Polymer-Impregnated

Journal of Building Engineering 87 (2024) 109003
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Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe
Experimental study and theoretical analysis on tensile properties

of concrete reinforced with different polymer-impregnated
basalt textiles
Xiaofei Zhang a, Xin Wang a, b, *, Xunmei Liang c, Chunfeng Zhao c, Zhiyuan Chen a,
Yongwang Zhang d, Jingyang Zhou a, Zhishen Wu a, **
a
Key Laboratory of C & PC Structures Ministry of Education, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China
b
National and Local Unified Engineering Research Center for Basalt Fiber Production and Application Technology, International Institute for Urban
Systems Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China
c
Shandong Road New Materials Co., Ltd, Taian, China
d
College of Civil Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing, 211816, China
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Textile-reinforced concrete (TRC) has become a new material for strengthening and constructing
Basalt textile reinforced concrete structures. The mechanical properties of TRC are significantly influenced by the polymer
Impregnation polymer impregnation of textile. However, the influencing mechanisms of different polymers on the me
Tensile behavior chanical properties of TRC remain unclear. In this study, the effects of polymer impregnations on
Stress transfer mechanism tensile behavior of basalt textile reinforced concrete (BTRC) were investigated. The results
Tensile model
showed that the epoxy resin-impregnated basalt textile outperformed other polymer-impregnated
textiles in improving the tensile properties of concrete, exhibiting an ultimate stress 48%–110%
higher than other samples. Increasing the textile layers number from 1 to 3 improved the ultimate
stress and energy consumption, with the most notable improvements observed at 146% and
173%, respectively, for samples reinforced with epoxy resin-impregnated textiles. However, the
increased textile layers reduced the ultimate strain and fiber strength utilization efficiency due to
the inconsistent stress transfer among multi-layer textiles. Only epoxy resin-impregnated textiles
reinforced samples exhibited a complete three-stage variation in the tensile stress-strain curve,
where the stress fluctuations in the post-cracking stage were attributed to the multiple concrete
cracks. In contrast, other polymer-impregnated textile-reinforced concrete samples experienced
stress fluctuations in post-cracking stage primarily due to the textile slippage, inconsistent textile
fractures, and propagation of initial crack. Furthermore, the epoxy resin-impregnated textiles’
superior tensile strength and excellent bond with concrete contributed to reduced stress fluctu
ation range and smaller stress drop after initial cracking. Finally, an optimized tensile model with
high accuracy was proposed to describe the tensile response of polymer-impregnated basalt
textile reinforced concrete.
* Corresponding author. Key Laboratory of C & PC Structures Ministry of Education, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (X. Wang), [email protected] (Z. Wu).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.109003
Received 27 November 2023; Received in revised form 28 January 2024; Accepted 6 March 2024
Available online 7 March 2024
2352-7102/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
X. Zhang et al. Journal of Building Engineering 87 (2024) 109003
1. Introduction
Textile reinforced concrete (TRC) is a composite material comprising fine-grained concrete and continuous fiber textile. It has
attracted increasing attention in recent years due to its excellent mechanical properties, such as the high tensile strength, excellent
durability and designability [1]. The TRC can be used to construct the thin and lightweight structures or strengthen the old structures
in actual engineering [2,3]. In the past few decades, a large number of researchers have focused on the mechanical properties of TRC,
especially for the tensile properties, which can reflect the basic mechanical characteristics of composite materials.
As we all known, the fiber textiles are woven from bundles of yarns, wherein each yarn contains thousands of fibers. The gaps
between fibers are generally less than 5 μm, while the particles in the cement matrix range from 5 to 70 μm [4]. Thus the cement can
only partially penetrate into the fibers of yarn. This irregular penetration leads to different bonding properties for inner and outer
fibers of yarn. The outer fibers are in direct contact with the matrix, while inner fibers lack full contact with the matrix. Under tensile
load, when the external bonded fibers fracture, the internal free fibers are often pulled out, causing inadequate strength utilization of
textile in TRC [5–7]. Hence, the permeability of the cement matrix plays a pivotal role in determining the tensile mechanical properties
of unimpregnated textile reinforced concrete. Factors such as the water-cement ratio of the cement matrix, the characteristics of the
fiber surface, and the TRC preparation method all affected the matrix permeability [8–11]. Researches have demonstrated that the
pultrusion method allowed for improved matrix penetration into the interior of unimpregnated textile yarn, improving interfacial
bonding performance and tensile properties of the composite [12,13]. Moreover, adopting a separated laying configuration for textiles
in concrete, as opposed to stacked laying configuration, increased the contact area of textile with the concrete, thereby benefiting the
TRC’s tensile performance [14]. To gain further insights into the non-uniformity of matrix penetration, mechanical models have been
proposed to elucidate the bond and failure mechanisms of unimpregnated textile reinforced concrete under tensile loading [15].
In contrast to the cement matrices, polymers exhibit enhanced infiltration capabilities within the yarn’s interior. Extensive re
searches have illustrated that the adequate polymer impregnation facilitated uniform stress transfer across yarn fibers, resulting in
significantly enhanced interfacial performance between textiles and concrete [16,17]. Dvorkin et al. [18] found that the epoxy resin
reduced gaps between fibers for carbon textile, establishing a tighter interface between the yarn and matrix, consequently enhancing
TRC’s tensile properties. Moreover, the impregnated carbon textiles reduced the crack width in TRC, leading to a more branched crack
pattern. Similar results were also demonstrated by D’Antino et al. [19]. Donnini et al. [20] and Preinstorfer et al. [21] impregnated
carbon textiles with epoxy resin and adhered quartz sand to the surface, and they also found that the tensile strength of composite
materials increased, accompanied by a decrease in transverse crack width. However, the study conducted by Truong et al. [22] showed
that compared to the epoxy resin coating, the epoxy resin coating and sand sprinkling increased the cracking stress, but reduced the
ultimate stress. Signorini et al. [23] found that epoxy coating optimization plays an important role in designing TRC, and the tensile
behaviors of glass textile reinforced mortar can be improved by designing the epoxy viscosity. Moreover, Wu et al. [24] observed that
carbon textiles with thinner impregnation facilitated deeper matrix penetration into the small textile meshes, resulting in enhanced
anchorage capabilities. The high-strength, strain-hardening cement-based composites reinforced with polymer-impregnated PE tex
tiles exhibited exceptional tensile performance, where the impregnating polymers employed were styrene-butadiene-based dispersion,
respectively [25]. However, Zhang et al. [26] observed slippage of warp yarns in concrete reinforced with flexural epoxy
resin-impregnated carbon textile, which was mainly attributed to the low node strength of textile. The effects of tensile test methods on
the tensile properties of polymer impregnated carbon and glass textile reinforced concrete were examined, whereas the specific type of
impregnation polymer was not clearly defined [27–29]. The tests completed by Messoria et al. [30] demonstrated that influence of
coating thickness on the tensile strength of epoxy coated AR-glass textile reinforced mortar was not significant. In addition, some
researchers explored the tensile properties of polymer-impregnated basalt textile-reinforced cement-based materials [31–35]. Caggegi
et al. [32] found that an increase in reinforcement ratio would lead to textile slippage for TRC with high-temperature resistant polymer
impregnated basalt textile. Du et al. [33] observed that styrene-acrylic latex impregnated basalt textile demonstrated no reinforcement
efficiency when the one or two textile layers were applicated. Zhang et al. [34] found that the short PVA fiber in high ductile
fiber-reinforced concrete increased the bond stress between the substrate and epoxy resin-impregnated basalt textile. Li et al. [35]
studied the tensile behavior of epoxy-resin impregnated basalt textile reinforced engineering cementitious composite (ECC), and the
test results show that ECC can largely improve the textile reinforcement effect than the mortar.
Obviously, numerous researchers have widely applied polymer impregnation technology to improve the tensile properties of TRC,
and a series of related studies have been conducted. However, most of these studies only use a single polymer impregnation as the
method to improve the performance of TRC, mainly focusing on the improvement of tensile strength, but have not delved into the
enhancing mechanism of polymer-impregnated textile on concrete. Presently, the common polymers employed for textile impreg
nation include epoxy resin, asphalt, and polypropylene emulsion. The penetrability of polymer to textile depended on the wetting
characteristic and viscosity of polymer solution [36,37]. More importantly, these polymers exhibit distinct curing mechanisms. For
instance, emulsion-based polymers solidify through the evaporation of water at elevated temperatures, leading to the close aggre
gation of polymer particles. Conversely, the epoxy resin cures by cross-linking molecules at high temperatures, forming a
three-dimensional network structure [38]. These differences significantly influence intermolecular strength post-curing, subsequently
affecting the synergistic stress of fibers within polymer-impregnated textiles, textile surface morphology, and textile node strength.
The previous researches conducted by the authors [39–41] have revealed substantial variations in the tensile failure mechanisms,
long-term performance degradation mechanisms, and interfacial bonding mechanisms between textiles and concrete for textiles
impregnated with different polymers. This directly impacts the enhancing mechanism of impregnated textiles on concrete. However,
the current research on this aspect is limited. Hence, it is imperative to comprehensively examine the tensile properties of concrete
reinforced with various polymer-impregnated textiles to evaluate enhancement effects and analyze the enhancing mechanisms, which
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will facilitate a clearer understanding of the engineering applications of concrete reinforced with different polymer-impregnated
textiles. Basalt fiber has generated substantial attention as an eco-friendly reinforcement material [42,43]. Notably, it exhibits a
higher thermal stability and heat resistance than that of carbon and glass fibers. Besides, their mechanical properties slightly sur
passing those of glass fibers, while maintaining a cost advantage over carbon fiber [44]. Evidently, basalt fibers hold promising ap
plications in civil engineering. Existing research on the tensile properties of polymer-impregnated basalt textile-reinforced concrete
primarily focuses on reinforcement ratio and textile type [31–34], as previously mentioned. However, there is a notable absence of
studies investigating the influence mechanism of polymer types on the mechanical properties of basalt textile-reinforced concrete
(BTRC), which complicates the selection of suitable impregnating polymers for BTRC applications. This study will bridge this research
gap by investigating the tensile properties of different polymer-impregnated basalt textile reinforced concrete. The aims of this study
are as follows. Firstly, the effects of the impregnation polymer type and the number of textile layers on tensile behaviors of BTRC will
be explored. Secondly, the stress transfer mechanisms in different polymer-impregnated basalt textiles reinforced concrete will be
analyzed. Lastly, an optimized tensile model for polymer-impregnated basalt textile reinforced concrete will be proposed.
Thus, this study investigated the tensile behaviors of different polymer-impregnated basalt textiles reinforced concrete, with textile
layer number varying from 1 to 3. Three types of impregnation polymer, namely epoxy resin, acrylic emulsion, and polyvinyl chloride
were employed to impregnate textile. The crack distribution, failure mode, tensile stress-strain curve, and the tensile performance
characteristic parameters (ultimate stress, ultimate strain, strength utilization efficiency, critical reinforcement ratio and energy
consumption) were examined to evaluate the influences of test parameters on the tensile properties. Moreover, the stress transfer
mechanisms of concrete reinforced with different polymer-impregnated textiles were analyzed. Finally, an optimized tensile model
with high accuracy was proposed to describe the tensile response of polymer-impregnated basalt textile reinforced concrete.
2. Experimental program
2.1. Materials
The basalt fiber leno textile with mesh size of 5 mm × 5 mm and woven textile with mesh size of 25 mm × 25 mm produced by
Zhejiang GBF (China) were used in this experiment. The leno textile contains the straight weft yarn with a linear density of 516 tex and
twisted warp yarn with a linear density of 258 tex, where the warp yarn twists around weft yarn. Both the warp and weft yarns of
woven textile contain two straight yarns with a linear density of 2000 tex, and the textile is woven along the warp direction by threads.
Before polymer impregnation, the weights of basalt leno textile and basalt woven textile are 210 g/m2 and 325 g/m2, respectively. In
the case of unimpregnated basalt fiber leno textile B5, the textile yarn contains thousands of fibers, and there are gaps among the fibers.
When the textile is stretched, it is difficult for these fibers to transfer stress synergistically due to only friction contact occurring among
fibers, as shown in Fig. 1(a). Three different polymers were used to impregnate textiles, namely acrylic emulsion (AE) and epoxy resin
(ER) used to impregnate leno textiles, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) used to impregnate woven textiles. The weights of polymer
impregnated textile BS5, BE5, and BO25 are 223 g/m2, 500 g/m2, and 365 g/m2, respectively. Therefore, the mass fraction of polymers
in textile is obtained by the ratio of the increased weight of impregnated textile to the weight of unimpregnated textile. Here, the ER is a
thermosetting resin, which can cross link at high temperature to form a network structure (defined as the rigid impregnating material).
The textile impregnated with ER were cured for 2 h at 165 ◦ C. The yarn section for ER-impregnated basalt leno textile BE5 is presented
in Fig. 1(c). Obviously, the epoxy resin can fully penetrate into the yarn, enabling the fibers in yarn to transfer load together, where the
content of impregnated polymer in textile was 58%. The AE and PVC are white water-borne latex with a solid content of 49% and 40%,
respectively, where the water evaporates at high temperatures and the polymer cures (defined as the flexible impregnating material).
The textile impregnated with AE or PVC were cured for 15 min at 120 ◦ C. The impregnation polymer content of AE-impregnated basalt
leno textile BS5 and PVC-impregnated basalt woven textile BO25 are 6% and 11% (mass fraction), respectively, as shown in Fig. 1(b)
and (d), where the textile yarns were not fully impregnated.
Based on the cross-sectional area of fibers in textile, the basic mechanical properties of textiles can be calculated and summarized in
Table 1 [39], where the values in parentheses are the coefficient of variation (%). According to specification (ISO 10618: 2004) [45],
the tensile strength of basalt fiber was measured to be 2830 MPa in this test. So that the fiber strength utilization efficiency of textile
kF-T, which was the ratio of the tensile strength of textile to tensile strength of fiber (2830 MPa), for four types of textiles can be
obtained, as presented in Table 1. The value of kF-T for textile B5 was only 27.42% due to the inconsistent stress transmission among
Fig. 1. Basalt fiber textile impregnated with different polymers (mm).
3
Table 1
Material properties of basalt fiber textile [39].
Textile Impregnation polymer Mesh size (mm) Tensile strength ft (MPa) Elastic modulus Ultimate strain kF-T (%)
Et (GPa) εt (%)
B5 Unimpregnated 5×5 776 (5.5) 76.4 (6.8) 1.30 (7.6) 27.42
BS5 Acrylic emulsion 5×5 693 (2.6) 32.6 (6.0) 2.66 (2.9) 24.49
BE5 Epoxy resin 5×5 1492 (4.7) 69.8 (6.1) 2.29 (6.9) 52.72
BO25 Polyvinyl chloride 25 × 25 1647(7.7) 74.7(6.9) 2.38(3.5) 58.20
fibers. Owing to the low cross-linking strength of AE, the value of kF-T for textile BS5 was 24.49%. The textile BO25, characterized by a
higher impregnation polymer content than BS5, exhibited a higher kF-T value. The value of kF-T for textile BE5 was as high as 52.72%
due to the strong cross-linking and excellent permeability of epoxy resin. It was worth noting that the value of kF-T for textile BS5 and
BE5 were lower than those of B5 and BO25, respectively. This is mainly attributed to the twisting damage in the warp yarns of the
formers, which hindered the full utilization of their strengths.
The fine-grained concrete with a maximum particle size of less than 1.2 mm was used in this experiment. The weight of cement, fly
ash, silica fume, I sand (particle size range 0~0.6 mm), II sand (particle size range 0.6–1.2 mm), and water in per cubic meter of
concrete were 472, 168, 35, 460, 920 and 262 kg, respectively. In addition, 0.3% polycarboxylate water reducer and 0.1% defoamer
were added into the concrete to increase its fluidity and reduce bubbles. The 28-day compressive and flexural strengths of fine-grained
concrete were 59.2 MPa and 5.9 MPa, respectively.
2.2. Specimen preparation and test setup

