention has been called to
the true character of these soils which are found throughout a large part
of the Western United States and which are known by the common
name of alkali. The following description of the origin of these soils is
compiled chiefly from Hilgard’s papers on this subject. Wherever the
rain-fall is scanty, and especially where the rains do not come at any
one time with sufficient force to thoroughly saturate the soil and carry
down through the subsoil and off through the drainage waters the alkali
contained therein, favorable conditions exist for the production of the
alkaline soil mentioned above. The peculiar characteristic of this soil is
the efflorescence which occurs upon its surface and which is due to the
raising of soluble salts in the soil by the water rising through capillary
attraction and evaporating from the surface, leaving the salts as an
efflorescence.
Soils which contain a large amount of alkali are usually very rich in
mineral plant food, and if the excess of soluble salt could be removed,
these lands under favorable conditions of moisture would produce large
crops.
The formation of the alkali may be briefly described as follows: By the
decomposition of the native rocks, certain salts soluble in water are
formed. These salts in the present matter are chiefly sodium and
potassium sulfates, chlorids and carbonates. The salts of potash
together with those of lime are more tenaciously held by the soil than
the soluble salts of soda, and the result of this natural affinity of the soil
for soluble potash, lime and magnesian salts is seen in the formation at
the surface of the earth, by the process of evaporation above described,
of a crust of alkaline material which is chiefly composed of the soluble
salts of soda. In countries which have a sufficient amount of rain-fall,
these soluble salts are carried away either by the surface drainage or by
the percolation of water through the soil, and the sodium chlorid is
accumulated in this way in the waters of the ocean. But where a
sufficient amount of rain-fall does not occur, these soluble salts carried
down by each shower only to a certain depth rise again on the
evaporation of the water, reinforced by any additional soluble material
which may be found in the soil itself. The three most important
ingredients of the alkali of the lands referred to are sodium chlorid,
sulfate, and carbonate. When the latter salt, namely, sodium carbonate,
is present in predominant quantity, it gives rise to what is popularly
known as black alkali. This black color is due to the dark colored
solution which sodium carbonate makes with the organic matters or
humus of the soil. The black alkali is far more injurious to growing
vegetation than the white alkali composed chiefly of sodium sulfate and
chlorid.
This black alkali has been very successfully treated by Hilgard[33] by
the application of gypsum which reacting with the sodium carbonate
produces calcium carbonate and sodium sulfate, thus converting the
black into the white alkali and adding an ingredient in the shape of lime
carbonate to stiff soils which tends to make them more pulverulent and
easy of tillage.
This method of treatment, however, as can be easily seen, is only
palliative, the whole amount of the alkaline substances being still left in
the soil, only in a less injurious form.
The only perfect remedy for alkaline soils, as has been pointed out by
Hilgard, is in the introduction of underdrainage in connection with
irrigation. The partial irrigation of alkaline soils, affording enough
moisture to carry the alkali down to and perhaps partially through the
subsoil, can produce only a temporary alleviation of the difficulties
produced by the alkali. Subsequent evaporation may thus increase the
amount of surface incrustation. For this reason in many cases the
practice of irrigation without underdrainage may completely ruin an
otherwise fertile soil by slowly increasing the amount of alkali in the
soil by the total amount of the alkaline material added in the waters of
irrigation.
As Hilgard has pointed out, if a soil can be practically freed from
alkali by underdrainage connected with a thorough saturation by
irrigation, it may be centuries before the alkali will accumulate in that
soil again when ordinary irrigation only is practiced. It may thus
become possible to reclaim large extents of alkaline soil little by little by
treating them with an excess of irrigation water in connection with
thorough underdrainage. The composition of the alkali on the surface
of the soil due to the causes above set forth is thoroughly illustrated by
the analyses of Hilgard and Weber, which follow:
 Table Showing Composition of Alkali Salts in San Joaquin Valley.
FRESNO COUNTY.
Sections 13 and 24 T. 14 S. R. 19 E., 4 miles S. W. Miss Austin’s N.W. Cor. N ½ Easton. Emigr’nt
from Fresno. Ranch, Central Sec. 20 T. 14 S. R. Ditch.
Colony. 21 E.
Alkali Alkali Spot, 1889. Surface Surface Surface Surface
soil, 1 inch 18 26 42 soil, soil, soil. soil.
1888. surface. inches inches inches No. 1. No. 2.
bel. bel. hardpan.
surface. surface.
Soluble salts 0.76 0.20 0.18 0.16 3.54 1.90 1.20 2.69
in 100
parts soil
Potassium small moderate
sulfate
[D]Potassium small
nitrate
Potassium
carbonate
(Saleratus)
Sodium large small small very very slight large large much moderate large
sulfate slight
(Glauber’s
salt)
Sodium very large small large large small chiefly small small chiefly
carbonate slight
(Sal-soda)
Sodium chiefly moderate chiefly moderate moderate chiefly large chiefly chiefly large little
chlorid
(Common
salt)
[D]Sodium
phosphate
Calcium moderate small very very very slight small moderate small small much
sulfate slight slight
(Gypsum)
Magnesium small much
sulfate
(Epsom
salt)
Organic
matter

