Unit 14: Teaching Writing and Grammar

Section 14.1: Introduction

Essential Knowledge and Skills

 Teachers will be able to identify and recognize how culture and worldview
affect students’ understanding and approach to writing.
 Teachers will be able to help students to engage in the process of writing in
creative, interesting and authentic ways.
 Teachers will be able to identify ways to teach writing and include grammar
instruction.
 Teachers will be able to identify ways to assess writing and grammar,
including the use of rubrics.
 Teachers will be able to manage a writing class in a Chinese context.
 Teachers will be able to plan activities that engage students with a wide range
of abilities.

Introduction to Teaching Writing and Grammar

Why Do We Teach Writing?

Writing is involved in every type of course you will teach. You may
want students to write answers on a worksheet in sentences,
practice using tenses in paragraphs or write a full essay. Beyond
 your class, students will be required to write for
national/international exams and possibly their future jobs. For your
students in China who write using Chinese characters, writing may
begin with learning how to form the English letters of the Roman
alphabet! Have you ever tried to write something in a foreign
language?

Writing is a complex skill, and it takes a lot to not only produce

language, but to also use correct spelling, punctuation and
grammar. Furthermore, there are many different written genres.
The way you write a postcard will be vastly different than the way
you write an academic essay. Then on top of that we demand that
students create a coherent piece of written work—introductions,
summaries, clear main points and support! So why do we teach
writing if it is such a difficult and complex skill? There are many
reasons to get students to write:

 Writing gives more “thinking time” or language processing time than

speaking.
 Writing helps students to be better learners by building up organization skills
and critical thinking skills.
 With the popularity of e-mail, the Internet, and computers, there is a huge
increase in written communication (especially in English!).
 Students may find they have specific needs later on in life to write: academic
study, examination preparation or business English.
 Writing requires students to use a variety of skills that are essential for
learning language including grammar. Writing helps students to better
communicate in their L2.
 Writing is a good outlet for students to express themselves.

Writing should be a normal part of the EFL classroom, and with

patterns and practice students can begin to gain confidence in their
writing abilities and enthusiasm for the writing process.
 Why
Do We Teach Grammar?

You may cringe at the thought of teaching grammar. Many people

find grammar to be a boring subject that is tedious; thoughts of
strict teachers may come to mind. A great number of teachers,
experienced and inexperienced, express a lack of confidence when
it comes to teaching grammar. They feel that they will be unable to
answer students’ questions because the teachers do not fully
understand the rules themselves. Some teachers may opt to simply
ignore grammar when it comes to language teaching, though this
does a great disservice to the students.

Whether or not this is true for you, grammar is not something that
can be ignored in a language classroom. Although grammar should
be taught in all classroom contexts, it is included in this unit
because writing is a class where the teacher and students will
encounter and review a lot of grammatical issues. Earlier in “The
English Language System” unit an overview of the English
grammatical system was covered, but in this unit, we will focus
more on strategies for teaching and assessing grammar.

Teaching grammar does not require the teacher to be mean or the

topic to be boring. In fact, it may come as a surprise to both you and
your students that learning grammar can be fun! In later sections,
we will cover some strategies for teaching grammar that can
minimize their fears and maximize fun.
 Key Terms

 thesis statement–a short statement, usually one sentence, that summarizes

the main point or claim of an essay, paper, etc., and is developed, supported
and explained in the text by means of examples and evidence.
 writing process–a series of steps and methods taken in order to create a
piece of writing. The writing process is usually broken down into 3-6 steps, but
for this unit we will divide it into 3 steps: Pre-writing, Drafting, Post-writing.
 academic writing–writing that is writing to fulfill a class requirement.
Academic writing is also characterized by its organization, outline, formal
tone, and clear structure.
 discourse connectors–sometimes called “logical connectors” or
“signposting words,” these small words link ideas and signal to the reader
what will come next in the text.
 accuracy (form)–focus on discrete elements of the rules of language, such
as verb agreement, spelling, etc.
 fluency (function)–focus on the students’ ability to communicate ideas
instead of the discrete language elements.
 formative–immediate correction to certain parts or sections of the writing.
 summative–a response that is an overview of more general considerations in
an essay.
 rubric–a set of guidelines for assessing, grading or scoring a students’
writing.
 plagiarism–stealing a person’s ideas or work and passing it off as your own.

Journal Reflection

Section 14.2: What Does the Research Say?

Research History
 Research the past couple
decades has confirmed the numerous benefits and positive impact
writing has on students’ learning and development. Although that is
probably not very surprising, research has also shown that it is just
as important in how writing is taught and presented. Some research
has shown that students have greater improvement in classes that
feature some writing even though their classes aren’t “writing
classes.” Later in Section 3, we will discuss the question “What is a
writing class?” but for now here are several key points that research
has emphasized and how that may play out in your classroom.

Process vs. Product

Most teachers and researchers agree writing is a process. This

means good writing requires the writer to gather his thoughts,
collect information, plan, organize, parse out information, edit, elicit
feedback, revise and repeat. Writing is a continual process that
develops critical thinking skills and helps students to remember that
writing, at its most basic form, is a tool to convey information,
thoughts and ideas. When teachers focus on the product instead of
the process, writing becomes a mechanical, drill based task in which
the objective is to get the right answer. This will be explained more
in Section 3, but you may find that tasked-based writing is already
the common cultural lens for most students. By helping students to
understand the process of writing, you will be giving them the tools
for them to be better learners as well as better writers.

Meaning vs. Mechanics

Another key point supported by the research is that students benefit

more from writing when the focus is on meaning and composing as
opposed to the mechanics of writing. This means allowing students
to experiment, create and share their ideas instead of filling in the
blanks, or being worried about grammar and spelling mistakes. It is
important to note that most of the writing process is focused on the
meaning as opposed to the mechanics. As a writer gathers their
thoughts, collects information, elicits feedback, most of their
thoughts and general attention will be towards the question: “Is this
saying what I want it to say?” Only after many drafts and edits, will
the writer focus on the mechanics such as punctuation, grammar
and spelling. The focus on meaning instead of mechanics may be a
major shift for most of your students. This does not mean that you
shouldn’t take time to review grammar or correct spelling mistakes,
but you may face an uphill battle in order to not have your students
see good writing as following a set of grammar, spelling, and
punctuation rules.

Section 14.3: What is a “Writing Class?”

Introduction
Most EFL classes today have an integrated approach, meaning that
the classes you end up teaching will most likely have a combined
focus on listening, speaking, reading and writing. However, there
are some universities that will focus more on one area, like a writing
class. When teaching a writing class, you may have to consider your
school’s requirements, goals and objectives for that class as well
your students’ cultural expectations related to their “writing class.”
Sorting through all this information can be overwhelming as you try
to figure out how to simply write a thesis statement. It can be hard
to find a starting point as you begin planning your class.

In the previous section, we touched upon students’ attitudes

towards writing. In this section, we will delve more into the cultural
differences and how those differences may affect students’ attitudes
towards writing in your class. We will also bring up some things to
consider focusing on in order to give you a good starting point as
you plan your class.
Cultural Differences in Writing–1

It is important for teachers to remember that they are not just

teaching language, but a cultural set of values, worldviews, and
ways of expressing thoughts. This is especially true in writing since
writing is essentially an expression of your thoughts and ideas.
Here are a couple of notable ways Chinese writing differs from
Western writing:

Compositional Structure
Every culture (and therefore every language) presents information
in different ways. However, second language writers will often utilize
the rhetorical or writing strategies of their first language. In the
future, when one of your Chinese students presents you with an
essay that seems to ramble and lack a main point, please keep this
in mind! The rhetorical structure of oriental cultures is vastly
different from the Western system. Kaplan’s “Doodles” is a well-
known contrast of these different cultural systems and can help us
understand how meaning is presented differently:

The way information is presented also plays into the composition

structure of writing. English composition structure follows the
“introduction-body-conclusion” style. The goal of that style is to
build your case from facts and assertions as you go from “point A to
B.” However, Chinese composition structure is characterized as
“beginning–following–turning–concluding” (起承转合 qǐ-chéng-zhuǎn-hé).
In this structure, the beginning and following build a case in order to
set up a twist or “turn” which is a different or even opposing
perspective. (Cheng, 2005)

There are several take-aways from this. The first is that in English
writing we state the thesis in the beginning, but the thesis
statement in Chinese writing is placed later in the essay, usually in
the ending. Secondly, in English writing the conclusion is used to
reassert the thesis. However, in Chinese writing the ending is used
to state the thesis which usually opposes the beginning assertion or
ideas.