The rectangular thin plate specimen with the dimension of 350 mm × 50 mm × 15 mm was casted in this experiment to investigate
the tensile properties of BTRC reinforced with different polymer impregnated textiles, with the number of textile layers varying from 1
to 3. The textiles, with a thickness of approximately 0.6 mm, were uniformly positioned within the concrete, as illustrated in Fig. 2.
Additionally, the plain concrete plates were cast for comparison purposes. The BTRC thin plates were casted through a steel-wood
combination mold. First, one layer of concrete was poured, and then the first layer of textile was laid after the concrete was
vibrated and leveled. Afterwards, the second layer of concrete was poured, and the second layer of textile was laid until all textiles were
laid. Finally, one layer of concrete was poured on the top. The formworks were removed after 24 h, and the specimens were cured for
28 days under standard curing conditions (temperature 20 ± 2 ◦ C, relative humidity >95%).
An AG-X universal testing machine was used for conducting the tensile test of BTRC samples by clamping method, with the
displacement control at a rate of 1.2 mm/min (Fig. 3). To anchor the specimen, the aluminum plates with the dimension of 50 mm ×
50 mm × 3 mm were adhered on the end of sample using Sanyu epoxy resin (Fig. 2 (b)). Meanwhile, one layer of basalt fiber cloth was
first adhered on the plate to mitigate stress concentration caused by the anchoring aluminum plate. During testing, the upper and lower
fixtures of the universal testing machine clamped the two ends of the sample. The lower fixture was fixed to the testing machine, and
the upper fixture was connected to the machine through a hinge connection to adjust the possible eccentricity during the stretching
process. The load and displacement data were recorded automatically by the testing machine with a sampling frequency of 5 Hz. The
deformation of the specimen within a gauge length of 250 mm was measured by two displacement meters, where the data were
collected by the acquisition instrument DH3816 N with a sampling frequency of 5 Hz. Additionally, prior to testing, the specimen’s
surface was coated with white paint to observe the developments of cracks.
For each configuration, three specimens were prepared to characterize the tensile behaviors of BTRC composites, as detailed in
Table 2. The “TP” designates the plain concrete specimen, and “TB”, “TBS”, “TBE” and “TBO” represent tensile concrete specimen
reinforced with unimpregnated, AE-impregnated, ER-impregnated, and PVC-impregnated basalt textile, respectively. The first Arabic
Fig. 2. Dimensions of BTRC tensile specimens (mm).
4
Fig. 3. Experimental setup for tensile test on BTRC specimen.
Table 2
Details of BTRC specimens under axial tensile load.
Specimen ID Impregnation polymer Textile layer number nL Reinforcement ratio ρ (%) Mesh size La(mm) × Lb(mm)
TP – – – –
TB5-1 Unimpregnated 1 0.21 5×5
TB5-2 2 0.42
TB5-3 3 0.63
TBS5-1 Acrylic emulsion 1 0.21 5×5
TBS5-2 2 0.42
TBS5-3 3 0.63
TBE5-1 Epoxy resin 1 0.21 5×5
TBE5-2 2 0.42
TBE5-3 3 0.63
TBO25-1 Polyvinyl chloride 1 0.40 25 × 25
TBO25-2 2 0.80
number “5” and “25” represent the mesh size of 5 mm × 5 mm and 25 mm × 25 mm, respectively. The last Arabic number represents
the textile layer number.
3. Results and discussions