D. Very generally present, but not always in quantities sufficient for determination.
 TULARE COUNTY.
Goshen Peopl’s Near Lake Visalia Lemoore Tulare Exp’t
Ditch Tulare Station
Surf’ce Alkali crust Surf’ce soil Surf’ce Alkali Alkali crust
soil soil crust
Soluble salts in 100 parts soil 1.40 0.83 1.26
Potassium sulfate small
[E]Potassium nitrate small
Potassium carbonate 18.80
(Saleratus)
Sodium sulfate (Glauber’s salt) 44.24 1.22 31.30[F] 13.4 chiefly 32.8
Sodium carbonate (Sal-soda) 32.98 88.09 18.2 45.3 36.16
Sodium chlorid (Common salt) 16.74 1.00 4.4 little 31.16
[E]Sodium phosphate 1.97 0.22 10.4
Calcium sulfate (Gypsum) little
Magnesium sulfate (Epsom 8.1 moderate
salt)
Organic matter 1.59 9.21 7.5 5.37
KERN COUNTY.
Alkali crusts from the Smyrna artesian belt. Townships 25 and 26 R. 23 E. W. S. Summer. Kern
W. from Delano, S. P. R. R. Island
No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 No. 7 No. 8 Alkali Alkali
crust crust
Soluble salts in 100
parts soil
Potassium sulfate 4.72
[E]Potassium nitrate
Potassium carbonate
(Saleratus)
Sodium sulfate small moderate moderate moderate large small small small 19.20 70.61
(Glauber’s salt)
Sodium carbonate 14.82
(Sal-soda)
Sodium chlorid large moderate large large small large small large 37.14 4.13
(Common salt)
[E]Sodium
phosphate
Calcium sulfate small small small small small small small small 0.96 0.08
(Gypsum)
Magnesium sulfate small small small small small small small small 18.31
(Epsom salt)
Organic matter 20.87