Cultural Differences in Writing–2

Values
Another difference between Chinese and English writing is shown in
their cultural values. In writing this plays out in different ways. First,
Chinese culture is a high context society whereas English societies
tend to be low context. This means that in writing, an English
composition should be explicit and direct in their explanation

and meaning. However, in

Chinese writing the reader has the responsibility to interpret the
author’s true meaning and opinion; therefore, the author in Chinese
writing is not as direct and assertive in their writing as an English
author would be.

Cultural values also play out in the tone of writing and the writing
style. In Chinese society where being reserved and humility are
valued, it may be hard for your students to write in the concise and
straight-forward style that is considered “good writing” in English
writing. “From a Chinese reader’s point of view, being reserved is
seen as humility, which a good writer should possess. When a
Chinese tries to voice her or his own opinions, she or he is not
expected to express opinions directly. Instead, it is necessary to
keep distance from the readers with a soft tone.” (Cheng, 2005)

Last, the difference in values can be seen in how personal

anecdotes are used in writing. Since Chinese society values
humility, it could be seen as arrogant and too self-focused to bring
in personal experiences. Instead, Chinese writers prefer to use well-
known Chinese quotations, proverbs, maxims, and fixed phrases in
their writing. (Wu and Rubin, 2000)
Whew! This may seem like a lot, but these differences can be
addressed! Later in this unit we will talk about different aspects to
focus on to help you as you teach and your students as they learn
an essentially new cultural framework. It is important to note that in
terms of these differences every student is an individual and where
they fall on the spectrum of cultural differences will vary greatly and
that we have only touched on some of the cultural differences. Keep
this in mind as you get to know your students and assess their
needs.

For more references on cultural differences, see the unit “Life in

China,” and for more on differences in writing see (Cheng, 2005).
Cultural Differences in Writing Activity
Cultural Differences in Writing – The Reflective

Teacher’s Response

Models and Formula

Chinese students love examples and patterns. This is partly because

Chinese art forms are traditionally learned by copying models.
Writing is a form of art. Therefore, Chinese students will often look
for models to copy when given a writing task. Models are
everywhere. The internet is full of sample sentences, paragraphs,
and essays. Your textbook may have samples provided. You are
most likely able to write a sample for your students as well. Models
can be used to draw students’ attention to a variety of aspects of
writing as well as to set the bar and show your expectations clearly.
Knowing that students will be drawn to a model and closely follow it
as they complete their own work can be an asset.
 This could benefit
you greatly as you present examples showing the differences
between English and Chinese writing. As many models, examples,
and patterns as you provide, your students will dissect them and
follow them. Some teachers have lamented this as a liability in
teaching English writing, but whether students’ preference of
copying examples becomes an asset or a liability is partially
dependent on you. First, make sure your examples follow what you
are teaching. If they do not, then your students will begin to
reproduce patterns that don’t adhere to what you are teaching. For
example, if you ask them to write a thesis statement in the
introduction and conclusion, but the example only includes it in the
conclusion, then some of your students will likely follow the model
instead of doing as you have instructed. Second, it is important to
teach the concept of plagiarism to your students since students’
habit of copying and learning from models and examples can easily
cross the line into plagiarism. Later, we will discuss more in-depth
students’ cultural attitudes towards plagiarism and how to address
plagiarism. Finally, look at any professional, peer reviewed journal
for good samples. The writers all follow a preset formula and it will
help your students to see the formula in published text.

So, what can you do to use models and formulas in your writing
class? Here are a few practical suggestions:
 Have students study samples of English writing, pointing out commonalities of
structure and rhetoric.
 Do a contrastive analysis between an English writing sample and a Chinese
writing sample.
 Have your students consider their worldviews and discuss the worldviews of
native English speakers. The process of writing to another audience must first
start with being aware of your own worldviews and how they are different in
different cultures.
 Some other things to look for in models could include the following: layout;
overall message and how it’s expressed; organization; specific
phrases/sentences; distinctive grammatical features, style, tone, and effect on
the reader.
 Use formulas for things like topic sentences, thesis statements, and
conclusion sentences in a model will likely result in your students copying
those things in their own work, especially if you draw their attention to the
patterns during your lesson.

Models and Formula Activity

Models and Formula Activity – The Reflective

Teacher’s Response
Audience and Intent

Audience

Writing is an interaction between a writer and a reader: One strives

to communicate and one strives to comprehend with the use of
intelligence, emotions, and past experiences. In writing, the writer
writes to communicate something (a view, an argument, position,
belief, etc.) that the reader can understand. Effective
communication involves effective shaping of the writing to suit the
author’s purpose.

For any piece of writing, the writer must ask who is being
addressed: “Who am I writing for?” The writer’s audience may be
real or intended readers, or it may be an audience that the writer
has created based on implied response or attitude. Writing an essay
for a TOEFL test will be different in tone and structure than writing a
text message to your friends! Knowing for whom something is
written helps any reader clarify what is being said and helps any
writer focus on how to communicate what they want to
communicate. A clear recognition of the author’s intended audience
goes a long way in helping the reader to understand the meaning
and determine the effectiveness of the writing under consideration.

Furthermore, helping students to understand that you represent an

English audience and will have different expectations from a
Chinese audience will further help students to be more open to a
Western framework when writing.

Intent

Have students consider the why of writing. Their intent should be

clear to those who read it. When you write, what is the reason?
What do you want your audience to take away from your writing? Do
you want to describe, persuade, engage, provoke, or inform? Most
of your Chinese students may write in order to complete a course or
achieve a good grade, but when they consider audience and intent,
their writing will become much more vibrant and interesting.
Focusing on intent will help the writer know how to organize their
writing, how to focus their writing, and what style to use.
Intent Activities – The Reflective Teacher’s Response
Section 14.4: Strategies for Teaching Writing

Introduction

By now you’ve been introduced to how your students may view

writing as well as the cultural differences between Chinese and
English writing. “That’s great! But how do I actually go about
teaching writing? What are the nitty gritty strategies?” you may be
thinking. We’re glad you asked! In this section, we will go over some
strategies and methods to teach and structure your class. Your class
may not use all of these strategies but use these strategies as a tool
and framework to structure your class period, curriculum, or a unit.
The Process of Writing–Helping Students Master the

Writing Process

Imagine that you sit at your desk, pencil in hand, and a blank piece
of paper before you. The writing task has begun but you struggle to
get the ideas onto paper. The clock is ticking, you feel a drop of
sweat on your forehead, but all you’ve got is one sentence. Have
you ever felt that way? Some people may find writing tasks a
breeze, but many students can relate with the struggle to express
their ideas clearly in written form. If you’re writing in a second
language, you can imagine the task is even more daunting!
The process of writing is meant to help productivity by breaking
up the writing task into manageable steps.
As mentioned in earlier sections of this unit, your students’ writing
instruction was most likely based on a rigid set of rules and
principles that were transmitted from the teacher to the class. Your
students often wrote a response from selected written texts. They
probably spent more time copying models of good writing rather
than expressing their own ideas creatively. Correct spelling,
grammar, and organization were the most important aspects of
writing in a second language.

By teaching your students the three steps in the process of

writing: pre-writing, writing, and post-writing; this allows you, the
teacher, to become like the editor, and give strategies to generate
content and discover purpose. Students can be given the freedom to
consider the audience, the purpose and occasion as well as the
opportunity to creatively express their thoughts and ideas.

Step 1: Pre-Writing

This is the step where

students collect their thoughts, gather information, develop an
outline, brainstorm, and organize ideas. In this stage creativity is
key—complete sentences or correct grammar is unnecessary! This
stage may also look different depending on the writing task or goal.
If you assign a research paper, a big part of this step would be
gathering information. If the task is to describe how they felt during
a life event, brainstorming and mind mapping will play a major role
in this step.
The teacher can guide students in this step by asking students to
brainstorm vocabulary words on the topic or organize their ideas
into groups or clusters. Once their ideas or vocabulary have been
brainstormed, they can create a kind of roadmap or outline of what
they will write. The thing to remember is that most students may try
to have the “perfect answer” when brainstorming or road mapping.
This is a good stage for the teacher to emphasize the process of
writing as opposed to the product.

Other ideas to teach students to structure and organize their

writing: write main themes on note cards and have students arrange
or sequence them; write a diagram to connect ideas or themes; use
lines and arrows to connect ideas.

Step 2: Writing (or Drafting)

Once the pre-writing stage is complete and students have their

ideas, vocabulary, and outline, writing the first draft will be much
quicker and easier! In this stage, students take what they have
planned and put it together into logical order in complete sentences.
The teacher should stress that the goal is to write without worrying
about errors or perfection since the writing will be revised in the
next stage.