3.1. Crack distribution and failure mode
Fig. 4 shows the crack distributions and failure modes of different polymer impregnated textiles reinforced concrete samples under
tensile loading. In the case of unimpregnated textile and AE-impregnated textile, no multiple cracks occurred in the BTRC specimens
when reinforced with 1–3 layers of textile. Instead, as the specimen undergo tension failure, only one crack appeared, either in the
center or near the end of the specimen (see Fig. 4(a) and (b)). The fracture surfaces of these samples exhibited the uneven concrete
Fig. 4. Crack distributions and failure modes of tensile specimens.
5
cross-sections and inconsistencies in broken yarns and fibers within the yarns, indicating the absence of synergistic forces among the
yarns and fibers during the fracture process. Conversely, the ER-impregnated textile-reinforced concrete sample exhibited distinctive
multi-crack development characteristics (see Fig. 4(c)). Furthermore, with an increase in the number of textile layers, the unloading
stress in the cracked concrete area was more efficiently transmitted to the uncracked area, resulting in a greater number of cracks and
reduced crack spacing (see Fig. (5)). A flat concrete section and relatively flat fracture surfaces of the textile and yarn were observed,
suggesting cooperative load transfer among yarns in textile and fibers in each yarn. For BTRC samples reinforced with PVC-
impregnated textiles (see Fig. 4(d)), when one layer textile was laid, no multiple cracks occurred. As the number of textile layers
increased to two, 2–3 cracks emerged on the specimen, where the cracks number was fewer than that of specimen TBE5-3. It has been
known that the tensile strength of textile BO25 was higher than that of BE5, and the reinforcement ratio of sample TBO25-2 exceeded
that of TBE5-3. This revealed that the ability of BO25 to inhibit the concrete crack development was much worse than that of textile
BE5.
3.2. Tensile stress-strain curve

Fig. 6 illustrates the representative tensile stress-strain curves of BTRC samples reinforced with different polymer-impregnated
textiles, with the number of textile layers ranging from 1 to 3. In the case of unimpregnated textile reinforced samples, the stress-
strain curve manifested a two-stage behavior, including an uncracked stage I followed by a post-cracking stage II, as depicted in
Fig. 6(a). In stage I, the concrete remained uncracked, and stress exhibited a linear increase as strain progressed. The characteristics of
stage II were contingent upon the number of textile layers employed. When laying a single layer of textile, an abrupt stress drop
occurred immediately after reaching the cracking stress. This phenomenon primarily stems from a low reinforcement ratio, limited
load-bearing capacity of textile, and inadequate bonding performance between textile and concrete, resulting in no improvements in
concrete behavior. With the application of two textile layers, the stress in BTRC sample experienced a moderate decrease after
cracking, followed by a subsequent increase. Subsequently, the stress gradually decreased after reaching the peak stress. In the case of
three layers of textile, there was a relatively minor stress drop after the initial crack, and then the stress continued to rise. The tensile
stress-strain curve exhibited a reciprocating zigzag fluctuation in stage II, culminating in a sharp stress drop after reaching the ultimate
stress. For the BTRC samples reinforced with AE-impregnated textile, as shown in Fig. 6(b), the tensile stress of BTRC sample with
different textile layers exhibited a linear increase with strain before concrete cracking. Subsequently, the curve transitioned into stage
II, accompanied by the occurrence of stress fluctuations. It’s worth noting that some specimens did not exhibit a sharp stress drop upon
reaching ultimate stress due to the inconsistent fracture of the textile.
In the context of BTRC samples reinforced with ER-impregnated textiles (see Fig. 6(c)), the tensile stress-strain curves exhibited
similar linear increases before concrete cracking. In stage II, these curves displayed frequent stress fluctuations within narrow stress
ranges. With the application of a single layer of textile, the tensile failure occurred after the development of multiple cracks, owing to
the relatively low reinforcement ratio. However, when 2 or 3 layers of textile were employed, the tensile stress-strain curve transi
tioned into stage III following stage II. In stage III, load-bearing was solely carried by textile, resulting in linear stress increase with
strain, followed by a sharp stress drop upon reaching peak stress. The number of cracks remained stable in stage III, with crack widths
gradually increasing as stress levels rose. The PVC-impregnated textile reinforced concrete samples exhibited a linear stress-strain
curve progression prior to cracking, marked by a significant stress reduction upon the initial crack formation, followed by subse
quent stress increase. In cases where a single layer of textile was employed, there was no stress fluctuation in the post-cracking stage.
With two layers of textile, some stress fluctuations were observed in the post-cracking stage, primarily attributable to the occurrence of
multiple cracks. Notably, the specimen exhibited a gradual stepwise decrease in stress following the attainment of peak stress, which
can be attributed to the inconsistent fracture of the textile’s yarns.
The tensile stress-strain curves of the BTRC specimens displayed a noticeable reduction in stress upon the appearance of initial
crack, accompanied by some stress fluctuations in the post-cracking stage. Here, the stress drop Δσ c after initial crack and the range of
Fig. 5. Effect of textile layer number on the crack distribution.
6
Fig. 6. Tensile stress-strain curves of BTRC reinforced with different polymer impregnated textiles.
stress fluctuations Δσ sf for each specimen are presented in Fig. 7(a) and (b). It is evident that an increase in the textile layer number
significantly reduces the stress drop (Δσ cr) in specimen series TB5, TBS5, and TBE5 after the initial cracking. Furthermore, the stress
drops (Δσ cr) of the BTRC samples reinforced with ER-impregnated textiles were smaller than those of BTRC samples reinforced with
unimpregnated textiles or other polymer-impregnated textiles. This was predominantly attributed to the high load-bearing capacity
and excellent bonding with the concrete for ER-impregnated textiles. Previous studies by the authors [41] have demonstrated
significantly enhanced bond strength between ER-impregnated textile and concrete in comparison to unimpregnated textile,
AE-impregnated textiles, and PVC-impregnated textiles. This highlights the influence of bond properties between textile and concrete
on the stress drop of BTRC specimen after initial cracking. The stronger bond performance facilitates swifter load-bearing by the textile
in concrete, leading to a reduced stress drop. Regarding the sample TBO25-1, the relatively low initial cracking stress can be attributed
to the inadequate concrete vibration, explaining the occurrence of a smaller stress drop (Δσ cr) in cases involving a single layer of textile
as opposed to two layers. The sample TBO25-2 experienced a substantial stress drop despite a high reinforcement ratio, mainly due to
the inadequate interfacial bonding between textile and concrete. This was exacerbated by the larger mesh size of textile, resulting in a
limited ability to inhibit the crack development.
The stress fluctuations observed during the post-cracking stage for various polymer-impregnated textile-reinforced concrete
specimens exhibited a similar trend to that of stress drop after initial cracking. Fig. 7(b) illustrates the stress fluctuation range (Δσ sf) for
specimens TB5-3, TBS5-3, TBE5-3, and TBO25-2. Among these samples, TBE5-3 displayed the smallest fluctuation range but the
Fig. 7. Tensile stress-strain curve characteristics of BTRC reinforced with different polymer-impregnated textiles.
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greatest number of stress fluctuations, primarily attributed to multiple cracks development. In contrast, TB5-3 and TBS5-3 exhibited a
wider range and fewer stress fluctuations in the post-cracking stage. Unlike multi-crack development, these stress fluctuations resulted
from a combination of concrete crack propagation, textile slippage, and inconsistent fracture of yarns and fibers. Furthermore, owing
to the larger mesh size of textile BO25 and its weaker interfacial bond with concrete, the specimen TBO25-2 displayed the broadest
range of stress fluctuations.
3.3. Tensile performance characteristic parameters

