1.

Introduction to MySQL

MySQL is an open-source relational database management system (RDBMS) that uses Structured Query
Language (SQL) to manage data. It's widely used for web applications and is a popular choice for
databases in various environments due to its reliability, performance, and ease of use.

2. MySQL Basics

 Database: A collection of organized data stored electronically. In MySQL, databases contain

tables.

 Table: A collection of related data organized in rows and columns.

 Row: A single record in a table.

 Column: A field in a table, which stores specific data types.

3. MySQL Data Types

MySQL supports various data types to store different kinds of data:

 Numeric Types: INT, FLOAT, DOUBLE, DECIMAL

 Date and Time Types: DATE, TIME, DATETIME, TIMESTAMP

 String Types: CHAR, VARCHAR, TEXT, BLOB

 Boolean Type: BOOLEAN (typically stored as TINYINT(1))

4. MySQL Functions

Functions in MySQL are predefined operations that perform calculations, manipulate data, or perform
operations on the data stored in tables. Functions are categorized into several types:

4.1. Aggregate Functions

These functions operate on a set of values and return a single value:

 COUNT(): Returns the number of rows that match a specified condition.

 SUM(): Returns the total sum of a numeric column.

 AVG(): Returns the average value of a numeric column.

 MIN(): Returns the smallest value of the selected column.

 MAX(): Returns the largest value of the selected column.

Example:

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SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees WHERE age > 30;

4.2. String Functions

These functions operate on string data types:

 CONCAT(): Concatenates two or more strings.

 SUBSTRING(): Extracts a substring from a string.

 LENGTH(): Returns the length of a string.

 UPPER(): Converts a string to uppercase.

 LOWER(): Converts a string to lowercase.

 REPLACE(): Replaces occurrences of a substring within a string with another substring.

Example:

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SELECT CONCAT(first_name, ' ', last_name) AS full_name FROM employees;

4.3. Date and Time Functions

These functions are used to manipulate date and time values:

 NOW(): Returns the current date and time.

 CURDATE(): Returns the current date.

 CURTIME(): Returns the current time.

 DATE(): Extracts the date part of a date or datetime expression.

 TIME(): Extracts the time part of a date or datetime expression.

 DATEDIFF(): Returns the difference in days between two dates.

Example:

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SELECT NOW(); -- Returns current date and time

4.4. Numeric Functions

These functions perform operations on numeric data types:

 ABS(): Returns the absolute value of a number.

 ROUND(): Rounds a number to a specified number of decimal places.

 CEIL(): Returns the smallest integer value greater than or equal to a number.
  FLOOR(): Returns the largest integer value less than or equal to a number.

Example:

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SELECT ROUND(salary, 2) FROM employees;

4.5. Control Flow Functions

These functions control the flow of queries based on conditions:

 IF(): Returns a value if a condition is true, and another value if it’s false.

 CASE: A more complex conditional statement that returns different values based on multiple
conditions.

 COALESCE(): Returns the first non-null value in a list.

Example:

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SELECT name, salary,

IF(salary > 50000, 'High', 'Low') AS salary_level

FROM employees;

5. SQL Queries in MySQL

5.1. Basic SELECT Statement

The SELECT statement is used to retrieve data from one or more tables.

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SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name;

5.2. WHERE Clause

The WHERE clause is used to filter records.

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SELECT * FROM employees WHERE age > 30;

5.3. ORDER BY Clause

The ORDER BY clause is used to sort the result set by one or more columns.

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SELECT * FROM employees ORDER BY age DESC;

5.4. JOINs

JOINs are used to combine rows from two or more tables based on a related column.

 INNER JOIN: Returns records that have matching values in both tables.

 LEFT JOIN: Returns all records from the left table and matched records from the right table.

 RIGHT JOIN: Returns all records from the right table and matched records from the left table.

Example:

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SELECT employees.name, departments.name

FROM employees

INNER JOIN departments ON employees.dept_id = departments.id;

5.5. GROUP BY Clause

The GROUP BY clause groups rows that have the same values in specified columns into summary rows.

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SELECT department, COUNT(*)

FROM employees

GROUP BY department;

5.6. HAVING Clause

The HAVING clause is used to filter groups based on conditions, often used with GROUP BY.

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SELECT department, COUNT(*)

FROM employees

GROUP BY department
HAVING COUNT(*) > 10;

5.7. LIMIT Clause

The LIMIT clause is used to specify the maximum number of rows to return.

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SELECT * FROM employees LIMIT 5;

6. Indexing in MySQL

Indexes are used to speed up the retrieval of data from a database table by reducing the amount of data
MySQL needs to examine.

 Creating an Index:

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CREATE INDEX idx_column ON table_name(column_name);

 Composite Index: An index on multiple columns.

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CREATE INDEX idx_columns ON table_name(column1, column2);

 Primary Key: A unique index on the primary key column(s).

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PRIMARY KEY (column_name)

7. Transactions in MySQL

Transactions allow you to execute a sequence of SQL statements as a single unit of work. MySQL
supports transactions with the InnoDB storage engine.

 START TRANSACTION: Begins a new transaction.

 COMMIT: Saves the changes made by the transaction.

 ROLLBACK: Reverts the changes made by the transaction.

Example:

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START TRANSACTION;

UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance - 100 WHERE account_id = 1;

UPDATE accounts SET balance = balance + 100 WHERE account_id = 2;

COMMIT;

8. Stored Procedures and Functions

Stored procedures and functions are reusable SQL code blocks.

 Stored Procedure: A procedure that performs a specific task.

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CREATE PROCEDURE procedure_name()

BEGIN

-- SQL statements

END;

 Stored Function: Similar to a procedure, but it returns a value.

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CREATE FUNCTION function_name()

RETURNS datatype

BEGIN

-- SQL statements

RETURN value;

END;

9. Security Best Practices

 Input Validation: Always validate and sanitize user inputs to prevent SQL injection.

 Use Prepared Statements: Avoid dynamic SQL queries; use prepared statements instead.

 Limit Privileges: Grant the minimum privileges necessary to database users.

 Regular Backups: Regularly back up your databases to prevent data loss.

10. MySQL Performance Tuning

To improve MySQL performance, consider the following:

 Query Optimization: Use EXPLAIN to analyze and optimize queries.

 Indexing: Proper indexing can significantly improve query performance.

 Caching: Use MySQL’s query cache to speed up query retrieval.

 Normalization: Normalize your database to reduce redundancy and improve efficiency.

This guide provides a comprehensive overview of MySQL, including functions, query syntax, and best
practices. Each topic covered here is fundamental to working effectively with MySQL in various contexts,
from small-scale projects to large, complex databases.