It is important for teachers to spend enough time in the pre-writing

stage before going to the drafting stage. Most students may still be
adjusting to thinking of writing as a process and it may take some
reinforcement before students understand the importance of the
pre-writing step and how it influences the actual step of putting
words on the paper.

Step 3: Post-Writing
When the first draft is finished, it’s time to improve the writing. At
this point the teacher can use several methods for revising
students’ draft. The teachers can review the drafts themselves or
use peer feedback. Regardless of the method used the focus should
first be on meaning. Sentences can be reorganized, added in, or
taken out to clarify meaning and intention. The text should be
revised so it flows logically and coherently. Once the writing is
revised, it’s time to look at the smaller details and language.
Grammatical mistakes or vocabulary errors can be corrected.

Finally, once the final draft is achieved, the writing tasks should be
shared to give the writer a sense of achievement. In addition, the
work should be assessed. There are several ways of assessing
writing (which we’ll talk about in a later section of this unit), but this
can be done by the teacher, peers, or through self-assessment.

Many students might struggle with writing or believe they are not
good writers, but focusing on the process will help them be more
productive and effective in their second-language writing

task.

You may have to repeat this to your students a couple times before
they start believing it!
Writing Skills–Teaching Writing by Focusing on

Writing Skills–1

There are a variety of skills used in writing. Whether you are

working with children or young adults, these skills can be made both
age and level appropriate. In addition to introducing these skills at
basic English levels, most will need to be revisited with advanced
level students.

Writing skills build on each other and spiral

as English abilities increase in complexity. There is no easy way to
identify what order in which one should teach writing. As you begin
to read student work, you will likely be overwhelmed by the variety
of mistakes you find and the work it will take to get them writing
“beautiful” Western-style papers. Choose a skill to start with and
work at the pace of your students to develop their skills one by one
and level by level. Remember that native English speakers have
varying levels of writing abilities and so will your classes.

The skills of writing take time to develop, but because writing is a

process that includes revisions, students can revise and rewrite their
work throughout the course as they learn new skills. Their writing
will grow with them as they learn and clearly show their growth from
the first draft to the final draft.

Teaching from these skills gives you flexibility as a teacher. You

could focus on punctuation and grammar during one portion of the
 class and move on to another topic or skill later in class. Or you
could have students look at a paragraph structure while
proofreading for grammar mistakes.

Always remember that effective writing is not only in mastering

these skills, but the ability for a student to convey their thoughts
and ideas. These skills are there to help students to express
meaning and are not the end goal of a writing class.

Skills:

 Capitalization and punctuation

 Advanced Punctuation (e.g. semicolon)
 Writing complete sentences (e.g. grammar)
 Inserting adjectives and adverbs
 Description
 Outlines
 Paragraph structure
 Cohesion in paragraphs (topic unity)
 Topic sentences and thesis statements
 Introduction paragraphs
 Conclusions
 Creative language (similes/metaphors)
 Logic and reasoning
 Peer editing

Writing Skill–Teaching Writing by Focusing on Writing

Skills–2

Academic Writing

The most basic definition of academic writing is writing required to

fulfill a class requirement. However, academic writing is broader
 than the definition. Academic writing is also characterized by its
organization, outline, formal tone, and clear structure and therefore
will be required by students in many different spheres of life.

An academic essay will begin with an opening paragraph that

introduces the thesis. This is followed by several paragraphs that
express the three main ideas that support the thesis. Finally, a
concluding paragraph summarizes and restates the main thesis.
Throughout the essay various development strategies and discourse
connectors are used to improve flow and clarity.

Academic writing requires most of the previously mentioned skills

and a certain style and pattern. Essays, reports, literature reviews,
and proposals all have a specific organizational style that must be
learned. Let’s look at some important components that should be
included in academic writing:

 Outline–before beginning to write, it is valuable to gather the main ideas and

information and arrange them clearly in an outline. This will help to provide
structure and organization to the essay that will in turn improve its coherence.
 Main Ideas (Thesis Statements or Topic Sentences)–in English academic
writing, we need a central idea that unifies and organizes the details
surrounding it. For example, a paragraph should have a topic sentence. If it’s
a formal essay, it will need a thesis statement. In both cases, usually one
sentence is involved.
 Paragraph Structure–just as you would probably need to teach your
students where to place topic sentences, you will need to teach your students
about paragraph structure in English writing. Most paragraphs follow some
form of a topic sentence→ supporting sentences→ concluding
sentence formula. Teaching students paragraph structure will also help
students to have a framework to know where to place topic sentences,
support and other parts of their writing.
 Support–in your writing, support develops the thesis or topic sentences. Most
essays consist of three main ideas or arguments, and each of these ideas are
supported through facts, examples, stories, or relevant additional information
that will clarify or strengthen your arguments. Support needs to be
appropriate and applicable and written in a clear manner.
 Development Strategies–development strategies are techniques that
authors use to help them express their ideas. Whether you are writing a
description, a narration, or a persuasive proposal, certain techniques are used
over and over to develop ideas. Some of these techniques include comparison
and contrast, cause and effect, classification, and illustration.
 Discourse Connectors–sometimes called “logical connectors” or
“signposting words,” these small words link ideas and signal to the reader
 what will come next in the text. Words like for example, therefore, as a result,
in contrast, first, second, finally, etc. are important to the flow and clarity of
the writing.
 Summary–a summary briefly recaps what was expressed in the previous
paragraphs (as concisely as possible!) and does not include the author’s
attitude or purpose.
Syllabus Activity – The Reflective Teacher’s Response
Types of Writing–Helping Students to Produce

Different Types of Writing–1

In Section 3, we mentioned how Chinese students love models and

formulas. For that reason, most teachers find it easy to teach a
writing course by helping students master different writing
assignments. Most of these writing tasks require students to use an
English writing structure to complete. Additionally, each writing task
has a different formula which students can follow and model. This
benefits students in allowing them to see their progress by seeing
the different types of writing they learned as the semester
progresses. Last, each task requires different overlapping skills to
master and will help students develop as writers. Here are some
different types of writing that you can use in your class:

(1) Introductory Essay

The introductory essay requires students to share something

personal about themselves based on a writing prompt assigned by
their teacher. Prompts could come from a variety of questions such
as, “Tell me about the most important people in your life.” or “Tell
me about the happiest day in your life.”

This is a great task to assign students because students share about

themselves and reflect on their experiences. Because it is a
personal essay, students are less likely to worry about the
mechanics of writing and are more likely to focus on how to share
their thoughts. Additionally, this gives them practice for TOEFL
writing prompts which will ask them to share personal opinions.
(2) How-To Essay

This essay asks students to write out the steps for completing a
task, such as cooking a cultural dish. A sample prompt would be,
“How to cook Beijing duck.” This writing task is great for reinforcing
organizational writing skills such as outlining, using discourse
connectors (first, second, third) and practicing description
skills. (Make sure you get a chance to eat 北京烤鸭 běijīng kǎoyā.)

(3) Persuasive Essays

This writing task teaches more high-level skills since a persuasive

essay requires students to logically develop arguments with clear
support, build arguments on previous paragraphs, refute the
opposition and have a clear thesis statement.

A persuasive essay is where you

may begin to run into problems, such as students' understanding of
an English composition structure. Try not to be surprised when you
read the “turn” in their paper or if you are not sure which side they
are presenting! Remember in a Chinese essay, it is up to the reader
to interpret the author’s thoughts, not for the author to convince the
reader.

However, this is a very useful writing task because it gives teachers

a chance to assess students’ understanding of English writing
structure, and preparation for writing persuasive essays allows the
teacher to spend a lot of time brainstorming and discussing ideas
with students.
Types of Writing–Helping Students to Produce

Different Types of Writing–2

(4) Research Papers

This task is probably where a teacher will have the most problems
with plagiarism. One key to successfully teaching this task in a class
is to make sure that you have enough time for your students to
really learn and master all the skills required to complete this task.
A lot of time needs to be spent emphasizing the process of writing
and on the pre-writing stage for students to do this well. More time
will need to be spent on finding good research, developing a thesis,
referencing a paper, and even teaching students how to paraphrase.

As a teacher you may also need to encourage them if they need to

change topic or rework their thesis statement. This is normal from a
Western perspective, but it may be harder for students to accept in
a Chinese context.
 (5) Creative Writing

Writing is meant to be creative. Invention and discovery are

encouraged and imaginative tasks, such as writing poetry, stories,
or plays are promoted. When students can engage in imaginative
writing tasks, they have more motivation to produce a greater range
of language and text than they would for a routine or academic
assignment. They tend to feel more engaged as they use their
experiences to tell personal stories or use their imagination to tell a
tale. Overall, students typically have a greater sense of
achievement after completing a creative writing task than a more
academic or structured assignment.