The tensile performance characteristic parameters of all BTRC specimens are summarized in Table 3. The cracking stress σcr refers
to the stress corresponding to the first crack in specimen, and the ultimate stress σu denotes the maximum stress attained throughout
the entire tensile process. The cracking strain and ultimate strain refer to the strain corresponding to the σcr and σu, respectively. The
cracking stress σcr and ultimate stress σ u were calculated by the ratio of tensile load to the cross-sectional area of sample. The strain was
derived from the relative deformation of gauge length. The fiber strength utilization efficiency for textile in BTRC samples kF-B refers to
the ratio of strength for textile in BTRC sample to the strength of fiber (2830 MPa), where the tensile strength of the textile in BTRC
sample can be determined by the ratio of ultimate load of BTRC sample to the cross-sectional area of textile along the tensile direction
in specimen. The textile strength utilization efficiency kT refers to the ratio of the strength for textile in BTRC sample to the strength of
textile stretched alone. Moreover, the energy consumption (EJ) was obtained by integrating the area under the load displacement curve
up to the ultimate load, which can reflect the overall ductility characteristics of the composite material. For the range of reinforcement
ratio explored in this study, the cracking stress and cracking strain of BTRC sample are predominantly influenced by the characteristics
of concrete matrix. Due to the discrete nature of concrete and variability in pouring process, there are slight fluctuations in cracking
stress and cracking strain within each group of specimens, as presented in Table 3. The correlation between cracking stress and the type
of impregnation polymer and the number of textile layers was not readily discernible. Conversely, other tensile parameters exhibited
more pronounced variations, which will be comprehensively analyzed in the subsequent sections.
3.3.1. Ultimate stress and ultimate strain

The ultimate stress of BTRC is significantly influenced by the impregnation polymer and the textile layer number, as depicted in
Fig. 8(a). The improvement in BTRC’s ultimate stress relative to the ultimate stress of plain concrete sample is defined as IR (%), where
the values of IR were labeled in Fig. 8(a). Obviously, as the textile layer number increased, there was a significant rise in the ultimate
stresses across all specimen groups. Particularly noteworthy was the BTRC sample reinforced with ER-impregnated textile, where
specimens TBE5-3 and TBE5-2 exhibited remarkable improvements in ultimate stress, with enhancements of 82.8% and 146.4%,
respectively, relative to TBE5-1. Moreover, the ER-impregnated textile showed the most significant enhancement in BTRC ultimate
stress. The ultimate stress of specimen TBE5-3 was improved by 135.1% compared to the plain concrete sample, while the values of IR
for other samples ranged from 38% to 58%. Especially, the PVC-impregnated textile had the least favorable impact on BTRC’s ultimate
stress increase. At a reinforcement ratio of 0.8%, the ultimate stress increase was only 38.8% compared to plain concrete. Additionally,
textile BS5 exhibited a less pronounced reinforcing effect on concrete compared to textile B5, which can be attributed to the twisting
damage in the warp yarn for textile BS5 [39].
The variations in the reinforcement effect of diverse polymer-impregnated textiles on concrete can be systematically examined by
integrating the tensile characteristics of polymer-impregnated textiles and the interfacial bonding performance between textiles and
concrete. The authors have undertaken in-depth investigations into the tensile strength (ft-T) of textiles impregnated with different
polymers and the interfacial bonding strength (τB) [39,41]. Consequently, based on the previous research foundation, a more extensive
analysis can be conducted on the comprehensive effects of ft-T and τB on the tensile strength of BTRC, as illustrated in Fig. 8 (b).
Obviously, the tensile strength of BTRC was not always positively correlated with the strength of textile. The bonding interface be
tween the textile and concrete plays a key role in the tensile performance. In the case of textile BO25 with the highest tensile strength,
its poor bonding performance with concrete resulted in a lower ultimate stress of reinforced sample. For example, the specimen
TBO25-2, despite its higher reinforcement ratio, exhibited a less pronounced improvement in ultimate stress compared to specimens
TB5-3, TBS5-3, and TBE5-3. Furthermore, the larger mesh structure of textile BO25 hampers its ability to effectively suppress concrete
Table 3
Tensile test results of BTRC specimens.
Specimen ID σcr (MPa) εcr (%) σu (MPa) εu (%) EJ (J) kF-B (%) kT (%)
TP 3.66 (4.0) 0.012 (10) 3.66 (4.0) 0.012 (10) 0.042 (14) – –
TB5-1 3.58 (14) 0.015 (7.6) 3.58 (14) 0.015 (7.6) 0.047 (11) – –
TB5-2 4.00 (4.7) 0.013 (9.8) 4.58 (2.6) 0.114 (23) 1.54 (17) 33.6 (2.65) 138.9 (2.65)
TB5-3 4.22 (4.1) 0.019 (7.5) 5.77 (1.9) 0.302 (12) 2.94 (13) 32.0 (1.89) 116.7 (1.89)
TBS5-1 2.72 (11) 0.015 (7.5) 2.67 (0.0) 0.176 (0.1) 1.89 (0.3) – –
TBS5-2 2.92 (6.6) 0.013 (7.0) 4.32 (8.5) 0.422 (4.6) 3.88 (17) 35.9 (8.45) 146.4 (8.45)
TBS5-3 3.36 (12) 0.014 (6.2) 5.22 (11) 0.291 (11) 2.94 (12) 28.9 (11.0) 118.0 (11.0)
TBE5-1 3.49 (10) 0.013 (11) 3.49 (10) 1.457 (20) 7.91 (9.5) – –
TBE5-2 3.32 (11) 0.022 (14) 6.38 (4.1) 2.419 (1.9) 18.6 (0.9) 53.0 (4.12) 99.4 (4.12)
TBE5-3 3.02 (6.5) 0.015 (25) 8.60 (1.6) 2.136 (11) 21.6 (6.5) 47.7 (1.56) 90.5 (1.56)
TBO25-1 1.83(9.6) 0.012(7.7) 3.03(3.4) 1.154(0.0) 4.20(30) 26.6 (3.35) 45.7 (3.35)
TBO25-2 3.60(10) 0.014(11) 5.08(4.1) 0.933(9.3) 7.63(17) 22.3 (4.06) 38.3 (4.06)
Note: The values in parentheses represent the coefficient of variation (%).
8
Fig. 8. Ultimate stress of BTRC specimen with different polymer-impregnated textiles.
cracking, leading to stress concentration at the main cracks and ultimately causing premature textile fracture. Conversely, the
ER-impregnated textile not only featured high tensile strength but also exhibited excellent bonding performance with concrete, serving
as the primary reason for the superior increase in ultimate stress of BTRC.
The ultimate strain of BTRC specimens did not consistently increase with the textile layer number increasing. The improvement in
BTRC’s ultimate strain relative to the ultimate strain of plain concrete sample is defined as IP (times), where the values of IP were
labeled in Fig. 9(a). When the enhancing effect of textile on BTRC samples was less prominent, an increase in the textile layer number
did lead to an increase in ultimate strain. For example, when the textile increased from one to two layers, a significant increase in
ultimate strain of BTRC sample was observed. However, in the TBS5 and TBE5 series, the ultimate strain decreased as the textile layer
number increased from 2 to 3, and a similar trend was observed in TBO25 series. This phenomenon can be attributed to the increasing
inconsistency of stress transfer as the textile layer number grows, resulting in an underutilization of textile’s tensile strength.
Furthermore, the polymer-impregnated textiles significantly increased the ultimate strain of BTRC. For example, at the same rein
forcement ratio, the ultimate strain of TBS5-2, TBO25-1, and TBE5-2 increased by 34.2 times, 95.2 times, and 200.6 times, respec
tively, compared to that of plain concrete sample, whereas the ultimate strain of TB5-2 only increased by 8.5 times, as depicted in Fig. 9
(a). Additionally, the impact of the tensile strength (ft-T) of impregnated textiles and the interfacial bonding strength (τB) on the ul
timate strain of BTRC can be analyzed based on the author’s previous research results [39,41], as illustrated in Fig. 9(b). It is evident
that as the tensile strength (ft-T) and interfacial bonding strength (τB) increased, the ultimate strain of BTRC exhibited a significant
increase. This is because the primary failure mode of BTRC is textile fracture. Given that textiles are linear elastic materials, an increase
in tensile strength directly leads to an increase in ultimate strain. Simultaneously, enhanced bonding strength (τB) helps optimize the
utilization of textile tensile strength in concrete and enhances the synergistic stress of fibers in yarns.
3.3.2. Strength utilization efficiency