F. Common and Glauber’s salts.

50. Adobe Soils.—In many parts of the arid regions of this country which can be
recovered for agricultural purposes by irrigation the soil has peculiar characteristics.
The name adobe as commonly used applies to both the sundried bricks of the arid
regions of the West and Southwest, and to the materials of which they are composed. The
material is described by Russell[34] as a fine grained porous earth, varying in color through
many shades of gray and yellow, which crumbles between the fingers, but separates most
readily in a vertical direction. The coherency of the material is so great that vertical scarps
will stand for many years without forming a noticeable talus slope.
Distribution.—The area over which adobe forms a large part of the surface has not been
accurately mapped, but enough is known to indicate that it is essentially co-extensive with
the more arid portions of this country. In a very general way it may be considered as being
limited to the region in which the mean annual rain-fall is less than twenty inches. It forms
the surface over large portions of Colorado, New Mexico, Western Texas, Arizona, Southern
California, Nevada, Utah, Southern Oregon, Southern Idaho, and Wyoming. Adobe occurs
also in Mexico and may there reach a greater development than in the United States, but
observations concerning it south of the Rio Grande are wanting.
In the United States it occurs from near the sea-level in Arizona, and even below the sea-
level in Southern California, up to an elevation of at least six or eight thousand feet, along
the eastern border of the Rocky Mountains, and in the elevated valleys of New Mexico,
Colorado, and Wyoming. It occupies depressions of all sizes up to valleys having an area of
hundreds of square miles. Although occurring throughout the arid region, it can be studied
to best advantage in the drainless and lakeless basins in Nevada, Utah, and Arizona.
Composition.—When examined under the microscope, the adobe is seen to be composed
of irregular, unassorted flakes and grains, principally quartz, but fragments of other
minerals are also present. An exhaustive microscopic study has not been made, but the
samples examined from widely-separated localities were very similar. The principal
characteristics observed were the extreme angularity of the particles composing the deposit
and the undecomposed condition of the various minerals entering into its composition. It is
to be inferred from this that the material was not exposed even to a very moderate degree of
friction, and had not undergone subaerial decay before being deposited. Adobe collected, at
typical localities is so fine in texture that no grit can be felt when it is rubbed between the
fingers; in other instances it contains angular rock fragments of appreciable size.
The composition of the material is illustrated by the following analyses:

Analyses of Adobe.

By L. G. Eakins.

Constituents. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4.

Sante Fe, New Fort Wingate, New Humboldt, Salt Lake City,
Mexico. Mexico. Nevada. Utah.
SiO₂ 66.69 26.67 44.64 19.24
Al₂O₃ 14.16 0.91 13.19 3.26
Fe₂O₃ 4.38 0.64 5.12 1.09
MnO 0.09 trace 0.13 trace
CaO 2.49 36.40 13.91 38.94
MgO 1.28 0.51 2.96 2.75
K₂O 1.21 trace 1.71 trace
Na₂O 0.67 trace 0.59 trace
CO₂ 0.77 25.84 8.55 29.57
P₂O₅ 0.29 0.75 0.94 0.23
SO₃ 0.41 0.82 0.64 0.53
Cl 0.34 0.07 0.14 0.11
H₂O 4.94 2.26 3.84 1.67
Organic matter 2.00 5.10 3.43 2.96

99.72 99.97 99.84 100.35

51. Vegetable Soils.—The heavy soils whose origin has been described are essentially
of a mineral nature. The quantity of organic matter in such soils may vary from a mere trace
to a few per cent, but they never lose their mineral predominance. When a soil on the other
hand is composed almost exclusively of vegetable mold it belongs to quite another type.
Such soils are called tule, peat or muck. In this country there are thousands of acres of peat
or muck soils; the largest contiguous deposits being found in Southern Florida. The origin
of these soils is easily understood. Whenever rank vegetation grows in such a location as to
secure for the organic matter formed a slow decay there is a tendency to the accumulation
of vegetable mold in shallow water or on marshy ground and where conditions are
favorable to such accumulations. In Florida the muck soils have been accumulated about
the margins of lakes. During the rainy season the marshes bordering these are partly
covered with water, but the vegetation is very luxuriant. The water protects the vegetable
matter from being destroyed by fire. It therefore accumulates from year to year and is
gradually compacted into quite a uniform mass of vegetable mold.
The composition of the muck is illustrated in the following table which shows the
character of the layers at one, two and three feet in depth:[35]

Carbon. Hydrogen. Nitrogen. Volatile matter.