(6) Business Writing

Business writing is clear, purposeful professional writing. It can

include CVs, resumes, cover letters, etc. This task might be relevant
for any graduate level courses or business majors. However, you
don’t need to limit it to those students because business writing
lends itself well to students’ love of copying formulas and models. It
is also very useful for helping students to
identify intent and audience as they think through this task.
Matching Writing Skills and Writing Tasks – The

Reflective Teacher’s Response

Writing Tasks That Can Be Used in Different

Classroom Contexts

Not all writing tasks need to be centered around writing a large text
or essays. There are a lot of different writing activities that can be
used in and out of a writing classroom that are just as effective in
teaching/reinforcing language skills.

Here are some writing tasks that are very adaptable and flexible.
They can be adapted to be completed in the beginning of class as a
warm-up or used to reinforce a certain writing skill. It is up to the
teacher’s ability and creativity. This is not a comprehensive or
extensive list. There are a large number of resources and ideas
available on the internet, but this can be a starting point for any
teacher looking for simple activities to fill out 10-30 minutes of class
time.

(1) Journal Writing

This is a great way for students to write without worrying about

grammar or spelling. The focus would be on putting pen to paper
and sharing thoughts. The teacher can use various prompts and
questions to get students’ creative juices flowing. Some questions
can include: “How do you feel about learning English? Please tell me
why you feel that way.” “What are your dreams?” Feedback is
optional but a great way to build up students’ motivation and
confidence and a way for teachers to connect with students.
(2) Write a Caption

The teacher brings a picture, scene, or comic strip and asks

students to write a sentence/paragraph/dialogue describing the
picture. The teacher can just ask students to write whatever they
want or give them parameters such as “Use the vocabulary words
we learned last class” or “Include a question in your dialogue.”

(3) Song Response

The teacher plays a song in class. You can play it once or as many
times as your students would tolerate the song. After listening to
the song, the students write a response to the song and its lyrics
and describe how it makes them feel. This activity could also be
tweaked to include certain requirements such as “Listen for this
grammar pattern” or “write your own lyrics.”

(4) Pass the Story

For this writing activity the teacher will need to organize students
into groups or rows. The students will each have a piece of paper
and they begin by writing the first sentence of a story. The teacher
can give students freedom to write what they like, or requirements,
like vocabulary or sentence structure. After the first sentence is
written the students will pass their paper down the row to the next
person in their group. Their classmate will then continue the story
by writing however they see fit. Then the paper is passed on to the
third person for the third sentence. This continues until either it
rotates back to the original person or until the teacher decides to
end the activity. The students will then read their stories out loud.
Hilarity will ensue.

(5) Using Writing in Other Courses

If you are teaching an oral class, reading class or culture class,

incorporating writing can benefit the learning of your students. It is
important, however, that you make sure your lesson objectives are
based on the course objectives. Make sure writing is a vehicle to
meeting the course goals, not the focus of the lesson—or the focus
of the assignment grade.

In any class, writing can be used to give students time to think

about their answer before they present it to others. This is
especially important for shy or lower level students. Groups can
brainstorm a list of ideas to share with the class. Individual students
can complete several sentences to share with a group. You can also
give a homework assignment that helps students gather information
for a discussion held in the next class. The focus of each of these
activities should prepare students to complete a task based on the
intended focus of the course.

Section 14.5: Why and How to Teach Grammar

Introduction

Research shows that teaching grammar in the context of reading

and writing helps students to learn grammar more effectively than
teaching grammar as a separate subject. Likewise, students’
language abilities will improve as they master more grammar
functions and rules. In this section, we will discuss teaching
grammar, but we will not go into an exhaustive breakdown of
grammar rules and structures for students to learn. For a detailed
list of English grammar structures and rules, see an earlier unit in
this online course, “The English Language System.” This section will
discuss teaching grammar in a class context and discuss different
tips and drills for teaching grammar effectively and painlessly
(fingers crossed!).
Focus
When teaching grammar, it is essential that the teacher has a clear
idea of what to focus on. When taught in isolation, grammar can be

seen as boring and useless. Students need to

know the reason for using the particular grammar structures, in
other words the function of the language it is used for. One of the
most beautiful things about the English language is that one idea
can be expressed in multiple ways. An English speaker has several
options when crafting a sentence, and there are subtle differences
in what is chosen. Conversely, one of the most frustrating things
about learning English for students is that they must learn how to
express the same idea in a variety of ways; they must be able to
understand multiple expressions of the same thing while also tuning
in to the subtle differences that may exist. Hopefully students will
view this as an opportunity for creativity, rather than simply a
matter of linguistic redundancy.

Here are some things to focus on when teaching grammar:

Form & Structure

Focusing on the form and structure is one way to present grammar

to students. It is good to remember that teaching form is important
because it promotes accuracy. For instance, verb tenses convey a
lot of meaning in English; using the wrong verb tense can lead to
confusion about when an event occurred. Therefore, it is necessary
for students to develop competency in multiple grammatical forms.
This can help ensure that students are able to convey their intended
message.

A writing class gives the teacher plenty of opportunities to reinforce

or teach grammar forms and structures. For example, a teacher can
ensure students focus on using past tense when sharing a story
from their past or using present tense for a how-to paper. Of course,
this could be done in an oral class as well, it just requires more
focused instruction from the teacher during class discussions.

There are countless textbooks that explain grammar and

incorporate practice activities with the rules. Because students have
different learning styles, teachers need to incorporate different ways
of teaching grammar. Some students will benefit from hearing an
explanation of the rules of the structure and when to use it; others
benefit from seeing visuals such as a chart. Charts can provide
visual clues of how to form something and when to use it.

Meaning

Another way to present grammar rules is through focusing on

meaning. A language cannot be learned without paying attention to
the meaning of the language. It is not enough to merely learn the
form of the language without knowing what it means. Consider the
two sentences. What is the difference between them?

I have a stolen painting. I have stolen a painting.

Both sentences use the same words, but there is a significant

difference between them. Language students need to know not only
how to form the sentences, but they must also recognize the
meaning of what is said. If students are unable to grasp the
difference between these two sentences, they may unintentionally
say something they did not mean.

Use

Even if students can recite the rules and state the meaning, that
does not necessarily indicate that a student is prepared to apply this
knowledge in a real-world scenario. Students have a lot of choices to
make when using a foreign language: what words to use, what level
of formality is required, what tense to use, etc. It can be difficult to
correctly identify the structure that will best convey one’s meaning.
Teachers need to guide students in such a way that they become
skilled at navigating these decisions in the midst of having
conversations.
Section 14.6: Strategies for Teaching Grammar –

Deductive Teaching

Deductive Teaching–1

Many language students recall receiving detailed grammar

instructions in their native language as the main way to learn the
grammar of the target language. Directly teaching grammar
structures has been done for a long time and is not without its
merits. Some students can benefit immensely from clear instruction
regarding rules and use. Though certain people will argue that
deductive methods of language teaching are boring and outdated,
there are times when it is the simplest and most straight-forward
way to teach grammar concepts. In addition, deductive methods are
most likely familiar to your students. It may be good to add some
deductive grammar activities into your class for them to “warm-up”
before going to more difficult tasks.

This approach is teacher centered. Students must rely on the

teacher to clearly and completely explain the rules of grammar.
After a detailed explanation, the students will generally be given
opportunities to apply this rule in various contexts. This method is
effective with highly motivated students who desire to learn the
language.

Practice

Students must be given ample opportunity to practice grammar so

that they are prepared to use the target grammar in authentic
situations. It is not enough to receive instruction
on grammar and to leave it at that. No matter how detailed the
explanation is, the student will be unable to effectively use the
structure if they do not practice.

There are a variety of ways in which teachers can incorporate

grammar practice in a lesson. Because deductive teaching is so
teacher–centered, the teacher must design the lesson to move the
students down the path toward independent language production.
This must be done step-by-step so as to not overwhelm the
students. Following the explanation, the teacher should allow some
time for guided practice. Guided practice gives the students the
chance to try out their new skills in a limited way. After that, the
class can progress to more open-ended practice that allows the
students to stretch their creative muscles a bit as they further
attempt to use the structures.