Fig. 10(a) and (b) illustrate the impact of impregnation polymer type and textile layer number on the fiber strength utilization
efficiency kF-B and textile strength utilization efficiency kT. At the same time, the fiber strength utilization efficiency kF-T for textile
stretched alone was also listed in Fig. 10(a) for comparison. Obviously, the BTRC reinforced with ER-impregnated textile exhibited the
highest kF-B, approaching the kF-T for textile BE5, and the corresponding textile strength utilization efficiency kT exceeded 90% (see
Fig. 10(b)). However, the BTRC reinforced with PVC-impregnated textile demonstrated the lowest kF-B, and significantly lower than kF-
Fig. 9. Ultimate strain of BTRC sample with different polymer-impregnated textiles.
9
Fig. 10. Strength utilization efficiency.
T for textile BO25, which was attributed to the large mesh size and poor bonding between textile and concrete. Thus the corresponding
textile strength utilization efficiency kT remained below 50%. The BTRC reinforced with unimpregnated textile and AE-impregnated
textile showed similar kF-B values, which were greater than kF-T for textile B5 and BS5. The corresponding textile strength utilization
efficiency kT exceeded 100%. This can be explained as follows. Firstly, the loose fibers in both unimpregnated textile and AE-
impregnated textile allowed concrete to exert more constraint on textile, facilitating the utilization of its tensile strength. More
over, as these two types of BTRC samples approached tensile failure, both the textiles and concrete collectively bore the load, resulting
in a higher calculated bearing capacity of textile in concrete. Additionally, with an increase in textile layer number, the kF-B for BTRC
samples reinforced with various polymer-impregnated textiles demonstrated a diminishing trend. Specifically, when the textile layer
number increased from 2 to 3, the kF-B for TB5, TBS5, and TBE5 series decreased by 16%, 19%, and 10%, respectively. In the case of
TBO25 series, an increase from 1 to 2 textile layers resulted in a 16% reduction in kF-B. These findings align with the previous studies
[24,46]. The decline in kF-B for BTRC sample with multi-layer textiles can be attributed to nonuniform stress distribution within
textiles.
The differences in fiber strength utilization efficiency kF-B for BTRC reinforced with different polymer-impregnated textiles were
mainly attributed to the differences in bonding performance between textile and concrete. Based on the author’s previous research on
bonding strength between polymer-impregnated textile and concrete [41], the fiber strength utilization efficiency kF-B was correlated
with the bonding strength τB, as shown in Fig. 11. The “nL” represents the textile layer number. The “m” represents the layer number of
textile B5, BS5, BE5, and BO25 in BTRC sample, which are 2, 2, 2, and 1, respectively. The “m+1” represents the layer number of textile
B5, BS5, BE5, and BO25 in BTRC sample, which are 3, 3, 3, and 2, respectively. Obviously, the fiber strength utilization efficiency kF-B
increased with the bonding strength τB. Furthermore, a linear relationship can be used to fit the relationship between kF-B and τB, as
presented in Eqs. (1) and (2).
kF− B = 2.4τB + 25 (nL = m) (1)
kF− B = 2.4τB + 20 (nL = m + 1) (2)

It was evident that the slopes of the two fitting curves were identical, signifying that the degradation rates of kF-B as bond strength τB
Fig. 11. The relationship between fiber strength utilization efficiency kF-B and bonding strength τB.
10
decreasing were consistent across different layers. The intercepts of the two fitting curves were 25 and 20, respectively, indicating that
as the textile layer number increased, the fiber strength utilization efficiency kF-B diminished. Thus a general formula (see Eq. (3))
governing the relationship between kF-B and τB can be derived by introducing the “n0”, denoting the textile layer number at which the
textile begins to enhance the concrete’s performance. In this study, the values of n0 for specimen series TB5, TBS5, TBE5, and TBO25
were 2, 2, 2, and 1, respectively, Consequently, based on the bonding strength and textile layer number, it is possible to determine the
bearing capacity of the fibers in BTRC. And then the tensile strength of BTRC can be obtained, as shown in Eq. (4) [12]. The theoretical
tensile strength calculated by Eq. (4) was compared with the experimental values, as depicted in Fig. 12, revealing a small error within
10%.
kF− B = 2.4τB + 25 − 5(nL − n0 ) (3)
kF− B · ft · Af [2.4τB + 25 − 5(nL − n0 )] · ft · Af

fBTRC = = (4)
A A
3.3.3. Critical reinforcement ratio

For BTRC sample, the load is mainly carried by textile when approaching failure under tensile load. Consequently, the rein
forcement ratio as the peak load of textile is equal to the cracking load, can be defined as the critical reinforcement ratio ρf-min.
Considering the effect of textile strength utilization efficiency kT, the load carrying capacity Fu of BTRC at the critical point can be
obtained as Eqs. (5) and (6) [12]. The ρf-min can be obtained as Eq. (7) by combining Eqs. (5) and (6):
Fu = kT σfu Aρf − min (5)
( ) ( )
Fu = σ f A ρ f − min + σ ctu A 1 − ρf − min = Ef εctu Aρf − min + σctu A 1 − ρf − min (6)
σctu 1
ρf − min = = kT σfu Ef
(7)
kT σ fu + σ ctu − Ef εctu +1−
σ ctu Ec
Where σfu is the ultimate strength of textile, σ f is the textile stress as concrete cracking, σctu and εctu are cracking stress and ultimate
tensile strain of concrete, respectively. The A is cross-sectional area of sample, and the Ef and Ec are the elastic modulus of textile and
concrete, respectively.
Evidently, when the cracking stress of concrete remains constant, the critical reinforcement ratio of BTRC is primarily contingent
on the textile tensile strength and textile strength utilization efficiency. The ρf-min can be computed based on the material properties of
concrete, as summarized in Fig. 13. The specimen TBE5 series had the lowest ρf-min of 0.26%, which was mainly attributed the fact that
the textile BE5 had a high tensile strength of 1492 MPa, and the textile can fully exert its strength. However, the ρf-min of BTRC
reinforced with other polymer-impregnated textiles were 38%–100% higher than that of TBE5 series. In TBO25 series, despite the
textile BO25 boasting a tensile strength of 1647 MPa, the textile’s large mesh size and low interfacial bonding strength with the
concrete hindered synergistic stress transfer between textile and concrete, resulting in the highest ρf-min of 0.52%. The tensile strengths
and strength utilization efficiencies of textile B5 and BS5 were comparable, yielding similar ρf-min values of 0.36% and 0.38%,
respectively.
3.3.4. Energy consumption