1 foot 57.67 per cent 4.48 per cent 2.24 per cent 90.60 per cent
2 feet 47.07 „ 5.15 „ 1.40 „ 72.00 „
3 feet 8.52 „ 0.53 „ 0.31 „ 15.00 „

In this sample, No. 3, the muck was only three feet deep, resting on pure sand. As the
bottom of the deposit is approached the admixture of sand becomes greater and the
percentage of organic matter less.
No reliable estimate of the time which has been required to form these deposits can be
given, but in the Okeechobee region in Florida the deposit of vegetable mold in some places
exceeds ten feet in depth.
The purest muck or peat soils contain only small quantities of potash and phosphoric
acid, and especially is this true of the Florida mucks which have been formed of vegetable
growth containing very little mineral matter.
It is not at all probable that the flora now growing on any particular area of virgin peat
contains all the plants that have contributed to its formation. The principal vegetable
growths now going to make up the muck soils of Florida are the following:

Common names. Botanical names.

Saw grass Cladium effusum
Yellow pond lily Nymphea flava
Maiden cane grass Panicum Curtisii
Alligator Wampee Pontederia cordata
Sedge Cyperus species
Fern brake Osmunda „
Mallow Malva „
Broom sedge Andropogon „
Arrow weed Sagittaria „

The above are only the plants growing in the greatest profusion and do not include all
which are now contributing to increase the store of vegetable débris.
52. Humus.—The active principle of vegetable mold is called humus, a term used to
designate in general the products of the decomposition of vegetable matter as they are
found in soils. In peat and muck are found a mixture of humus with undecomposed or
partially decomposed vegetation.
According to Kostytchoff[36] vegetable matter decays under the influence of molds and
bacteria. Molds alone produce the dark colored matters which give soils rich in vegetable
matter, their color. One chief characteristic of humus is its richness in nitrogen. Black
Russian soil contains from 4 to 6.65 per cent of nitrogen. This soil is estimated to contain
sixty million organisms per gram and much of the nitrogen which it holds must be in the
form of proteids. The first development in decaying vegetable matter is of bacteria and
there is a tendency of the decaying matter to become acid. This causes a decay of the
bacteria and the ammonia produced by this neutralizes the acid. The various kinds of mold
grow when the reaction becomes neutral. Afterwards the bacteria and the molds develop
together. This statement of Kostytchoff is not a very satisfactory explanation of even our
limited knowledge of the decomposition of organic matters in the soil. Ammonia and
ammonia salts are formed not by the decay of some forms of bacteria but by the activities of
other forms. Warington found that in nitrification there were three distinct forms of
bacteria concerned in the final products of ammonia, nitrites, and nitrates. Humus always
contains easily decomposable matter and consequently the rate of decay at any observed
periods is nearly the same. In humus which is produced above the water-level Kostytchoff
states that all trace of the vegetable structure is destroyed by the leaves being gnawed and
passed through the bodies of caterpillars and wire-worms. Under the water-level the
vegetable structure is preserved and peat results. The decay of humus is most rapid in
drained and open soils. For this reason the presence of clay in a soil promotes the
accumulation of humus. Inferior organisms are the means of diffusing organic matter
through the soil. The mycelia of fungi grow on a dead root for instance, ramify laterally and
thus carry organic matter outward and succeeding organisms extend this action and the soil
becomes darkened in proportion. Humic acid in black soil is almost exclusively in
combination with lime.
A more common view of the difference between the formation of humus above and below
the water-level is that above the water-level there is a very free access of air and even the
harder parts of the leaf skeleton can be oxidized through the agency of bacteria, while under
the water-level there is a very limited supply of air and this oxidation cannot proceed as
rapidly. The harder parts of the leaf skeleton are preserved, and from the freer access of air
humus is oxidized more readily in drained and open soils, and accumulates in clay soils
where there is less circulation of air.
The real composition of humus is a matter which has never been definitely determined.
Composed of many different but closely related substances it has been difficult to isolate
and determine them.
Stockbridge[37] gives the following composition of the bodies which form the larger part of
humus:
 Ulmin and Ulmic Acid.
Carbon 67.1 per cent Corresponding to C₄₀H₂₈O₁₂ + H₂O.
Hydrogen 4.2 „
Oxygen 8.7 „

Humin and Humic Acid.