This does not mean that a teacher needs to structure a whole class
period around a grammar structure. Instead, the teacher should
ensure the students can practice the grammar structure in enough
contexts and with enough repetitions for them to feel confident
using it in their speaking or writing.
Deductive Teaching–2

As mentioned previously, it is important to give students ample

opportunities to practice the target grammar structures. One way to
do that is through drills. This can be oral or written—whatever best
suits the needs of the class.
Deductive Teaching–3
While charts and lists have an appropriate place in grammar
practice, it is helpful for language students to see language used in
context. One way to do this is by creating fill-in-the-blank sentence
activities or gap-fills. A gap-fill activity is one in which students
need to supply the correct information in order to complete the
sentence. Check out the sample below:

(1) Fill-In-The-Blank/Gap-Fill Activity:

(2) Cloze Activities

Another type of fill-in-the-blank activity are cloze activities that can
be designed to give the students even more choices when
completing the task. Cloze activities differ from gap-fill in that they
are composed of short passages or paragraphs in which set words
have been systematically removed. Verbs could be provided in a
word bank at the top, which forces students to choose a word that
fits the meaning of the passage and transform it into the correct
verb tense.

Deductive Teaching–4
(3) Independent Practice

After students have practiced the new concepts, it is time to move

from guided practice to more independent practice. Students need
to be given more freedom to test out their linguistic theories.

One way to do that is by asking students to work with a partner or in

a small group to write a role-play, story or conversation that uses
the target grammar. The teacher can leave this quite open-ended,
or they can impose limits regarding what the students should
include, the length of the conversation, and the topic. By asking
students to work together to create this conversation, the teacher
can gauge whether students will need more practice in this area. If
it seems as if the students are accurately using the structure in the
appropriate place, it may be time to move on to the next concept. If
errors are plentiful and repeated, the teacher may opt to return to
the explanation phase of the lesson to clarify some misconceptions
that might exist.
Section 14.7: Strategies for Teaching Grammar – Inductive

Teaching
 Inductive Teaching–1

One of the most effective ways to teach grammar and its rules is to
let the students figure out the rules on their own. This is a student-
centered approach that allows the students the opportunity to
notice what is happening in language before receiving instruction
from the teacher. By giving students examples or noticing
activities of the target grammar structure, students can identify
the structures they see in different sentences. They can then
attempt to formulate hypotheses regarding the rules of this
particular structure. The teacher can elicit discussion about what the
students saw, what they thought about the rules, and together the
class can piece together some rules about when and how to use a
form.

For example, with lower-level students, a teacher may distribute a

short paragraph and instruct the students to underline all of the
verbs.

After the students have underlined the verbs, the teacher can then
instruct the students to circle all of the names (subjects). Once the
students have identified the subjects and verbs in the paragraph,
the teacher can ask some leading questions to prompt the students
to discover the rules. Some questions to ask might include:

 Do the verbs all end with the same letter?

 How many verbs are in -s/-es?
 What do you notice about the verbs?
 When should I put an -s/-es at the end of a verb?
The teacher can guide the conversation and have the students do
additional activities that will lead them to the rule(s). Students can
be asked to sort the verbs into two columns, one for verbs that end
in –es/-s, and one for verbs that end in something else. After
eliciting responses from the students, the teacher can fill in the gaps
where needed. The teacher may still need to provide an explanation
of grammar usage and rules, but this comes after the students have
had an opportunity to see the structure used and to guess the rules.
Inductive Teaching–2

Upper-level students can be given a bit more freedom and more

time to figure out some rules. Below is an example of a noticing
activity for adverb clauses. This was done after students had
learned about adjective clauses. They were familiar with the
concept of clauses, so they had enough background knowledge to
complete this task and answer the questions.

Complete the activity below:

Inductive Teaching–3
Inductive Teaching–4

Noticing activities can also be redesigned to look

like something else. Some teachers try to incorporate other fun
aspects that give students an opportunity to be creative. One such
example is similar to a color-by-number. In this activity, a picture is
divided up into smaller segments, but instead of numbers that
correspond to different colors, word parts are color-coded. The
teacher may instruct the students to color all of the adjectives
yellow, all of the verbs pink, all of the nouns blue, and so on. If this
is done correctly, a clear picture will be created. An activity like this
helps language students recognize the different forms of the word
and removes the pressure of creating new sentences at that
moment.

Exceptions

Anyone who has studied English has at some point realized that for
every grammar rule, there is an exception. For students who feel
confident in their use of a particular structure, it can be incredibly
discouraging to say something only to be met with correction or
confusion. It may be tempting for teachers to brush aside these
issues by informing the student that it is an exception and
exceptions must be memorized, but this ultimately does not prepare
the student to use the language accurately without the guidance of
the teacher. Teachers must help students see beyond the list of
rules that they may cling to so tightly, so that students can see
broader concepts. Again, reinforcing the concept that grammar
exists in order to convey meaning will help students to see grammar
as part of a bigger context. Remember that by using the term
“rules”, we indicate that there are consequences for breaking the
rules. This can become complicated when using a language.
However, teachers need not be afraid of exceptions, but rather they
should view these as opportunities for further language research.

In conclusion, there are many different ways to teach grammar. It

may be overwhelming to know where to begin, especially if a
teacher does not fully understand the grammatical concept.
However, if it is taught in a context of an oral or writing class,
opportunities to teach grammar in authentic ways will come up!

Incorporating grammar instruction into an EFL class can be a stretch

for a teacher who has a lot of lesson planning to do but is really
helpful for both the teacher and student. If teachers are paying
attention, they will not need to work too hard to create ways to
incorporate grammar instruction and practice. It will mostly hinge on
the teacher’s ability to assess their students’ language ability to
notice areas of growth or weakness. We will discuss assessment in
the next section.

Section 14.8: Strategies for Writing Assessment - Giving

Feedback

Introduction

In the “Assessment” unit, we covered different techniques for

assessment and the principles of assessment. In this section, we will
discuss how some of these principles come into play within a writing
classroom. Assessing writing may seem overwhelming, but it is
important to know what to focus on as you assess students’ writing.
In Section 3, we discussed how writing classes should be focused on
the process of writing as opposed to the final product. Teachers
 must remember that the objective of assessing writing is to help
students to improve and develop in their language ability. This
means that giving feedback on the process is just as important as a
grade on their final product.
What Are We Assessing?

So, what do we focus on and how? For beginner second-language

writers, there is a major focus on the accuracy of their writing–did
you use the correct words and grammatical tense? Were words
spelled correctly? But as students’ progress in their language
learning abilities, accuracy should be balanced with fluency.

Let’s look at some quick definitions:

 Accuracy (form)–focus on discrete elements of the rules of language, such

as verb agreement, spelling, etc.
 Fluency (function)–focus on the students’ ability to communicate ideas
instead of the discrete language elements.

Assessing ESL writing should not just be about correcting language

mistakes. Both accuracy and fluency need to be encouraged in
practice and weighed in evaluation.

Giving Feedback–1

In this part, we will first talk about feedback because it is such an

essential part of the writing process. We will discuss different roles a
teacher takes when giving feedback as well as ways to write good
feedback. Then we will go over different assessment principles to
remember in a writing context. Last, we will go over different
methods of assessing writing, such as peer review and rubrics.
 Feedback

The teacher has a very pivotal role in the writing process, as they
will not only facilitate and assess the task, but also give key input
and feedback into how the writing should be revised. Feedback is
any input from the teacher to the student (writer) that provides
information useful for revision.

There are two kinds of feedback:

 Formative–immediate correction to certain parts or sections of the writing.

 Summative–a response that is an overview of more general considerations in
an essay.

When giving feedback the teacher needs to make sure that it is

clear and understandable so that the student can understand and
implement the feedback and thus improve their writing. If the
student either doesn’t comprehend the feedback or does not know
how to implement it, then it will have no effect.

Teacher Roles

Feedback is not only important for the student; it also allows the
teacher to take on different roles in class. There are different roles
the teacher can take, and they must decide which one they will take
when giving feedback.

For example, the teacher can give feedback from the point of view
of the:

Audience–the teacher chooses this role in order to ask questions

about the purpose of the essay.

 “I have a question about [X] here.”

 “Is this always true?”
 “Does this contradict what you said above?”

 Reader–the teacher chooses this role in order to respond to ideas and

content.
 “When I read this paragraph, I felt…”
 “I thought about [X] when I read this essay.”
 “When I read the first paragraph, I thought the essay as going to be about [Y],
but when I finished, I realized it was probably about [Z].”
 Writing Consultant–the teacher chooses this role in order to help the
student write and revise.

 “This paragraph needs more detail; try a pre-writing strategy to collect more
information.”
 “Write another introduction and then show both to your review group in class
tomorrow.”