Fig. 14 illustrates the variations in energy consumption of different polymer impregnated textile-reinforced concrete samples
Fig. 12. Comparisons of experimental and theoretical results for tensile strength of BTRC.
11
Fig. 13. Critical reinforcement ratio ρf-min.
Fig. 14. Energy consumption of BTRC.
subjected to tensile loading. Notably, the ER-impregnated textile-reinforced concrete specimens exhibited the highest tensile energy
consumption capacity across varying textile layers. For instance, at a reinforcement ratio of approximately 0.4%, the tensile energy
consumptions of the specimens TB5-2, TBS5-2, TBO25-1, and TBE5-2 were improved by 36, 92, 99, and 443 times relative to that of the
plain concrete sample, respectively. Despite the AE-impregnated textile exhibiting a lower tensile strength when compared to the PVC-
impregnated textile, its capacity to enhance the energy consumption of concrete was comparable to that of the latter. This observation
underscores that larger textile mesh sizes and weak bonding between textile and concrete are not conducive to boosting the energy
consumption of BTRC. Moreover, as the textile layer number increased, there was a general ascending trend in energy consumption
across all specimen groups. The decline in energy consumption in specimen TBS5-3 in contrast to TBS5-2 primarily resulted from the
reduced ultimate strain in specimens with three layers of textile. Notably, the enhancement in energy consumption was notably more
pronounced than the improvements in tensile strength and ultimate strain, which had significant implications for expanding the utility
of textile in applications related to energy consumption.
4. Analysis of stress transfer mechanism for BTRC

The polymer impregnation of textiles significantly impacts the stress transfer of fibers in yarn, the textile node’s characteristics, and
the bonding performance between textile and concrete. These effects, in turn, have a profound influence on tensile properties of TRC.
This section combines the mechanical characteristics of textile and bonding characteristics between textile and concrete, taking the
specimens TB5-3, TBS5-3, TBE5-3 and TBO25-2 as examples, to analyze the stress transfer mechanisms of different polymer-
impregnated textiles reinforced concrete during tensile process.
12
(1) Unimpregnated textiles reinforced concrete

The fibers of unimpregnated textile face challenges in effectively transmitting stress in a coordinated manner, leading to incon
sistent fractures of fibers and yarns. Thus it’s tensile stress-strain curve exhibits a gradual descent phase [39] (see Fig. 15(a)). When the
unimpregnated textile was used to reinforced concrete, the cement can only penetrate into the outer fibers of yarn, while the inner fiber
filaments are mostly in a free state. This resulted in ununiform stresses between internal and external fibers, ultimately leading to poor
bonding performances between textile and concrete (see Fig. 15(a)). The typical tensile stress-strain curve of BTRC sample reinforced
with unimpregnated textile is shown in Fig. 15(a), whose specific characteristics have been described in detail in Section 3.2. When the
initial crack occurred, the effective cross-sectional area of the specimen is significantly reduced. The area of textile is relatively small
compared to the cross-section of concrete. Furthermore, the low bond strength between unimpregnated textile and concrete caused
that the yarn’s fibers struggle to uniformly transmit forces, as depicted in Fig. 15(b)(I). These combined factors prevent the textile from
effectively bearing the load reduction caused by concrete cracking, resulting in an obvious stress drop at the point of initial crack
formation (point A). The primary load-bearing component during stage I is the concrete (FI=Fc). As the initial crack gradually
propagates, deficient interfacial bonding performance gives rise to the textile slippage, encompassing yarn slippage in concrete and
fiber slippage in the yarn. Concurrently, due to ununiform stress distribution on the yarn’s fibers, a small number of fibers may
experience early fractures within the bonding zone between yarn and concrete (see Fig. 15(b)(II)). These collective factors result in a
stress reduction during the initial phase of stage II (point B). On the other hand, the low interfacial bonding strength make it difficult
for the stress in the crack region to be transmitted to the uncracked region, hindering the initiation of new cracks. Instead, it fosters the
continued expansion of the initial cracks, accompanied by the previously mentioned textile slippage and inconsistent fractures of fibers
and yarns, as illustrated in Fig. 15(b)(III). Consequently, the ultimate stress is reached (point C) after a series of stress fluctuations. The
sample’s load-bearing capacity is jointly contributed by both the concrete and textile (FII=Fc + Ff). This phenomenon elucidates why
the textile strength utilization efficiency of TB5 series exceeded 100%.
(2) AE-impregnated textiles reinforced concrete
The impregnation of acrylic emulsion can enhance the uniform stress transmission of fibers in yarn and foster a moderate
improvement in bonding between textile and concrete. Notably, the curing process of acrylic emulsion primarily involves water
evaporation rather than a crosslinking reaction. Consequently, the mass fraction of residual emulsion remaining on the cured textile is
only 6%. This implies that the complete impregnation cannot be achieved, resulting in diminished bonding between textile and
concrete (see Fig. 16(a)). Furthermore, the limited intermolecular cross-linking of acrylic emulsion hinders the uniform stress transfer
Fig. 15. Analysis of stress transfer mechanisms for concrete reinforced with unimpregnated textile.
13
Fig. 16. Analysis of stress transfer mechanisms for concrete reinforced with AE-impregnated textile.
of fibers and yarns, which leads to the inconsistent fractures occurring in the textile, and the stress-strain curve for textile BS5 exhibits a
step-like descent (see Fig. 16(a)). These factors collectively caused that the stress-strain curve for BTRC sample reinforced with AE-
impregnated textile closely resembled that of concrete sample reinforced with unimpregnated textile (see Fig. 16(a)). Fig. 16(b) il
lustrates the stress transfer mechanisms of key points, including cracking point A in the tensile stress-strain curve of BTRC, the initial
stress fluctuation point B in stage II, and the ultimate failure point C. Due to the reduction of the effective cross-section for concrete
specimen at initial cracking (see Fig. 16(b)(I)), the textile is unable to quickly bear the reduced load, resulting in a stress drop after
initial cracking (point A). This stress drop is mitigated by the improved synergistic stress among the fibers compared to the unim
pregnated textile. In the subsequent stage (stage II), the stress drop observed at point B primarily arises from the textile slippage,
accompanied by minor slippage of inner and outer yarn fibers (see Fig. 16(b)(II)). Inadequate interfacial bonding further hinders the
effective transfer of stress from the cracked zone to the uncracked zone, thus preventing the initiation of new cracks in the uncracked
region. Consequently, the initial cracks continue to propagate, diminishing the effective concrete cross-section while also causing
textile slippage and inconsistent fractures of fibers (see Fig. 16(b)(III)). After undergoing multiple stress fluctuations, the ultimate
stress level is reached, where the load-bearing capacity is provided by both textile and concrete (FII=Fc + Ff).
(3) ER-impregnated textiles reinforced concrete
The ER polymers have strong permeability and high cross-linking strength after curing. The mass fraction of polymer in the
impregnated textile reaches 58%, which can ensure that the yarn are fully penetrated and achieve synergistic stress among fibers.
Meanwhile, the yarns in textile can bear load cooperatively, where a sharp stress drop occurs in the descending section of tensile stress-
strain curve for textile BE5 (Fig. 17(a)). This leads to the obvious difference in tensile properties between ER-impregnated textiles and
other polymer-impregnated rtextile, which is further reflected in the tensile characteristics of BTRC. In the case of BTRC sample
reinforced with ER-impregnated textile, the tensile stress-strain curve exhibits three typical stages. The stress drop at the initial cracks
(point A) primarily stems from the reduction in the effective cross-sectional area of the concrete, as illustrated in Fig. 17(b)(I). The
good bonding between textile and concrete, coupled with the textile’s high tensile strength, facilitates rapid stress-bearing capabilities,
resulting in a minor stress drop at initial cracking compared to the unimpregnated textile reinforced concrete. Concurrently, the
presence of high-strength textile nodes promotes the anchoring of transverse yarns to the concrete, further enhancing bonding per
formance. Consequently, the stress within the cracked region is transmited effectively to the uncracked concrete area, leading to the
initiation of new cracks, as depicted in Fig. 17(b)(II). This cycle continues until the cracks fully develop. In this stage, both the textile
14
Fig. 17. Analysis of stress transfer mechanisms for concrete reinforced with ER-impregnated textile.
and concrete jointly contribute to the load-bearing capacity (FII=Fc + Ff). Once the crack fully develops, a specific crack penetrates the
sample cross-section entirely, forming a maijor crack. The stress-strain curve enters stage III. During this stage, the textile indepen
dently carries the load, ultimately resulting in sample failure upon reaching the ultimate tensile strength of the textile. The consistent
fractures occur in the yarns of textile, as shown in Fig. 17(b)(III), and the textile provides the primary load-bearing capacity (FIII= Ff).
(4) PVC-impregnated textile reinforced concrete
Similarly to the acrylic emulsion, PVC polymer is a water-based emulsion, wherein the curing process involves water evaporation,
the physical coalescence, and aggregation of polymer particles. The mass fraction of polyvinyl chloride polymer in the textile reaches
11%. In comparison to AE-impregnated textiles, the PVC-impregnated textiles exhibit a higher polymer content and increased tensile
strength. Nonetheless, the fibers within the yarn of BO25 textile remain incompletely impregnated, leading to inconsistent fiber
fractures under tensile loading and resulting in a gradual decline in the tensile stress-strain curve (see Fig. 18(a)). In the context of
textile reinforcement in concrete, internal and external stresses within the yarn exhibit the ununiform distribution (see Fig. 18(a)).
Fig. 18(a) presents the typical tensile stress-strain curve of BTRC sample reinforced with PVC-impregnated textile, encompassing an
uncracked stage I followed by the development of multiple cracks in stage II. The abrupt stress drop upon the initial crack formation is
primarily ascribed to the relatively larger mesh size of textile BO25, which offers reduced capacity to inhibit crack propagation,
consequently leading to accelerated expansion of the initial crack, as depicted in Fig. 18(b)(I). Despite the relatively lower bond
strength between textile BO25 and concrete when compared to textile BS5, the larger bonding area facilitates the transmission of stress
within the crack zone to the uncracked zone through interfacial bonding forces, thus inducing the generation of new cracks. This, in
turn, necessitates a greater stress transfer length, resulting in wider crack spacings and fewer cracks. In the progression of multiple
crack development, textile slippage occurs, involving occasional fiber slippage in the yarn, as depicted in Fig. 18(b)(II). Consequently,
a significant reduction in stress is observed in stage II. As the multiple cracks continue to evolve, a majior crack suddenly widened,
leading to the stress concentration and inconsistent fractures of textile (see Fig. 18(b)(III)). The load-bearing capacity is provided by
both concrete and textile (FII=Fc + Ff). However, due to the slippage and inconsistent fracture of textile, the tensile strength of textile is
not fully realized.
15
Fig. 18. Analysis of stress transfer mechanisms for concrete reinforced with PVC-impregnated textile.
5. Tensile model of BTRC