Carbon 64.4 per cent Corresponding to C₂₁H₂₄_O₁₂ + 3H₂O

Hydrogen 4.3 „
Oxygen 31.3 „

Crenic Acid.

Carbon 44.0 per cent Corresponding to C₁₂H₁₂O₈?

Hydrogen 5.5 „
Nitrogen 3.9 „
Oxygen 46.6 „

Apocrenic Acid.

Carbon 34.4 per cent Corresponding to C₂₄H₂₄O₁₂?

Hydrogen 3.5 „
Nitrogen 3.0 „
Oxygen 39.1 „

He further states that there are, aside from these humus compounds, others still less
known and the action of which is not yet understood; among them xylic acid, C₂₄H₃₀O₁₇,
saccharic acid, C₁₄H₁₈O₁₁, glucinic acid, C₁₂H₂₂O₁₂, besides a brown humus acid
containing carbon, 65.8 per cent, and hydrogen, 6.25 per cent, and a black humus acid
yielding carbon, 71.5 per cent, and hydrogen, 5.8 per cent.
According to Mulder humic acid has the following composition, C₆₀H₅₄O₂₇, while
Thenard[38] ascribes to it the formula, C₂₄H₁₀O₁₀.
At the present time we can only regard the various forms of humus bodies as mixtures of
many substances mostly of an acid nature and resulting from a gradual decomposition of
organic matter under conditions which partially exclude free access of oxygen.
For analytical purposes it is only necessary to separate these bodies by the best approved
processes. A further knowledge of their composition can then be derived by determining
the percentages of carbon dioxid and water which they yield on combustion.
53. Soil and Subsoil.—Many subdivisions have been made of the above varieties of
soil, but they have little value for analytical purposes. For convenience in description for
agricultural purposes, the soil, however, is further divided into soil and subsoil. In this
sense the soil comprises that portion of the surface of the ground, usually from four to nine
inches deep, containing most of the organic remains of plants and animals and in which air
circulates more or less freely for the proper humification of the organic matter, which
usually gives a darker color to the soil than to the subsoil. The subsoil proper lies below
this, and has usually more characteristic properties, especially in respect of color and
texture, as it has been less influenced by artificial conditions of cultivation and the remains
of vegetation.
 The subsoil extends to an indefinite depth and is limited usually by deposits of
undecomposed or partly decomposed rock matter, or by layers of clay, sand or gravel.
Inasmuch, however, as the influence of the subsoil on growing crops is of little
importance below the depth of eighteen inches the analysis of samples from a greater depth
has more of a geologic than agricultural value.
Hilgard regards as subsoil whatever lies beneath the line of change, or below the
minimum depth of six inches. But should the change of color occur at a greater depth than
twelve inches, the soil specimen should nevertheless be taken to the depth of twelve inches
only, which is the limit of ordinary tillage; then another specimen from that depth down to
the line of change, and then the subsoil specimens beneath that line. The depth to which the
last should be taken will depend upon circumstances. It is always desirable to know what
constitutes the foundation of a soil to the depth of three feet at least, since the question of
drainage, resistance to drought, etc., will depend essentially upon the nature of the
substratum. But in ordinary cases ten or twelve inches of subsoil will be sufficient. The
sample should be taken in other respects precisely like that of the surface soil, while that of
the material underlying this subsoil may be taken with less exactness, perhaps at some
ditch or other easily accessible point, and should not be broken up like the other specimens.
In the method of soil sampling adopted by the Royal Agricultural College of England, the
soil is regarded as that portion of the surface of the ground which is reached by ordinary
tillage operations, generally being from six to nine inches deep; the subsoil is that portion
which is ordinarily not touched in plowing.