 Instructor–the teacher chooses this role in order to enlighten the student on

the main rhetorical features of the writing.

 “The last paragraph of your essay focuses on your third point; now you need
to write a concluding paragraph.”
 “Your thesis statement indicates that you will discuss [X], but in the second
paragraph you talk about [Y]–why?”
 “You have five short sentences in a row here. Try combining several of the
sentences in this paragraph.”

Giving feedback can be scary for a teacher

the first time they read a student’s assignment and think, “Where
do I begin?” Giving feedback can be one of the most time-
consuming tasks for a teacher. Teachers might feel that there are
too many mistakes, or that they don’t know how to help. It’s ok! As
with most things, giving feedback is something that gets easier with
repetition and focused practice. The list in the next part is a good
step-by-step guide and there is an example provided after this list
that you can work through to practice.
Giving Feedback–2
Take a look at the example below:
Giving Feedback–3

Although this student’s grammatical mistakes might be

overwhelming, you can easily identify a topic sentence, three points
with one supporting detail each and a concluding sentence. The
teacher has likely taught webs or outlines as prewriting for
paragraphs. You can also see evidence that most sentences have
capital letters and periods. These are things to praise in your
feedback!

As for the grammar, avoid the temptation to edit and make the
paragraph correct. Getting into the routine of correcting student
writing is a time waster. First, students likely learn nothing (they
may or may not even read your corrections) because you did it for
them. Second, they have no incentive to pay attention to their
grammar in the future, because they know that you will fix it for
them. Third, you will slowly lose your mind!

Choose a limited number of grammatical correction marks, like an

insert mark showing something is missing, a circle around
something that’s wrong, crossing out extra words and wavy lines
under confusing phrases. This may not address every error, but
that’s okay. If you take the time to mark grammatical errors, always
require students to correct their mistakes and rewrite the
assignment (whether you read the revised version or not). In
addition, if you see the same grammatical errors in many students’
work, use some class time to isolate the error and practice the
correction.

Another totally acceptable method for correcting student work is to

focus on what you have been working on in class. If you’ve worked
on topic sentences, then make students write an entire essay, but
as you grade, focus on their topic sentences and how it fits into their
paragraphs to ensure they have mastered the skill. If you have been
practicing the structure of the introduction paragraph, then only
read their introduction paragraphs giving feedback only on the
structure. Do not feel bad about focusing your grading on one part
of their homework. The practice of writing the entire essay was still
beneficial to your students and in most of these skills can only be
mastered in the context of a whole essay. In fact, only having
feedback on one part may make it easier for students to read,
understand, and internalize your feedback. One thing to remember
is that if you do grade in this way to make sure your students are
aware of what your focus of grading will be beforehand.

Giving Feedback – The Reflective Teacher’s Response

Section 14.9: Strategies for Writing Assessment–Methods

Methods for Assessing Writing–1

We will now discuss different methods for assessing writing. In an

earlier unit, you were introduced to different methods of assessment
such as true-false, multiple choice, short answer, essay questions,
etc. Those are all useful and will have a place in your writing class,
but we will focus on methods that are almost exclusively used in a
writing classroom for this section.

Journals/Reflection Questions
Journals are a great tool for teachers to make on-going assessments
and to check for comprehension. Teachers can get students to write
a response about how they feel about their writing, or if they have
any questions about the class. Journals are also a great way for
teachers to give students encouragement and feedback.

Portfolios

In a writing class, a portfolio is

essentially a collection of a student’s work. Students are asked to
collect homework exercises, exams, drafts of their writing
assignments, journals, final products, etc. One way for a teacher to
use this as an assessment tool is to use it as an end-of-the-year
project. The teacher could ask students to choose a variety of
written works that show their development and write down the
reasons they chose that specific work to display their development.
An example of such a question would be “Choose a passage from
one of your essays that displays your mastery of writing thesis
statements and explain how it contains all the necessary elements
of a good thesis statement.” The teacher could then grade for both
the strength of the thesis statement and the students’ explanation.
Another way is for students to gather their portfolio and choose their
own writing samples from the portfolio and write out how those
samples show their writing development. They are great for
students to look through to mark their progress and to give students
a sense of accomplishment, especially at the end of course.

Rubrics

Grading writing subjectively by how you feel a student did overall

may seem like the easiest way to grade student writing before you
begin. However, it is nearly impossible to be consistent from student
to student. In the end, most teachers, who decide to subjectively
grade student writing, end up overwhelmed by the ambiguity.
Additionally, grading subjectively makes it hard for teachers to find
objective feedback for students to implement to improve their
writing. Rubrics help you think through what you are looking for in
student writing before you begin grading as well as providing a

consistent standard for grading.

Your rubric categories will vary depending on the purpose of the

assessment. Comprehensive exams, like the IELTS, have rubric
categories that are general: task achievement, coherence and
cohesion, lexical resource, and grammatical range and accuracy.
Rubrics for a writing class may be more specific to what you have
taught: general structure, topic sentences, thesis statement,
paraphrasing/summarizing/quoting, and ideas and cohesion in body
paragraphs. Each category should be the same amount of points to
make grading easy and the rubric should typically add up to a total
of 100 points. However, the teacher is free to assign more points to
a different category if they want to emphasize a particular category.

The two most important things when creating a rubric are making
sure you carefully think through what you are assessing and
verifying that the categories do not overlap. Students should not
typically lose points in two areas for the same mistake.
Methods for Assessing Writing–2

Using the “Example Rubric 1” below, you can see if a student does
not have topic sentences or thesis statements, they would also have
points deducted from the “General Structure” category since there
are things missing from the general structure. “General Structure”
on this rubric, then, must reflect other elements, such as: visually
separated paragraphs, having an introduction, body, and conclusion
as well as including a title at the top, and a bibliography at the end
(since sources are used).
Unfortunately, predicting exactly what mistakes students will and
will not make in their writing is impossible. Allow yourself to make
changes to the rubric after receiving student work. For example,
when using the following rubric, if a student writes an essay that has
the correct general structure, but is incoherent in that it cannot be
followed and understood, where would it fit in the rubric? Perhaps
another student did not include any information from resources.
There is no place to indicate that on the rubric. It is ok to add things
to appropriate point values as you discover unexpected mistakes in
student work. Simply make a note at the bottom of the rubric to
support why they have received the score you have given. Then,
before using the rubric again, update it to better reflect what you
expect to find in student work.

You can create your own rubrics, or use a website that creates them
for you, like Rubistar.

Example Rubric 1 (for a first attempt at a 5-paragraph

research paper)
Methods for Assessing Writing–3
Methods for Assessing Writing–4
Methods for Assessing Writing–5
Writing Consultations

When giving feedback, instructors will typically take essays home

and give written feedback. When working with second-language
learning though, sometimes it is easier for the student to have
verbal feedback. One way to do this is have each of the students
meet with the teacher one-on-one for a “writing consultation.” This
would be a face-to-face conversation between the teacher and the
student (usually outside of the classroom) and promoted as a
positive experience rather than a daunting critique (remember that
teachers hold a high position in Chinese society). By the end of the
meeting, the student should have formulated a plan of action to
improve their writing.

Typical steps of this consultation may be:

. Openings: “How are you?” “How’s your writing?”

. Student-initiated comments and questions regarding your feedback
. Teacher-initiated comments and questions
. Reading of the paper
. Closings

Peer Feedback

Many students assume they

have nothing to learn from each other. They want feedback

exclusively from the teacher. The Western writing process, however,
values feedback from peers. With some guidance, students can
learn to value their peers as an asset to the various stages of the
writing process. The two most important things are teaching
students how to give feedback to each other and limiting the scope
of peer feedback to things within their ability level.

When you are teaching students how to give feedback, it is

important to take them step by step through what you want them to
do. The smaller and more separated the steps are, the more likely
students will be to do what you’ve asked. Additionally, it is best to
avoid using peer revision to look at grammar.

Students at any level can complete peer feedback activities when

they are designed with them in mind. Another way for students to
do peer feedback is to get them to answer four questions related to
their classmate’s work. (Mittan, 1989)

. What did you like best about your classmate’s writing?

. What was the main idea?
. What are some questions to ask the writer?
. What are some suggestions for the writer?

Methods for Assessing Writing–6

Tips for Assessing Writing

We have just discussed different methods to use when assessing
writing. It is worth repeating that the goal of assessment is students’
development and growth. As you assess their writing, here are some
tips and principles to keep in mind. Some of these will have been
covered in the “Assessment” unit, but they are worth repeating, and
some are new:

(1) Assessment Needs to Be Ongoing

A teacher cannot adjust their teaching or make decisions on what

students need to work on without ongoing assessment. Teachers
should be continually using exercises from the beginning of a class,
journal assignments, classroom observations and writing samples
from students to make assessments.