5.1. Analysis of existing tensile models
The tensile models of TRC proposed in the current researches mainly include ACK model [47], ACK-md model [48] and CM model
[31]. The ACK model was proposed based on the ACK theory and cracking control formula defined in the specification Eurocode 2:
Design of concrete structures. Part 1-1 [49], which has been used to analyze the tensile behavior and cracking properties of composite
materials [49–52]. In the ACK model, the stress-strain curve exhibits three-stage changes trend, and it is assumed that the stress value
remains constant in stage II. The ACK-md model is a modified model based on the ACK model. The cracking stress in stage I was
calculated by considering the equivalence of textile and concrete based on the elastic modulus. In stage II, the stress remains constant,
and the ultimate stress in stage III is determined through the mixing law. The ultimate strain is calculated as the sum of the strain at the
end of stage II and the ultimate strain of textile. The CM model was developed based on the crack width formula specified in Eurocode 2
[49], which also includes three stages and assumes that the stress remains constant in stage II [31]. The specific expressions for each
parameter of the above three models are summarized in Table 4. In Table 4, the σcr, εcr, and EI denote the cracking stress, cracking
strain, and stiffness of TRC in stage I, respectively. The σ II and εII represents the stress and strain of the TRC in stage II, respectively. The
σu, εu, and EIII refers to the ultimate stress, ultimate strain, and stiffness of TRC in stage III. The σmu and Em are tensile strength and
elastic modulus of the concrete matrix, which are 3.9 MPa and 32 GPa, respectively. In addition, the Vf and Vm are the volume fractions
of textile and concrete, respectively. The εfu and Ef are ultimate strain and elastic modulus of textile, respectively. The αe is the ho
mogeneity coefficient, and the Aid is the area obtained by equating the elastic modulus ratio of textile and concrete in composite plate.
Besides, the kt refers to the coefficient related to duration of load, which is equal to 0.6 for the short term loading and 0.4 for the long
term loading in Eurocode 2 [49].
In the case of samples reinforced with unimpregnated/AE-impregnated/PVC-impregnated textile, the typical tensile stress-strain
curve consisted of a linear stage I before cracking and a stress fluctuation stage II after cracking. Due to the ununiform stress trans
fer of yarns and fibers, poor interfacial bonding between textile and concrete, and large textile mesh size, the stress transfer mechanism
in stage II was a complex process involving the crack propagation, textile slippage, and inconsistent fracture of textile. The combi
nation of these multifaceted factors made it challenging to establish an effective constitutive model to analyze the entire tensile
process. In contrast, the utilization of ER-impregnated textile for concrete reinforcement effectively addressed the issues mentioned
above. The tensile response of BTRC sample reinforced with ER-impregnated textile exhibited a clear three-stage progression, with
distinct stress transfer characteristics in each stage. Consequently, the tensile results of specimen TBE5 series were employed to analyze
16
Table 4
Key parameters of the tensile models for TRC in literatures
Parameters ACK model [47] ACK-md model [48] CM model [31]
σcr EI σmu σmu Aid EI σmu

σcr,ACK = σcr,ACK− md = σcr,CM =
Em Am + Af Em
Ef
Aid = Am + Af
Em
EI EI,ACK = Ef Vf + Em Vm – EI,CM = Ef Vf + Em Vm
εcr σcr,ACK σmu σcr,CM
εcr,ACK = εcr,ACK− md = εcr,CM =
EI,ACK Em EI,CM
σII σII,ACK = σcr,ACK σII,ACK− md = σcr,ACK− md σII,CM = σcr,CM
( )
εII εII,ACK = (1 + 0.666αe )
σmu
= (1 + 0.666αe )
σmu σmu Ef
Em
εII,ACK− md
Em σfc − kt 1 + Vf
Vf Em σmu
Em Vm Em Vm εII,CM = +
αe = αe = Ef Em
Ef Vf Ef Vf
EIII EIII,ACK = Ef Vf – EIII,CM = Ef Vf
σu – σu,ACK− md = σfu Vf + σmu Vm –
εu εu,ACK = εfu εu,ACK− md = εII,ACK− md + εfu εu,CM = εfu
the complete tensile process and develop an appropriate constitutive model.

Based on the above three models, the theoretical tensile curves of specimen TBE5-2 and TBE5-3 were obtained and compared with
the experimental curves, as presented in Fig. 19(a). The actual cracking strengths of BTRC were lower than the theoretical values,
possibly attributed to the inadequate concrete vibration and inherent randomness of concrete. Meanwhile, the effect of textile on
elastic modulus and cracking stress of BTRC was negligible when the volume fractions Vf was low. The predicted strains εII calculated
by both the ACK model and ACK-md model tended to underestimate the experimental values, resulting in the premature entry of the
curve into stage III. Furthermore, the error between stage III of the ACK-md model and the experimental curve was significant, which
was similar to the results obtained by Larrinaga et al. [51]. Similarly, the CM model exhibited poor accuracy in predicting both stage II
and stage III. In addition, all three models assume constant stress during stage II, which is different from the experimental stress-strain
curve.
Fig. 19(b) presents a comparative analysis of calculated and experimental values for post-cracking stiffness and ultimate tensile
strength. The stiffness EIII-T calculated using the three models mentioned above consistently exceeded the experimental stiffness EIII-E.
Fig. 19. Comparison between experimental results and theoretical tensile models.
17
The post-cracking stiffness of ACK model and CM model primarily consider the stiffness of textile, resulting in calculated stiffness
values ranging approximately 35% higher than the experimental values. This discrepancy can be attributed to the inconsistent
deformation of textile in BTRC sample, which made it difficult to fully utilize the stiffness. The post-cracking stiffness of ACK-md model
was obtained through the ratio of ultimate stress and strain, and the calculated stiffness distributed within a range of 25% higher than
the experimental values. Meanwhile, the tensile strengths σu-T calculated using the above three models were higher than the exper
imental strengths σu-E. Especially for the ACK-md model, the calculated tensile strength distributed within a range of 73% higher than
the experimental value. This divergence arises from the model’s consideration of ultimate stress as the sum of the cracking stress and
the stress of fracture textile, resulting in an overestimation of ultimate stress. Relatively speaking, the calculated tensile strengths based
on the ACK model and CM model were closer to the experimental values, falling within a range of approximately 42% and 21% higher
than the experimental values, respectively. In these two models, the tensile strength primarily hinges on the contribution of the textile.
However, due to the insufficient utilization of textile in concrete, the tensile strength was still overestimated.
5.2. Optimized tensile model