(2) Students Need to Be Involved

Students need to know from the beginning of the assessment

process how they will be evaluated. This means providing them with
information on test items, rubrics, and teacher expectations on
writing tasks. The teacher should also ask students to identify areas
of strengths and weaknesses as well as help them set goals for their
writing. Feedback from the teacher also brings students into the
writing process and helps them to see writing as an active practice
in which they discover their strengths and creativity.

(3) Make Time for Feedback

Feedback is not just a few comments or sentences at the end of an

essay. It takes the form of encouragement, constructive criticism
and on-the-spot discussions in class periods around content and
language. It is a way for teachers to foster self-awareness, self-
identity, personal goals and growth-areas in students. It is up to the
teacher to ensure there is time in the classroom and out of the
classroom for students to receive, understand and implement
feedback.

(4) Letter and Number Grades Must Be Clearly Explained

Students need to know what the numbers or letters on their grade

mean. If they feel the grades are subjective, they will feel
discouraged and lose motivation to improve. There needs to be a
clear rubric for students to see how the teacher has assigned their
grades. Rubrics will help the student and teacher a lot in this way.

(5) Manage Your Tasks Well

Class sizes tend to be larger in China so if you teach 4 writing

classes you could be teaching between 80-120 students. This means
if you assign 1 writing task for students each week, you will end up
giving feedback, and grading 80-120 writing tasks each week. You
could either stagger your writing tasks so not all classes turn in their
papers at the same time or rely more on in-class assessment.
Assessing Grammar

Previously, we mentioned the importance of the teacher’s ability to

assess students’ grammar in order to teach grammar. For most
native speakers, the ability to recognize grammatical errors in L2
students’ writing or speaking will come pretty easily. However, the
primary objective of assessment is not only catching student errors
but helping students to grow and improve.

In the earlier part of this section, we discussed ways to assess

student writing, including correcting grammatical errors. All the
methods we previously mentioned for assessing writing are also
useful for assessing students’ grammar. However, we would like to
mention that in order to help students to grow in their grammar
skills, it is important to find out the reason behind their errors.

There could be a variety of reasons for grammar errors, but most

grammar errors can be explained as an accuracy, or a competency
problem. If it is accuracy, as in

students are using the wrong punctuation, verb tense, etc., it could
mean that they do not have the correct understanding of the rules
or grammar structure. A teacher can assess that for each student by
using a variety of deductive activities to find out students’
understanding.

Another reason that students could be making grammatical errors

could be competency. They may understand the grammar rule
perfectly but are having trouble using it correctly or using it to
convey the meaning they intend. Remember that most of your
students have had English instruction for most of high school. They
have probably drilled the English grammar rules with their teacher
more times than they can count. For your students it may be more
of an issue of using the grammar in a communicative context.

Giving students focused, authentic practice with the grammar

structure they are struggling with and gradually building to a more
interactive method will give students the practice they need in order
to use those grammar structures competently and confidently.

He/She – The Reflective Teacher’s Response

Section 14.11: Classroom Management–Giving Instructions

Introduction

Classroom management requires a wide variety of skills from the

teacher to keep students focused, organized, attentive and
productive. The overall skills required from the teacher are
transferable across all class contexts (lesson planning, class
discipline, organization, teacher observation), but some skills will be
applied differently in a foreign language writing class. In this section
we will discuss in more detail some of the specific challenges that
EFL teachers may face in a Chinese writing classroom.

For more information about lesson planning or giving instructions,

go back to those units and review them. Both of those units will be
very helpful for teachers who are about to teach writing.
Giving Instructions–1

Imagine you spent an hour preparing a writing activity that you are
excited about and you’ve spent 10 minutes of class time explaining
the activity to your students. “They’re going to be so excited!” you
think. After your instructions you ask, “Are you ready to begin?”
Instead of excited and eager looks, you get blank stares and sleepy
eyelids. They are not ready.

If this happens to you your first few class periods in writing, don’t be
discouraged. It will take some time for your students to get used to
you and for you to get used to them. In the meantime, there are
some things you can do to smooth the adjustment process.

(1) Chunk Your Instructions

Imagine that your friend was giving you instructions to bake a cake.
Now imagine that your friend told you all the steps at once and then
said, “Ok, that’s how you bake a cake! Are you ready?” Now,
imagine your friend did it in a foreign language. Would you be able
to bake that cake?

That’s probably how your students feel if you give them all the
instructions for a writing task at once. No matter how easy you think
the instructions or task may be, don’t forget that students are also
doing this in their L2. Much like how we would follow a recipe step-
by-step it is important to chunk your instructions and break it down
into parts or steps. Once you feel students are confident in following
those steps, move on to the next step.

(2) Use Your ICQs and CCQs

The “Giving Instructions” unit defined ICQs and CCQs as instruction-

checking-questions and concept-checking-questions. Make sure to
use these questions as often as needed. A good time to ask these
questions would be between steps as you are giving instructions.
CCQs would also be useful as you give directions because there may
be concepts necessary to complete a task that are unfamiliar to
students in their L2.

(3) Use Visual Aids

Most of your classrooms will probably have a projector or a

computer with PowerPoint capabilities. Take advantage of it! It helps
for students to hear and see the instructions. Not only that but
having instructions in written form will give students a reference if
they forget a step. If your classroom does not have a projector, you
can always use more low-tech visuals like printed handouts. This
may mean more planning, but it is worth the payoff for you and your
students.

(4) Model Instructions and Use Samples

This goes with using visual aids, but as it was mentioned in Section
3 that students love samples and models. Modelling your
instructions means that as you give instructions, perform the steps
in front of them as you go. Chalkboards and whiteboards are
standard equipment across China, and you can use them to model
for your students your expectations and instructions.
Giving Instructions–2

(5) Think Through Your Expectations and Make Sure

Students Know Them

It is important to think through expectations you have for the tasks

you give and express those expectations clearly to your students.
Be sure that those expectations are given in a form that students
can reference later. If you don’t know what you expect or can’t
remember what you told them, then your students won’t either.
Most students, starting at middle school, have a WeChat account.
Ask the class monitor (like a class secretary) to set up
a WeChat group for your class and add all of the students. This will
give you one common place to post assignment expectations as well
as send notifications to your classes. Another way to give
expectations in a place students can easily reference is to clearly
explain the assignment in writing at the top of the paper you give
them to write on. Using simple wording and bullet points is typically
most effective.

To decide what your expectations are, think about the specific

things you have taught. If you are working on capital letters and
punctuation, tell them you expect to see evidence of that in their
homework. If thesis statements have been the focus of class, tell
students that you will be looking at their thesis statement in the
homework. List each of the skills you have discussed over the past
several classes as an expectation. Calling attention to how your
lessons are connected and building toward a final product helps
students continue to practice and improve. Even if it seems obvious
to you what the expectations are for the writing task, being explicit
with students reduces the margin for misunderstanding.
In addition, you must consider the appearance of what you expect
students to turn in. It will not take you long to figure out that there
are many, many sizes of paper in China. Each size could be lined or
unlined. There are also pencils, pens, and highlighters of every color
in the students’ pencil pouches. Chinese names can be written in
characters or in pinyin. Some students have English names and
sometimes student ID numbers are written on assignments.
Regardless of what name is written, it could go at the top, at the
bottom or on the back. If you are not clear about your expectations,
then your homework may be as unique in appearance as exhibits in
an art gallery.

Giving Instructions – The Reflective Teacher’s

Response
Section 14.12: Classroom Management Issues

Classroom Management Issues–1

China places high emphasis on education and highly values the role
of teachers in education. A teacher garners respect from their
students and parents. Therefore, students in a Chinese classroom
are usually going to be respectful, motivated and well-behaved.
That being said, teaching in a Chinese writing class does pose
unique challenges. Here are a couple of issues a teacher may face
during the year, and some suggestions for addressing them:

(1) Student Motivation and Attitudes Towards L2 Writing

Student motivation will vary greatly depending on the individual and

context. However, if you are having difficulty getting a student to
complete a task it may come down to the student’s attitude towards
their L2. Student motivation varies and lots of factors affect
motivation but trying to understand how your students view English
and writing in English is a good place to start. As the teacher you
may need to ask questions to find out what these are. Some
questions to ask in order to help you delve deeper are:

. What are your students’ majors? Students that were forced to take
your class as part of their major will most likely have lower
motivation.
. What do they want to do after they graduate?
. Why do they want to learn English?
. What is their experience with writing classes? Did they enjoy their
previous writing classes? What was the reason?