From the above analysis, it can be found that there were significant errors for the existing tensile models used to analyze the ER-
impregnated textile reinforced concrete sample in this study. These models simplify stage II as a horizontal segment, yet in practice,
there is a slight stress increase from the beginning to the end of stage II, where the slope of stage II is not equal to 0. Furthermore, the
degree of stress improvement varies with the number of textile layers, indicating that stress σII is closely associated with the rein
forcement ratio. The higher the reinforcement ratio, the greater the stress σII. By analyzing the tensile test results, it was known that the
ratio γ of stress σ II and stress σcr for 2-layer and 3-layer ER-impregnated textile reinforced concrete samples was 1.2 and 1.5,
respectively. Consequently, the strain εII of stage II for BTRC can be calculated by analyzing the force balance, as shown in Eq. (8). In
stage III, no new cracks develop, and the textile bears the load alone. However, since the textile in BTRC cannot fully utilize its strength,
it is necessary to consider the textile strength utilization efficiency kT. The tensile strength of BTRC can be expressed as Eq. (9) [47]. As
a result, an optimized tensile model can be proposed to depict the tensile behavior characteristics of BTRC samples more accurately.
The expression for stage I in the optimized model remains the same as that of the ACK model. Meanwhile, in order to improve the
accuracy of stage I, the tensile strength of the concrete was taken as 3.1 MPa, based on the cracking stresses observed in the BTRC
specimens in this experiment.
( )
σ A Ef Vf + Em Vm · γ · σmu γ · σmu
εII = II = = (1 + αe ) (8)
Ef Af Em Ef Vf Em
Fig. 20. Comparison between experimental results and optimized model.
18
Em Vm
αe = (9)
Ef Vf
σu = kT σ fu Vf (10)
Where the σmu and Em are the tensile strength and elastic modulus of concrete, respectively. The αe is the homogeneity coefficient, and
the Vf and Vm are the volume fractions of textile and concrete, respectively. The Ef is the elastic modulus of the textile.
Therefore, the optimized model was used to analyze the specimen TBE5-2 and TBE5-3, and the theoretical tensile stress-strain
curves were compared with the experimental curves, as shown in Fig. 20(a). Obviously, the optimized model can reflect the tensile
response of BTRC more realistically. Furthermore, the stiffness EIII-T and tensile strength σu-T calculated by the optimized model were
compared with the experimental stiffness EIII-E and tensile strength σ u-E measured in the test, as shown in Fig. 20(b), where the errors
between the theoretical values and experimental values were less than 6%. This suggested that the optimized model had a higher
accuracy than the existing models in the literatures.
6. Conclusion
The tensile properties of polymer-impregnated textiles reinforced concrete were discussed and analyzed considering the effects of
impregnation polymer type and textile layer number. Furthermore, the stress transfer mechanisms were analyzed, and the optimized
tensile model for BTRC was proposed. Based on the experimental results, the main conclusions can be drawn as follows.
1. The tensile stress-strain curves of BTRC in post-cracking stage was markedly influenced by the impregnation polymer type. Owing
to the textile slippage, inconsistent textile fractures, and propagation of the initial crack, the stress-strain curves of concrete
reinforced with unimpregnated/AE-/PVC-impregnated textiles exhibited a small number of stress fluctuations in post-cracking
stage. Conversely, the ER-impregnated textile reinforced concrete displayed extensive stress fluctuations due to multiple cracks
development. Moreover, the ER-impregnated textile reinforced concrete showed a narrower range of stress fluctuation and smaller
stress drop after the initial cracking than other samples, owing to the textiles’ superior tensile strength and excellent bond per
formance with concrete.
2. The ER-impregnated textiles outperformed other polymer-impregnated textiles in improving the tensile properties of concrete,
where the ultimate stress of BTRC sample was 135.1% higher than that of plain concrete sample, and the corresponding critical
reinforcement ratio was 0.26%. However, the increases in ultimate stresses for other samples were lower than 58%. Especially, the
PVC-impregnated textiles had the least favorable effect on enhancing the tensile properties of concrete due to their poor bonding
performance with concrete. Moreover, the fiber strength utilization efficiency kF-B increased linearly with the increase of bonding
strength τB. The concrete reinforced with ER-impregnated textile reached a maximum kF-B of 50%, while the kF-B of PVC-
impregnated textile reinforced concrete did not exceed 30%.
3. Increasing the textile layer number significantly improved the ultimate stress and energy consumption of BTRC. Particularly
noteworthy was the sample reinforced with ER-impregnated textile, where the ultimate stress of sample with three-layer textiles
was 146.4% higher than that of sample with one-layer textile, and the corresponding energy consumption increased by 1.73 times.
However, when the number of textile layers increased from 2 to 3, the ultimate strain and the fiber strength utilization efficiency kF-
B decreased by 12% and 10%, respectively, owing to the ununiform stress distribution within multi-layer textiles.
4. The tensile responses of BTRC were analyzed using different tensile models, which indicated that the current tensile models
exhibited poor predictive accuracy for stages II and III of the stress-strain curves. To address these limitations, an optimized tensile
model was proposed considering the modification of stage II and textile strength utilization efficiency, which can describe the
tensile response of BTRC more accurately than existing models. The prediction errors of ultimate strength and post-cracking
stiffness using the optimized model were less than 10%.
5. The research findings offer an initial foundation for the selection of impregnation polymers in the practical application of TRC.
Moreover, the determination of TRC’s bearing capacity provides essential guidance for the actual design of TRC structures. It is
important to note, however, that the proposed tensile model is primarily applicable to epoxy resin-impregnated textile reinforced
concrete. Future investigations should focus on developing a comprehensive tensile model that accounts for the influence of various
impregnation polymer types. Additionally, the long-term durability of different polymer-impregnated textiles reinforced concrete
requires further examination, especially concerning their application in marine environments.
CRediT authorship contribution statement

Xiaofei Zhang: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation.
Xin Wang: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization. Xunmei Liang: Supervision, Resources,
Investigation. Chunfeng Zhao: Supervision, Resources, Investigation. Zhiyuan Chen: Writing – review & editing, Visualization.
Yongwang Zhang: Writing – review & editing, Funding acquisition. Jingyang Zhou: Resources, Funding acquisition. Zhishen Wu:
Validation, Supervision, Conceptualization.
Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
19
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the financial support provided by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos.
52208233 and 52278244); the Taishan Industrial Experts Program; the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (Grant No.
2023M731650); and the Jiangsu Province Higher Education Institutions Basic Science (Natural Science) Research Program (Grant No.
23KJB560015).
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Journal of Building Engineering 87 (2024) 109003

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Building Engineering

Experimental study and theoretical analysis on tensile properties

Fig. 1. Basalt fiber textile impregnated with different polymers (mm).

2.2. Specimen preparation and test setup

Fig. 2. Dimensions of BTRC tensile specimens (mm).

Fig. 3. Experimental setup for tensile test on BTRC specimen.

3. Results and discussions

Fig. 4. Crack distributions and failure modes of tensile specimens.

3.2. Tensile stress-strain curve

Fig. 5. Effect of textile layer number on the crack distribution.

3.3. Tensile performance characteristic parameters

3.3.1. Ultimate stress and ultimate strain

Note: The values in parentheses represent the coefficient of variation (%).

Fig. 8. Ultimate stress of BTRC specimen with different polymer-impregnated textiles.

3.3.2. Strength utilization efficiency

Fig. 9. Ultimate strain of BTRC sample with different polymer-impregnated textiles.

Fig. 10. Strength utilization efficiency.

kF− B = 2.4τB + 20 (nL = m + 1) (2)

kF− B · ft · Af [2.4τB + 25 − 5(nL − n0 )] · ft · Af

3.3.3. Critical reinforcement ratio

3.3.4. Energy consumption

Fig. 13. Critical reinforcement ratio ρf-min.

Fig. 14. Energy consumption of BTRC.

4. Analysis of stress transfer mechanism for BTRC

(1) Unimpregnated textiles reinforced concrete

5. Tensile model of BTRC

Parameters ACK model [47] ACK-md model [48] CM model [31]

σcr EI σmu σmu Aid EI σmu

the complete tensile process and develop an appropriate constitutive model.

5.2. Optimized tensile model

Fig. 20. Comparison between experimental results and optimized model.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Declaration of competing interest

influence the work reported in this paper.

Data will be made available on request.

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