(2) Varying Student Ability

In the paragraph above we stated that student motivations will vary

in your class. Some of that may be reflected in the range of student
ability in your class. You will have students who are eager to
compare and contrast the merits of Chinese compositional structure
vs. English writing structure, but you may also have students who
struggle to write a complete sentence. As the teacher you will need
to assess your students’ abilities and develop instructional
strategies and lesson plans that cater to a wide range of abilities.

(3) Technology in the Classroom

In a Chinese classroom there are a wide range of technological

possibilities. First is the possibility that your students will be over
reliant on computers and phones. We are not saying you shouldn’t
use computers. Use computers! There are many advantages of
using a word-processing program on a computer to write. Editing is
easy, copies can be printed, students find it interesting, etc. Some
classrooms will have computers for each student to use and that
could be beneficial for you and students. However, you must be
aware of the temptation a computer presents (especially if there is
internet access) to your students.

On the opposite side of the coin, some of you may have a classroom
where the most hi-tech teaching tool is a chalkboard. Or if you do
have a projector, it is not always reliable. Be prepared to face a wide
scenario of possibilities and be flexible to each environment.
Classroom Management Issues–2

(4) Large Writing Classes

Part of the reason for the wide range in abilities is due to the fact
that class sizes can be pretty large, especially in a university
classroom. It is not uncommon for a teacher to teach 30-40 students
in a writing class. We discussed the challenges in assessing this
many students’ writing texts, but it also poses problems in
managing the classroom. Some suggestions for teachers are to use
activities that use group, or pair work. This includes peer feedback,
pass the story (see Section 4), or even group discussions.

Although you may be teaching a writing class, don’t be constrained

by thinking, “I can only use writing activities in my class.” Group
discussions are a great way to work around the ability difference.
These activities also allow students to brainstorm, share ideas and
information, lower student anxiety levels, and increase motivation
before they begin writing. All of this plays a part in students
changing their understanding of writing as a creative process!
Plagiarism–1

Plagiarism is another issue that will pop up in your writing class. In

Western classrooms, plagiarism is considered a cardinal sin and can
result in a student failing a class or getting expelled from school,
depending on the severity of the offense. The smallest offense will
get a student an automatic zero.

However, in China cultural attitudes towards plagiarism are a little

different. This is not to say that your students believe that it is
acceptable to plagiarize, but that their view of what constitutes
plagiarism and the severity of it will differ from your Western
perspective.

Cultural Attitude towards Plagiarism

There are many cultural reasons your students will not see
plagiarism as severely as you do. Your students have grown up in a
collectivist culture where the boundaries of “yours and mine” may
not be as clear as in an individualistic society. Not only that, but the
differences between Chinese and English writing also blur the line of
plagiarism for your students. For a teacher to address plagiarism in
a writing class, you will have to understand how these cultural
differences affect students’ attitudes towards plagiarism.

As we mentioned in Section 3, good Chinese writing requires that

you quote Chinese proverbs and sayings frequently. Most of your
students will have an extensive (possibly encyclopedic) knowledge
of ancient Chinese sayings, poems, and proverbs. These poems and
sayings will be common knowledge for them and as common
knowledge they will not reference them in their writings. Therefore,
if they are quoting a Western writer, they may not see the same
importance in referencing the writer. In addition, Chinese art and
calligraphy requires that students master the ability to copy a good
sample. Some art is judged by how well a student copies a painting!
In writing, this means students may have a hard time taking a quote
and paraphrasing it. “Why write it in my own words when this
person says it much better?” they may be thinking.

Addressing Plagiarism in Your Classroom

This does not mean that you should allow students to plagiarize. It is
a serious offense and if your students take any English writing test,
their ability to pass the test will be jeopardized if they do not know
how serious plagiarism is or if they are unable to recognize the
distinction between referencing and plagiarism. However, knowing
some of the cultural attitudes toward plagiarism will help you to
discern how to address plagiarism when it comes up in class.

Chinese universities will have policies about handling plagiarism,

but there is a lot of variance in how it is carried out. Most Chinese
professors will judge the severity of the offense before reporting it
to the university. Only the most serious offenses are reported. There
is a difference between a student who quotes a couple sentences
without referencing as opposed to a student who gets his whole
essay from the internet. As the teacher it is up to you how you want
to handle each situation, but make sure your students know your
expectations and are clear on how you will respond to plagiarism.
Plagiarism–2

Avoiding Plagiarism
 The following list makes some suggestions for ways to avoid
plagiarism in your classroom:

Take time in class to explain to students what

constitutes plagiarism (stealing a person’s ideas or work and
passing it off as your own).


 Clearly explain the consequences if you find a student plagiarizing in your
writing class. Allow some leeway for students to get used to your rules but
follow through.
 Give students opportunities to practice paraphrasing and explain how that will
help them avoid plagiarizing.
 Take time to teach students to reference sources. Don’t make it complicated,
the goal is to get students to find legitimate sources and share how to find
them.
 Make assignments so specific that you can ensure that there are no pre-
existing pieces of writing on the internet that match your requirements.
 Example: “Write about a special memory you have with your father. Include
all the vocabulary words and phrases we learned yesterday in your writing.”
 Give an explicit structure for each section of the assignment and for the
assignment as a whole so that you can ensure that your students have a
framework to follow.
 Teach students the writing process including pre-writing (possibly an outline in
Chinese), drafting, and editing before the final assignment is handed in.
Avoiding Plagiarism – The Reflective Teacher’s

Response
Section 14.13: Conclusion

Conclusion

Teaching writing is a unique experience. It can be easy to feel that

you have the “short end of the stick” when you are in the middle of
 a semester and you’re stuck
trying to convince your students to add a thesis statement to the
end of the introduction. Be careful not to fall into the habit of
comparing your workload with your peers who are teaching other
classes.

Teaching writing in a Chinese classroom can be more challenging

than other classes you or your colleagues may be asked to teach.
However, most of the challenges stem from requiring the teacher to
delve more into the cultural, contextual attitudes and perspectives
your students have grown up in. Helping your students to see the
cultural differences in writing will help you to learn more about their
culture; and reading their journals and their experiences will help
you to build closer relationships with your students. Such a
challenge can seem overwhelming, but it will reap long-term
benefits in your understanding of Chinese culture, relationships with
your students, and growth in your teaching. Teaching writing is
challenging, but it is also a unique opportunity.

Section 14.14: Essential Knowledge and Skills

Essential Knowledge and Skills

 Teachers will be able to identify and recognize how culture and

worldview affect students’ understanding and approach to writing.
 Teachers will be able to identify and explain the differences between Chinese
and English writing styles in organizational structure, tone, use of quotations,
and values.
 Teachers will be able to recognize the importance of models, samples and
formulas in teaching students writing.
 Teachers will be able to help students to think through intent and audience
behind each type of writing.
 Teachers will be able to help students to engage in the process of
writing in creative, interesting and authentic ways.
 Teachers will be able to help students to understand writing as a creative
process.
 Teachers will be able to help students to express themselves through writing.
 Teachers will be able introduce different types of writing for students to use to
communicate.

 Teachers will be able to identify ways to teach writing and include

grammar instruction.

 Teachers will be able to teach a variety of skills required in writing.

 Teachers will be able to teach through a variety of writing tasks.
 Teachers will be able to use different writing tasks for lowering students’
anxiety levels; i.e. warm-up and games.
 Teachers will be able to integrate deductive and inductive methods of
teaching grammar in their writing class.

 Teachers will be able to identify ways to assess writing and grammar,

including the use of rubrics.

 Teachers will be able to do formal and informal assessments of students’

abilities.
 Teachers will be able to give students feedback that students can understand,
implement, while building their confidence.
 Teachers will be able to help students use teacher or peer feedback to
improve their writing.
 Teachers will be able to design or use a rubric to assess writing.
 Teachers will be able to correct students’ accuracy or competency problems
with grammar.

 Teachers will be able to manage a Chinese writing class through

utilizing different skills.

 Teachers will be able to break instructions into chunks for students to digest
easier.
 Teachers will be able to model instructions and use ICQs and CCQs when
giving instructions.

 Teachers will be able to plan activities that engage students with a

wide range of abilities.

 Teachers will be able to use group activities to manage large writing classes.
 Teachers will be able to recognize some of the cultural challenges in teaching
a Chinese writing class and be able to address them, including plagiarism.
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https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/in-praise-of-gratitude.

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